Hist Trans EN 14 - Revision history

Wei Chuxuan: /* The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age */

2022-01-02T09:33:46Z

The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age

Wei Chuxuan: /* The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age */

2022-01-02T09:33:16Z

The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age

Wei Chuxuan: /* Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemperary Ages */

2022-01-02T09:31:50Z

Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemperary Ages

Wei Chuxuan: /* Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages */

2021-12-31T03:51:25Z

Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages

Wei Chuxuan: /* The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention. */

2021-12-14T06:56:03Z

The creativity of translation and the language in translation were paid more attention.

Wei Chuxuan: /* Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another. */

2021-12-14T06:53:56Z

Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.

Wei Chuxuan: /* Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another. */

2021-12-14T06:53:06Z

Translation theories of different schools were emerging one after another.

Wei Chuxuan: /* Vigorous stage（1989—） */

2021-12-14T06:50:34Z

Vigorous stage（1989—）

Wei Chuxuan: /* Recovery stage(1975—1989) */

2021-12-14T06:50:07Z

Recovery stage(1975—1989)

Wei Chuxuan: /* Low-tide stage (1966—1975) */

2021-12-14T06:49:47Z

Low-tide stage (1966—1975)

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 The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）
-==The General Situation of Translation in the Contemporary Age==
+==The General Situation of Western Translation in the Contemporary Age==
 After the Second World War, the world entered a period of relative peace. After the trauma of the war, the Western countries regrouped and began to restore and develop production and economy in an all-round way. Translation cause also entered a new period of development at extremely rapid pace, taking on a new look. During this period, not only in the Soviet Union, Britain, Germany, France and other major European countries, but also in the United States, Canada, the cause of translation showed a prosperous scene. In terms of the whole western translation career, the translation after the Second World War was unmatched in scope, form, scale and achievement. Therefore, the 20th century could be called as "the age of translation" , which in fact mainly referred to the decades since the end of the war. Though great achievement was also made in literary translation in this period, the 20th century is known as the "age of translation" mainly because western translation expanded into various fields during this period, which has five characteristics.

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 In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. And the contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under the influence of different historical backgrounds, translation in these two ages showed different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.
-==The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age==
+==The General Situation of Western Translation in the Modern Age==
 Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and people in colony. On the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, translation in western countries continued to develop and excellent translations still appeared from time to time. The translation of this period also has its own traits. The general situation of translation in this period can be summarized from the following two aspects.

