Difference between revisions of "Culture loaded words"

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=1 羊叶 The Analysis of Culture-loaded Words of English Subtitle Translation in Chinese Movies-Taking Farewell to My Concubine as an Example =
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=Chapter 1: The Analysis of Culture-loaded Words of English Subtitle Translation in Chinese Movies-Taking Farewell to My Concubine as an Example =
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_1]]
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_1]]
  
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电影中英译字幕文化负载词的翻译分析——以《霸王别姬》为例
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羊叶Yang Ye, Hunan Normal University, China
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=== Abstract ===
 
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Nowadays, popular films are increasingly active on the Internet. Confronting such a mass need for film translation, subtitle translation is winning more favor compared with traditional dubbing translation. This paper, taking Farewell My Concubine as an example, analyzes the strategies and methods of translating culture-loaded words. The conclusions are as follows: In terms of translator, translator needs to be super proficient in Chinese and English. In terms of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization are unity of opposites and complement each other, so there is no absolute and pure domestication and foreignization. In terms of translation methods, when translating the culture-loaded words, Linda Jaivin mainly adopted literal translation, free translation, specification, generalization and omission to nearly successfully preserve and convey the essence in Beijing dialect and Beijing Opera in China.
 
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=== Key Words ===
 
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Subtitle Translation; Farewell My Concubine; foreignizing method; domesticating method
 
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=== 摘要 ===
 
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如今，电影在互联网上越来越受欢迎。比起传统的配音翻译，字幕翻译更受青睐，电影对字幕翻译的需求巨大。本文以电影霸王别姬为例，分析翻译文化负载词时所用的翻译策略和翻译方法。结论如下：就译者而言，翻译者需精通中文和英文两种语言；就翻译策略而言，归化与异化两者对立且相互统一，没有绝对的归化、异化之说；就翻译方法而言，在翻译文化负载词时，贾佩琳主要采用了意译、直译、具体化、一般化、省略等翻译方法，成功地保留和传达了北京方言和京剧的国粹部分。
 
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=== 关键词 ===
 
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字幕翻译；霸王别姬；异化；归化
 
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=== Introduction ===
 
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1.1Research Background
 
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Innovation of information technology brings energy for the advancement of broadcasting ways of film and television programs. More and more foreign popular films are increasingly active on the Internet; more and more local films with Chinese elements are also introduced abroad. Researchers on subtitling translation are becoming more and more important.
 
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China's Opening-up and Reform facilitates the cultural communication between China and the outer world. In the introduction of foreign films and TV plays, language understanding becomes an obvious barrier for audiences. Two major solutions to solve such a barrier are dubbing and subtitle translation. "Subtitles sometimes referred to as captions are transcriptions of film or TV dialogue presented simultaneously on the screen." Relatively, the latter one is more favorable than the traditional dubbing way because of its cost-effectiveness, short producing cycle and audience-acceptability. With higher educational background and foreign language level, many Chinese audiences expect that films can be displayed with “a natural and original flavor” nowadays.
 
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Under such circumstances, subtitle translation seems to be more acceptable to get access to foreign audience. Among so many elements involved in the subtitle translation process, the translator plays the most significant part, thus becoming a key and central element in the subtitle translation system. Therefore, a good subtitle translation with “a natural and original flavor” sets high and strict requirements for the translator.（Liao, 2000: 231）
 
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1.2 Brief Introduction to Farewell My Concubine
 
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Farewell My Concubine, the film version adopted in this thesis is the 1993 one whose heroes and heroines are Duan Xiaolou (acted by Zhang Fengyi), Cheng Dieyi (acted by Zhang Guorong) and Ju Xian (acted by Gong Li) respectively. In the film, Xiaolou and Dieyi are fellow apprentices learning Beijing opera performance together from childhood. Later on, their cooperation in the opera Farewell My Concubine makes them famous overnight throughout Beijing city. Thereafter, they make a promise to each other that they will perform Farewell My Concubine together as long as they are alive. However, their different understandings of the relationship between the opera and life finally lead to their different choices: Until mid-age, Xiaolou deeply knows that the opera isn't his whole life, so he gets married with a famous whore called Juxian; Dieyi, however, becomes totally immersed in the complicated plots and role relationships of the operas, especially Farewell my Concubine. Around such a classic and famous opera, the love and betrayal among them become escalating with the changes of times and eventually develops into a tragedy.
 
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It is the first film that won the Golden Palm Prize in mainland China. It has  been keeping the highest-grossing record of Chinese melodrama movies in America which also marks the climax of Chinese films in America. Meanwhile, it also got great box-office successes in such countries as Japan, Germany, Korean, France and so on. It should be concluded that Farewell My Concubine has achieved great success both in the art and business.
 
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In Farewell My Concubine, Beijing Opera art is the central cultural element. It is a typical representative of classical Chinese literature art. Taking it as a case study, general and concrete subtitle translation strategies can be concluded to improve translation quality of similar subtitle translation works.
 
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1.3 Brief Introduction to translator Linda Javin
 
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Linda Javin, the subtitle translator of Farewell My Concubine, is a suitable and qualified person for both the director and the audiences. Since 1976, Linda has been playing an important and active role in broadcasting, studying and exploring Chinese culture. As an internationally renowned sinologist, translator and writer, Linda Javin has made great efforts in learning, feeling and appreciating Chinese culture. It is really a tough time full of difficulties and hardships under the specific social conditions then. After years of efforts to learn Chinese language, history, literature and many visits to China, Linda has begun to embark on her Chinese literary writing career recently. All these can prove that she is really a competent and qualified subtitle translator of Farewell My Concubine. Her wonderful bi-lingual and bi-cultural competence does give her favorable advantages in translating.
 
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=== Analysis the Translation of Culture-loaded Words ===
 
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2.1 Introduction to Culture-loaded Words
 
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Gonzalez Davies and Scott-Tennent (2008, p.783) put forward a definition of cultural references in detail, which is "expressions (audiovisual, verbal, textual,
 
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non-verbal) that are concerned with ecological, material, religious, social, emotional, and linguistic manifestation. In addition, these expressions are specific to a particular community, and they are recognized as a particular feature of that community. Such expressions, however, may lead to difficulties in comprehending these words or translating these words." And in China, a scholar defines it as "the words, phrases and idioms that mark the unique things in a culture." These words reflect the unique way of activities gradually accumulated by a specific nation in the long historical process, which is different from other nations.（Liao, 2000: 232）
 
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It is more diverse to classify Culture-loaded words because China is an ancient national with a history of more than 5,000 years. In this course, many Culture-loaded words have accumulated continuously. Among all the materials, some scholars divide Culture-loaded words based on specific elements such as language and culture. Since different scholars hold different views on the classification of Culture-loaded words, and hence the fist can go on and on. Here is a well-accepted way by Nida. Nida (1945, p.196) divided  language  and  cultural  characteristics  into  five  categories:(1)Ecological culture; (2)Material culture; (3)Social Culture; (4)Religious Culture; (5)Linguistic Culture.
 
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2.2 The Features of Subtitles in Farewell My Concubine
 
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Through comparison and analysis, the main language features of the Chinese lines of Farewell My Concubine are concluded as below: concise but emotional dialogue; strong Beijing Opera and Beijing dialect flavor; sharp but implicative expressions; rich of slang and idioms. All the features are drawn from the corresponding lines in the film and all these analysis in the language following features will be illustrated combining with the specific case interpretation. Thus, different translation strategies at different levels can be generalized and concluded to cater for the different language features.
 
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The film takes place in Beijing and is thus featured with rich local color. The most obvious feature is the use of Beijing dialect. Beijing dialect is the basis of standard Mandarin, but there are some differences that make it easy for Chinese people to recognize which is which. Most prominent difference in phonology is the proliferation of rhotic vowels which results from the non suffix “儿” in vocabulary, Beijing dialect has a lot of words that are considered slangy and therefore occur much less or not at all in standard Mandarin. Some non-Beijing natives find it hard to understand what most of them mean, let alone foreigners. A dialect tells about the user's social class, status, profession, and many more. That is why so many translators are taking pains. 
 
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Beijing Opera is exactly a colorful part of the film has depicted. Beijing Opera was formed during the period of Daoguang(1821-1850). At the beginning, actors from Chu Opera such as Wang Honggui and Li Liu came to Beijing to perform in the Drama of Hui School. Later, combined with Erhuang melodies and Xipi melodies, in the same time, actors also absorbed the advantages of Kun, Beijing and Qin tunes from their respective schools. Beijing dialects were adapted to adapt to Beijing customs. Thus, it took shape initially. Gradually Beijing Opera developed into the most influential opera in the country. The characters in the whole film have a strong Beijing accent, and many opera excerpts in the film such as Farewell My Concubine, Peony Pavilion and Drunken Imperial Concubine are presented for many times. So it is inevitable to translate many professional terms.
 
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2.3 Cases for Analysis
 
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2.3.1 Brief Introduction to Translation Strategies
 
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Before the specific analysis, let's have a understanding of two basic concepts of domestication and foreignization, which are important strategies in translating culture-loaded words.
 
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The translation theory of domestication and foreignization was first put forward by Schleier Macher, a famous German translation theorist. In his book published in 1813, he put forward that there are only two ways of Translation: one is to guide the readers to get to know the author as much as possible; the other is to guide the author to get to know the readers as much as possible. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, an American Italian translator, wrote in his important work The Translator's Invisibility, the first method described by Schleier Macher is called "foreignizing method" and the second method is called "domesticating method". That is to say, domestication is oriented by target language, while foreignization is oriented by source language.
 
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As for Linda Javin, she once mentioned in an interview that in the face of the cultural essences in the lines, she adhered to the strategy of domestication in her translation and did not deliberately maintain the oriental flavor contained in the dialogue. Frankly speaking, she doesn't appreciate the way of retaining Pinyin combinations and then adding a lot of notes to make foreigners understood. If Chinese is pleasant to the ear, don't let the expression heard awkwardly in English. So the simplicity and directness are put above everything else to make it easy for the audience to understand.
 
