Hist Trans Theo EN 11 - Revision history

Liu Yunxin: /* St. Augustine */

2021-12-30T02:17:41Z

St. Augustine

Liu Yunxin: /* St. Jerome */

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St. Jerome

Liu Yunxin: /* St. Augustine */

2021-12-30T01:42:40Z

St. Augustine

Liu Yunxin: /* St. Augustine */

2021-12-30T01:42:05Z

St. Augustine

Liu Yunxin: /* A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories in Ancient Rome */

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A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories in Ancient Rome

Liu Yunxin: /* History of Translation Theories in Ancient Rome */

2021-12-30T01:31:08Z

History of Translation Theories in Ancient Rome

Liu Yunxin: /* Translation theories(Theories, corrected by--Wei Zhaoyan (talk) 09:42, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) */

2021-12-16T06:33:41Z

Translation theories(Theories, corrected by--Wei Zhaoyan (talk) 09:42, 10 December 2021 (UTC))

Liu Yunxin: /* Cultural and Historical Background */

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Cultural and Historical Background

Liu Yunxin: /* Introduction */

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Introduction

Liu Yunxin: /* History of Translation Theories in Ancient Rome */

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History of Translation Theories in Ancient Rome

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 =====St. Augustine=====
-Augustine (Aurelius Augustinues, 354-430) is one of the pivotal thinkers in the Western world. His writings influenced the development of Western philosophy and Christianity, and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers of the Latin Church in the Patristic Period. His many important works include ''The City of God'' (''De Civitate Dei''), ''On Christian Doctrine'' (''De Doctrina Christiana''), and ''Confessions'' (''Confessiones''). Among them, ''On Christian Doctrine'' mainly discuss language from the perspective of theology. This book involves the general topic of language and translation and thus can be regarded as important work of linguistic of antiquity and translation theory. Augustine’s role in the histoy of translation theory cannot be overestimated. His emphasis on the relationship between significatio, sonus and the judgment of the translator during translation contribute to the development of translation theory. (Tan 2004; 28)
+Augustine (Aurelius Augustinues, 354-430) is one of the pivotal thinkers in the Western world. His writings influenced the development of Western philosophy and Christianity, and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers of the Latin Church in the Patristic Period. His many important works include ''The City of God'' (''De Civitate Dei''), ''On Christian Doctrine'' (''De Doctrina Christiana''), and ''Confessions'' (''Confessiones''). Among them, ''On Christian Doctrine'' mainly discuss language from the perspective of theology. This book involves the general topic of language and translation and thus can be regarded as important work of linguistic of antiquity and translation theory. Augustine’s role in the history of translation theory cannot be overestimated. His emphasis on the relationship between significatio, sonus and the judgment of the translator during translation contribute to the development of translation theory. (Tan 2004; 28)
 Augustine makes a distinction between significatio and sonus. According to his definition, significatio refers to things existing in the actual world. Sonus refers to things which cause us to think of something beyond the impression things themselves make upon the senses. Verbal signs can be regarded as sonus. Sonus are only an expression of something else and were objects of the senses. The genuine object of true knowledge is the reality that lies behind the sign. A word usually contains both significatio and sonus. The relationship between the signification and sonus is arbitrary and is decided by the customs of the language community. As a result, one signification might have multiple sonus. Guided by this theory on language, Augustine proposes that during translation it is the translator's task to achieve the equivalence between the signification instead of the sonus. (Tan 2004; 28) (Robinson 1997; 31)

