Classical Chinese 2023 - Revision history

Root: /* Verbs */

2024-03-01T12:36:21Z

Verbs

Root: /* Verbs */

2024-02-29T19:59:06Z

Verbs

Root: /* Pronouns */

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Pronouns

Root: /* Verbs */

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Verbs

Root: /* Word class flexibility */

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Word class flexibility

Root: /* Typological overview */

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Typological overview

Root: /* 六、古代汉语的语法 */

2024-02-29T19:21:35Z

六、古代汉语的语法

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Root: /* 四、古代汉语的文字 */

2024-02-29T19:09:44Z

四、古代汉语的文字

Root: /* （一）字形和字义的关系 */

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（一）字形和字义的关系

Root: /* Grammar */

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Grammar

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@@ Line 1,430: / Line 1,430: @@
 For a noun, it means "make ... + (the noun)". For instance:
-*先破秦入咸陽者王之
+*先破秦入咸陽者王之 Xiān pò qín rù Xiányáng zhě wáng zhī
 xiān pò qín rù Xiányáng zhě wàng zhī, first break Qin enter Xianyang (particle) king it: He who defeated Qin and entered Xianyang would be crowned.
@@ Line 1,438: / Line 1,438: @@
 For a verb, it could mean "make... + do/done/to do", depending on the sentence. For instance:
-* 泣孤舟之嫠婦
+* 泣孤舟之嫠婦 Qì gū zhōu zhī lífù
 : '''Literal translation:''' (The music was so sad that) '''cry''' the widow in a lonely boat; '''Semantic translation:''' (The music was so sad that it) '''made''' the widow in a lonely boat '''cry'''.
 For an adjective, it means "make... + (the adjective)". For instance:
-* 既來之，則安之
+* 既來之，則安之 jì lái zhī, zé ān zhī
 : '''Literal translation:''' Since you have been here, then '''calm''' yourself here; '''Semantic translation:''' Since you have been here, '''make''' yourself '''calm''' here.
@@ Line 1,449: / Line 1,451: @@
 The following examples demonstrate ''weidong'' usage of verbs. Such usage may occur:
 * to express a motion that is based on a purpose. For instance:
-::  等死死國可乎？
+::  等死死國可乎？ dẹ̌ngsǐ sǐ guó kě hū?
 : '''Literal translation:''' It's equally death (delay for work and protest the rule of the Qin dynasty), is '''die''' country an option?; '''Semantic translation:''' It's death in any case, is '''dying for''' the country an option?
 * to express an action due to a particular reason. For instance:
-::  便苦咳嗽
+::  便苦咳嗽 Pián kǔ késou
 :'''Literal translation:''' He '''suffer (v.)''' cough; '''Semantic translation:''' He '''suffered from''' a cough.
 * to help the object do something. For instance:
-::  自序其詩
+::  自序其詩 xù qí shī
 : '''Literal translation:''' Himself '''introduction''' his own poem; '''Semantic translation:''' He '''wrote the introduction''' to his own poem .
 * to execute a motion to the object. For instance:
-:: 泣之三日
+:: 泣之三日 qì zhī sān rì
 : '''Literal translation:''' '''Cry''' it for three days; '''Semantic translation:''' '''Mourn over''' it for three days.

