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Revisiting Newmark's Theory of Translation: To What Extent Is It Appropriate?

Asep Budiman, Student no. 202111080020

Abstract

One of the main problems of translating has often been whether to translate literally or freely. This dispute has been going on since at least the first century BC. Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, many writers favored some kind of "free" translation: the spirit, not the letter; the sense not the words; the message rather than the form; the matter not the manner. This was the revolutionary slogan of writers who wanted the truth to be read and comprehended. At the twentieth century, when the study of cultural anthropology suggested that the linguistic barriers were insuperable and that language was entirely the product of culture, the translation must be as literal as possible. This resulted in confusion among translators when translating a text, not until they were illuminated by Peter Newmark’s Approaches to Translation. Newmark's idea has been widely used on translator training courses and combine a wealth of practical examples of linguistic theories of meaning with practical applications for translation. However, in this twenty-first century where translation becomes more complex (e.g. political agenda), Newmark's theory seems to have deficiency as it does not pay attention to the role of the translators. Therefore, the translation theory needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven of the socio-cultural framework. The aim of the present paper is to provide a critical evaluation of Newmark's theory of translation and to suggest a new theory. It is concluded that the Newmark's theory lacks some important criteria to really reach appropriate translation in some cases. Finally, the "Appropriateness Theory" proposed by Woesler (2021) comes to perfect the previous theories and to meet the demands of this twenty-first century translation.

Key words

Newmark's translation theory, 21st century translation, Appropriateness Theory

Introduction

Peter Newmark is one of the most influential theorists of translation. He is also one of the founders of the Institute of Linguists and a fervent advocate for the professionalization of translators (Panou, 2013). Newmark was once professor of Translation and dean of the School of Modern Languages at the Royal Polytechnic Institution (now the University of Westminster). He taught the theory and practice of translation between German and English, and later taught at the University of Surrey. His opinions on translation theory were mostly reflected in papers published between the 1970s and 1990s, some of which were compiled into collections.

Approaches to Translation, his most important work, was published in 1981, some of his other works includes About Translation, 1991, Paragraphs on translation, 1993, More paragraphs on Translation, 1998 and A Textbook of Translation, 1988. Newmark’s works involve a wide range of problems, and their contents are numerous and complex. Newmark devoted himself to studying the past and present of Western translation. By describing the ideas of various schools, he extensively discussed the relationship between translation and other disciplines, putting forward his own views on this basis (Munday 2016,71).

Newmark's works do not aim to promote any monolithic translation theory but rather attempt to describe a basis for dealing with problems encountered during the translation process. More specifically, Newmark replaces Nida's terms of formal and dynamic equivalence with semantic and communicative translation respectively. The major difference between the two types of translation proposed by Newmark is that semantic translation focuses on meaning whereas communicative translation concentrates on effect. In other words, semantic translation looks back at the Source Language (SL) and tries to retain its characteristics as much as possible. Its nature is more complex, detailed and there is also a tendency to over-translate. On the other hand, communicative translation looks towards the needs of the addressees, thus trying to satisfy them as much as possible (Pym 2014, 93). In this respect, communicative translation tends to under-translate; to be smoother, more direct and easier to read. Hence, in semantic translation a great emphasis is placed on the author of the original text whereas communicative translation is meant to serve a larger readership. It should be pointed out that during the translation process, communicative translation need not be employed exclusively over semantic or vice versa. It may well be the case in a literary text that a particular sentence requires communicative translation whereas another sentence from the same text may require a semantic one. Therefore, the two methods of translation may be used in parallel, with varying focuses where each is employed.

1. Newmark's Semantic and Communicative Translation

Peter Newmark (1916–2011) tackled the notion of equivalence by asking if a translation should try to remain as close as possible to the source language or if it should, instead, aim to be free and idiomatic. He called these two approaches semantic translation and communicative translation respectively.

1.1 Semantic Translation

Semantic translation differs from "faithful translation" only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sounds of the Source Language (SL) text, compromising on "meaning" where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents. The distinction between "faithful" and "semantic" translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translator's intuitive empathy with the original (Newmark 1988, 46). The semantic kind of translation would look back to the formal values of the start text and retain them as much as possible.

It is readable but remains with the original culture and assists the reader only in its connotations if they constitute the essential message of the text. It tends to be more complex, more awkward, more detailed, and tends to over-translate, that is more specific than the original in transferring nuances of meaning. Semantic translation relates to the word or the word-group (Newmark 1981, 60).

This is the sample of the semantic translation:

(German) bissiger hund and (French) chien méchant

would be translated into:

(English) dog that bites or savage dog

(French) défense de marchér sur le gazon

would be translated into:

(English) walking on the turf is forbidden or It is forbidden to walk on the turf. (Newmark 1977, 178)

(Chinese) 我家有四口人.

would be translated into:

(English) My family has four people.

1.2 Communicative Translation

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original (Newmark 1981, 39). It must emphasize the force rather than the content of the message. It is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer, more direct, more conventional, tending to under-translate, that means using more generic terms in difficult passages. Communicative translation relates to the sentence (Newmark 1981, 60).