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 =====St. Jerome=====
-Jerome was a priest, confessor, theologian, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. He was regarded throughout the Middle Ages and well into the modern era as the “official” translator of the Bible, the author of the Vulgate Latin translation that in matters of doctrinal dispute took precedence over all Hebrew and Greek texts until the sixteenth century and beyond. Among the translators in antiquity, St. Jerome proposed the most systematic and precise translation method. He also put forward feasible translation principles and defend it. Those principles and methods are scattered in his works such as ''Letter to Pammachius'' (''Ad Pammachium''), ''Preface to the Pentateuch'' (''Praefatio in Pentateuchem'') and ''Letter to Sunniam and Fretellam'' (A''d Sunniam et Fretellam''). Jerome’s contribution to the development of translation theory mainly lies in two ideas. First, he made a distinction between literary translation and religious translation and proposed that the choosing of the translation method should base on the text type of the sourcetext. Second, Jerome believes that translator should serve as a conqueror to conquer and then enslave the source text and absorb it into the target language. (Robinson 1997; 23) (Tan 2004; 25)
+Jerome was a priest, confessor, theologian, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. He was regarded throughout the Middle Ages and well into the modern era as the “official” translator of the Bible, the author of the Vulgate Latin translation that in matters of doctrinal dispute took precedence over all Hebrew and Greek texts until the sixteenth century and beyond. Among the translators in antiquity, St. Jerome proposed the most systematic and precise translation method. He also put forward feasible translation principles and defend it. Those principles and methods are scattered in his works such as ''Letter to Pammachius'' (''Ad Pammachium''), ''Preface to the Pentateuch'' (''Praefatio in Pentateuchem'') and ''Letter to Sunniam and Fretellam'' (A''d Sunniam et Fretellam''). Jerome’s contribution to the development of translation theory mainly lies in two ideas. First, he made a distinction between literary translation and religious translation and proposed that the choosing of the translation method should base on the text type of the source text. Second, Jerome believes that translator should serve as a conqueror to conquer and then enslave the source text and absorb it into the target language. (Robinson 1997; 23) (Tan 2004; 25)
-Jerome sees the difficulty in literary translation as “it is hard to preserve the beauty of idiom which in the original is most distinguished”.And the transpositions of words, the dissimilarities in the word usage, the varieties in figures of speech and the peculiar vernacular essence of the language all added to the difficulty of literary translation. In his early stage, Jerome struggles to find a solution as “if one translates each and every word literally, the passage will sound absurd; and if by necessity I change anything in the order and wording, it will seem that I have abused the function of translator.” However, in Letter to Pammachius, Jerome restated that when translating literary works, translator should adopt sense for sense translation to translate the substance not the literal words. “Now I freely announce that in translating from the Greek—except of course in the case of Holly scripture, where even the syntax contains a mystery—I render, not word for word, but sense for sense.”However, when it comes to translating the Bible, Jerome renders rigid word for word translation for “even the syntax contains a mystery.” Susan Bassnett came up with a Jerome model with the sacred text, the Bible in the center. The translation of Bible should be given utmost fidelity, in which one word would match another, which means the translated word would be written under the word it was supposed to translate. "Even if the interlinear ideal could not be maintained, and the text produced is so syntactically skewed as to become unintelligible, such word for word translation remains ideal." (Robinson 1997; 25-26) (Bassnett 1998; 2)
+Jerome sees the difficulty in literary translation as “it is hard to preserve the beauty of idiom which in the original is most distinguished”.And the transpositions of words, the dissimilarities in the word usage, the varieties in figures of speech and the peculiar vernacular essence of the language all added to the difficulty of literary translation. In his early stage, Jerome struggles to find a solution as “if one translates each and every word literally, the passage will sound absurd; and if by necessity I change anything in the order and wording, it will seem that I have abused the function of translator.” However, in ''Letter to Pammachius'', Jerome restated that when translating literary works, translator should adopt sense for sense translation to translate the substance not the literal words. “Now I freely announce that in translating from the Greek—except of course in the case of Holly scripture, where even the syntax contains a mystery—I render, not word for word, but sense for sense.”However, when it comes to translating the Bible, Jerome renders rigid word for word translation for “even the syntax contains a mystery.” Susan Bassnett came up with a Jerome model with the sacred text, the Bible in the center. The translation of Bible should be given utmost fidelity, in which one word would match another, which means the translated word would be written under the word it was supposed to translate. "Even if the interlinear ideal could not be maintained, and the text produced is so syntactically skewed as to become unintelligible, such word for word translation remains ideal." (Robinson 1997; 25-26) (Bassnett 1998; 2)
 Another important view of Jerome is his translation as conquest. Jerome illustrates his idea by taking Hilary the Confessor for example. “When he turned some homilies on Job and several Psalms from Greek into Latin, he did not bind himself to the drowsiness of literal translation, or allow himself to be chained to the literalism of an n adequate culture, but, like some conqueror, he marched the original text, a captive, into his native language.” The attitude towards the source text evolved from competing with it in the time of Cicero to conquer the original text. Such transformation is resulted from the change of the national power of Rome. During Jerome’s age, Rome become the dominant power in the western world. We can see how power and translation is related. (Robinson 1997; 25-26)