@@ Line 1,430: / Line 1,430: @@
 For a noun, it means "make ... + (the noun)". For instance:
-先破秦入咸陽者王之
+*先破秦入咸陽者王之
-'''Literal translation:''' (Fulfilling the agreement that) the person who defeated the Qin dynasty and entered ''Xianyang'' first, [people] would '''king''' him. (Note: Such scenarios are rare, though historical cases exist in ancient China. The translation of the sentence is rather controversial; the interpretation provided above represents the most widespread consensus.) cf. 書、書者
+xiān pò qín rù Xiányáng zhě wàng zhī, first break Qin enter Xianyang (particle) king it: He who defeated Qin and entered Xianyang would be crowned.
 For a verb, it could mean "make... + do/done/to do", depending on the sentence. For instance:
 * 泣孤舟之嫠婦
-'''Literal translation:''' (The music was so sad that) '''cry''' the widow in a lonely boat; '''Semantic translation:''' (The music was so sad that it) '''made''' the widow in a lonely boat '''cry'''.
+: '''Literal translation:''' (The music was so sad that) '''cry''' the widow in a lonely boat; '''Semantic translation:''' (The music was so sad that it) '''made''' the widow in a lonely boat '''cry'''.
 For an adjective, it means "make... + (the adjective)". For instance:
 * 既來之，則安之
-'''Literal translation:''' Since you have been here, then '''calm''' yourself here; '''Semantic translation:''' Since you have been here, '''make''' yourself '''calm''' here.
+: '''Literal translation:''' Since you have been here, then '''calm''' yourself here; '''Semantic translation:''' Since you have been here, '''make''' yourself '''calm''' here.
 ''Weidong'' usage
@@ Line 1,448: / Line 1,449: @@
 The following examples demonstrate ''weidong'' usage of verbs. Such usage may occur:
 * to express a motion that is based on a purpose. For instance:
-等死死國可乎？
+::  等死死國可乎？
+: '''Literal translation:''' It's equally death (delay for work and protest the rule of the Qin dynasty), is '''die''' country an option?; '''Semantic translation:''' It's death in any case, is '''dying for''' the country an option?
 * to express an action due to a particular reason. For instance:
-便苦咳嗽
+::  便苦咳嗽
 :'''Literal translation:''' He '''suffer (v.)''' cough; '''Semantic translation:''' He '''suffered from''' a cough.
 * to help the object do something. For instance:

