Hist Trans EN 6

Chapter 6 Brief history of French translation

李怡 Li Yi ,Hunan Normal University ,China

Hist_Trans_EN_6

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenists and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.

Key words

Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution

Introduction

As a developed country in the west, France has a very long translation history. Translators and translation theories emerge （in ）--Li Xinxing (talk) 10:53, 15 December 2021 (UTC)（delete)endlessly, which can not be ignored in the history of translation. At the same time, with the development of globalization, translation theories in various countries learn from and integrate with each other. Among them, French translation theory also plays a very important role. Therefore, it is necessary to comb the history of French translation and study the translators of relevant times and their relevant theories.

1.Medieval French translation based on Bible Translation

In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek (works -words)for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty. Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French (in -into)--Li Xinxing (talk) 10:55, 15 December 2021 (UTC)1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time.

2.Renaissance: the development of French translation

The Renaissance is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. (Tan Zaixi,2004:71)These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles.

3.The 17th century: the climax of French translation and various translation schools

After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method. In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".By the end of the 17th century, those who advocated free translation were overwhelmingly in favor, while those who really advocated accurate translation were few and far between. The earliest theorist to advocate accurate translation was Bachet de Méziriac in the mid-17th century. In December 1635, he published an essay entitled "on translation" at the French academy, stating that translators must observe three principles :1.do not stuff the original work with personal goods; 2.The original work shall not be abridged; 3.No alteration may be made detrimental to the original intention. As one of the most influential translators in France in the 17th century, Daniel Huet, worshipped classical literature and clearly advocated accurate translation. He criticized both post-modern translators and unfaithful translators abranguel. He believes that the best translation method is: the translator first closely follows the original author's meaning; Secondly, if possible, stick to his words; Finally, try to reproduce his character as much as possible; The translator must carefully study the character of the original author, not delete, weaken, add and expand, and faithfully make it complete as the original. His translation principles are: the only goal of translation is to be accurate. Only by accurately imitating the original in language can it be possible to accurately convey the original author's meaning; The translator has no right to choose words or change word order arbitrarily, because "Deviation" from the original text will lead to deviation from the original meaning. His translation theory has been praised by many people, but due to the lack of practice, his theory is not attractive to translators. In the 17th century, there were also two representatives from inaccurate translation to accurate translation,François Maucroix and Jacques de Tourreil. François Maucroix is regarded by contemporary and later critics as one of the most outstanding French translators in the 17th century and the first person to translate demesne in the 17th century. In addition to demesne, he also translated the works of Plato and others. Maucroix received the education of the Jesuit Church in his early years, was greatly influenced by the Jesuit Church, loved debating literature, and paid attention to ingenious expression and beautiful language style. His early translations were inaccurate in content, style or written expression. He liked to modernize ancient terms and expressions. In 1685, his style changed, and his translation became more accurate, which seemed to have completely corrected the defects of procrastination and weakness in his early translation. The reason can be seen from his letters with Boileau in the last decade of the 17th century. He regarded Boileau not only as the most important representative of classical literature, but also as an authority on translation theory. Therefore, he always sent the translation to Boileau for revision. Boileau read the manuscript carefully, criticized some paragraphs and put forward better translation methods. In his reply, Maucroix said that Poirot's criticism of some of his inaccurate translations was pertinent, and his opinions on the revision were also very good. He admitted that the inaccurate translation was a mistake and must be completely corrected. He finally realized that translators must adhere to the principle of accurate translation if they want to become real classicists. Jacques de Tourreil also experienced a change from inaccurate translation to accurate translation, which is reflected in his translation of three different versions of Demosthenes. In 1691, he published his first translation, which was influenced by the education of the Jesuit and paid attention to elegant style rather than accurate content. Tourreil processed the original work in the most ingenious way to modernize the ancients. After the translation was published, it was immediately severely criticized by Racine. After being criticized, Tourreil published a revised version in 1710, but the revised version actually only made detailed changes to the original translation, and the guiding principle of translation remains unchanged, that is, we must "make the characteristics of the original work conform to the characteristics of our nation". The new translation has received various comments. On the one hand, the ancient school refers to Tourreil 's attempt to impose new ideas on Demosthenes, believing that he not only did not beautify the original work, but distorted and vilified the original work. On the other hand, the present school believes that Tourreil's unfaithful translation of the original is better than the original, which is worth applauding. Tourreil himself is an ancient school. Naturally, he doesn't appreciate the present school's praise and thinks that this praise is "the most severe criticism to the translator". After that, he revised the translation for the third time, which is very different from the first two versions. It was not only a rare and accurate translation at that time, but also extremely beautiful. The translator translates in strict accordance with the original work, neither adding or subtracting nor making changes. By this time Tourreil had fundamentally changed his point of view. Discussing the history of French translation from the 17th century to the 18th century is bound to involve the influence of Jesuit and Jansenists. The main reason is that the people engaged in education at that time were members of these two schools. They had direct or indirect contact with each translation school through their own translation practice and teaching. The Jesuit believes that classical literature is worth studying and learning only in the aspect that it provides moral education or guides people how to learn eloquence. The excavation of classical works is not because their contents are of great value, but because of their beautiful forms. Teachers believe that the purpose of teaching is not so much to enable students to obtain substantive knowledge as to enable them to obtain formal learning identity. The works translated by Jesuit teachers or students generally have an obvious sign, that is, they do not pay much attention to the spiritual essence of the original work, but only pay attention to the expression of the original thought and the beauty of the translation style. In order to achieve this, translators often sacrifice the content, even misinterpret the original meaning, and religiously turn classical literary works. Therefore, the origin of inaccurate translation in the 17th century is often influenced by Jesuit thought. Jansenists is the second school that directly or indirectly affects translation principles. They believe that once students can read and write, they should read these translations in order to obtain basic knowledge about the original author and facilitate more and better reading of the original works in the future. In the early days, the views of the janssenian translators and the Jesuit translators were basically the same. Later, the translators of Jansenists believed that the practice of style for style in translation was also dangerous. However, towards the middle of the 17th century, their views changed and they believed that the style of ancient Greek and Latin writers, especially the style of ancient Greek writers, was worth learning. They really appreciate classical works more than the Jesuits. They admit that the language style of the ancients is superior to that of the present, but the present enjoys more inspiration from God, so the present surpasses the ancients in terms of thought and morality. In this way, no matter from which perspective, their views are completely consistent with those of ancient school. But the translation of Jansenists is far less elegant and beautiful than that of the Jesuits.