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 For it is the translator's task to achieve the equivalence, Augustine believes that there are several conditions that a translator needs to meet. First, a translator must be proficient in the two languages he is going to translate between. Augustine claims that the difficulty and ambiguity of Bible translation is mainly caused by the unfamiliar word and polyseme in Bible which make the proficiency in two languages essential. Second, a translator must be familiar and can empathize with the subject of the source text due to the sanctity of the translated text. The translator needs to be familiar and can resonate to the Bile in order to understand and translate in the correct way. Third, a translator must have the ability of collating. Since the there exists great amount of translated versions of the Bile, the translator need to make comparison between those versions and produce the his own version. (Tan 2004; 28)
-Augustine's definition of significatio and sonus inspired linguistics in the 20th century. And how the significatio and sonus they are connected to translation brought the translation theory into a new direction. The requirment for translator to meet also served as a instruction for translators of his age.
+Augustine's definition of significatio and sonus inspired linguistics in the 20th century. And how the significatio and sonus they are connected to translation brought the translation theory into a new direction. The requirment for translator to meet also served as an instruction for translators of his age.
 ===Conclusion===

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 For it is the translator's task to achieve the equivalence, Augustine believes that there are several conditions that a translator needs to meet. First, a translator must be proficient in the two languages he is going to translate between. Augustine claims that the difficulty and ambiguity of Bible translation is mainly caused by the unfamiliar word and polyseme in Bible which make the proficiency in two languages essential. Second, a translator must be familiar and can empathize with the subject of the source text due to the sanctity of the translated text. The translator needs to be familiar and can resonate to the Bile in order to understand and translate in the correct way. Third, a translator must have the ability of collating. Since the there exists great amount of translated versions of the Bile, the translator need to make comparison between those versions and produce the his own version. (Tan 2004; 28)
-Augustine's definition of significatio and sonus inspired linguistics in the 20th century. And how the significatio and sonus they are connectted to translation brought the translation theory into a new direction. The reqirement for translator to meet also served as a instruction for translators of his age.
+Augustine's definition of significatio and sonus inspired linguistics in the 20th century. And how the significatio and sonus they are connected to translation brought the translation theory into a new direction. The requirment for translator to meet also served as a instruction for translators of his age.
 ===Conclusion===

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 ===Keywords===
-Ancient Rome; Translation theory; literary(Literary, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:16, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) translation; Bible translation
+Ancient Rome; translation theory; literary translation; Bible translation
 ===摘要===

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 [[Book_projects|Back to translation project overview]] [[DCG-To-Do|Zur To-Do-Liste]]
-=History of Translation Theories in Ancient Rome=
+=A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories in Ancient Rome=
 Liu Yunxin,刘运心, Hunan Normal University, China