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 [[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
-=Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
+=Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemporary Ages=
 '''现当代西方翻译史'''
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 ==Abstract==
 Under different historical backgrounds, western translation presents different characteristics. In the 20th century before the end of the Second World War, the two world wars inevitably brought obstacles and disturbances to the development of translation. Therefore, though translation in this period still continued to develop, it did not get breakthrough. Translation was still dominated by literary works in content, totally relying on manual labor. In translation theory, it emphasized the creativity of translation and laid a foundation for the linguistic turn of translation studies. After the end of World War II, the world entered an era of relative peace, the world economy recovered, and the translation industry was greatly revitalized. During this period, the scale of translation covered all aspects of social life, machine translation developed fast, translation training flourished, translation organizations were established in various countries and many translation theories and schools emerged. That is to say, this period can be called the golden age of translation.
 ==摘要==
 在不同的历史背景下，西方翻译呈现出不同的特点。在二战结束之前的二十世纪，两次世界大战不可避免地为翻译事业的发展带来了阻碍和干扰，因而这一时期的翻译虽然仍在发展但并未取得突破性的成就，在翻译的内容上仍然以文学作品为主，技术上完全依赖人工，理论方面注重翻译的创造性且为翻译研究的语言学转向奠定了基础。二战结束后，世界进入到相对和平的年代，世界经济复苏，翻译事业也大为振兴。在这一时期，翻译的内容覆盖社会生活的方方面面，机器翻译发展迅速，翻译培训兴起，翻译组织在各国成立，各种翻译理论和翻译流派涌现，可谓是翻译的黄金年代。
-==Keywords==
+==关键词==
-Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary
+西方翻译；翻译史；现代；当代
 ==Introduction==
@@ Line 147: / Line 150: @@
 Delisle, Jean(1995). Translation: An Interpretive Approach[M]. Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press.
-Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).《自然语言机器翻译新论》[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.
+Feng Zhiwei 冯志伟(1994).自然语言机器翻译新论[M] New Theories of Machine Translation of Natural Language.北京:语文出版社Beijing: Chinese Press.
 FitzMaurice-Kelly, J(1911). "Translation"[J]. Encyclopedia Britannica (11th edition, Cambridge),27:183-188.
@@ Line 155: / Line 158: @@
 Hutchins，Robert(1952). Great Books of the Western World[M]. Chicago: Encyclopaedia .Britannica Ltd.
-Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).《机器翻译系统》[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.
+Mu Yunyang,Li Zhisheng,Yu Hao杨沐昀、李志升、于浩(2000).机器翻译系统[M]Machine Translation System.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.
 Tan Zaixi谭载喜(2004).西方翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Western Translation.北京：商务印书馆Beijing:The Commercial Press.
@@ Line 161: / Line 164: @@
 Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1985).西方翻译史浅谈[J]On the History of Western Translation.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,7:36-39.
-Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).《当代国外翻译理论导读》[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.
+Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2008).当代国外翻译理论导读[M]Introduction to Contemporary Foreign Translation Theories.天津：南开大学出版社Tianjin：Nankai University Press.
 Xie Tianzhen谢天振(2011).中西翻译简史[M]A Brief History of Chinese and Western Translation.北京:外语教学与研究出版社Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
@@ Line 167: / Line 170: @@
 Zhao Jiajin赵家琎(1996).当代翻译学派简介[J]A Brief Introduction to Contemporary Translation Schools.中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal,5：46—47.
-Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).《机器翻译原理》[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.
+Zhao Tiejun赵铁军等(2001).机器翻译原理[M]Principles of Machine Translation.哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社Harbin: Harbin University of Technology Press.

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 [[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
-=Western Translation History In the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
+=Western Translation History in the Modern and Contemperary Ages=
 '''现当代西方翻译史'''
@@ Line 115: / Line 115: @@
 The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.
-On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie, 2011:32)
+On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics: first, theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; second, the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie, 2011:32)
 After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.
 ====American Translation Training School====
-First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.
+First established in 1964 at the University of Iowa, this school focused on translation practice, emphasized the literary taste and value of works, and adopted the methods of L. A. Richards and Williard V. Quine of Harvard University. Representative figures included poet and translator Ezra Pound, who translated Tang poetry and advocated the accurate restoration of details, words, fragments and the whole image description. Frederic Will of the University of Iowa, drawing on his training experience, regarded translation as a form of naming, fiction writing and cognition. Yale’s Jonas Zdnys argued that translation is an activity of subjective thought designed to explain literature. This school explores the role of the human mind in translation and raises the question of the nature of translation, but translation theory was limited to aesthetic experience and prescriptive translation rules.（Zhao,1996: 46）
 ====Translation Science School====
@@ Line 135: / Line 135: @@
 ==Conclusion==
-Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and get better development environment.
+Under the influence of historical backgrounds, different periods of translation show different traits. In the modern period, the content of translation still focused on literature which included works form Russian, Nordic countries, China and so on. The way of translation was artificial and traditional. With the progress of economy and science, translation in the contemporary period also got great development. The content of translation was not confined to the field of literature. Instead, translation of science and technology, commerce, entertainment and so on became a major part of the actual translation activities. In addition, machine translation as a novel technique developed quickly. And the most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory thanks to many translator associations and publications on translation studies. Nowadays, under the influence of globalization, translation shows more and more importance and gets better development environment.
 ==References==