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2.3.2 Cases of Translation Methods
 
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2.3.2.1 Literal Translation
 
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As one of the common methods of translating culture loaded words, literal translation is to translate the source text according to the literal order or meaning, which can retain the original characteristics of Chinese language and culture.
 
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E.g.1世卿世受国恩
 
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岂敢昧法？
 
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更不敢当众违背天理良心。
 
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The government has always been good to me,
 
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I wouldn't dare deceive the court.
 
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Nor would I betray the laws of Heaven or my own conscience.
 
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“天理”“良心” are terms that are quite commonly-used words in China. From literal works to daily talks, from traditional plays to modern films, such kind of expressions are useful guidelines to arouse Chinese People's self-reflection. They are invisible ethical rules guiding people's behaviors. Since they are so local and traditional, it's not surprising that it is a little complicated for foreign audiences to figure them out. Based on the "literal translation" principle, Linda brings "Heaven" into her translation. In Christian culture, "Heaven" serves as the source of various moral concepts and systems. "Heaven" and "God" are existed to guide and restrict people's behaviors. Linda's translation has wonderfully adapted to the target eco-environment and is really worthy of referencing of the subtitling workers and learners.
 
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E.g.2磨剪子来，镪菜刀
 
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Bring your knives for sharpening? Sharpen your knives.
 
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Sharpening knives is a traditional craftsmanship that is disappearing in China. Their dreich yo-heave-ho can evoke many people's memories of childhood. Such lively lines full of traditional Chinese cultural elements, on the one hand, are not so easy to translate; on the other hand, deserve more efforts for the foreign audiences to figure out. Considering all these factors, Linda pays attention to the retaining of its central meaning. Actually, a more literal translation method "Sharpen your scissors, sharpen your knives" may achieve more active functions here. It's the easiest to understand, and it can save viewing and thinking time as well. As for some complicated cultural terms, the best way, the easiest as well, maybe literal  translation, which can avoid misunderstanding and superfluous deducing. Finally, they benefit a lot to saving viewing time.
 
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E.g.3什么时候洞房花烛夜啊？
 
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What’s the time of Candle-lit-night in the Bridal Chamber?
 
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“洞房花烛夜” is a typical expression in ancient times of China, which means the golden night of the new husband and new wife on the day they get married. The night usually is beautiful and memorable and it is the first night the new couple.  As for this line, Linda did not specifically explain what is the “洞房花烛夜” , instead she use the literal meaning to depict a picture of the special night, translating “花烛夜” to “Candle-lit-night”, which is so warm and beautiful.
 
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E.g.4横扫一切牛鬼蛇神！
 
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Sweep away all Cow Demons and Snake Spirits!
 
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There is an article titled “Sweep away all Cow Demons and Snake Spirits!” published on the People's Daily on June 1, 1966, which marked the climax of the Proletarian Cultural Revolution. The "Cow Demons and Snake Spirits" represents the old ideas, cultures, customs and habits that have poisoned Chinese people for thousands of years. Under the call of the Party Central Committee and Chairman Mao Zedong, hundreds of millions of workers, peasants and soldiers, revolutionary cadres and intellectuals, swept away a large number old things entrenched in the ideological and cultural position. Its momentum is like a storm, with extraordinary rapidity, breaking the spiritual shackles imposed on them by the exploiting class. Using “Cow Demons” to express “牛鬼”, “Snake Spirits” to express “蛇神” is direct, clear and distinct.
 
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2.3.2.2 Free Translation
 
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Free translation is the translation by meanings. That is to say, the translation is done according to the real meanings of a sentence or even a paragraph, instead of completely word to word.
 
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E.g.1他祖师爷不肯赏饭吃，谁也没辙。
 
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But I have no place for him. What can I do?
 
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“祖师爷” is similar to "forefathers" to some extent in China's history. Without knowledge of the specific historical period, foreign audiences won't understand its exact meaning. Perhaps we can understand it as "destiny" "fate" or "god" of western culture, there are still cultural differences between them. From the plots in the film, we know that Mater does not want to accept Little Bean as his disciple, so he explains that Little Bean is not destined to be an actor. From this perspective, "destiny" is the most ideal choice to express the original meaning. Considering all these factors, Linda uses the strategy of "free translation" to put it as "I have no place for him" to refuse Little Bean's mother. Thus, she makes the lines easier to understand, and meanwhile, to avoid leading to a cultural misunderstanding.
 
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E.g.2今儿个是破题儿，文章还在后头哪！
 
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This is just the beginning. Wait till you see what's in store.
 
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“破题” once appeared in "Romance of the Western Chamber” by Wang Shipu, a playwright of Yuan Dynasty. Since then, it has been widely used in various circumstances to refer to "the first time". From the translated version, it's clear that the translation of “破题” as "beginning" exhibits that the subtitle translator, Linda Javin, is quite familiar with the usage of the old Chinese words.
 
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E.g.3真他妈想当太太奶奶啦你！
 
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做你娘的玻璃梦去吧。
 
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你当出了这门，把脸一抹擦，你还真成了良人了？
 
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So you want to become a rich man's wife!
 
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Go live out this goddamn fantasy' then
 
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Don't think that when you walk out this door, you'll become a lady of virtue.
 
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“太太奶奶” has different meanings in China in different social contexts. Without thinking or checking it, it's easy to translate it as "grandmother" "lady" or something like these. Besides, “良” means "good, kind", but here, “良人” doesn't mean "a good, kind or nice-hearted person", instead, it refers to the woman who has abandoned prostitution and become a traditional honest and good woman. Linda's translation of "a lady of virtue" is quite authentic and loyal to the original text.
 
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E.g.4那么日后踏雪访梅，再谈不迟。
 
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Ah, then we shall exchange poetic thoughts some other day.
 
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“踏雪访梅” extracted from Night Vessel, written by Zhang Dai of Ming Dynasty. Originally, it's used to refer to describe the enjoyment with the beautiful scenery and the pursuit for wonderful poems of the ancient poets. In Farewell My Concubine, Mr Yuan invites Xiaolou and Dieyi to his house to have some wine and chat about certain details of the opera. The latter example is also full of cultural terms, which is said by Nakun when he tries to encourage Dieyi to talk with Xiaolou hurriedly and actively. In both examples, Linda deals with the cultural elements skillfully and flexibly.
 
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E.g.4这武二郎碰上西门庆，不打，不打能成吗？
 
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You know the old story about Pan Jinlian's husband meeting the man who screwed her? Did he have any choice but to fight?
 
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It's an old story about Pan Jinlian and his husband in ancient China. When performing translation, a translator needs to place the specific written text under some relative social and cultural backgrounds. This is useful and meaningful for a better and comprehensive expression of the original meaning. The story of “武二郎”“西门庆” is typically traditional Chinese cultural element, the translated text can't be formed without relative culture knowledge. For some literary allusion, stating its general meaning to offer a general idea is very helpful for the audience to grasp the central meaning.
 
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E.g.5这妞够厉害的呀！
 
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What a dragon lady!
 
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Different cultures have different cultural prototypes. Dragon is a propitious symbol in China. As a Chinese totem, all Chinese people see themselves as the grandsons of the dragons. It's a positive and lucky symbol for Chinese people. However, because of the cultural differences, the "dragon" in Western countries means more evil than good. Its fierceness and grisly outlooks make people feel uncomfortable. Thus, "a dragon lady" here, on the one hand, can show Ju Xian's courage for true love; on the other hand, the image of "dragon" can clearly show to the foreign audiences that Ju Xian is at the bottom of the society and she is despised by the social group. Linda's choice of "dragon" clearly shows her comprehensive  consideration for the complicated circumstance then.
 
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E.g.6关师父：各位爷，多捧场了啊!
 
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Master Guan: Ladies and gentlemen, enjoy the show! 
 
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“各位爷” is a conventional Chinese way to address the male spectators with respect. However, in English, there is no such a counterpart. Therefore, the translator substitutes it with "Ladies and gentlemen", a conventional way to address the audience of a performance in English. “多捧场了啊” is also conventional in indicating the beginning of a show and literally means "support our show". However, the English convention has it as "enjoy the show." The translator thus conforms to target conventions to avoid deviation from audience's "expectancy norms" which are established by the native text in the receiver target of the translation, by their expectations of what a target language should be like.
 
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E.g.7小石头：嗬，够横的你。
 
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Shitou: You are really something. 
 
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“横” in Beijing dialect means harsh and unreasonable, "Be (quite or really) something" is an informal expression referring to a person or a thing is of consequence. In the above example, the replacement of “横” by "be really something" shows that Shitou is impressed by Douzi's arrogance and reveals Shitou's generous nature. Although his kindness to offer a sleep place to Douzi is unappreciated, Shitou does not say something harsh. If it is translated into "You're unreasonable", it would be too straightforward.
 
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2.3.2.3 Generalization
 
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Generalization is defined as the type of modulation in which the dissimilarity between source text and target text transemes is characterized by a shift towards greater generality in target text; as such it contrasts with the opposite phenomenon of specification. Generalization is acceptable if target text has no suitable alternative, or if the omited detail may be gleaned from the target text context or is just not important.
 
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E.g.1不罚，不罚你永远是下三滥。
 
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还想成角？做梦。
 
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And if I don't punish you, you'll always be third-rate.
 
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You want to be a great actor? Dream on!
 
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“下三滥” is a traditional Chinese expression that describes some impuissant and footling people in the lower class status in China. To avoid misunderstanding of it, Linda just translates it as "the third rate", simply and concisely. As for “角”, it's a technical term specially used in dramatic performance referring to leading roles in dramas. But “成角” here means becoming a famous actor or actress. Linda's translation retains the most important and essential meaning.
 
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E.g.2依我看，只要是唱西皮二黄，它就是京戏。
 
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I say if it uses the traditional forms, then it’s the Beijing Opera.
 
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"Xipi Erhuang" is a professional term in drama. "Xipi" and "Erhuang" refer to two different vocal cavities respectively. Xipi originated from Qin opera. Its singing is lively and high pitched, generally being used to express cheerful and excited feelings. Erhuang comes from Anhui. The tone of Erhuang is more stable and serious. In the development of drama, Xipi and Erhuang went through a process of slow integration. If the translator transliterates the tones of "Xipi" and "Erhuang" respectively in the subtitles, on the one hand, the audience without the knowledge of Peking Opera can not understand it completely; on the other hand, the subtitles have space limitations, and the letter translation should not be too long. Here, Linda generally translates it as "the traditional forms" to give the audience an abstract understanding.
 