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 Under the influence of the Greek tradition, Roman religion was polytheistic and regional. Each city had its own collection of gods and goddesses that had been Romanized from ancient Greek gods and goddesses. Until the 1st century, Christianity spread throughout the Roman empire posing great threat to the imperial cult of ancient Rome. For Roman, Caesar is the highest power.Only one divinity could be accepted by Christians, and it wasn't Caesar.In order to consolidate the power of the government, persecutions of Christian occurred. “There was a general enactment, precisely formulated and valid for the whole empire, which forbade the practice of the Christian religion. The origin of this is most commonly attributed to Nero, but sometimes to Domitian". Until the year of 312, the issue of the ''Edict of Milan'' by Constantine the Great, Christianity was officially accepted in Roman Empire. After the ''Edict of Milan'', the Government of Roman Empire attached great importance to Christianity which gave rise to Bible translation. According to Tan, owing to the prosperous religious translation, it is around this period that the western translation practices reached its climax.(Whitby 2006; 23), (Sherwin-White 1952; 200). (Tan, 2004; 24)
-===Translation theories(Theories, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2021 (UTC))===
+===Translation theories===
 Ancient Rome has played an important part in the history of both translation practice and translation theory. Ancient Rome witnessed two major waves of translation, namely the wave of literary translation of Greek classics and the wave of Bible translation. The prosperous translation activities gave rise to the development of translation theories. Corresponding to the two translation waves, translation theories can thus be classified into the translation theories of literal translation and the translation theories of Bible translation.
 ====Literary Translation====
-The Roman exaltation of Greek literature has been interpreted as a (add "a", corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) proof of their lack of originality. Roman literature was thus already “secondary” and “imitative”. However, the conclusion in such a generation is incorrect. Romans believed that modification, deletion and addition are acceptable and even preferred when translating. The main purpose of translating is neither to interpret nor imitate but to compete with the source text. In other words, translation should not center on or speak for the source text. Translation should be creative(creative, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) and go beyond the original text. Translators believed that the knowledge of Roman can be displayed by translation by doing this. Even the first known translation in Rome, Livius Andronicus' ''Odussia'', translation of ''Odyssey''(''Odyssey'', corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) reduced the original's volumes from twenty-four to one. Terence, a comedic playwright who is sometimes considered to be a more faithful translator than Plautus, blended two Greek plays to create a single Roman one. Germanicus Caesar made a free translation of Aratus' ''Phaenomena''(''Phaenomena'', corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:42, 10 December 2021 (UTC)), a Greek treatise on the stars, and also added an entirely new part. The basic principle of translating to improve their native language and literature places a greater emphasis on the target language product rather than more rigid notions of fidelity. This attitude towards the relationship between the source text and the target text is the main focus of the translation theorists at that time. The theorists also explored the translation methods and made distinction between word for word translation and sense for sense translation (a term which was later proposed by St. Jerome). (Tan, 2004; 19) (McElduff 2013, 10) (Bassnett 2002; 51)
+The Roman exaltation of Greek literature has been interpreted as a proof of their lack of originality. Roman literature was thus already “secondary” and “imitative”. However, the conclusion in such a generation is incorrect. Romans believed that modification, deletion and addition are acceptable and even preferred when translating. The main purpose of translating is neither to interpret nor imitate but to compete with the source text. In other words, translation should not center on or speak for the source text. Translation should be creative and go beyond the original text. Translators believed that the knowledge of Roman can be displayed by translation by doing this. Even the first known translation in Rome, Livius Andronicus' ''Odussia'', translation of ''Odyssey'' reduced the original's volumes from twenty-four to one. Terence, a comedic playwright who is sometimes considered to be a more faithful translator than Plautus, blended two Greek plays to create a single Roman one. Germanicus Caesar made a free translation of Aratus' ''Phaenomena'', a Greek treatise on the stars, and also added an entirely new part. The basic principle of translating to improve their native language and literature places a greater emphasis on the target language product rather than more rigid notions of fidelity. This attitude towards the relationship between the source text and the target text is the main focus of the translation theorists at that time. The theorists also explored the translation methods and made distinction between word for word translation and sense for sense translation (a term which was later proposed by St. Jerome). (Tan, 2004; 19) (McElduff 2013, 10) (Bassnett 2002; 51)
 Two of the most important translation theorists are Marcus Tullius Cicero and Quintus Horatius Flaccus. The fact is that none the two takes up their career as a translator but rather regarding translation as a way to express their own ideas. And no treatise purely on translation has been produced, but rather their thoughts on translation are scattered in other works.