@@ Line 1,463: / Line 1,463: @@
 ==Pronouns==
 Pronouns can be separated into the following groups:
-* Personal, e.g.  lang|汝   translrǔ  'you'
+* Personal, e.g. 汝 rǔ 'you'
-* Demonstrative:  lang|此   translcǐ ,  lang|斯   translsī ,  lang|兹   translzī  'this, these';  lang|彼   translbǐ ,  lang|夫   translfú  'that, those';  lang|之   translzhī ,  lang|是   translshì  '([[anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric]]) this, that'
+* Demonstrative: 此 cǐ, 斯 sī, 兹 zī  'this, these';  彼 bǐ, 夫 fú 'that, those'; 之 zhī, 是 shì (anaphoric) 'this, that'
-* Reciprocal:  lang|彼此   translbǐcǐ  'each other'
+* Reciprocal: 彼此 bǐcǐ  'each other'
-* Reflexive:  lang|己   transljǐ ,  lang|身   translshēn  'oneself, themselves'
+* Reflexive: 己 jǐ, 身 shēn 'oneself, themselves'
-* Interrogative, e.g.  lang|誰   translshéi  'who'
+* Interrogative, e.g. 誰 shéi 'who'
-* Indefinite:  lang|他   transltuō  'another, others',  lang|某   translmǒu  'someone, so-and-so',  lang|人   translrén  'someone',  lang|人人   translrénrén  'everyone',  lang|諸   translzhū  'all'
+* Indefinite: 他 tuō 'another, others', 某 mǒu  'someone, so-and-so', 人 rén  'someone', 人人 rénrén 'everyone',  諸 zhū  'all'
 {| class="wikitable"
 |+ | Personal pronouns
 !1st person
-|  lang|吾   translwú ,  lang|我   translwǒ ,  lang|余   translyú ,  lang|予   translyú ,  lang|朕   translzhèn
+|  吾 wú, 我 wǒ, 余 yú, 予 yú, 朕 zhèn
 |-
 !2nd person
-|  lang|爾   translěr ,  lang|汝/女   translrǔ ,  lang|而   translér ,  lang|若   translruò
+|  爾 ěr, 汝/女 rǔ, 而 ér, 若 ruò
 |-
 !3rd person
-|  lang|之   translzhī  ([[Accusative case|accusative]]),  lang|其   translqí  ([[Genitive case|genitive]])
+|  之 zhī (accusative), 其 qí (genitive)
 |}
-Classical Chinese did not distinguish number in some of its pronouns, for example,  lang|我   translwǒ  could mean either 'I, me' or 'we, us'. There was no 3rd-person personal pronoun form that could be used in subject position, but the distal demonstrative  lang|彼   translbǐ  'that, those' and the anaphoric demonstrative  lang|是   translshì  frequently take that role. sfn|Dawson|1984|p=36|loc=n. 5hr
+Classical Chinese did not distinguish number in some of its pronouns, for example, 我 wǒ could mean either 'I, me' or 'we, us'. There was no 3rd-person personal pronoun form that could be used in subject position, but the distal demonstrative 彼 bǐ 'that, those' and the anaphoric demonstrative 是 shì frequently take that role. (Dawson 1984, p. 36, n. 5).
-The use of some nouns as pronoun-like terms is also attested. Common examples in texts are the humble  lang|臣   translchén  'servant' in the 1st person, and  lang|子   translzǐ  'son; master' in the 2nd person.
+The use of some nouns as pronoun-like terms is also attested. Common examples in texts are the humble 臣 chén  'servant' in the 1st person, and 子 zǐ 'son; master' in the 2nd person.
-Classical Chinese interrogative pronouns and adverbs are notably [[Polysemy|polysemic]], many of them bearing multiple meanings.
+Classical Chinese interrogative pronouns and adverbs are notably polysemic, many of them bearing multiple meanings.
 {| class="wikitable"
-|+ | Interrogative pronouns <br>and adverbs sfn|Pulleyblank|1995|p=91–97
+|+ | Interrogative pronouns <br>and adverbs, Pulleyblank 1995, pp. 91–97
 |-
 ! Classical <br>Chinese !! Translation
 |-
-| lang|誰   translshéi  || who
+| 誰 shéi  || who
 |-
-| lang|孰   translshú  || which
+| 孰 shú  || which
 |-
-| lang|何   translhé  || what, why, how
+| 何 hé  || what, why, how
 |-
-| lang|曷   translhé  || when, what
+| 曷 hé  || when, what
 |-
-| lang|奚   translxī ,  lang|胡   translhú  || where, how, why
+| 奚 xī, 胡 hú  || where, how, why
 |-
-| lang|安   translān ,  lang|焉   translyān  || where, how
+| 安 ān, 焉 yān  || where, how
 |-
-| lang|盍   translhé  || why not
+| 盍 hé  || why not
 |-
-| lang|惡/烏   translwū  || where, in what
+| 惡/烏 wū  || where, in what
 |}
-An example where this polysemy is exploited is found in a tale in the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' (chapter 17). Zhuangzi is asked "how do you know this?" (with the interrogative  lang|安   translān ), but being unable to answer the question, intentionally misinterprets it as "where did you (get to) know this?".<ref> cite web |url=https://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/LaoJuang/JoyOfFish.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220724025954/https://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/LaoJuang/JoyOfFish.html |archive-date=2022-07-24 |title=Zhuāngzǐ: Joy of Fish |last=Jordan |first=David K. |date=2019-01-20 |access-date=2022-08-09 </ref>
+An example where this polysemy is exploited is found in a tale in the ''Zhuangzi'', chapter 17. Zhuangzi is asked "how do you know this?" (with the interrogative 安 ān), but being unable to answer the question, intentionally misinterprets it as "where did you (get to) know this?". (https://web.archive.org/web/20220724025954/https://pages.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/LaoJuang/JoyOfFish.html)
 ==Core constituent order==