4.The decline of French translation in the 18th century and the translator Charles Batteux

In the 18th century, France was not as powerful as in the 16th and 17th centuries, nor was it culturally complacent. So she began to look at other countries' literature, first of all England. For example, the novels of the contemporary British sentimentalist writer Richard Were translated into French, which had a great influence on the development of French sentimentalist literature. In particular, the Chinese culture, which had been introduced to Europe for a long time, became more active in France in the 18th century. Although the number of translations is large, the quality is often not high. Charles Batteux was one of the most important translators in France in the 18th century. He was one of the most influential literary and translation theorists in France and the whole Europe in the 18th century. He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated aristoteles, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de Litterature, Cours de Belles-Lettres and other works. Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in The Principles of Treatise. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of translation theory in the 18th century. The fifth part of Principes de Litterature deals with translation problems.The theory of Charles Batteux obviously has the characteristics of philosophers, linguists, philology and translation. In other words, Charles Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation. He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1. We must not alter the order of what the original says, either as fact or inference. 2. We should also preserve the order of ideas in the original text. 3. No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, for a sentence is a thought in which the different elements are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony. 4.All the conjunctions in the original text should be preserved. It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together. 5. All adverbs should be placed either before or after the verb, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences. 7. Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance. 8. Rhetorical devices and forms of speech used to express ideas must be preserved in the translation. 9. We must translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs. 10. Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a commentary. However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation. 11. For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to make ourselves intelligible; Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation; Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12. The idea of the original text can be expressed in different forms, combined or broken up by the words used to express it, and expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs, as long as its essence remains unchanged（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）.