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E.g.3反正这两杯子也沾上了四旧了
 
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Anyway, jade cups were part of the old society
 
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With abundant political background, on August 8th, 1966, as the film mentioned “in the era of Communist revolution, the on-going Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution will be a revolution that reconstructs people’s mind”. "四旧" as a derogatory word, refers to the collective name and general designation of old ideas, including old culture, old customs and old habits. For a time, streets, factories, communes, time-honored stores and schools were changed into revolutionary names such as "Anti-road Construction", "Dongfeng Store" and "Red Guard War School" , destroying the authority of "bourgeois reactionary academic authorities" such as scholars, writers, artists and scientists. Violence became commonly seen in the streets. Instead of illustrating what is “四旧”, Linda chose “old society” to generally express the real social situation at that time, almost everything should be put out the label of “old, bad” to be accused and criticized.
 
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E.g.4尘世中，男子阳污，女子阴秽
 
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There is foulness in both men and women.
 
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This sentence comes from the mouth of Mr Yuan, a drama addict. The word "尘世" is unique to Chinese. It is used by Buddhists or Taoists to refer to the world, with a deep religious color. However, the main religious belief in western countries is Christianity, and "尘世" has no corresponding word in English. In this sentence, Linda translated the sentence into existential sentence, which is a good way to generalize the meaning of the word. In fact, this sentence means that in the eyes of people who believe in Buddhism or Taoism, men and women on earth are all dirty. If the translator rigidly corresponds "阳污" to "man" and "阴秽" to "woman", the translation will only overlap meaning, resulting the translation not authentic.
 
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E.g.5来给师哥勾勾脸
 
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Will you give me a hand with my make up?
 
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The facial makeup in Peking Opera is a special makeup method. The traditional facial makeup mainly refers to clean facial painting. "勾脸" is one of its painting techniques. In order to let the audience clearly understand the meaning of dialogue, it is literally and generally translated as "make up".
 
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2.3.2.4 Specification
 
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Specification is distinguished from the other type, generalization, in that here the shift which occurs between source text and target text in the direction of a higher level of explicitness. In other words, a shift towards greater specification will produce a transeme the meaning of which is made more precisely, by either the addition of extra words or the use of words with a less general meaning.
 
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E.g.1别介，都是下九流谁嫌弃谁啊
 
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Don’t be foolish. Prostitutes and actors are equally despised by society.
 
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The mother (prostitute) of the little boy (Cheng Dieyi) took him to the troupe and hoped that the master would accept him. After seeing the little boy's sixth finger, the master said he had no gift to sing. So the mother knelt down (sexually) and hinted that the master would benefit as long as he accepted the disciple. So the master said this sentence. There is a saying of "三教九流" in ancient China. The three religions here refer to Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The nine religions are divided into upper, middle and lower levels. The translator does not directly translate the "inferior" but translates the contents of the reference, which not only makes the meaning more thorough, but also does not increase the viewing obstacles of the audience.
 
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E.g.2小爷我今儿练的是九转金炉的火丹功。
 
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I have been practicing Kungfu to keep myself warm.
 
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When dealing with those terms with strong cultural meanings, it's proper and wise to conclude some specific tiny terms into a general broader concept. As a result, the translator can save efforts; the audiences can get the general meaning without being entangled in those unimportant tiny details. Kungfu in the translated text, though fails to express the original Taoist cultural meanings, it really saves much screen space and viewing time, thus, it's easier for foreign audiences to understand.
 
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2.3.2.5 Omission
 
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Being opposed to "addition", omission means that some words in the original text do not need to be translated, because although there are no specific words in the translation, potential meaning has been shown. In other words, omission is to delete some unnecessary words, or words that are cumbersome or contrary to the language habits of the translation. But omission does not delete any ideological content of the original text.
 
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E.g.1各位爷都站好甭动。真钱买真货。我小石头今儿个玩儿真的,让爷儿们都开开眼。
 
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I'll give you something to look at.
 
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This scene describes Little Stone and his partners was performing in the street to earn money, but no one gives a reward. In order to attract the audience, Little Stone decided to perform a wonderful show. He decided to hit his head with a brick, so he said the above lines. Because the morpheme of the actor is fast, the picture switches to that he hits his head with a brick as soon as the voice falls, so the translator uses a short sentence to express it. This not only does not affect the audience's viewing of the wonderful picture, but also completely expresses the semantics.
 
−
 
 
−
E.g.2他这一亮相,那台底下听戏的人不都吓跑了。
 
−
 
 
−
He would scare off the audience
 
−
 
 
−
This line is what Master Guan said to Little Bean's mother when he found an extra finger on Little Bean's right hand. While speaking this line, Master Guan stretched out his right hand and made an appearance of being on the stage. Therefore, if the translation of "his appearance" is omitted, this meaningless information vocabulary can be deleted naturally, which does not affect the audience's understanding of the plot at that time, also does not deviate from the meaning of the original lines, and will not cause the audience's confusion. It is a good way to accurately convey the information and let the audience understand the content of the film.
 
−
 
 
−
E.g.3陈:唉，袁四爷今儿个来看戏 
 
−
 
 
−
段:没见我盖着唢呐唱吗？把血都挣出来了
 
−
 
−
Chen: So, Master Yuan has come to see us tonight.
 
−
 
 
−
Duan: I know. I sang so loudly I drowned out the horns.
 
−
 
−
“今儿个” is a typical time indicator in Beijing dialect. It usually refers to "today". In view of the context, it can also be translated as "tonight". In translating Duan's response, the translator tries to relay its meaning than to represent its form. She omits “把血都挣出来了”，also a typical dialectal expression, which literally means "drive the blood out" and "do very hard" in the real sense. "I sang so loudly" is added to facilitate understanding. The translator also makes efforts to find the most understandable way from the target culture.
 
−
 
 
−
===Conclusion ===
 
−
3.1 The Conclusion
 
−
 
 
−
In terms of translator, translator needs to be super proficient in Chinese and English. In terms of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization are unity of opposites and complement each other, so there is no absolute and pure domestication and foreignization. The translator, the recreator of dialogues in the process of translation, should choose the most appropriate translation strategy to reconstruct the meaning of the original text. In terms of translation methods, when translating the culture-loaded words, Linda Jaivin mainly adopted literal translation, free translation, specification, generalization and omission to nearly successfully preserve and convey the essence in Beijing dialect and Beijing Opera in China.
 
−
 
 
−
3.2 Advice
 
−
 
 
−
Due to the cultural differences behind translation, some films cannot achieve the same effect abroad as at home. It is true that the two important purposes of subtitle translation are to provide the audience with plot information and to convey the cultural connotation contained in the film. Plot information is the premise of cultural connotation. If the audience of target language cannot understand the plot, it is difficult to achieve cultural communication. Therefore, in the face of handling with culture-loaded words in subtitles, the translator should focus on the purpose of information, put letting the audience understand the film content above everything else, and then give consideration to the cultural purpose.
 
−
 
 
−
The subtitle translation in Farewell my concubine mainly adopts the domestication strategy rather than foreignization. Truly speaking, foreignization can retain the cultural characteristics of the original language in translation, making the readers of the target language feel the exotic customs and the unique charm of the source culture. Foreignization could be taken as a means of resistance to the cultural colonial policy of the strong culture, break its "domestication" and strive for winning a place for the weak culture in the forest of global culture. Therefore, there is still a long way for Chinese translators to spread Chinese culture to the countries abroad.
 
−
 
 
−
===References ===
 
−
Xiao Xiang. The Transmission of Peking Opera Culture in the English Subtitle Translation of Farewell, My Concubine[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3.0(13.0)
 
−
 
 
−
Nan Wan. Subtitling and its Acceptability in the Film Farewell, My Concubine: A Multimodal Approach[J]. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 2019, 10(6) : 94.
 
−
 
 
−
Zhang Kaijuan张凯娟. 电影字幕翻译中的语域对等研究[D].西南大学,2019.
 
−
 
 
−
[4]徐敏. 电影《霸王别姬》的汉英影视字幕翻译评析[D].浙江工商大学,2014.
 
−
 
 
−
[5]金海娜.从《霸王别姬》到《一代宗师》———电影译者Linda Jaivin访谈录［J］.中国翻译，2013，34（04）.
 
−
 
 
−
[6]杜阿晴.目的论视角下电影字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以电影《霸王别姬》《风月》为例[J].福建教育学院学报,2013,14(04):94-97.
 
  
 
=2 谢庆琳 The Analysis of the Chinese Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Russian =
 
=2 谢庆琳 The Analysis of the Chinese Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Russian =
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_2]]
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_2]]
−
 
−
谢庆琳 Xie Qinglin, Hunan Normal University, China
 
−
 
−
=== Abstract ===
 
−
 
−
Language is a product of culture, an integral part of it and a condition of its existence, and an important factor in the formation of cultural codes. Since the 21st century, linguistics has actively studied a direction that sees language as a code for understanding the culture of a nation, not just as a tool for communication and cognition. As we all know, there are certain cultural differences among various ethnic groups influenced by factors such as geographical environment, political system, religious beliefs, living habits, moral values and aesthetic interests. These factors together contribute to the creation of culture-loaded words. The translation of culture-loaded words requires the translator to accurately and appropriately understand the beliefs, customs, aesthetics and values of the foreign culture while faithfully conveying the essence and soul of the translated culture to the readers of the translated language to truly communicate with different cultures. The translation of culture-loaded words directly affects the understanding of readers of the translated work, and also influences the readability and literary quality of the work. The study of Chinese translation of Russian culture-loaded words from the perspective of cultural load words not only promotes the communication between Chinese and Russian languages, but also deepens the cultural understanding between Chinese and Russian people.
 