The communicative translation would look forward to the needs of the new addressee, adapting to their needs as much as necessary. Newmark’s preferences tend to lie on the "semantic" side, especially with respect to what he terms "authoritative texts". In theory, however, translators can choose whether to render one aspect or another. There is no necessary assumption of just one "natural" equivalent, and the result is a generally directional theory.

Here is the sample of the communicative translation:

(German) bissiger hund and (French) chien méchant

would be translated into:

(English) beware of the dog!

(French) défense de marchér sur le gazon

would be simply translated into:

(English) keep off the grass (Newmark 1977, 178)

(Chinese) 我家有四口人.

would be translated into:

(English) There are four people in my family.

2. Discussion of Newmark's Work

The description of communicative translation looks like Nida's dynamic equivalence in the effect it is trying to create on the TL reader, while semantic translation has been almost the same as Nida's formal equivalence. Nevertheless, Newmark distances himself from the full principle of equivalent effect, since that effect "is inoperative if the text is out of TL space and time" (Newmark 1981, 69). An example would be a modern British English translation of Homer. No modern translator, irrespective of the TL, can possibly hope or expect to produce the same effect on the reader of the written TL as the oral SL had on its listeners in ancient Greece. Newmark (1981, 51) also raises further questions concerning the readers to whom Nida directs his dynamic equivalence, asking if they are "to be handed everything on a plate", with everything explained for them.

Newmark indicates that semantic translation differs from literal translation in that it "respects context", interprets and even explains (metaphors, for instance). On the opposite, literal translation means word-for-word in its extreme version and, even in its weaker form, sticks very closely to ST lexis and syntax. Importantly, as long as equivalent effect is achieved, Newmark holds literal translation to be the best approach. In communicative as in semantic translation, provided that equivalent effect is secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only the best, it is the only valid method of translation(Newmark 1981, 39).

The comparison of Newmark's semantic and communicative translation can be seen in the following table:

Although Newmark's idea has been widely used on translator training courses and combines a wealth of practical examples of linguistic theories of meaning with practical applications for translation, his terms semantic translation and communicative translation have generally received far less discussion than Nida’s formal and dynamic equivalence. This may be because, despite Newmark's relevant criticisms of equivalent effect, they raise some of the same points concerning the translation process and the importance of the target text reader. One of the difficulties encountered by translation studies in systematically following up advances in theory may indeed be partly attributable to the overabundance of terminology. Newmark himself, for instance, defines Juliane House's pair of "overt" and "covert" translation in terms of his own semantic and communicative translation (Newmark 1981, 52) and considers communicative translation to be "identical" to Nida's functional or dynamic equivalence (Newmark 2009, 30).

Newmark has been criticized for his strong prescriptivism, and the language of his evaluations still bears traces of what he himself called the "pre-linguistics era" of translation studies: translations are "smooth" or "awkward", while translation itself is an "art" (if semantic) or a "craft" (if communicative) (Munday 2016, 73). Nevertheless, the large number of examples in Newmark's work provide ample guidance and advice for the trainee, and many of the questions he tackles are of important practical relevance to translation. It should also be noted that in his later discourse, he emphasized the aesthetic principles of writing, the difference between "social, non-literary" and "authoritative and serious" translation and an ethical and truth-seeking function for translation.

In addition, Newmark mentions appropriateness (see the table above) as the parameter of semantic and communicative translation, but unfortunately it limits only on the levels of content, semantics, grammar, situation of the principal, translator, and reader. In fact, this twenty-first century translation demands beyond those levels. It is stated by Woesler (2021, 3) that the translation concern should be broadened to the human yardsticks, that is to say human dignity and ethics come into play. Not to say that Newmark doesn't concern about ethics at all in translation. He indeed mentions it, but unfortunately there is no practical guidelines on how ethics have role in translation.

Ethics cannot be neglected in translation as they have significant output in the end. They relate to choices made by the translator in order to expand the receiving culture's range. It is stated by Venutti (2008, 19) in his dichotomy that the terms "domestication" and "foreignization" indicate fundamentally ethical attitudes towards a foreign text and culture, ethical effects produced by the choice of a text for translation and by the strategy devised to translate it, whereas the terms like "fluency" and "resistancy" indicate fundamentally discursive features of translation strategies in relation to the reader's cognitive processing.

Translators ethically stand above ideologies or other discrimination and do not contribute to human rights violations (Woesler, 2021). The case is, for example, translating a racist joke. Ethically, a translator should think critically this question: "Is it appropriate to tell a standard joke in the target language when the country leader has told a racist joke in the source language?". If the translator or interpreter does not pay attention to the code of ethics, he will deliberately translate the joke as it is without considering the effect on the target reader or listener. In fact, this practice is semantically or communicatively acceptable, but it is not appropriate as it contains discrimination which leads to human right violations. In conclusion, it would be ethically reprehensible and might be correct for the principal under the Newmark's theory, but not under the Appropriateness theory.