5.The revival of French translation in the 19th century and its rich translators

Another high tide of French translation came in the 19th century, when a large number of English, German, Italian, Spanish and Latin literary works were translated, such as Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Shelley in England, Goethe and Schiller in Germany, Dante in Italy, and Spanish folk songs. The most prominent remains the translation of Shakespeare's works. If the 18th century was Shakespeare's Silver age in France, the 19th was the golden age. In the 19th century, people not only worshiped Shakespeare's works, but also worshipped him, and Shakespeare fever spread throughout France. From 1800 to 1910, at least eight different translations of Shakespeare's complete works were produced in France, of which francois-Victor Hugo is the best. Hugo's father was Victor Hugo, a great writer. With Hugo's assistance and cooperation, the complete works of Shakespeare were translated between 1859 and 1867. This translation has faithfully retained the unique rhythm of the play, so it has been praised by critics as the second milestone in the history of French translation of Shakespeare's plays, even more important than Letourne's famous translation in the late 18th century. Famous French translators in the 19th century included Francoise-René de Chateaubriand, Gérard de Nerval, and Charles Baudelaire. Chateaubriand is another epoch-making translator in France after Amio. His translation is faithful and beautiful. His literal translation of Milton's Paradise Lost is one of the outstanding French translations with its melodious and poetic tone. Nerval is best known for his translation of Goethe's Faust in prose style. In 1830 Goethe saw Nerval's translation and praised it as better than his original. Baudelaire, another famous poet of this period, was one of the earliest French translators of American literature and the first translator of Allan Poe. For 13 years from 1852 to 1865, he wrote, translated and commented on the complete works of Allan Poe. Baudelaire found what he was pursuing in Allan Poe's works, and believed that he and the author were in the same spirit, so that the translation could be in touch with the author. The translation was smooth and natural, just like the French creation, and was listed as an excellent classic of French prose.

6.The specialization of French translation in the 20th century and the maturity of translation theory