−
 
−
=== Key Words ===
 
−
Russian Culture-loaded Words; Translation Principles; Translation Strategies
 
−
 
−
=== 题目 分析俄语文化负载词的中文翻译 ===
 
−
 
−
=== 摘要 ===
 
−
 
−
语言是文化的产物，是文化的组成部分和存在条件，也是文化密码形成的一个重要因素。 21世纪以来，语言学积极研究一个方向，即把语言看作是了解一个民族文化的密码，而不仅仅是一个交流和认知的工具。众所周知，各民族受地理环境、政治制度、宗教信仰、生活习惯、道德价值、审美情趣等因素影响，其间存在一定的文化差异。这些因素共同促使了文化负载词的产生。文化负载词的翻译要求译者准确恰当地理解异国文化中的信仰、习俗、审美及价值观等的同时，忠实地将译语文化的精髓与灵魂传递到译语读者面前，真正做到不同文化的交流。对文化负载词的翻译会直接影响译文读者对作品的理解，也影响着作品的可读性及文学性。从文化负载词的角度来研究俄语文化负载词的中译不仅推动中俄两国语言的沟通，同时对加深中俄人民之间的文化理解也具有重要意义。
 
−
 
−
=== 关键词 ===
 
−
俄语文化负载词；翻译原则；翻译策略
 
−
 
−
 
−
=== Introduction ===
 
−
 
−
After the 1970s, cultural factors were gradually incorporated into the scope of linguists' studies, and cultural studies became a topic of common concern for linguists and translators. Susan Bassnett (1990), the core representative of the cultural translation concept, believes that translation is an exchange between cultures, and the reciprocity of translation should not only realize the reciprocity of language forms, but also pursue the reciprocity of cultural functions between the original text and the translated text. Therefore, translation is not only an act of purely linguistic conversion, but also a reflection of the cultural meaning of language. Language is a means of communication of human thoughts and feelings, and it is both a carrier and an important part of culture. In the process of historical development, countries around the world have formed large or small cultural differences due to different geographical environments, political rule, religious beliefs, traditional customs, lifestyles, value orientations and aesthetic interests. These factors have together contributed to the creation of a large number of cultural-loaded words. Each language has its own cultural vocabulary with cultural color and connotation, and these words reflect the cultural values of each nation. Because they are loaded with special national cultural connotations, cultural-loaded words often constitute the focus and difficulty of translation as an act of intercultural communication, and even become a barrier to the transmission of information.
 
−
 
−
Guided by American translator and translation theorist Eugene Nida's theory of functional equivalence, this paper takes the Russian as an example to explore the cultural information carried by the cultural-loaded words in its subtitles and summarize its translation method. The translation of cultural-loaded words requires the translator to accurately and appropriately understand the beliefs, customs, aesthetics and values of the foreign culture, while faithfully transmitting the essence and soul of the translated culture to the readers of the translated language, so as to truly communicate with different cultures. The study of Chinese subtitles of Russian TV series from the perspective of cultural-load words not only promotes the communication between Chinese and Russian languages, but also has great significance in deepening the cultural understanding between Chinese and Russian people.
 
−
 
−
The paper consists of an introduction, three chapters and concluding remarks. The introductory part firstly describes the feasibility, theoretical significance and practical significance of this research, and then clarifies the novelty of this research. The first chapter briefly outlines the concept of cultural-loaded words, and classifies cultural-loaded words according to Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, laying the foundation for the translation study of cultural-loaded words later on. Chapter 2 analyzes in detail the cultural-loaded words appearing in “Intern”, and discusses the translation principles and translation strategies of cultural-loaded words. The third chapter analyzes the causes of mistranslation and difficult-to-understand cultural-loaded words in “Intern”. The concluding remarks summarize the content of the whole text.
 
−
 
−
=== Culture-loaded Words ===
 
−
 
−
==== Definition of Culture-loaded Words ====
 
−
 
−
Culture-loaded words are also called culturally connotative words. In the language system, culture-loaded words are the vocabulary which can best embody the cultural information that a language carries and they also reflect the social life.
 
−
 
−
Behind each vocabulary are deeply imprinted the cultural, geographical and historical characteristics of a society. Vocabulary is the basic element of language,and the formation of each vocabulary is inseparable from culture. It carries a largeamount of "national cultural accumulation", that is, cultural connotation. This article is an analysis of Russian cultural-loaded words, reflecting mostly about the Russian national culture.
 
−
 
−
Language is the carrier of culture, so cultural differences must also be reflected in language. Translation means the spread of culture, and words that carry culture are words that express culture. Therefore, the translator focuses on the cultural-loaded words that appear in the source text, and on this basis. The words containing language and culture reflect the development, progress and change of the language of a country's dynasties, as well as the accumulation of various activities that are completely different from other countries (Liao, 2002). Translating social cultural terms and ecological cultural terms can truly understand the living conditions and social conditions of a country in a specific period.
 
−
 
−
==== Classification of Culture-loaded Words ====
 
−
 
−
According to Naida's classification of cultural factors, cultural load words are divided into five categories: the first category is ecological cultural load words, which usually refer to words related to plants, animals, climate, etc. of a specific region, for example, a small twisting path is not used in the Russian language environment, such as “羊肠小径”. The second category is material cultural load words. For example, “轿子” refers to a human-powered means of transportation in feudal China, which does not exist in Western countries. The third category is the social cultural load words, which usually involve words of social etiquette, social identity and leisure, such as kneel three times and kowtow nine, the dragon boat festiva, which are unique to Chinese culture and tradition. The fourth category is religious cultural load words, which are generally words reflecting the cultural beliefs of a certain nationality, such as “八字”(horoscopes), “算命先生”(fortune-teller), and so on. The fifth category is language-based cultural load words, which reflect the different ways of speaking and habits of different ethnic groups in terms of phonetics, vocabulary, syntax and so on. For example, the name of a person, the use of idioms, and so on.
 
−
 
−
=== Translation Principles and Strategies of Russian Culture-loaded Words ===
 
−
 
−
==== Translation Principles of Russian Culture-loaded Words ====
 
−
 
−
===== The Principle of Faithfulness to the Original Text =====
 
−
 
−
Fidelity to the original text is one of the most basic principles and standards of translation. When translating cultural-loaded words, two points should be clear: on the one hand, we can not add some cultural meanings in the translation process based on our own conjecture. On the one hand, it is not possible to attach some cultural meanings to the translation process that are not intended by the author of the original text. For example, the Russian word for rabbit (заяц) has a negative cultural symbolism and is considered to be a symbol of evil and cowardice, while
 
−
In the passage of «Судьба Человека»: "… а я уже на ничьей земле между воронками петляю не хуже зайца" (李世俊，张永全等: 1999), a soldier tells how he bravely and wisely crossed the German lines. The rabbit is used here only to borrow the positive image of its quick and dexterous movements, not the cultural symbolism described above.
 
−
If we do not take into account the author's real intention and turn it into "no less than a timid rabbit", we are not being faithful to the original text, but rather making a faux pas. Therefore, this sentence
 
−
should be translated as "I have reached the middle of the field, and I am not less dexterous than a rabbit in going around in the middle of the crater."
 
−
 
−
On the other hand, it is important to translate the cultural meaning of the culturally loaded words that are crucial or important to the understanding of the text, as it is easy to misunderstand if only the surface meaning is translated. For example, “сушить сухарь” literally means toast a thousand, but in fact it means to prepare dry food for exile on the road, and now it often refers to eating lawsuits. If there is a scene in Chinese literature where the crane is used to celebrate a long life, it must be translated into Russian with the meaning of longevity in Chinese culture, otherwise the Russians will find it inexplicable.
 
−
 
−
===== Contextual Principal =====
 
−
 
−
The meaning of words is often multi-layered and multi-faceted, and translators should judge the meaning of specific words according to the context. Therefore, context is the key to determining the true meaning of a word in a specific context and to help the translator correctly translate the original text.
 
−
 
−
The following are three situations to determine the specific meaning: (1) Words that often have cultural meaning and represent cultural images may not have culturally loaded meaning in a certain context. (2) The same culturally loaded word may have a different cultural meaning in a specific context. For example, the Russian word “ медведь” sometimes means "powerful" and sometimes means "heavy". Sometimes it refers to the strength of the bear, sometimes it refers to the stupidity of the bear, and sometimes it also refers to the maidenhead. Therefore, it is more important to determine the exact meaning according to the context when translating. (3) Common words may become cultural-loaded in specific contexts. (3) Common words may become cultural-loaded words in specific contexts.
 
−
 
−
===== Principle of Appropriateness of Explicit and Implicit =====
 
−
 
−
The cultural-loaded word serves the text with its cultural meaning, so the translation should be either explicit or implicit according to the needs of the text, to keep the text simple and fluent. For example, due to the limitation of space or style
 
−
For example, in Russian,“кричать во всю Ивановскую” literally means "shouting at Ivan Square" because in the Tsarist era, decrees and orders were issued on Ivan Square, and people often had to shout to hear them. Therefore, it is not necessary to turn out the meaning of the cultural load when translating into foreign languages, and it can be directly translated as shouting. However, if the translator intends to introduce this historical and cultural phenomenon, it is a different story. In short, the translation of cultural-loaded words should serve the whole text, and be consistent with the context and the author's style, and the translator's purpose.
 
−
 
−
==== Translation Strategies of Russian Culture-loaded Words ====
 
−
 
−
Translation principles are macro requirements for the translation process, while in the actual translation process, in order to achieve good translation, in addition to following these principles, we must also adopt necessary translation strategies according to the specific characteristics of the vocabulary. The complexity and specificity of cultural factors determine the variability of the meaning and form of culturally loaded terms, as well as the flexibility and adaptability of their translation means. Generally speaking, in order to achieve good translation effect, translators often use such translation strategies as "direct translation (phonetic translation) plus annotation", "direct translation with free translation" and "free translation" for cultural-loaded words and so on.
 