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 ===Cultural and Historical Background===
-In the(In the, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:30, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) 5th century BC, the Roman Republic was established. As a result of great growth in productivity and the need for better development, the Roman Republic began to expand outward. After many wars, Rome conquered much of the Mediterranean and the Balkans areas and thus established its political, economic, and military dominance therein. The definitive Roman occupation of the Greek world(delete "world", corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:30, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) was established after the Battle of Actium (31 BC), and afterwards conquered Alexandria (30 BC), the last great city of Hellenistic Greece. The Roman era of Greek history continued with Emperor Constantine the Great's adoption of Byzantium as Nova Roma, the capital city of the Roman Empire.
+In the 5th century BC, the Roman Republic was established. As a result of great growth in productivity and the need for better development, the Roman Republic began to expand outward. After many wars, Rome conquered much of the Mediterranean and the Balkans areas and thus established its political, economic, and military dominance therein. The definitive Roman occupation of the Greek world was established after the Battle of Actium (31 BC), and afterwards conquered Alexandria (30 BC), the last great city of Hellenistic Greece. The Roman era of Greek history continued with Emperor Constantine the Great's adoption of Byzantium as Nova Roma, the capital city of the Roman Empire.
-From 1400 BC to 1200 BC, Greek culture had reached its peak especially in literature, philosophy, architecture, aesthetics, science and art. By the 4th century BC, Greece was still the center of culture and philosophy. Although after the conquest on Greece, Rome served as the political center of Mediterranean area, the splendid heritage of Greek culture outshone those of Rome. Since the 3rd century BC, namely the heyday of the republic, the Romans began to absorb nutrition from the Greek culture through translating and imitating Greek classics. The fact that Greek Roman translation scripts spread over so many genres including speech, letters, lyric and epic poetry, etc.(change ")" to "This", corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:30, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) demonstrates(demonstrated, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:30, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) how important the translation of Greek works was to Roman culture. Scholars have acknowledged that Roman literature originated in the appropriation and translation of Greek texts. Livius Andronicus (280 BC-205 BC) was the pionner of Roman epic and drama and also the first translator in Ancient Rome. Around the year of 250 BC, he translated Homer’s ''Odyssey''(''Odyssey'', corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:30, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) into Latin, which became the first Latin poem and the first literary work translated into Latin. During the same year, Andronicus translated two Greek dramas(dramas, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:30, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) into Latin and put them on stage. This marked the born of stage performing art in Ancient Rome. After Andronicus, two of the most famous translators, dramatists and poets are Gnaeus Naevius (270 BC-201 BC) and Quintus Ennius (239 BC-169 BC). They made great contribution to the development of Roman literature through their translation of Greek classics. (Tan 2004; 16-17)
+From 1400 BC to 1200 BC, Greek culture had reached its peak especially in literature, philosophy, architecture, aesthetics, science and art. By the 4th century BC, Greece was still the center of culture and philosophy. Although after the conquest on Greece, Rome served as the political center of Mediterranean area, the splendid heritage of Greek culture outshone those of Rome. Since the 3rd century BC, namely the heyday of the republic, the Romans began to absorb nutrition from the Greek culture through translating and imitating Greek classics. The fact that Greek Roman translation scripts spread over so many genres including speech, letters, lyric and epic poetry, etc. demonstrates how important the translation of Greek works was to Roman culture. Scholars have acknowledged that Roman literature originated in the appropriation and translation of Greek texts. Livius Andronicus (280 BC-205 BC) was the pionner of Roman epic and drama and also the first translator in Ancient Rome. Around the year of 250 BC, he translated Homer’s ''Odyssey'' into Latin, which became the first Latin poem and the first literary work translated into Latin. During the same year, Andronicus translated two Greek dramas into Latin and put them on stage. This marked the born of stage performing art in Ancient Rome. After Andronicus, two of the most famous translators, dramatists and poets are Gnaeus Naevius (270 BC-201 BC) and Quintus Ennius (239 BC-169 BC). They made great contribution to the development of Roman literature through their translation of Greek classics. (Tan 2004; 16-17)
 Under the influence of the Greek tradition, Roman religion was polytheistic and regional. Each city had its own collection of gods and goddesses that had been Romanized from ancient Greek gods and goddesses. Until the 1st century, Christianity spread throughout the Roman empire posing great threat to the imperial cult of ancient Rome. For Roman, Caesar is the highest power.Only one divinity could be accepted by Christians, and it wasn't Caesar.In order to consolidate the power of the government, persecutions of Christian occurred. “There was a general enactment, precisely formulated and valid for the whole empire, which forbade the practice of the Christian religion. The origin of this is most commonly attributed to Nero, but sometimes to Domitian". Until the year of 312, the issue of the ''Edict of Milan'' by Constantine the Great, Christianity was officially accepted in Roman Empire. After the ''Edict of Milan'', the Government of Roman Empire attached great importance to Christianity which gave rise to Bible translation. According to Tan, owing to the prosperous religious translation, it is around this period that the western translation practices reached its climax.(Whitby 2006; 23), (Sherwin-White 1952; 200). (Tan, 2004; 24)

