Hist Trans EN 18 - Revision history

Yang Ye at 09:21, 16 December 2021

2021-12-16T09:21:46Z

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Benjamin Wellsand: /* Conclusion */

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Conclusion

Benjamin Wellsand: /* Theories of Translation studies */

2021-12-15T12:46:37Z

Theories of Translation studies

Benjamin Wellsand: /* History of Translation */

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History of Translation

Benjamin Wellsand: /* History of Translation */

2021-12-15T12:34:06Z

History of Translation

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Benjamin Wellsand: /* Introduction */

2021-12-15T12:17:08Z

Introduction

Benjamin Wellsand: /* Abstract */

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Abstract

Jawad Ahmad: /* References */

2021-12-14T10:09:05Z

References

AkiraJantarat: /* Chapter 18： History of Translation */

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Chapter 18： History of Translation

AkiraJantarat at 17:27, 8 December 2021

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 ==Conclusion==
 To conclude it can be said that the human society revolves around language, which serves as a medium of communication. From ancient times to the present, translation contains key theoretical advances, with a focus on techniques developed throughout the contemporary era. Translation is the process of changing or converting from one set of patterns to another. The history of translation has been evolving since the birth of human interaction, and it now enables for cross-cultural contacts, trade, economic globalization, and information exchange across time more than ever before.
 ==References==