−
 
−
====== Direct Translation (Phonetic Translation) plus Annotation ======
 
−
 
−
The direct translation mainly refers to the translation that retains the original language form completely, so that it is similar to the original text. The method of translation is similar to the original text and has the same structure. Since this method mainly focuses on the linguistic form of the original text, sometimes the translation cannot fully and accurately express the original text.Sometimes the translation cannot fully express the original language accurately, then the translator can adopt the method of adding. In this case, the translator can adopt the method of adding notes to offset the loss of meaning brought by this translation strategy. Cultural-loaded words contain a large number of national-specific words, such as various proper nouns, historical allusions and these words have no direct counterparts in the translated language. Therefore, it is often necessary to translate them by the strategy of phonetic translation with annotation. For example, many literary works use phonetic translation of the Russian national costume “сарафан”, which is translated as "Sarah
 
−
A" with a note stating that the sarafan is a traditional Russian folk dress without sleeves.
 
−
 
−
====== Direct Translation with Free Translation ======
 
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−
Direct translation with paraphrase is a translation method that combines direct translation and translation with meaning, which not only translates the surface meaning of the original text word by word, but also translates the potential meaning beyond the surface meaning of the original text. The direct translation is a method of translating not only the surface meaning of the original text word by word, but also the potential meaning beyond the surface meaning. For the translation of cultural-loaded words, the combination of direct translation and literal translation can better reveal their true meanings in terms of both form and content. The Russian word "колосс на глиняных ногах" from the «Old Testament»It is about the dream of Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, who saw a giant statue of a terrible shape, whose feet were half clay and half iron, and the whole statue collapsed due to a stone that happened to hit his feet from the mountain. This dream symbolized the doomed kingdom of Nebuchadnezzar. Thus, the cultural meaning of "giant with feet of clay" refers to a country that is outwardly strong but actually weak and destined to perish. Thus, Lenin said in his speech on November 7, 1919, at the conference commemorating the second anniversary of the October Revolution: "Мы видим, что империализм, который казался таким непреодолимым колосом, казался на глазах у всех колоссом на глиняных ногах." (刘永红：2002) The whole sentence should be translated as "We see that imperialism, which looks like a giant that cannot be served, is actually a giant in the mud with a strong exterior in the eyes of everyone.
 
−
 
−
===== Free Translation =====
 
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−
The free translation strategy emphasizes the meaning conveyed to the original language words in specific contexts. The first thing is to translate the meaning of the original, not necessarily to preserve the original form, not to achieve the same literal and structural translation as the original. The translation is suitable for the translation of the cultural load words whose cultural meaning does not play a major role in the original text, or the cultural load words whose cultural image is too remote, sometimes also subject to the limitations of the manuscript and style and use this method, a cultural load words, such as culturally significant sayings, proverbs, because for a long time Ba Jing has a conventional translation of foreign, so in the translation can also be used when the original translation method. For example, "китайская грамота" literally means "Chinese word", "Chinese character", but because of the big difference between Russian and Chinese, it is very difficult for Russians to understand Chinese characters, so here it is translated as "heavenly book, incomprehensible, inexplicable thing". “Для него это китайская грамота” translates as "He doesn't know anything about it".
 
−
 
−
=== The Translation Difficulties of Russian Culture-loaded Words ===
 
−
 
−
==== Translatability of  Culture-loaded Words in Russian ====
 
−
 
−
Language is the most important tool for human communication and one of the important carriers of information. The cultural characteristics of a nation's way of thinking, concepts, and systems are bound to leave their mark on language. Vocabulary is one of the most active dimensions of language. Changes in social life, the development of national culture and other changes can be recorded through vocabulary. Culture-loaded words are those words, phrases and idioms that mark things specific to a certain culture, and these words reflect the unique way of activity of a particular people that has gradually accumulated over a long historical process and is distinct from other peoples. Although translation is a transformation of symbols in its manifestation, in its essence it is a cultural exchange activity. The difficulty of translation is not the language itself, but how to convey the cultural content of the original language. The Russian cultural load is an important external expression of Russian culture, which is difficult to find in other national languages, but this does not mean that the cultural load is untranslatable. Firstly, although the differences between languages of different nationalities are determined by their respective nationalities, the similarity of human living conditions and physiological structure determines the similarity of human thinking patterns, therefore, different nationalities have similarities in understanding and understanding things; secondly, translation activities have a long history, and there are numerous cases of translators overcoming cultural gaps and achieving successful translations in the rich translation practice, therefore, the translatability of culture- loaded words is proven by a large number of translation practices. Thus, translators can still use their dynamism in a limited space to preserve and convey the cultural elements contained in the culture-loaded words in Russian.
 
−
 
−
==== Factors Affecting the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Russian ====
 
−
 
−
The first is the internal factor, i.e., the internal factor of language. In his book «Language and Translation», Balhudarov divides the translation unit into six levels: phonemic level, grapheme level, word level, phrase level, sentence level, and discourse level, in an effort to make the original text and the translated text equivalent. After the 1980s, translation research has taken a new direction - the cultural theory of translation, and Susan Basnett, as one of the representatives of this school, believes that translation should take culture as the basic unit of translation, instead of resting on the previous parts of speech. The original text is the most real and objective existence in translation, and the characteristics of the translation object itself will also affect the translation, and the culture-loaded words have the characteristics of ethnicity, implication and unaccustomedness. When translating culture-loaded words, translators often encounter two bottlenecks: first, the lack of corresponding vocabulary; second, the lack of equivalent cultural meaning, that is, the same word in different cultural contexts expresses different connotations. In ancient Chinese philosophy, it is important to "look at things and take images", and under the influence of traditional Chinese thinking, Chinese tends to use concrete words to express imaginary concepts. The abstract content is expressed by the concrete image. Take the word "jianghu" as an example. "Jianghu" is another new word with changed connotation and extension, which is composed of the concepts of "river" and "lake". The word "jianghu" lacks its semantic and formal equivalents in Russian, so translators need to adopt a flexible translation approach to interpret the semantic and cultural connotations of the word "jianghu".
 
−
 
−
Second, external factors, including the translator's own body and the purpose of translation, etc. The translator is the most active factor in the translation activity, and is the doer of the whole translation activity, which must be completed by the translator. There is no shortage of excellent translators in China, most of them are concentrated in the field of English studies. Unlike the English translations of Chinese literary and artistic works, the translators of both film and television dramas and Chinese literary and theoretical works are mostly Russians. Unlike the Chinese translators' approach to Chinese culture, foreign translators, when translating, unlike the Chinese translators' approach to Chinese culture, foreign translators may have less sense of mission and enthusiasm for spreading Chinese culture when they translate from Chinese to foreign languages, and they pay more attention to the reading norms and market acceptance of contemporary readers, so they tend to adopt translation strategies such as paraphrasing and naturalizing to facilitate the understanding of readers of the translated language.
 
−
 
−
=== Conclusion ===
 
−
 
−
There is a growing awareness that language is just an international communication tool
 
−
and is not restricted to a particular country or nation but as a neutral information medium. This paper analyzed the definition and claasification of culture-loaded words. Then we disscussed the translation principles and strategies of Russian culture-loaded words. Last it discussed the difficulties in the translation of these words, and makes a conclusion that we should use the combination of literal translation and free translation in the translation according to different circumstances.
 
−
 
−
Translation is a language communicative activity; there are a lot of words with Russian cultural features, so we cannot find the equivalent words to express the same cultural information in the target language. When translating these cultural-loaded words, it needs the help of alienation principles, achieving the conversion between language and cultural information. However, after all, the reader's understanding of Russian culture is limited, so the translator must follow the rules of Russian language and expression, taking the text type, translation factors such as purpose and audience into consideration to acquire the best translation.
 
−
 
−
To sum up, language, culture and translation are inseparable. Language is also a cultural phenomenon, while culture shapes language. Translation is a tool for exchanging different cultures and human civilizations, and therefore they are closely related. In the process of intercultural communication and translation, culturally loaded words are the main obstacle, but they reveal the cultural characteristics and social customs of a people. Accurate and faithful translation of culture-loaded words plays a crucial role in facilitating cultural exchange. Direct translation and paraphrasing are effective translation strategies to solve the problem of culture-loaded words. Direct translation can help the target language readers understand the translation more easily. It aims to make the target language readers and the source language readers empathize. However, free translation is intended to preserve the cultural style of the source language for the readers. These two approaches may seem to be opposing, but they actually complement each other. It is impossible for a translator to use one translation strategy to complete the translation task, so in translation practice as a translator, he or she should try to make a comprehensive use of the two translation methods to make the translation more relevant and evocative.
 
−
 
−
=== References ===
 
−
 
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Barkhudarov L. S. Language and translation. (1975) Questions of the general and private theory of translation[M]. Moscow: International relations.
 
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Kozhin A. N. (1982) Functional types of Russian speech. [M]. Moscow: Vysshaya shkola.
 
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Rosenthal D.E. (1987) Practical stylistics of Russian language. [M]. Moscow: Vyssnaya shkola.
 
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Fedorov A. V. (2002) Fundamentals of the general theory of translation. [M]. Moscow: High School.
 
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Yuriev A. N. (2005) Types and styles of speech. [M]. Moscow: Almaty.
 
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Chen Guoting 陈国亭 (2012). 俄汉语通用最简翻译指南 [M]. A general minimalist translation guide for Russian and Chinese. 哈尔滨：哈尔滨工业大学出版社 Harbin: Harbin Institute of Technology Press.
 
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Cai Yi et al 蔡毅等 (2006).  俄译汉教程增修本[M]. Russian to Chinese Translation Course Supplement.  北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
 
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Huang Ying 黄颖 (2008). 新编俄语语法 [M]. New Russian Grammar.  北京:外语教学与研究出版社 Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing House.
 
  
 
=3 罗曦 Gary Snyder’s Translation of the Culture-loaded Words in Han Shan’s Poems from the Perspective of the Functionalist Skopos Theory =
 
=3 罗曦 Gary Snyder’s Translation of the Culture-loaded Words in Han Shan’s Poems from the Perspective of the Functionalist Skopos Theory =
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[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_9]]
  
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=10 丁旋 Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in ''The Concubine Market of Yangchow '' of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory =
+
=10 丁旋 On the Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in ''The Concubine Market of Yangchow '' of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory =
  
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_10]]
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_10]]
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[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_12]]
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_12]]
  
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===Abstract===
+
=13 程杨 Translation of Cultural-loaded Words in ''Border Town'': A Case Study of Gladys Yang’s English translation =
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Culture-loaded words refer to words with unique cultural connotations, which are powerful tools to promote cultural communication. Due to the great differences between eastern and western cultural backgrounds, the translation of culture-loaded words is a difficult task. Therefore, this essay studies the English translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in ''The Spring Festival'', which is a prose written by Chinese Writer and translator Fang Huawen, introducing many Chinese customs and activities containing Chinese culture-loaded words. According to the Nida’s classification of culture, this essay classifies culture-loaded words into ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words. Based on the domestication and foreignization translation strategies proposed by Venuti, this essay analyzes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Fang Huawen’s prose ''The Spring Festival'' and its translation, and summarizes the translation of culture-loaded words based on domestication and foreignization strategies.
 