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 ===Introduction===
-George Steiner, in ''After Babel''(''After Babel'', corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)), divides the history of translation practices and theories into four periods. The first started from the statements of Cicero and Horace on translation up to the publication of Alexander Fraser Tytler’s Essay on the Principles of Translation(''Essay on the Principles of Translation'', corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) in 1791. The translation activities of this period can be further divided into three stages: the translation of ancient Greek classics into Roman; translation of the Bible(''Bible'', corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) in the Middle Ages and inter-translation of Arabic and Greco-Roman works; translation of the Bible(''Bible'', corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:20, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) and translation of secular literature into national languages. Those translation activities correspond with the philosophical trends that successively emerged in the timeline, including the natural culture of ancient Greece and Rome, medieval Christian culture, humanism of Renaissance and the Enlightenment. (Meng 2005; 9)
+George Steiner, in ''After Babel'', divides the history of translation practices and theories into four periods. The first started from the statements of Cicero and Horace on translation up to the publication of Alexander Fraser Tytler’s Essay on the Principles of Translation in 1791. The translation activities of this period can be further divided into three stages: the translation of ancient Greek classics into Roman; translation of the Bible in the Middle Ages and inter-translation of Arabic and Greco-Roman works; translation of the Bible and translation of secular literature into national languages. Those translation activities correspond with the philosophical trends that successively emerged in the timeline, including the natural culture of ancient Greece and Rome, medieval Christian culture, humanism of Renaissance and the Enlightenment. (Meng 2005; 9)
-The translation theories produced in the first stage are called classical theories of translation which are closely related to the translation practices of translating Greek classics into Roman. From Steiner’s point of view, the translation in Ancient Rome marked the beginning of translation practices and(change "and" into ",", corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) theories and exerted considerable impact on the successive generations of translators. Steiner was not the only one who recognized the important role that translation in Ancient Rome has taken in history of translation theories. Eric Jacobsen claims(claimed, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) rather that translation is(was, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) a Roman invention.
+The translation theories produced in the first stage are called classical theories of translation which are closely related to the translation practices of translating Greek classics into Roman. From Steiner’s point of view, the translation in Ancient Rome marked the beginning of translation practices and theories and exerted considerable impact on the successive generations of translators. Steiner was not the only one who recognized the important role that translation in Ancient Rome has taken in history of translation theories. Eric Jacobsen claims rather that translation is a Roman invention.
-The translation practice reached its very first climax in translation history during the end of 4th Century B.C. when the Roman Empire replaced(replaced, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) the Greece as the most powerful country economically and militarily in the Mediterranean region. However, the Greek culture with abundant legacy of predecessors still exerts great attraction to the Romans. Many roman writers flung themselves into the translation of Greek literature and inherited(inherited, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) the great heritage of Greek culture. The translation theories of this time, which all stemmed directly from practical work of translating mainly discussed(discussed, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) the standard and methods of translation in order to provide better guidance to the translation practice in return. The very first translation theory formulated by Cicero stemmed from his translation practices of Greek classics.