@@ Line 1,410: / Line 1,410: @@
 ==Verbs==
-While an English sentence can be divided into active voice or passive voice depending on the form of the verb within the sentence, the verbs in classical Chinese have several usages based on the relationship between the verb and the object. These are separated into  translyìdòng  usage ( zh|c=意動 ; original meaning),  translshǐdòng  usage ( zh|c=使動 ),  translwèidòng  usage ( zh|c=為動 ), and  translbèidòng  ( zh|c=被動 ; "passive") usage. Moreover, a verb does not change its form at different situations, with the exception of the ''beidong'' usage of verbs. Within the examples shown below, the words located within parentheses do not appear in the original Chinese sentence.
+While an English sentence can be divided into active voice or passive voice depending on the form of the verb within the sentence, the verbs in classical Chinese have several usages based on the relationship between the verb and the object. These are separated into yìdòng 意動 (original meaning), shǐdòng usage 使動, wèidòng usage 為動, and bèidòng 被動 "passive" usage. Moreover, a verb does not change its form at different situations, with the exception of the ''beidong'' usage of verbs. Within the examples shown below, the words located within parentheses do not appear in the original Chinese sentence.
-; ''Yidong'' usage
+''Yidong'' usage (used in the original meaning)
 In classical Chinese, it is common for nouns or adjectives to be used as verbs or adjectives, and most of these cases involve a ''yidong'' usage of verbs.
 One peculiarity is that a word that is originally a verb does not share the same usage. In addition, there are slight differences in meaning between the noun and the adjective in the usage.
 For a noun, it becomes an action done by the subject which indicates the subjects opinion about the object in the form "consider (object) as + (the noun)".
- fs interlinear|lang=lzh
+父利{其然也} fù lì {qí rán yě} [Zhongyong's] father profit {the thing} (that he be invited): The father considered the thing as profitable.
 For an adjective, it becomes an observation in the form of "consider (object) (the adjective)".
- fs interlinear|lang=lzh
+漁人甚異之 yú rén shèn yì zhī, fish man very strange {the thing} (that there was a beautiful land): The fisherman considers the thing very strange.
-; ''Shidong'' usage
+''Shidong'' usage
 In this case, nouns, verbs and adjectives share usage, but with different meanings.
 For a noun, it means "make ... + (the noun)". For instance:
-'''Literal translation:''' (Fulfilling the agreement that) the person who defeated the Qin dynasty and entered ''Xianyang'' first, [people] would '''king''' him.<br />(Note: Such scenarios are rare, though historical cases exist in ancient China. The translation of the sentence is rather controversial; the interpretation provided above represents the most widespread consensus.)
+先破秦入咸陽者王之
 For a verb, it could mean "make... + do/done/to do", depending on the sentence. For instance:
-*  lang''' du|泣 '''孤舟之嫠婦
-'''Literal translation:''' (The music was so sad that) '''cry''' the widow in a lonely boat<br />'''Semantic translation:''' (The music was so sad that it) '''made''' the widow in a lonely boat '''cry'''.
+* 泣孤舟之嫠婦
 For an adjective, it means "make... + (the adjective)". For instance:
-*  lang既來之，則''' du|安 '''之
+* 既來之，則安之
-'''Literal translation:''' Since you have been here, then '''calm''' yourself here<br />'''Semantic translation:''' Since you have been here, '''make''' yourself '''calm''' here.
+'''Literal translation:''' Since you have been here, then '''calm''' yourself here; '''Semantic translation:''' Since you have been here, '''make''' yourself '''calm''' here.
-; ''Weidong'' usage
+''Weidong'' usage
 The following examples demonstrate ''weidong'' usage of verbs. Such usage may occur:
 * to express a motion that is based on a purpose. For instance:
-::  lang等死，''' du|死 '''國可乎？
+等死死國可乎？
-: '''Literal translation:''' It's equally death (delay for work and protest the rule of the Qin dynasty), is '''die''' country an option?<br />'''Semantic translation:''' It's death in any case, is '''dying for''' the country an option?
 * to express an action due to a particular reason. For instance:
-::  lang便''' du|苦 '''咳嗽
+便苦咳嗽
-: '''Literal translation:''' He '''suffer(v.)''' cough<br />'''Semantic translation:''' He '''suffered from''' a cough.
+:'''Literal translation:''' He '''suffer (v.)''' cough; '''Semantic translation:''' He '''suffered from''' a cough.
 * to help the object do something. For instance:
-::  lang自''' du|序 '''其詩
+::  自序其詩
-: '''Literal translation:''' Himself '''introduction''' his own poem<br />'''Semantic translation:''' He '''wrote the introduction''' to his own poem .
+: '''Literal translation:''' Himself '''introduction''' his own poem; '''Semantic translation:''' He '''wrote the introduction''' to his own poem .
 * to execute a motion to the object. For instance:
-::  lang''' du|泣 '''之三日
+:: 泣之三日
-: '''Literal translation:''' '''Cry''' it for three days<br />'''Semantic translation:''' '''Mourn over''' it for three days.
+: '''Literal translation:''' '''Cry''' it for three days; '''Semantic translation:''' '''Mourn over''' it for three days.
 ==Pronouns==