@@ Line 60: / Line 60: @@
 French scholar J. Marouzeau’s "On Translation of Latin" is an important translation literature in French. He believed that translation is a skill in which the translator should reveal to the reader the content of the original work, rather than its shell, using a living language.（Xie，2011:29）
-German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie Tianzhen，2008:319-332)  The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Edwin Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）
+German thinker Walter Benjamin pointed out that although the translation is based on the original, it is the afterlife of the original work and the translation need not pursue the same meaning as the original work. Mediocre translators pay more attention to the meaning of the original work than to its literariness and language style and they only know that the translation exists to serve the original work and can only translate the non-essential content of the original work. (Xie，2008:319-332)  The translator’s task is to use his own language to release the pure language trapped by another language, that is, to liberate the imprisoned language in the re-creation of the original text. Edwin Gentzler, a contemporary American translation theorist, believed that the discussion of translation issues among Anglo-American deconstructionists mainly revolves around comments on Benjamin’s Translator’s Task. (Gentzler, 2004:173-174.) Therefore, Translator’s Task is regarded as the “Bible” of translation theory and the classic of deconstructive translation theory.（Xie，2011:30）
 The Russian scholar Mikhail Vasilievich Lemonosov transformed the loanwords that entered the Russian language, russified them, and regarded translation as a creative activity. And this view of free translation lasted until the 19th century. Aleksandr Pushkin, the greatest Russian poet in the 19th century, based on his literary translation practice, proposed that translators should have their own opinions on the selection of materials and should have full freedom in dealing with the original work, but the uniqueness of the original work should be preserved as much as possible.（Xie，2011:30）

@@ Line 115: / Line 115: @@
 The most important feature of modern western translation is the rapid development of translation theory. After the Second World War, with the vigorous development of science and technology, modern linguistics, translation activities and the rise of machine translation, people gradually changed the traditional view of translation studies, believing that translation is not only an art or skill, but also a science with rules to follow.
-On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2009:32)
+On the whole, the development of contemporary translation theory has two characteristics :(1) theoretical research has been brought into the scope of linguistics, under the influence of modern linguistics and information theory; (2) the traditional situation of non-communication between theorists has been broken. Translation theorists fully express their views through various channels, such as published works.(Xie Tianzhen, 2011:32)
 After the Second World War, with the modernization and integration of western social and economic development, western translation theories also began to enter a new period that transcends national boundaries. Therefore, it is difficult to classify some translation thoughts and some translation theorists in a narrow sense as belonging to a certain country or a certain place. It is acceptable to divide contemporary western translation theories into different schools according to their basic approaches and methods of translation studies or the basic characteristics of thought. Here is a brief introduction to some influential schools classified by Zhao Jiajin.
@@ Line 123: / Line 123: @@
 ====Translation Science School====
-It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）
+It was also known as “linguistic school”. According to this school, translation is the process of reproducing language as a whole, and it aims to correctly convey the original information to readers. The school was founded by Eugene Nida, whose masterpieces include Message and Mission (1960) and Toward Science of Translation (1946). Nida proposed functional equivalence theory according to Noam Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar and his experience in Bible translation, that is, to digest the original text and understand its basic structure and meaning; convey meaning based on basic structure; obtain semantic and stylistic equivalence with the original text. Thus the translation process can be summarized as: analyze—transfer—restructure, these three steps. The school of Translation science adopted linguistic theory and the more objective description method in translation theory. In the late 1970s, emphasis was placed on the cultural background of the information age, but the research was still limited to prescriptive research and translation criteria, ignoring the role of translators’thinking.（Zhao,1996: 46）
 ====Translation school====
-It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is ''The Name and Nature of Translation Studies'' (1972).（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）
+It is the so-called “literary school”. This school held that the original work is the unity of sentence series and article structure, and the translator is influenced by the original view and the future model of translation in the process of translation. The founder of this school was James Holmes, an American poet, who taught translation at the University of Amsterdam in the Netherlands before his death. His representative work is The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(1972).（Zhao,1996: 46）
 ====Polysystem School====
-Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46）
+Its founders are Itammar Even-Zohar and Gideon Toury of Tel Aviv University in Israel. Even coined the term Polysystem to explore the relationship between translated works and literary systems, and explained that the oriented culture of translation not only determines whether a work can be translated, but also regulates the wording. Toury held that translation belongs to the second system of multiple systems, and its role depends on the strength and development stage of the oriented culture of translation. He held that translation has no fixed identity and has multiple identities due to its social, literary and historical background. This school integrates translation studies with literary studies, social and economic factors, endows translation studies with historical significance, but it is still limited to the acceptability of translation and does not get rid of the fetters of cultural equivalence.（Zhao,1996: 46）
 ====Deconstruction School====
-It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao Jiajin,1996: 46-47）
+It is also known as “affirmative productivity school”. It originated in France in the mid-1960s and is represented by Michel Foucault, Martin Heidegger and Jacques Derrida. This school introduced deconstruction into translation, claiming that translators create the subject and the target language is a new language. As Foucault put it, the original work is constantly rewritten in the process of translation, and the translator rewrites the original work every time he reads and translates it. Deconstruction studies the nature and process of translation and language, and advocates that translators exist as entities. The school even goes so far as to believe that language does not involve any objective reality, and translators have their own status only when they create texts.（Zhao,1996:46-47）
 ==Conclusion==