+The translation practice reached its very first climax in translation history during the end of 4th Century B.C. when the Roman Empire replaced the Greece as the most powerful country economically and militarily in the Mediterranean region. However, the Greek culture with abundant legacy of predecessors still exerts great attraction to the Romans. Many roman writers flung themselves into the translation of Greek literature and inherited the great heritage of Greek culture. The translation theories of this time, which all stemmed directly from practical work of translating mainly discussed the standard and methods of translation in order to provide better guidance to the translation practice in return. The very first translation theory formulated by Cicero stemmed from his translation practices of Greek classics.
-In the late period of Ancient Rome (around 3rd to 4th century A.C.), with the decline of literature creation in Rome, literary translation gradually faded away. In the aim of winning over the people and save the country from collapse, the ruling class resorted to the Christianity. Under such circumstances, religious translation especially translation of the Bible(''Bible'', corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:20, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) gained great importance during this period. This is said to be the second translation climax in western translation history. The prosperous religious translation practices gave rise to the translation theories. The most influential figure of this time is(was, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 09:12, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) St. Jerome and St.Augustine. Both as a translator and translation theorist, they proposed feasible translation principles and strategies and applied when translating. (Tan 2004; 24)
+In the late period of Ancient Rome (around 3rd to 4th century A.C.), with the decline of literature creation in Rome, literary translation gradually faded away. In the aim of winning over the people and save the country from collapse, the ruling class resorted to the Christianity. Under such circumstances, religious translation especially translation of the Bible gained great importance during this period. This is said to be the second translation climax in western translation history. The prosperous religious translation practices gave rise to the translation theories. The most influential figure of this time were St. Jerome and St.Augustine. Both as a translator and translation theorist, they proposed feasible translation principles and strategies and applied when translating. (Tan 2004; 24)
 In conclusion, the translation theories first appeared in ancient Rome all shared an empirical focus and primarily unsystematic. Those theories of early theorist exerted considerable impact on the successive generations of translators.

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 ===Abstract===
-Ancient Rome's translations represented the beginning of translation practices and theories, and had a significant effect on subsequent generations of translators. It witnessed two important waves of translation practices, the wave of literary translation and the wave of religious translation. Influenced by the prosperous translation practices, translation theories were proposed corresponding to the translation practices. Translation theories(theories, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 08:56, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) of the Ancient Rome mainly focus(focused, corrected by--[[User:Wei Zhaoyan|Wei Zhaoyan]] ([[User talk:Wei Zhaoyan|talk]]) 08:56, 10 December 2021 (UTC)) on the translation methods and strategies which are still discussed even today.
+Ancient Rome's translations represented the beginning of translation practices and theories, and had a significant effect on subsequent generations of translators. It witnessed two important waves of translation practices, the wave of literary translation and the wave of religious translation. Influenced by the prosperous translation practices, translation theories were proposed corresponding to the translation practices. Translation theories of the Ancient Rome mainly focused on the translation methods and strategies which are still discussed even today.
 ===Keywords===