@@ Line 1,401: / Line 1,401: @@
 ==Word class flexibility==
-* adjective used as noun:  lang|zh-hant|''' du|聖 '''益聖   translshèng yì shèng ; lit: "'''wise''' increase wise", actually means: "'''a wise person''' becomes wiser"
+* adjective used as noun:  聖益聖 shèng yì shèng; lit: wise increase wise, actually means: a wise person becomes wiser
-* adjective used as verb:  lang|zh-hant|勝地不''' du|常 '''   translshèngdì bù cháng ; lit: "a good place not '''constant'''", actually means: "a good place will not '''last forever'''"
+* adjective used as verb:  勝地不常 shèngdì bù cháng; lit: a good place not constant, actually means: a good place will not last forever
-* adjective used as adverb:  lang|zh-hant|''' du|白 '''費   translbáifèi ; lit: "'''vain''' cost", i.e. "'''vainly''' cost (subject) ... "
+* adjective used as adverb:  白費 báifèi; lit vain cost, i.e. vainly cost (subject) ...
-* noun used as verb:  lang|zh-hant|順流而''' du|東 '''也   translshùnliú ér dōng yě ; lit: "along the river '''East'''", actually means: "rowing down the river to '''the East'''"
+* noun used as verb:  順流而東也 shùnliú ér dōng yě; lit: along the river East, actually means: rowing down the river to the East
-* noun used as adverbial:  lang|zh-hant|''' du|犬 '''坐於前   translquǎn zuò yú qián ; lit: "(a wolf) '''dog''' sit in the front", actually means: "(a wolf) is sitting in the front '''like a dog'''"
+* noun used as adverbial: 犬坐於前 quǎn zuò yú qián; lit: (a wolf) dog sit in the front, actually means: (a wolf) is sitting in the front like a dog
-* verb used as noun (rare case):  lang|zh-hant|乘''' du|奔 '''御風   translchéng bēn yùfēng ; lit: "ride '''gallop''' or wind", actually means: "ride a '''galloping horse''' or wind"
+* verb used as noun (rare case): 乘奔御風 chéng bēn yùfēng; lit: ride gallop or wind, actually means: ride a galloping horse or wind
-* verb used as adverb (rare case):  lang|zh-hant|''' du|爭 '''割地   translzhēng gēdì ; lit: "'''compete''' cede territory", actually means: "cede territory '''spontaneously and actively'''"
+* verb used as adverb (rare case): 爭割地 zhēng gēdì; lit: compete cede territory, actually means: "cede territory spontaneously and actively"
 ==Verbs==