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 ====Vigorous stage（1989—）====
-Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan Zaixi，2004:167-175）
+Since the late 1980s, some new developments had changed the field of machine translation, marking machine translation research enter a new period. This is the emergence of the third generation of machine translation method that is corpus-based. Corpus-based machine translation systems include statistic-based translation and example-based translation, both of which are based on large-scale real text. （Tan，2004:167-175）
 Practice has proved that machine translation has great vitality. It is a new science, and its research and translation have entered a new stage of development. No matter whether it can replace the human brain and hands eventually and completely liberate human from the heavy artificial translation, it will develop and exist for a long time. Both in theory and practice, machine translation and its research will exert more and more influence on traditional translation and its research.

@@ Line 105: / Line 105: @@
 ====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====
-In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171-174）
+In the middle of 1970s, with the emergence of new theories and ideas in the field of linguistics and the further development of computational linguistics, the research of machine translation was aroused in the world again. After ten years of silence, machine translation research stepped on the road of recovery. The recovery period of machine translation research and development is generally considered to date from the installation of the SYSTRAN system by EURATOM and the completion of the TAUM-METEO system by the University of Montreal in Canada.（Tan，2004:171-174）
 ====Vigorous stage（1989—）====

@@ Line 100: / Line 100: @@
 ====Low-tide stage (1966—1975)====
-The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan Zaixi，2004:170）
+The advent of machine translation had opened up a new way for traditional translation research and practice. However, the complexity of machine translation was underestimated at that time and the design of machine translation system was often too rough and simple. In this case, the first generation of machine translation systems in the initial stage could not achieve ideal results, the quality of translation is often poor, so that some people gradually lost confidence in machine translation research, and some scholars also became pessimistic and disappointed. （Tan，2004:170）
-In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan Zaixi，2004:171）
+In the mid-1960s, machine translation in the United States had suffered a severe blow. In 1966, the Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee, part of the National Academy of Sciences, was asked to investigate machine translation research funded by government. The committee published its report, Language and Machines, after analyzing the speed, quality, cost and demand of machine translation at that time. The report pointed out that the quality of machine translation is significantly lower than that of human translation and asserted that there was no likelihood of any commercially useful machine translation system in the foreseeable future. On the committee’s recommendation, the U.S. government withdrew the funding for machine translation research. Thus, machine translation research in the United States plummeted from a high point to a low point of development. It should be noted, however, that machine translation research and development was not in a complete demise, following the official denials in the United States. Scholars and research institutions in many countries including the United States continued to carry out researches and experiments on machine translation under relatively difficult circumstances.（Tan，2004:171）
 ====Recovery stage(1975—1989)====