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===Key Words===
 
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Culture-loaded Words, ''The Spring Festival'', Domestication and Foreignization Strategies, Fang Huawen
 
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===题目===
 
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归化异化策略下方华文《春节》中文化负载词的英译研究
 
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===摘要===
 
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文化负载词是指具有独特文化内涵的词语，是促进文化交流的强有力工具。由于东西方文化背景的巨大差异，文化负载词的翻译是一项艰巨的任务。因此，本文以方华文散文《春节》中的中国文化负载词的英译为研究对象，介绍了许多词汇关于中国习俗活动里蕴含的中国文化负载词。根据奈达的文化分类，本文将文化负载词分为生态文化负载词、物质文化负载词、社会文化负载词、宗教文化负载词和语言文化负载词。本文以韦努蒂提出的归化和异化翻译策略为基础，分析方华文的散文《春节》中文化负载词的翻译策略，总结出基于归化和异化策略的文化负载词翻译方法。
 
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===关键词===
 
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文化负载词《春节》 归化与异化翻译策略 方华文
 
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===Introduction===
 
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Since the development of China’s reform and opening up, China's economy has improved rapidly. Culture, as a manifestation of the soft power of national development, playing an increasing role in the country. And Chinese culture is becoming more and more popular among foreign readers. As a carrier of culture, book is a powerful tool for cultural communication. Meanwhile, translation is a bridge connected different languages and different cultures and the main task of translation is to translate the content of the source language into the target language. Therefore, in China, more and more books, such as poetry collections, novels, essays and so on, are translated into foreign languages and then widely spread all over the world. However, due to the huge differences in economic system, language structure and cultural customs between China and the West, many culture-loaded words with unique characteristics of the Chinese nation, such as some idioms, sayings and idiomatic expressions, are difficult to translate. Those who do not understand the Chinese cultural background cannot fully understand the meaning of these culture-loaded words. Therefore, the translation of culture-loaded words is key to the whole translation which is well worthy of doing research. ''The Spring Festival'' is a prose written by Fang Huawen, a famous Chinese literary translator. It talks about the Spring Festival, the most important traditional Chinese festival, and gives a detailed description of the activities during this traditional festival. Many culture-loaded words appeared in the prose represent Chinese culture, people can understand the profound Chinese culture through the authentic translation. Based on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, this essay explores the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Fang Huawen’s ''The Spring Festival''.
 
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===Fang Huawen and ''The Spring Festival''===
 
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Fang Huawen was born in 1955, who is a famous Chinese literary translator and translation theorist. He plays an important role in literary translation in China and he was elected as a representative in the field of literary translation in China. He has translated many literary works such as ''Oliver Twist'' and ''David Copperfield'' written by Charles Dickens, ''Tess of the d'Urbervilles'' and ''Jude the Obscure'' written by Thomas Hardy, ''Jane Eyre'' and ''Pride and Prejudice'' written by Jane Austen and so on. Also, he wrote books of Chinese Culture of Editions Series such as ''Chinese Garden'', ''Chinese Folk Customs'', ''Famous Historical Cities in China'' and so on, which introduce Chinese culture in all areas. His representative translated work is ''History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century'', which elaborately introduces the Chinsese Translation theories and translators, covering more than ten million words. His translated works have made great contributions to the spread of Chinese culture, and his translation views are well known both at home and abroad. He was named "the most productive literary translator in contemporary China” by the UNESCO International Federation of Translators and his translation theories were publish in ''Babel'', the academic journal of the International Federation of Translators, which enabled the world to know the general situation of Translation in China and the characteristics of translation.
 
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In this essay, ''The Spring Festival'' is selected as the text of analysis, which is one of the prose collected in the book ''Translation and Appreciation of Chinese and Foreign Selected Famous Proses and Poems'', whose author is also Fang Huawen, selecting and translating famous Chinese and foreign proses and poetry. ''The Spring Festival'' is written by Fang Huawen and he selcets his own translation version in the book. The prose introduces the Spring Festival, the most important traditional festival of the China. The prose introduces the customs and activities of the Spring Festival in detail, which have been passed down from the ancient time. With the changes of the time, the words and customs have their own distinctiveness. Taking the traditional activity “post picture” as an example in the essay, Chinese people posted pictures of Shen Shu and Yu Lu with the wish of getting good luck and happiness in Nan Dynasty. While in Tang Dynasty, they posted the photos of Qin Shubao and Yuchi Jingde. If you don't know the cultural background of Chinese culture, you can hardly know the connotaion of the words. For example, the names of firecrackers are of various kinds, like "Rockets", "Rolling Mines", "Fairy Scattering Flowers", "Knights in Red" and so on. The author elaborately introduces all kinds of customs and activities from the first day of the first lunar month to the 15th day of the first lunar month, among which culture-loaded words are unique to Chinese culture, and the translation of these culture-loaded words will greatly promote the spread of Chinese culture.
 
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===Culture and Culture-loaded Words===
 
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====The Brief Introduction of Culture====
 
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Compared with the economic and political field, culture refers to the spiritual activities of human beings and the products they produce. Culture is a set of customs, traditions and values formed by people living in a specific community over a long period of time, such as the culture of a nation or country. There are various cultures in the world, and each culture has its own characteristics, including its own ethnic values, such as religious belief, world outlook, etc. It also includes spiritual products produced by specific ethnic groups, such as some artistic and scientific spiritual products. Besides, the manners and behaviors of a nation such as folk customs, spirits and so on.
 
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Chinese contemporary writer and scholar Yu Qiuyu gave a detailed interpretation of culture. He gave a definition of culture with a concise and simple sentence in ''What is Culture'', that is, culture is a kind of spiritual value and life style called habit, and its final result is collective personality. (Yu qiuyu 2012:3) The first key word is spiritual value, which means that culture is not only a cultural phenomenon, but also has cultural value. Therefore, it can be explained that culture is a spiritual symbol of human beings compared with the primitive state. The second key word is lifestyle. This is the concrete realization of spiritual value. In most cases, culture, it should be concrete and acessible. The third key word is collective personality. This shows that culture not only affects people, but also concentrates on personality precipitation to maintain some stability.
 
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That is to say, the unique spiritual value and way of life developed by a particular nation is the culture of this nation, such as Confucianism, ancestral hall culture in Chinese culture and so on.
 
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Specifically, Culture covers nearly all kinds of fields in social life. There are many classifications of culture from different perspectives. For example, from the geographical aspect, there are local culture and foreign culture, urban culture and rural culture, Eastern culture and Western culture and so on. Also, from the perspective of time, there are primitive culture, slavery culture, feudal culture, capitalist culture, socialist culture and so on. According to Nida, he divided culture into five categories in his book Language, Cultural and Translation:(1) ecological culture, (2) material culture, (3) social culture, (4) religious culture, (5) language culture. (Nida 1993: 91)
 
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====The Brief Introduction of Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Culture-loaded words refer to the words or phrases carrying the unique cultural connotations of a certain nation, which are different from other nations. Chinese scholar Hu Wenzhong defined culture-loaded words as follows: "Culture-loaded words are words within the scope of a specific culture, and are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the language vocabulary" (Hu Wenzhong 1999:64). When these culture-loaded words are translated into the target language, it is not easy to find corresponding words in the target language. Therefore, the wide use of culture-loaded words can transmit national cultural values and promote national communication.
 
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Based on the classification of culture of Nida, culture-loaded words also can be divided into five catergories accordingly. The first is ecological culture-loaded words, which refer to the words that reflect the unique local ecology, such as climate, lgeomorphology, natural environment, mountains, rivers, vegetation and so on. Different geographical environments breed different cultures, such as the Chinese idiom “稳如泰山”, which translates into English as stable as Mount Tai, meaning as firm as a rock, "Mount Tai" is a unique ecological environment in China. Mount Tai is very majestic in the hearts of the Chinese people, and it is worshipped by the people and enjoys a high status. Therefore, people use this idiom to praise people as stable and unshakable as Mount Tai. For English phrase, "a big fish" is literally translated into Chinese “一条大鱼”, but in English culture, it means "Great man", because Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea, which reflects the influence of the sea on British culture.
 
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The second is material culture-loaded words, which refer to words produced in daily life to meet the development of people's material life, that is, words with cultural connotations such as clothing, food and household goods that people need in daily life. In different cultures, people have different associations with different objects. For example, in Chinese culture, since the ancient time, people have divided the universe into five kinds of things, namely are Wood (木), Fire (火), Earth (土), Metal (金), and Water (水), and called them "Wu Xing(五行)"also known as the Five Elements or Five Phases. The system of five phases was used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena.
 
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The third social culture-loaded words refer to words that reflect various aspects of the society according to different social backgrounds, such as unique festivals, customs, local conditions and practices, as well as the way of address and greeting. For example, "aunt" in English refers to different people in Chinese, that is, maternal aunt, paternal aunt, wife of mother's brother, wife of father's brother.
 
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The fourth religious culture-loaded words refer to some words related to religious beliefs and concepts, reflecting the influence of religion o.n people's lives. For example, Chinese culture is deeply influenced by Buddhism. Some common sayings contain the influence of Buddhism on people's life, such as the Chinese proverb "菩萨心肠"，which refers to the people with a great kind heart. Cram at the eleventh hour. "菩萨"is Bodhisattvas, who embrace qualities like self-sacrifice and morality. The Image of bodhisattva in Buddhism is different from that of Jesus in Christianity.
 