@@ Line 1,384: / Line 1,384: @@
 ==Typological overview==
-Classical Chinese has long been noted for the absence of [[Inflection|inflectional morphology]]: nouns and adjectives do not inflect for [[Grammatical case|case]], [[definiteness]], [[Grammatical gender|gender]], [[Specificity (linguistics)|specificity]] or [[Grammatical number|number]]; neither do verbs inflect for [[Grammatical person|person]], [[Grammatical number|number]], [[Grammatical tense|tense]], [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]], [[telicity]], [[Valency (linguistics)|valency]], [[evidentiality]] or [[Grammatical voice|voice]]. However, in terms of derivational morphology, it makes use of [[Compound (linguistics)|compounding]], [[reduplication]] and perhaps [[affix]]ation, although not in a productive way. sfn|Peyraube|2008|p=995  sfn|Schuessler|2007|p=16|ps=: Most of the affixes in [Old Chinese] also have counterparts in [Tibeto-Burman] languages; they are therefore of [Sino-Tibetan] heritage. Most are unproductive in [Old Chinese].  There is also an extensive use of [[zero-derivation]].
+Cf.: English and Chinese Introduction to classical Chinese grammar on Wikipedia.
-The basic [[Constituent (linguistics)|constituent]] order of Classical Chinese is [[subject-verb-object]] (SVO), sfn|Peyraube|2008|p=997–998  but is not fully consistent: there are particular situations where the VS and OV word orders appear. [[Topic and comment|Topic-and-comment]] constructions are often used. Neither a topic, nor the subject nor objects are mandatory, being often dropped when their meaning is understood ([[Pro-drop language|pragmatically inferable]]), and copular sentences often [[Zero copula|do not have a verb]].
+Classical Chinese has long been noted for the absence of inflectional morphology: nouns and adjectives do not inflect for case, definiteness, gender, specificity or number; neither do verbs inflect for person, number, tense, aspect, telicity, valency, evidentiality or voice. However, in terms of derivational morphology, it makes use of compounding, reduplication and perhaps affixation, although not in a productive way. (See Peyraube 2008, p. 995; Schuessler 2007, p. 16). Most of the affixes in Old Chinese also have counterparts in Tibeto-Burman languages; they are therefore of Sino-Tibetan heritage. Most are unproductive in Old Chinese.  There is also an extensive use of zero-derivation.
-Within a noun phrase, demonstratives, [[Quantifier (linguistics)|quantifying]] [[determiner]]s, [[adjective]]s, [[Possession (linguistics)|possessors]] and [[relative clause]]s precede the [[Head (linguistics)|head]] noun, while [[Cardinal number (linguistics)|cardinal numbers]] can appear before or after the noun they modify. Within a verb phrase, adverbs usually appear before a verb. The language, as analyzed in this article, uses [[coverb]]s (in a [[serial verb construction]]) and [[postposition]]s. Classical Chinese makes heavy use of [[parataxis]] where English would use a [[dependent clause]]; sfn|Pulleyblank|1995|p=148  however, there are means to form dependent clauses, some of which appear before the main clause while others appear after. There are also a number of sentence-final [[Grammatical particle|particles]].
+The basic constituent order of Classical Chinese is subject-verb-object (SVO) (Peyraube 2008, p. 997–998),  but is not fully consistent: there are particular situations where the VS and OV word orders appear. Topic-and-comment constructions are often used. Neither a topic, nor the subject nor objects are mandatory, being often dropped when their meaning is understood (so called Pro-drop language (pragmatically inferable)), and copular sentences often do not have a verb.
-Two simple coordinated nouns can be joined with a conjunction, but this is not always the case. This, combined with the fact that two nouns in a possessor-possessed construction are not always marked for their functions either, can lead to ambiguity:  lang山林   translshān lín  (literally: "mountain forest") could mean either "mountains and forests" or "the forest of a mountain". sfn|Barnes|Starr|Ormerod|2009|p=9
+Within a noun phrase, demonstratives, quantifying determiners, adjectives, possessors and relative clauses precede the head noun, while cardinal numbers can appear before or after the noun they modify. Within a verb phrase, adverbs usually appear before a verb. The language, as analyzed in this article, uses coverbs (in a serial verb construction) and postpositions. Classical Chinese makes heavy use of parataxis where English would use a dependent clause (Pulleyblank 1995, p. 148). However, there are means to form dependent clauses, some of which appear before the main clause while others appear after. There are also a number of sentence-final particles.
-With the absence of inflectional morphology, Classical Chinese is largely a [[zero-marking language]], except that possessors and relative clauses are usually [[Dependent-marking language|dependent-marked]] with a [[grammatical particle]].
+Two simple coordinated nouns can be joined with a conjunction, but this is not always the case. This, combined with the fact that two nouns in a possessor-possessed construction are not always marked for their functions either, can lead to ambiguity: 山林 shān lín (literally: "mountain forest") could mean either "mountains and forests" or "the forest of a mountain". (Barnes, Starr, Ormerod 2009, p. 9).
-[[Negation (linguistics)|Negation]] is achieved by placing a negative particle before the verb. [[Yes-no question]]s are marked with a sentence-final particle, while [[wh-question]]s are marked with [[In situ#Linguistics|in-situ]] interrogative pronouns. There are a number of passive constructions, but passives are sometimes not marked differently from active constructions, at least when written. sfn|Aldridge|2013
+With the absence of inflectional morphology, Classical Chinese is largely a zero-marking language, except that possessors and relative clauses are usually dependent-marked with a grammatical particle.
-The [[Classical Chinese lexicon|lexicon of Classical Chinese]] has been traditionally divided into two large categories: content words ( lang|zh-Hant|實字   translshí zì , literally: "substantial words") and function words ( lang|zh-Hant|虛字   translxū zì , literally: "empty words"). sfn|Peyraube|2008|p=999  Scholars of Classical Chinese grammar notably disagree on how to further divide these two categories exactly, but a classification using word classes similar to those of [[Latin language|Latin]] (noun, adjective, verb, pronoun, etc.) has been common. sfn|Zádrapa|2011|p=2  However, this remains debated, as many words can be used as multiple parts of speech. Examples shown below.
+Negation is achieved by placing a negative particle before the verb. Yes-no questions are marked with a sentence-final particle, while wh-questions are marked with in-situ interrogative pronouns. There are a number of passive constructions, but passives are sometimes not marked differently from active constructions, at least when written. (Aldridge 2013).
 ==Word class flexibility==