The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are: since the end of the Second World War, due to practical needs, commercial, diplomatic, scientific and technological aspects of the translation boom(Chen Shunyi,2014:6), its momentum even more than literary translation, thus forming a major content of the development of modern western translation; The study of translation theory is unprecedented and has produced translation theorists who have an important influence on the history of translation in the world. Before the First World War, the two countries used the language of power in business transactions, and French, which was considered the language of diplomacy at international conferences and other diplomatic occasions, did not have much problem in translation. However, after the end of the First World War, French lost its dominance, and English rose to take the lead with French, forming a situation in which French and English were used together. The Paris Peace Conference of 1919 was the beginning of this situation. Later, the European Union has 24 official languages, which means that translation has become an indispensable part of daily work, whether it is communication between countries in other regions or between western countries. With the increase of cooperation between countries, the need for translators is increasing. To meet this need, a number of schools specializing in training translators have been set up. One of the most prominent is ESIT（École Supérieure d'Interprètes et de Traducteurs）. ESIT was founded in 1957, set up the department of Oral translation and pen translation, initially only opened several European languages, since 1972 added Chinese, now a total of English, Chinese, Russian, Arabic, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Danish, Swedish, Icelandic and other languages translation courses. Later, on the basis of the original two departments, the School added a department of Translation Studies, specializing in the study of language and translation theory, with the right to confer doctoral degrees. After graduation, most of the students apply for translation departments of international institutions, and some graduates apply for the work license of free translators to relevant institutions of various countries in order to work freely and not apply for the work license of free translators to international institutions. Over the years, ESIT has trained a number of senior translators for the foreign affairs departments of the United Nations, the European Community (EU) and western countries. Another characteristic of modern French translation is that French translators are organized in large numbers, setting up various translation associations and establishing various translation publications. Each association has its own purpose and purpose to carry out its work effectively. There are two major translation associations in France: the Association of French Translators and the Association of French Literary Translators. The Association of French Literary Translators was founded in 1973 as a splinter from the Association of Translators. Its entry requirements are the most stringent of any of its kind. Only highly qualified translators are eligible to join. Applicants must have at least one translation, which is carefully reviewed against the original work by a special selection committee. The aims of the association are :1.to improve the quality of French literature and literary translation publications; 2.To protect the rights and interests of members in respect of copyright, remuneration and working conditions of translated works; 3.Do not participate in any political activities. Since its establishment, the association has held many lectures and lectures, and its members have published many articles on translation in such authoritative publications as le Monde and New Literature. Through this series of business activities, it has become the most distinctive and vocal translation organization in France. In the first half of the 20th century, the French translation theorist J.Marouzeau is worth a book. He is a professor at the University of Paris and editor in chief of Année Philologique. In 1931, he published a pamphlet called La Traduction du Latin. The theory is as follows:1.Translation is, first of all, a skill. Maruzzo does not deny that translation is an art and a science, and that it is more of a skill. To master it, we mainly rely on rich practical experience, solid language knowledge and flexible translation methods. 2.In order to reach as many readers as possible, the translator's primary task, like linguists, educators and exegetists, is to reveal to the reader what the source text is, not what it covers. 3.The purpose of using a dictionary is not to translate, but to understand. It is a puzzling view, but it is not hard to discern the truth in it. He points out that translators must learn to use dictionaries, but must first understand what problems they are using them to solve. Latin, for example, is very different from French, he said. Latin words are not related to each other, and there is no strict word order, which must be added to a French translation to make the translation smooth. Dictionaries don't help in this respect. They define a particular word in inverse proportion to its simplicity, thus leaving the translator in a difficult position to choose between many different translations. Therefore, the main purpose of using a dictionary is not to find ready-made words, but to understand the meaning of the original text, to explain the text of the original text, and then produce a translation on this basis. At the same time, Marouzeau points out that words from different sources must be interpreted differently. 4.Translation is not guesswork. This is especially important. When encountering difficulties, the translator must carefully consider and avoid any "preconceived ideas", because in translation, the first thought of meaning or expression is often not the most correct or best. 5.Translation must be in living language. This was a popular idea in England in the 17th and 18th centuries. Marouzeau said that to translate Latin into French, if you need to introduce an old expression, you have to turn to a living language so that the translation is alive. That is to say, the translator must ask: if the original author were alive today and writing in French, how would he express the same thing? But Marouzeau also points out that this is not a generalization, and that for some passages, especially those of Ovid, "a bit of antiquity is most appropriate in French translation". The following is an introduction to Georges Mounin, a famous French translation theorist in the second half of the 20th century. He devoted his life to the teaching and research of linguistics and translation theory with outstanding achievements. He is regarded as the founder and most important representative of linguistic theory in contemporary French translation studies. Major theoretical works include Le belles infidèles , Les problèmes théorique de la traduction, La machine à traduire: Histoire des problèmes linguistiques, Linguistique et traduction, Semiotic praxis, etc. Among them, Les problèmes théorique de la traduction is the most praised by contemporary Western translation