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The last one language culture-loaded words are the reflection of different languages characteristics in speech, lexical, syntax and other linguistic aspects, usually found in dialogue, ancient poetry and colloquialisms, idioms, and so on. Chinese sentences attach importance to the connection of meaning, and clauses are often connected by meaning, while English sentences are connected by connectives. For example, the famous Chinese proverb,"经得广，知得多"，the whole sentence is very concise, only with six words, and there is no conjunction to connect the sentence.  However, the English translation cannot completely translate the format, but need to use a conjunction to connect the sentences in English grammar, that is if you experience more, you can know more things.
 
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===Domestication and Foreignization Strategies===
 
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Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies proposed by Venuti in ''The Translator's Invisibility A History of Translation'' from the perspective of culture in 1995. According to Venuti, Domestication refers to the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers.(Shulttleworth , Cowie 1997 : 43~ 44) This was based on the Germanphilosopher Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation that don’t disturb the reader, as much as possible, and then lead the author towards the meaning that author want to convey. That is to say, using the tanslation strategie of domestication is to localize the translated text. And translator should first consider the target language readers but not the loyalty to the author. Therefore, when translating, the translator should choose the plain and familiar words and expressions in the target language that would not be a barrier to reading for readers, so that the translation can be read nativly and vividly but do not make the readers feel stiff or unfamiliar, and it would not be like a text has been translated but an original book. When translating, he also created many plots that cater to the public’s preferences, making the novel interesting and easy to understand. Because of the cultural differences between the East and the west, some specific words in the source language have no corresponding meanings in the target language. Therefore, especially when translating idioms and allusions, domestication is often used in order to maintain their unique simplicity and expressiveness. For example, cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头卖狗肉)/ live a dog's life(过牛马一样的生活)/seek a hare in hen's nest（缘木求鱼）（Fang Mengzhi 2004: 3）
 
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Foreignization refers to the translation strategy that a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Shulttleworth , Cowie 1997 : 58~ 59) Foreignization refers to the translation strategy that the translator first considers his loyalty to the author and the original text, so the translation will preserve the language characteristics and cultural customs of the original text. The use of foreignization translation strategy will not only make readers have "exotic" reading experience so as to help them better understand cultural differences，at the same time，it also enrich the target language. Many foreign words and expressions have been well integrated into the target language and used in people's daily life. The example of foreignization in Fang Mengzhi's a dictionary of translation studies, such as "time is money", comes from the foreignization of "time is money" in English. Many foreign words have been widely spread and used in Chinese. （Fang Mengzhi 2004: 3）
 
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Domestication and foreignization are indispensable translation methods in cross-cultural translation. Domestication can invisibly introduce foreign cultural ideas into the country without causing exotic reading experience or bringing reading barriers to target language readers, thus increasing the readability of the text. However, with the advent of globalization, blindly domesticating other languages is a way of showing ethnocentrism, which is actually a kind of cultural aggression of other country. Venuti believes that the domestication is to use smooth translation strategy to hide the domestication in the transparency of the translation. This is not a cultural exchange but an act of culuture violence under the cover of domestication strategy with ethnocentric ideas, that is, tampering and cultural appropriation. (Fang Mengzhi 2004: 96）Therefore, foreignization has become an increasingly important translation strategy in the process of translation. For culture-loaded words, adopting foreignization translation strategy can not only accurately express the meaning of the sentence, but also promote the spread of Chinese culture, so as to promote the mutual understanding and communication between the East and the West. Therefore, foreignization is gradually accepted by people and more widely used in the world.
 
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===A study on the English Translation of Culture Loaded Words in ''The Spring Festival'' written by Fang Huawen Based on Domestication and Foreignization Strategies===
 
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The prose ''The Spring Festival'' contains many traditional Chinese festival culture-loaded words such as poems, idioms, proverb and so on, so in the process of translation, appropriate methods and strategies should be selected. For these Chinese culture-loaded words, the English translation is not completely corresponding to the original text. For example, some Chinese culture-loaded words have Chinese cultural connotations but are not reflected in the translation, and the sentence format in the original text is not completely corresponding in the translation. Based on the classification of culture-loaded words mentioned above, this essay analyzes the ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words in Fang Huawen's ''The Spring Festival'' on the theoretical basis of domestication and foreignization translation strategies.
 
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====Ecological Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Some words describing nature, environment, animals and plants are called ecological culture-loaded words. In the prose, the author used nature words "火树银花" to describe the scene of the Lantern Festival with bright lights. Literally, "火树" means the fire trees, "银花" means the silver flowers. If the translator uses the foreignization translation strategy to transliterate the sentence, the foreign readers who don't know the Chinese culture may not understand the meaning of the sentence, and will be confused. This is not a tree or flower, but a scene of bright lights. Therefore, the translator adopts the domestication translation strategy and translates it into "fireworks and laterns were everywhere to be seen", "火树" refer to the trees are covered with colorful lights, and "银花" refer to brightly lit scene.
 
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====Material Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Material culture-loaded words refer to some words used for material production, such as medicinal wine, units of weights and measures mentioned in the prose.
 
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Example 1: "爆竹声中一岁除，春风送暖入屠苏。"
 
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Translation: Firecrackers are sending the old year away; People are toasting in warm breeze.
 
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The sentence quoted the famous poem New Year's Day by Song Dynasty poet Wang Anshi, which depicted a lively scene during the Spring Festival. The word "Tusu"(屠苏) has great cultural connotation. "Tusu" is a kind of medicinal wine, called Tusu wine. According to Chinese legend, Tusu wine was first invented by hua Tuo, a famous doctor in the Eastern Han Dynasty. It is generally drunk on the first day of the first month, which plays a role in strengthening the body and defeating diseases. Therefore, drinking it on the first day of the New Year also conveys people's best wishes for the New Year that everyone can stay away from diseases and be healthy. It implied a wish, just as people in the western culture also toast on festivals, so the translator replaced the literal translation of Tusu with the familiar word toasting.
 
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Example 2: 曾架起一座二十丈的灯山。
 
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Translation: ...was built up a mountain of lanterns to celebrate the festival, nearly 70 meters high.
 
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In the sentence, "二十丈", that is twenty Zhang. Zhang is a unit of length used in ancient China. The use of Chinese length units has evolved with the changes of history. The units of measurement are closely related to life, they have appeared since the beginning of human beings. The primitive people used fingers as inches, palms as feet, and stretching elbows as feet. Then Qin Shihuang unified the measurement and till now the appearance of modern measurement technology today, the evolution of ancient measurement system reflects the changes of history. In English, there is no length unit of Zhang. Therefore the translator used the domestication translation strategy that converted 20 Zhang into 70 meters.
 
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====Social Culture-loaded Words====
 
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The use of social culture-loaded words reflects the specific social background of the certain period. For example, the appellation or title of people is a significant part of social culture-loaded words. In this prose, the titles of the two ancient emperors "汉武帝" and "唐睿宗" are mentioned. The translator's translation of the ruler is as follows:
 
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Example 1：自从汉武帝以来...。
 
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Ever since the Emperor Wu's Reign of Han Dynasty.
 
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Example 2：唐睿宗时，长安的皇宫外庆贺元宵节
 
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During Emperor Ruizong's Reign in Tang Dynasty there just outside the royal palace in Changan.
 
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In Chinese history, from the Han Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty, the posthumous title of the emperor is generally used, which summarized the deeds and morality of the deceased. For example, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, whose posthumous title is "Wu", praised the moral character of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. From the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Yuan Dynasty, the temple name of the emperor was used as the appellation. Temple name is the name given by later generations when they worship in the temple after the death of the ancient emperor. For example, the temple name of the founding emperor is Gaozu or Taizu, such as song Taizu. For the successor, the last word is always Zong, which means to maintain the achievements of the predecessors. For example, Tang Ruizong's temple name is "Rui", which praises his wise. In English translation, the translator uses foreignization to translate the posthumous title "Wu" of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and the temple name "Rui" of Ruizong of the Tang Dynasty. Although the title of emperor is different from that of Di and Zong in Chinese, translator all uses the word emperor.
 
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Example 3: 其外形有"哪吒闹海""孙悟空""猪八戒"和"沙僧"。
 
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Translation: lanterns in forms of Nazha's Adventure in East Sea, Monkey King, Pigsy, Sha Wujing.
 
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The words in historical allusions and legends have great social and cultural connotation. "哪吒闹海"is an ancient Chinese legend."孙悟空", "猪八戒" and "沙僧" are main characters in Journey to the West, one of China's four greatest master pieces. Chinese people have watched TV dramas or books about these characters since childhood, so they are familiar with them. However, for foreign readers, they are not familiar with these characters or plots, so it may perplex them if you don't explain the culture background here. The translator adopted the foreignization translation strategy to directly translate "孙悟空" into "Na Zha's adventure in the East Sea", "孙悟空"into the well-known Monkey King, "猪八戒" into Pigsy, and "沙僧" into his name Sha Wujing. Literal translation may confuse readers who do not understand these legends and stories, so notes can be added, that is, Nazha (a divine warrior in Chinese mythology). And Monkey King, Pigsy, Sha Wujing (main characters in Chinese classics pilgrimage to the West).
 
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====Regilious Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Example 1：死后玉皇大帝封他为"斩祟将军"
 
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And was appointed "ghost-killler general" by God of all gods after his death.
 
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In the translation, the translator uses domestication translation theory to translate "玉皇大帝" into God of All Gods. In Chinese culture, people believe that there are ruler and gods in heaven, and "玉皇大帝" is the leader of the gods in Chinese Taoist mythology. In addition to ruling all gods, "玉皇大帝" also governs the affairs of the universe. People regard "玉皇大帝" as the "emperor" in heaven, the supreme ruler of the world of all gods.
 
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In western culture, religions are numerous and varied. Ancient Greece is the land of pantheism, the ancient Greeks advocated many gods. Zeus is regarded as God of all gods and the supreme ruler of the gods in the Greek mythology. Several popular Western religions, such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam are monotheism, holding the belief that God is the only creator of the world. God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. So the use of domestication can not only express the same meaning of the sentence, but also adapt to the religious culture in the west.
 