3. Appropriateness Theory

3.1 The Principle of Appropriateness Theory

"Appropriateness Theory" is the ultimate theory of all translation theories. There may be various answers to the question of appropriateness in different times and from different actors, perspectives, disciplines, etc. (Moratto & Woesler, 2021). An evaluation of the appropriateness of a translation can only be relative and never absolute. Hence, it is necessary to establish a system of evaluation, valuing the different aspects such as the function of the text, loyalty to the author, the ideals of literal/free translation, and how far a translation can "work" in the target language (Moratto & Woesler 2021).

Translation and interpreting theories can each explain particularly well individual aspects of translation processes and the creation of target texts. This allows the existing theories to be used eclectically. In addition, the eclectic use must be supplemented with an enrichment by the final judgment possibility of all theories on super-ordinate categories such as ethics and human dignity in the form of the theory of "appropriateness" (Woesler 2021, 5).

According to the appropriateness theory, however, a line of conflict arises with regard to the user's being at the mercy of the principal, both of whom may pursue different interests. Appropriateness theory, as an integrative theory, accepts all existing translation theories for certain aspects of the translation process. It is as requested by Mary Snell-Hornby in 1988 that all theories need to be seen together as one (Moratto & Woesler 2021, xv). Furthermore, it poses the question to what extent a translation can be called "appropriate" in certain sub‐aspects and as a whole (Woesler 2021, 5).

Therefore, the Appropriateness Theory goes beyond the previous theories that measure the correctness of a translation by the content, semantics, grammar, situation of the principal, translator and reader. Here, an overall assessment is asked for, in which the principal, the equivalence in the source and the target culture or the effect in the target culture are no longer a measure of translation quality. These translations must also be measured against even more general, human yardsticks. And this is where human dignity and ethics come into play (Woesler 2021, 3).

3.2 The Suggested Ways to Reach Appropriateness

Appropriateness Theory uses existing theories and adds additional criteria like ethics, seeing the whole picture to reach appropriateness (Woesler 2021, 1). The Appropriateness Theory is complex and shows us that a Code of Ethics needs to be established. Here are some fundamental questions for appropriateness which actually leads us to fundamental ethical questions:

1. should you report things you overheard from the foreign negotiation team to your own team to enhance your own team's chances?

2. is it appropriate to take over the role of a negotiation participant when you were hired for interpreting?

3. is it appropriate to tell a standard joke in the target language when the country leader has told a racist joke in the source language?

4. what implications does it have about the foreign country's leader, when he laughs about the interpreter's standard joke, but the country leader of the source language thinks he laughed about his racist joke?

5. is it appropriate to translate propaganda and to interpret for a dictator?

6. is it appropriate to translate the order "Feuer!" [Shoot!] into French if the French collaborating soldiers would commit a crime against humanity when they understood and executed the order?

7. what responsibilities do interpreters and translators have?

In addition to fundamental questions for appropriateness, Venuti's general premises about foreignizing and domesticating translation practices, and about the invisibility of the translator and the relative power of the publisher and the translator, can be useful to reach appropriate translation. They can be done by:

1. comparing ST and TT linguistically for signs of foreignizing and domesticating practices;

2. interviewing the translators about their strategies and/or researching what the translators say they are doing, their correspondence with the authors and the different drafts of a translation if available;

3. interviewing the publishers, editors and agents to see what their aims are in publishing translations, how they choose which books to translate and what instructions they give to translators;

4. looking at how many books are translated and sold, which ones are chosen and into which languages, and how trends vary over time;

5. looking at the kind of translation contracts that are made and how "visible" the translator is in the final product;

6. seeing how literally "visible" the fact of translation is, looking at the packaging of the text, the appearance or otherwise of the translator’s name on the title page, the copyright assignation, translators’ prefaces, correspondence, etc.;

7. analyzing the reviews of a translation, author or period. The aim would be to see what mentions are made of the translators (are they "visible"?) and by what criteria reviewers (and the literary "élite") judge translations at a given time and in a given culture (Munday 2016, 229).

Conclusion

Peter Newmark's papers and works have been widely used on translator training courses and combine a wealth of practical examples of linguistic theories of meaning with practical applications for translation. Yet Newmark departs from Nida’s receptor-oriented line. He feels that the success of equivalent effect is "illusory" and that "the conflict of loyalties, the gap between emphasis on source and target language, will always remain as the overriding problem in translation theory and practice"(Newmark 1981, 38). Newmark affirmed his belief that "translation is a noble, truth-seeking activity, and that it should normally be accurate" (1997, 77). In taking that stance, Newmark was certainly traditionalist and willfully unsophisticated, not to say technically wrong. Furthermore, Newmark suggests narrowing the gap by replacing the old terms with those of "semantic" and "communicative" translation which actually create overabundance of terminology to some extent. Besides, in this twenty-first century, Newmark's theory seems to have deficiency as it does not pay attention to the role of the translators. Therefore, the translation theory needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven of the socio-cultural framework. Eventually, the "Appropriateness Theory" suggested by Woesler (2021) comes to integrate all existing translation theories for certain aspects of the translation process to meet the demands of the twenty-first century translation. Some fundamental ways to reach appropriate translation are also offered.