theorists. As mentioned above, this book uses the basic theories and methods of modern linguistics to explain translation, and sets up the first clear-cut flag of linguistic school in the field of Translation studies in France. The core idea of Mounin 's book is that he thinks translation belongs to linguistics, so it should be studied, understood and explained by means of modern linguistics. To establish an effective translation theory, it has to for translation and the translation of basic problems related to make a scientific understanding of these problems include the nature of translation, translation and the meaning of vocabulary, grammatical structure, the relationship between translation and the objective world, the world's image), the relationship between translation and language universals and language features, the relationship between the processing of language features in translation, and so on. Mounin 's discussion of translation theory revolves around these questions. What exactly is a translation? What kind of discipline should translation studies belong to and what kind of methods should be adopted? And so on. Such problems have always been the most concerned by translation researchers but have not been properly explained. Mounin believes that translation is a special and universal language activity, which naturally belongs to the scope of linguistics research, and the research results of language science can be applied to the study of translation problems. Mounin admit that the translation of poetry, the literature such as drama, movies, many factors other than language and paralanguage does play an important role, but the basis of translation activity is mainly to the original and the translation of linguistic analysis, and applied linguistics is more than any other skilled experience can provide accurate and reliable. Of course, from another point of view, especially from the perspective of the development of translation studies as an independent discipline since the 1980s, the practice of classifying translation studies as linguistics has been outdated. However, even if translatology is regarded as an independent discipline, its independence is only relative. Since translation (interlingual and intralingual translation) necessarily involves language, translation studies should not and cannot be completely free from the influence of linguistics at any time. In this sense, Mounin's view of linguistic translation has always been positive. Since the 1970s and 1980s, the interpretive school represented by Seleskovitch or the Paris School has emerged in the field of Translation studies in France and become the most remarkable and French characteristic in the post-modern period, thus forming the second major feature of the development of contemporary French translation theory. It should be said that this school does not negate the basic idea of the school of linguistics to study linguistic phenomena, but only opposes the pure linguistic orientation of the school of linguistics and focuses on the research method of form. Interpretive theory holds that translation is a linguistic act, but it requires the participation of extralinguistic knowledge. Whether it is diachronic linguistics in the 19th century, synchronic descriptive linguistics and contrastive structural linguistics in the 20th century, or the later transformational generative grammar theory, it ignores the pragmatic context as the main component of language communication, so it cannot reasonably explain translation problems. Based on practice, the theory of interpretation studies translation as a linguistic act, and interprets and conveys the meaning of language from linguistic factors, cultural factors, and extralinguistic factors, so as to give a scientific and reasonable explanation to the reality of translation. An important feature of interpretive translation theory is to reveal the essence of translation as communicative behavior from practice. Interpretivism holds that translation is a kind of linguistic act, which, like language use, must be supported by non-linguistic knowledge. However, as an act, the object of translation is not language, but meaning, which is the communicative meaning of the text. The output of meaning requires the combination of nonverbal thoughts and signs, and the reception of meaning requires the conscious behavior of the addressee. The arrangement of words is only a means of meaning formation for the originator of words. The understanding and grasp of meaning need to get rid of the original language form. The acquisition of meaning is instantaneous, not staged. Meaning is not the sum of words, but an organic whole, and the comprehension of meaning is completed at the level of discourse. According to the interpretive theory, language and thought are separated in the translation of translators. Language and thought are not exactly the same thing, but there is a constant two-way communication between them. Thought waves can be transformed into language, and language can be transformed into thought waves. Human knowledge and experience do not reside in the brain in the form of words. Interpretive theory also holds that understanding requires the participation of cognitive knowledge; The process of comprehension is the process of interpretation. Interpretation is the prerequisite of translation, and translation cannot be carried out without interpretation. Translation, on the other hand, is interpretation. Interpretive translation is a translation of meaning equivalence, which is established between texts. If a translation is to be successful, it is necessary to seek the overall meaning equivalence between the source text and the target text, and the meaning equivalence needs to achieve cognitive and emotional equivalence. Translators use their own abilities to organically combine the cognitive content and emotional content of the source text into an indivisible whole, and then successfully express it. Only in this way can the equivalence of meaning be achieved, which is the essence of the interpretive theory. The interpretive theory also focuses on fidelity. The translator cannot interpret at will, and his interpretation and understanding can only be faithful to the actual content of the speaker. Although the interpreter interprets in his own words, he conveys the meaning of the speaker and imitates the speaker's style. The interpreter should understand the overall style of the speech, and tend to be consistent with the speaker, should be as far as possible to get rid of the constraints of words, in order to accurately reflect the original style.

Conclusion

There may be many deficiencies and omissions in the simple combing of French translation history, but as a powerful and long-standing western developed country, France's translation process and theory have great research and reference significance for China and the world. The world is still developing, so is translation. With the development of modern science and technology, people explore translation more deeply, and new theories are constantly put forward. Therefore, we should seize the trend of the times, base ourselves on China, look at the world and seriously study these excellent theories.

References

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