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	Gideon Toury first proposed this concept at the end of the 1970s, with the goal of establishing a set of rules he called norms, which he defines as the translation of general values or ideas shared by a community about what is right and wrong, adequate and inadequate into performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to specific situations, specifying what is prescribed and forbidden, as well as what is tolerated and permitted in a particular behaviour. Toury (1955, p. 55) Toury uses this idea as the foundation for his translation analysis, which sees translation as the result of cultural transference. He emphasises the importance of descriptive data as the foundation of the theory, offers the idea of norm, and categorises it. Initial norms allude to the translator's fundamental decision: whether or not to submit to the target culture's norms. As a result, two conceptions emerge: The first is adequacy, which entails adhering to the source text's cultural standards, and the second is acceptability, which entails adhering to the target text's norms. The translation policy that was carried out prior to the translation procedure is referred to as preliminary norms. The decisions that will be made during the translation process will be governed by operational guidelines. This reflects a set of standards known as a) matricial norms, which govern the insertion of footnotes, the removal or addition of paragraphs, and so on; and b) textual linguistic norms, which govern the selection of language tools such as vocabulary, style, and so on (1995: 56-59).		Gideon Toury first proposed this concept at the end of the 1970s, with the goal of establishing a set of rules he called norms, which he defines as the translation of general values or ideas shared by a community about what is right and wrong, adequate and inadequate into performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to specific situations, specifying what is prescribed and forbidden, as well as what is tolerated and permitted in a particular behaviour. Toury (1955, p. 55) Toury uses this idea as the foundation for his translation analysis, which sees translation as the result of cultural transference. He emphasises the importance of descriptive data as the foundation of the theory, offers the idea of norm, and categorises it. Initial norms allude to the translator's fundamental decision: whether or not to submit to the target culture's norms. As a result, two conceptions emerge: The first is adequacy, which entails adhering to the source text's cultural standards, and the second is acceptability, which entails adhering to the target text's norms. The translation policy that was carried out prior to the translation procedure is referred to as preliminary norms. The decisions that will be made during the translation process will be governed by operational guidelines. This reflects a set of standards known as a) matricial norms, which govern the insertion of footnotes, the removal or addition of paragraphs, and so on; and b) textual linguistic norms, which govern the selection of language tools such as vocabulary, style, and so on (1995: 56-59).
		+
		+
		+
		+
		+
		+	Too often, discussions regarding translation theories focus on disparities between literary and non-literary texts, prose and poetry, or technical papers on physics and everyday business letters. However, in order to comprehend the nature of translation, the focus should be on the processes and procedures involved in any and all sorts of interlingual communication, rather than on distinct types of discourse. One reason for the wide range of translation theories and sub theories is that the process of translation can be viewed from a variety of angles: stylistics, author's intent, diversity of languages, differences of corresponding cultures, interpersonal communication issues, changes in literary fashion, different types of content (e.g. mathematical theory and lyric poetry), and the situations in which translations are to be used, such as read in public.
		+
		+	The North-American Translation Workshop;
		+
		+	Translation was just a language acquisition process until both theory and practice were separated, which began with comparative literature, 'translation workshops,' and contrastive analysis. During the 1960s, the notion of a translation workshop was widely used at American institutions. This notion was founded on the concepts of I.A. Richards, whose method, reading workshops, and practical critique, began in the 1920s and was primarily promoted in Iowa and Princeton. It was less interesting to the broader audience since it was mechanical rather than artistic. The job of "translation" has "moved on from the practical workshop to being reinterpreted," according to Belgian academic Theo Hermans (2007). (2007: 81-84). Simultaneously, the comparative literature method evolved, which entailed analyzing and comparing literature across national and cultural boundaries. This research would culminate in what is now known as cultural studies, which I will address in more detail later in this lecture and whose most prominent researchers include André Lefevere, José Lambert, Theo Hermans, Itamar Even-Zohar, Gideon Toury, and Susan Bassnett.
		+
		+	Georges Mounin's mot-a-mot Theory;
		+