@@ Line 150: / Line 150: @@
 〔發：髮〕一律简化为“发”。古代“發”“髮”不通用，发出、发生的“发”写作“發”，头发的“发”写作“髮”。例如：
-. 齐军万弩俱發 。
+. 齐军万弩俱發 。[2] （《史记·孙膑》）
 . 夫因兵死守蓬茅，麻苎衣衫鬓髮焦。（杜荀鹤《时世行》）
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 . 春耕，夏耘，秋穫 ，冬藏。（晁错《论贵粟疏》）
-〔復：複〕一律简化为“复”
+〔復：複〕一律简化为“复”[3] 。古代“復”“複”不通用：“復”是现代“再”的意思，又解作“恢复”；“複”是“重复”。例如：
 . 居十日，扁鹊復见。（《韩非子·扁鹊见蔡桓公》）
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 . 余闻而愈悲。（柳宗元《捕蛇者说》）
-〔雲：云〕一律写作“云”。古代“雲”“云”不通用
+〔雲：云〕一律写作“云”。古代“雲”“云”不通用[4] ，云雨的“云”写作“雲”，当“说话”讲或当语气词用的“云”写作“云”。例如：
 . 旌蔽日兮敌若雲。（《楚辞·国殇》）

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 字形是字的形体，字义是字的意义。汉字有这样一个特点，就是字形在一定程度上表示字义。字的最初的一种意义叫作“本义”，字的其他意义一般是由本义生出来的，叫作“引申义”。本义和字形是有关系的，懂得这个道理，有助于了解古代汉语的字义。现在举些例子加以说明。
-〔涉〕“涉”的本义是蹚着水过河，所以左边是“水”（氵就是水）。古文字的“涉”更加形象，写作 ，画的是前后两只脚，中间一道河。后来左边写成三点水，右边写成“步”字，其实“步”字上半代表一只脚（即止字），下半代表另一只脚（即反写的止字，不是“少”）。苏轼《日喻》：“七岁而能涉”，其中“涉”字是用的本义。《吕氏春秋·刻舟求剑》
+〔涉〕“涉”的本义是蹚着水过河，所以左边是“水”（氵就是水）。古文字的“涉”更加形象，写作 ，画的是前后两只脚，中间一道河。后来左边写成三点水，右边写成“步”字，其实“步”字上半代表一只脚（即止字），下半代表另一只脚（即反写的止字，不是“少”）。苏轼《日喻》：“七岁而能涉”，其中“涉”字是用的本义。《吕氏春秋·刻舟求剑》[1] ：“楚人有涉江者”，其中“涉”字用的是引申义，那不是蹚着水过河，而是乘舟过河。后来又引申为牵涉，涉历。
 〔操〕〔持〕这类字叫作形声字，左边是形符（又叫意符），表示意义范畴；右边是声符，表示读音（形符也可以在右边、上面、下面；声符也可以在左边、上面、下面）。“操”“持”都是拿的意思，所以以手（扌）为形符。“操”从喿声（“喿”即“噪”字），“持”从寺声。《韩非子·郑人买履》：“而忘操之。”蒲松龄《狼》：“弛担持刀。”这两个字也有细微的分别：“操”又指紧握，引申为操守，节操；“持”泛指拿。