		+	Other translation studies from the 1950s and 1960s include Georges Mounin's (1955) investigation of linguistic difficulties in translation. According to Mounin, there was no other study on this subject in Europe in the 1960s besides pure practice: universities such as Geneva, Paris, Naples, Heidelberg, Mainz, Leuven, and others had their own translation courses; however, their teaching methods consisted of language practice through translation rather than dealing with theory (Mounin, 1963: 26). All objections to translation, according to Mounin, may be boiled down to one: it is not the original. If we use this as a guide, we will discover that producing the ideal result is unattainable, therefore we may infer that so-called translation is impossible. Nonetheless, translation plays an important and perhaps necessary function in human culture and interaction, allowing access to a wide range of works of literature that would otherwise be unavailable. Mounin reveals a few notions about how he thinks a text should be translated; one of these concepts is mot a mot (word-for-word), which he got from 46 B.C. This meta-translation is the most accurate to the original, it respects the text, and it consists of one-by-one translations.
		+
		+	The ‘Science' of Translation: The Concept of Equivalence;
		+
		+	The generativists Noam Chomsky and Eugene Nida are the most prominent examples. The first academics to adopt the term «equivalence» were Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet3 (1958), Roman Jakobson (1959), Eugene Nida (1959), and J.C. Catford (1965). According to Hurtado (2001: 204), the concept of equivalence has sparked debate and has been studied by a number of authors, including Rudolf Walter Jumpelt, Eugene Nida, and Charles Taber, J.C. Catford, Otto Kade, Albrecht Neubert, Josef Filipec, Marianne Lederer, Danica Seleskovitch, Wolfram Wilss, J.C. Margot, and others. Mary Snell-Hornby, Basil and Ian Mason, Edwin Gentzler, Aryeh Newman, Juliane House, Katherina Reiß and Hans Vermeer, Aryeh Newman, Juliane House, Katherina Reiß and Hans Vermeer, Aryeh Newman, Juliane House, Katherina Reiß and Hans Vermeer, Aryeh Newman, Juliane Because the ideas of these researchers on the notion of equivalency are numerous and varied, I will focus on Jakobson's concept of equivalence in this section.
		+
		+	Roman Jakobson (1959), a Russian structuralist, proposed three important criteria for interpreting the idea of translation: Intralingual translation, also known as "rewording," is the process of interpreting verbal signs using other signs from the same language; interlingual translation, often known as "translation proper," is the process of interpreting linguistic signs using signs from another language. This is the true category since it involves converting a text into another language; intersemiotic translation or «transmutation»:»: a non-verbal sign system that interprets verbal signs (when a text is transformed into a non-verbal text such as music, cinema, or art) (Jakobson, 1959-1966: 233). The subject of equivalency in various languages is approached by Jakobson (1959), who emphasizes the fact that there is no complete equivalent between words in languages: «Likewise, on the level of interlingual translation, there is typically no entire equivalence between code-units» (1959: 233). This scholar used the idea of cheese in English as an example, which he claims differs from the concept of cheese in his mother tongue, syr. His argument is based on the assumption that syr in Russian does not involve cottage cheese action, which would be tvarok in this language. «Equivalence indifference is the cardinal problem of language and the central preoccupation of linguistics,» according to this professor (Jakobson, 1959: 233). Newmark (1988a: 39) disagrees with Jakobson in this regard, believing that "all translations are implicitly founded on a theory of language."
		+
		+	Early Translation Studies: James Holmes;
		+
		+	Translation studies began in an attempt to learn more about translation techniques rather than a theory of translation, with James Holmes and André Lefevere as the most notable forerunners. The study of translation as an academic subject began around sixty years ago, when James Holmes thought it was important to study it as a discipline in and of itself, based on Russian structuralism; the name given to Holmes's discipline was translation studies, or traductologa and traductologie in Spanish and French, respectively. However, of all the terms written in English, 'translation studies' appears to be the most appropriate, and its acceptance as the official title for the subject as a whole would clear up a lot of ambiguity and misunderstanding (Holmes, 1975-1994:70).
		+	The primary goal of translation has shifted from being a language acquisition process to an area of academic study.
		+
		+	In his paper 'The Term and Nature of Translation Studies' (Holmes, 1975-1994), Holmes granted it the status of a science and proposed the name Translation Studies (henceforth TS) to denote any research focused on the study of translation, highlighting the empirical nature of the subject. Then he separated TS into three categories: descriptive, theoretical, and applied (Holmes, 1975-1994: 71, 73, 77). According to Holmes, descriptive and theoretical studies have two main goals: «to describe the phenomena of translating and translation(s) as they manifest themselves in the work of experience» (Descriptive Translation Studies, henceforth DTS) and «to establish general principles by which these phenomena can be explained and predicted» (Translation Theory, henceforth TTh) (Holmes, 1975-1994:71). The descriptive subtype would concentrate on the analysis of existing goods (textual study) and the outcome of a specific translation (process study) that serves a specific purpose in the target culture (context study). The second subcategory, translation theory, would seek to define the broad characteristics and models that may be used to explain and predict translations. The primary distinction between the two is that DTS aims to describe translation phenomena, whereas theoretical translation studies seek to create general principles that may be used to forecast and explain such occurrences in an abstract fashion. Finally, the applied translation subcategory will concentrate on educational, scientific, and historical objectives. The discipline's consolidation is more apparent now, thirty years later, because translation studies have their own methodology. "Other communication routes, cutting beyond conventional disciplines to reach all researchers working in the topic, from whatever background," Holmes says (1975-1994: 68).
		+
		+	The following diagram depicts Holmes' perspective on TS: descriptive and theoretical translation studies, which he defined as 'pure,' and practical translation studies, which he referred to as «of use rather than of light,» in Bacon's words. (1975-1994: 77) (missing diagram) In terms of practical translation studies, Holmes divides them into three subcategories: Translation aids –which includes lexicographical and terminological aids as well as grammar–; translation policy –the scholar's goal is to «render informed advice to others in defining the place and role of translators, translating, and translations in society at large»–; and translation criticism –Holmes claims that there was a low level of criticism. (1975-1994:77-78) As a result, according to Holmes, these three subcategories or sub-branches cannot be separated from one another since they complement one another. As a result, TS went from being a little-known field of study involving the mechanical practice of moving people from one place to another to becoming a well-known and active science.
		+
		+	The Polysystem Theory;
		+
		+	Even-Zohar explored the concepts provided in earlier years and applied them to research on comparative literature in the 1970s with the support of a colleague from the Tel-Aviv school, Gideon Toury, culminating in the polysystem theory. The idea of system, which was viewed as a structure with distinct levels whose connected parts interacted with one another, was the theory's primary contribution. According to Even-Zohar (1978), "the concept of the literary polysystem need not occupy us for long." This notion was initially proposed in 1970 as a means of overcoming challenges arising from the old aesthetic approach's fallacies, which forbade any preoccupation with works deemed to be of no artistic worth (1978: 22). Even Zohar claims in his work «Polysystem Theory» (1979) that the word «polysystem» is more than just a phrase, and that he wants to illustrate that the idea of system is dynamic and diverse, as opposed to synchronic. Polysystem theory, he says, is essentially a continuation of dynamic functionalism. Its idea of an open, dynamic, and diverse system may be more suited to encouraging the creation of favorable conditions for relational thinking's discovery capacity. (Even-Zohar, 2005a: 35)
		+
		+	The literary polysystem is linked to other systems that are part of each society's socioeconomic and ideological frameworks. Thus, not only does the textual output significant in literary analysis, but also its historical acceptability and interaction with other literature. Culture is seen as the organizing axis of social existence, a system of systems, according to them. The relationship between the discipline of TS and the polysystem theory, according to Gentzler (1993: 107), is due to a connection "between what was being indicated in the Netherlands and what was being postulated in Israel." The Israeli scholars, according to Gentzler, encapsulate conceptions of "translation equivalence and literary purpose into a broad framework" (ibidem). Transfer, interference, and canonized vs. non-canonized are the most essential principles in this school. The degree of instability between the systems is determined by transfer.
		+	These can take on a central or peripheral role; interference refers to the transfer of cultural materials between systems; and, lastly, canonized vs. non-canonized determines the status of original texts, permissible customs, and so on.
		+
		+	The Concept of Norm;
		+
		+	Gideon Toury first proposed this concept at the end of the 1970s, with the goal of establishing a set of rules he called norms, which he defines as the translation of general values or ideas shared by a community about what is right and wrong, adequate and inadequate into performance instructions appropriate for and applicable to specific situations, specifying what is prescribed and forbidden, as well as what is tolerated and permitted in a particular behavior. (Toury 1955, p. 55) Toury uses this idea as the foundation for his translation analysis, which sees translation as the result of cultural transference. He emphasizes the importance of descriptive data as the foundation of the theory, offers the idea of the norm, and categorizes it. Initial norms allude to the translator's fundamental decision: whether or not to submit to the target culture's norms.
		+
		+	As a result, two conceptions emerge: The first is adequacy, which entails adhering to the source text's cultural standards, and the second is acceptability, which entails adhering to the target text's norms. The translation policy that was carried out prior to the translation procedure is referred to as preliminary norms. The decisions that will be made during the translation process will be governed by operational guidelines. This reflects a set of standards known as a) matricial norms, which govern the insertion of footnotes, the removal or addition of paragraphs, and so on; and b) textual linguistic norms, which govern the selection of language tools such as vocabulary, style, and so on (1995: 56-59). --[[User:Benjamin Wellsand\|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand\|talk]]) 12:46, 15 December 2021 (UTC)

	==Conclusion==		==Conclusion==

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 Contemporary translators, like their forefathers, contribute to the richness of languages. When a target language lacks terminology found in a source language, those terms are borrowed, enhancing the target language.
-Translation Studies has evolved into an academic inter-discipline that encompasses a wide range of disciplines (comparative literature, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, terminology, computational linguistics). In order to be properly taught, students must pick a specialization (legal, economic, technical, scientific, or literary translation).
+Translation Studies has evolved into an academic inter-discipline that encompasses a wide range of disciplines (comparative literature, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, terminology, computational linguistics). In order to be properly taught, students must pick a specialization (legal, economic, technical, scientific, or literary translation). The internet has helped to create a global market for translation and localization services as well as translation software. It has also brought with it a slew of problems, including unstable work and reduced pay for professional translators, as well as the emergence of unpaid volunteer translation, including crowdsourcing translation. To be an effective translator, bilingual persons require more than just two languages. Being a translator is a vocation that necessitates a deep understanding of the subject matter.
-The internet has helped to create a global market for translation and localization services as well as translation software. It has also brought with it a slew of problems, including unstable work and reduced pay for professional translators, as well as the emergence of unpaid volunteer translation, including crowdsourcing translation. To be an effective translator, bilingual persons require more than just two languages. Being a translator is a vocation that necessitates a deep understanding of the subject matter.
+Many translators have become invisible in the twenty-first century, after being highly regarded alongside literary, academic, and scientific authors for two millennia, and their names are often forgotten on the articles, books, websites, and other content they spent days, weeks, or months translating. Despite the prevalence of CAT (computer-assisted translation) and MT (machine translation) tools designed to speed up the translation process, some translators still want to be compared to artists. This is not only because of their precarious lifestyle, but also because of the craft, knowledge, dedication, and passion they put into their work.--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand|talk]]) 12:34, 15 December 2021 (UTC)
 ==Theories of Translation studies==

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	The slow‐rolling night must have a shore somewhere.		The slow‐rolling night must have a shore somewhere.
		+
		+
		+	To convert or turn from one set of patterns to someone else is to transfer or turn by one set of symbols to another; is translation. But what is the history of translation? Despite the fact that researchers and scholars have long contested the history of translation, it is unanimously acknowledged that translation predates the Bible. Translation has been evolving since the dawn of human contact, and it is now more than ever permitting cross-cultural connections, trade, economic globalization, and knowledge sharing through time. The globe has become more of a melting pot because of translation. As a result, translation becomes a more important function, covering many philosophies, mediums, and cultures.
		+	James S. Holmes, an American-Dutch poet and poetry translator, invented the term "Translation Studies" in his foundational work "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies" (1972).
		+
		+	Holmes translated several works by Dutch and Belgian poets into English while producing his own poetry. The method of transforming the language that is recorded being spoken in another language is known as translation. In a broad sense, translation can be described as a word, phrase, or sentence in another language that has the same meaning as the original. Translation is one of the many branches of learning, and it has evolved into a significant field that comprises a distinct body of knowledge that is widely used in a variety of human activities. Translation is not so simple as translation of a single word from one language into another. Rather, translation includes the difference theory, applications, and different translation. Translation studies are the linguistics discipline that deals with the theory, description, and application of translation.
		+
		+	A mental process in which the meaning of a particular linguistic conversation is transferred from one language to another is known as translation. It is the process of converting linguistic entities from one language to their equivalents in
		+	One another. Translation is both a method and a finished thing. Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community. (Wikipedia) We can simply state that in translation a text or word is translated from one location to another. As I mentioned in the above paragraph and the area of translation studies draws together research from linguistics, literary studies, history, anthropology, psychology, and economics. Of course, translation is a rewrite of an original text whatever their goal, all rewritings reflect a certain ideology and poetics, and as a result, modify literature to work in a specific way. English is the most widely spoken language on the planet. As a result, one may doubt the value of translation and wonder here we have a raised question regarding the English language; the question is why everyone doesn't just speak English? However, the truth is that not everyone can speak English, and even fewer can speak it well enough to converse successfully, and perhaps more crucially, language is much more than just the exchange of words. It's also a reflection of one's culture, society, and faith. As a result, promoting a global language will almost certainly result in the loss of culture and legacy transmitted through national languages. The transmission of information, knowledge, and ideas necessitates the use of translation. It's a must for effective and sympathetic cross-cultural communication. Therefore, translation is essential for societal peace and harmony.
		+
		+	Translation is also the one and only way for people to learn about new works that will widen their horizons. For example: Throughout the Middle Ages, Arabic interpreters were able to care for the concepts of ancient Greek thinkers alive. The bible has been translated into at least 531 languages. English speakers may learn from some of the world's top educators through TED Sessions (Technology, Entertainment, design) open translation programs, which allow people all across the world to comprehend their talks. Sports teams and organizations use translation to overcome linguistic barriers and cross international borders. However same is the case I have some examples which are translated from one language to another language.
		+
		+	Research has been done to determine which strategy translators have used while translating poems. Some lines are taken from the poem in both languages--source and target. Take Li Po’s Chinese poem translation in English as an example. We have to examine the poem through the filter of translation because it's a translation of Chinese poetry. One of the key concerns of English Translation Studies is to ensure that English speakers' translations are real and truthful to the native Chinese.
		+
		+	玉阶怨
		+
		+	玉阶生白露,
		+
		+	夜久侵罗袜。
		+
		+	却下水晶帘，
		+
		+	玲珑望秋月。
		+
		+	The Jewel Stairs' Grievance
		+
		+	The jeweled steps are already quite white with dew,
		+
		+	It is so late that the dew soaks my gauze stocking,
		+
		+	And I let down the crystal curtain
		+
		+	And watch the moon through the clear autumn.
		+
		+	Another example is found in Faiz Ahmed Faiz’s poem “Subh‐e Azadi” English translation. Faiz Ahmed Faiz is largely recognised as the finest Urdu poet of the 20th century and an era's defining voice. He is well known for his groundbreaking poetry, which condemned injustice and demanded justice. He conveyed the agony and sadness of Partition, as well as the price the Indian subcontinent sacrificed for independence from British domination, in his poetry Subh-e-Azadi.
		+
		+	Yeh daagh daagh ujaalaa, yeh shab gazidaa seher
		+
		+	Woh intezaar tha jiska, yeh woh seher to nahin
		+
		+	Yeh woh seher to nahin, jis ki aarzoo lekar
		+
		+	Chale the yaar ki mil jaayegi kahin na kahin
		+
		+	Falak ke dasht mein taaron ki aakhri manzil
		+
		+	Kahin to hogaa shab-e-sust mauj ka saahil
		+
		+	Kahin to jaa ke rukegaa safinaa-e-gham-e-dil
		+
		+	The Dawn of Freedom, August 1947 Translated into English by Baran Farooqui
		+
		+	This light, smeared and spotted, this night‐bitten dawn
		+
		+	This isn't surely the dawn we waited for so eagerly
		+
		+	This isn't surely the dawn with whose desire cradled in our hearts
		+
		+	We had set out, friends all, hoping
		+
		+	We should somewhere find the final destination
		+
		+	Of the stars in the forests of heaven
		+
		+	The slow‐rolling night must have a shore somewhere--[[User:Benjamin Wellsand\|Benjamin Wellsand]] ([[User talk:Benjamin Wellsand\|talk]]) 12:17, 15 December 2021 (UTC)

	==History of Translation==		==History of Translation==

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 ==Abstract==
 Humans live in a diverse environment, and communication is at the centre of human community, with language serving as the means of communication. In a society characterized by globalization and global connectivity, there is a strong desire for individuals of many cultures and languages to understand one another. Translation fulfills this need in the scarcity of a shared global language for everybody. When it comes to communicating ideas and knowledge between languages, translation is essential. This study seeks to provide a broad historical overview of translation studies and common techniques in the west from ancient times to the present, in the form of a temporal survey that includes significant theoretical advancements, with an emphasis on approaches established during the modern period.
 ==Keywords==

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 To conclude it can be said that the human society revolves around language, which serves as a medium of communication. From ancient times to the present, translation contains key theoretical advances, with a focus on techniques developed throughout the contemporary era. Translation is the process of changing or converting from one set of patterns to another. The history of translation has been evolving since the birth of human interaction, and it now enables for cross-cultural contacts, trade, economic globalization, and information exchange across time more than ever before.
 ==References==
 CATFORD, J.C. (1965): A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in
 Applied Linguistics, Oxford University Press, London.

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 =Chapter 18： History of Translation=
 '''翻译史'''
 Jawad Ahmad, Hunan Normal University, China
 [[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

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	Jawad Ahmad, Hunan Normal University, China		Jawad Ahmad, Hunan Normal University, China
		+	[[Hist_Trans_EN_18]]

	==Abstract==		==Abstract==