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Example 2: 旧岁的最后一天叫"大年三十”，因"除旧岁”而得名除夕。
 
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Translation: The last day of the old year, Danianshanshi in Chinese, is called Farewell Day, as the old year is sent away this day.
 
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The phrase "旧岁”, "岁”is not only refers to the age, but also means year. "旧岁" refers to the past year. The last day of the year, called "岁除", and the night of the day is called "除夕". 除夕, the original meaning of "New Year's Eve", refers to the end of the year to usher in the new. New Year's Eve is a time for family reunion. Like Tomb-sweeping Day, Ghost Festival and the Double Ninth Festival, New Year’s Eve is a traditional Chinese festival for ancestor worship. This sentence uses the combination of domestication and foreignization. The use of foreignization preserves the cultural image and promotes the culture exchange.
 
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====Language Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Chinese idioms usually contain the essence of language and have Chinese characteristics. Many of them use figures of speech such as metaphor. A metaphor is a comparison of something you want to say with something that has similar characteristics. In idioms, metaphors are used to describe the characteristics of something to make it vivid, so as to trigger the association of readers. The idiom in the prose like "像箭一般冲出去了", means that the children rush out quickly, but also shows that the children eager to go outside. In Chinese culture, the arrow(箭) is often used to describe high speed. For example, the idiom "离弦之箭" is used to describe high speed.  "离弦之箭" refers to Time flies quikly. But there is no  equivalent like arrow in English. In English, words like "bullet" or "cheetah" or "rocket ship" are used for things that are fast. Therefore, in order for readers to better understand the meaning of the sentence, the translator uses the domestication method to paraphrase as "dash out", "dash" is an act of running or moving very quickly or hastily, Although the cultural connotation of the source language is sacrificed in this way, the translator faithfully expresses the meaning of the source language.
 
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===Conclusion===
 
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This essay finds that the prose includes plenty of culture-loaded words, which contains extensive and profound meaning about traditional Chinese culture and customs. This essay introduces the Spring Festival, the most important traditional festival in China, as well as various activities prepared by Chinese people for the Festival and customs they adhere to, which largely spread Chinese culture, promote cultural exchanges in the world, and greatly enhancing the strength of Chinese culture. For this essay, using Fang Huawen's translation text as the analysis object, analyze the translation strategies of translator used about different kinds of culture-loaded words, that is, ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words. According to Venuti's translation theory, he advocates that translators should more use foreignization to preserve the cultural connotation of the source language. However, the translator Fang Huawen adopts the domestication translation strategy more frequently, choosing the cultural images familiar to the target language readers in order to resonate with the target language readers and make the target language readers get roughly the same reading effect like the source language readers. At the smae time, culture-loaded words have complex cultural images, if the target language readers do not understand the cultural connotation behind the words, they will not be able to get the real meaning of the text, and may even misunderstand the text mistakenly. When using domestication strategies, translators most commonly use free translation, in which they replace culture-loaded words in the original text with words and expressions more familiar to the target language readers, so as to improve the readability of the translated text and reduce readers' reading barriers. For example he translates the character of Chinese legend "玉皇大帝”into"God of the gods”that are more familiar to the target language readers. However, with the development of globalization, foreignization is increasingly used in translation. When the translator encountered some characteristic culture-loaded words, he chose literal translation, such as "Danianshanshi". Although the translator uses foreignization translation strategy to bring strangeness to the target language readers, it not only retains the traditional image of Chinese culture, but also meets the needs of cultural communication in the world. Foreignization can not only express the meaning of the source language, but also retain the characteristics of the national language. Domestication and foreignization are interactive and not completely opposite. Translators can combine foreignization and domestication in translating culture-loaded words. When translating culture-loaded words, the translator can not only use foreignization translation strategy to retain the cultural image and language connotation of the original text, but also use domestication translation strategy to make the translated text easy to understand and readable.
 
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===References===
 
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Nida Eugene(1993). ''Language,culture,and Translating'' [M].Shanghai:Foreign Language Education Press.
 
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Shulttleworth, Cowie(1997). ''The Dictionary of Translation Studies'' [M]. St. Jerome Publishing.
 
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Venuti, L(1995).''The Transltor’s Invisibility'' [M]. London&Newyork:Routledge.
 
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Fang Huawen 方华文(2014). 中外散文诗歌佳作选译与鉴赏 ''Translation and Appreciation of Chinese& Foreign Selected Famous Proses and Poems'' [M]. 合肥：安徽科学技术出版社 Hefei: Anhui Science & Technology Press.
 
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Fang Mengzhi 方梦之(2011). 中国译学大辞典''The Dictionary of Translation Studies in China'' [M]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社 Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
 
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Yu Qiuyu 余秋雨(2012). 何谓文化''What is Culture'' [M]. 武汉：长江文艺出版社 Wuhan: Changjiang Literature and Art Press.
 
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Written by --[[User:Yin Huizhen|Yin Huizhen]] ([[User talk:Yin Huizhen|talk]]) 04:21, 9 December 2021 (UTC)
 
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=13 程杨 Cheng Yang 《边城》中文化负载词的翻译—以戴乃迭英译本为例 Translation of Cultural-loaded Words in ''Border Town'':A Case Study of Dai Naidie’s English translation =
 
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_13]]
 
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程杨 Cheng Yang, Hunan Normal University, China
 
程杨 Cheng Yang, Hunan Normal University, China
  
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=14 胡舒情 浅谈中医典籍中文化负载词的翻译策略——以《伤寒论》为例On Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words in Traditional Chinese Medical Classics: A Case Study of ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold''=
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=14 胡舒情 On Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words in Traditional Chinese Medical Classics: A Case Study of ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold''=
  
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胡舒情 Hu Shuqing, Hunan Normal University, China
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浅谈中医典籍中文化负载词的翻译策略——以《伤寒论》为例
  
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[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_ 14]]
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胡舒情 Hu Shuqing, Hunan Normal University
  
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=== Abstract ===
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[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_14]]
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''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'', written by Zhang Zhongjing in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, is one of the "Four Classics" of Traditional Chinese medicine which uses six channels as guiding principles of syndromes differentiation and treatment. The book concentrates the traditional Chinese medical wisdom, which is both scientific and literary. The writing is smooth and simple, and the language is straightforward and vivid. A large number of rhetorical devices such as reduplication of words are used to reflect the beauty of Classical Chinese. Its multiple values have led more and more scholars to devote themselves to research, study and even translation and promotion, and a number of outstanding scholars have emerged at home and abroad to devote themselves to the translation work of this book. However, it is not easy to translate this book. China has an long history and profound culture, and the book contains many culture-loaded words. The translation quality of such words directly affects the translation quality, so it is necessary to adopt appropriate translation strategies. Therefore, the author chooses the version translated by Professor Luo Xiwen as the research blueprint to study the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in traditional Chinese medicine classics, in order to promote the translation of this book to a higher level.
 
  
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=== Key Words ===
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=15 陈静 The Translation of Culture-loaded Words From the Perspective of Skopos Theory: A Case Study of ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China''=
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cultrue-loaded words; Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold; Tranditional Chinese medicine classics; translation strategies
 
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=== 题目 浅谈中医典籍中文化负载词的翻译策略——以《伤寒论》 ===
 
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=== 摘要 ===
 
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《伤寒论》为东汉末年的张仲景所著，是以六经作为辩证论治的纲领，荣列为中医“四大经典”之一。该书浓缩了中国传统医学智慧，兼具科学性与文学性，行文流畅朴素，语言直白形象，其中大量运用叠词等修辞手法，体现了中国文言文之美。其多重价值致使越来越多的学者致力于研究、学习、甚至是翻译推广，国内外皆涌现出一批优秀学者投身该书的翻译工作中。但翻译此书并非易事，中国历史优秀、文化精深，书中包含众多文化负载词，这类词的翻译质量直接影响译文质量，采取合适的翻译策略必不可缺。因此，笔者选择了罗希文教授所翻译的版本，作为中医典籍文化负载词翻译策略的研究蓝本，以期推进该书翻译工作更上一层楼。
 
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=== 关键词 ===
 
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文化负载词，《伤寒论》，中医典籍，翻译策略
 
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===1. Introduction===
 
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In recent years, China's international influence and national soft power have gradually improved, and the country has consciously pushed Chinese culture to all over the world. Traditional Chinese medicine culture, as an indispensable part of the excellent traditional culture of the Chinese nation, has a long history and unique theories and technical methods. Classic materials are rich and humanistic spirit of TCM is amazing, and the external dissemination of traditional Chinese medicine culture is becoming more and more important. Under this background, the translation of traditional Chinese medicine in China has been gradually carried out, and the culture-loaded words in the classics of traditional Chinese medicine are important features that reflect their rich cultural color and humanistic connotation, and the translation of culture-loaded words is the key to the translation of traditional Chinese medicine. Culture-loaded words are parts of the construction of traditional Chinese medicine culture and have basic research value. They cannot be unilaterally regarded as completely untranslatable because of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Facing the problems of translation, it is particularly important to put forward feasible translation strategies. A large number of translators of traditional Chinese medicine classics have also emerged in China, facing difficulties and striving to show the world the classics’ cultural accumulation and research results. Among them, the translator Luo Xiwen has translated a series of traditional Chinese medicine classics such as ''Condensed Compendium of Materia Medica'', ''Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber'', ''Huangdi Neijing'', and ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold''. As one of China's historical medical works, ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'' is a classic work of traditional Chinese medicine written by Zhang Zhongjing in the Eastern Han Dynasty. It plays an important role in the development of medical history in the cultural biography of traditional Chinese medicine. This article will discuss the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in traditional Chinese medicine classics through Luo's translation of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold.
 
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===2. TheDefinition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Medical Classics ===
 
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====2.1 The Definition====
 
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Different scholars have different interpretations of culturally loaded words, but a widely accepted definition is that words, phrases and idioms which mark the unique things in a certain culture. These words are deeply imprinted by the region and times of a language society. They only exist in one culture but are blank in another culture.
 
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In recent years, many scholars have begun to pay attention to culture-loaded words in traditional Chinese medicine classics. Some scholars have tried to give a definition of traditional Chinese medicine culture-loaded words, but there is no clear definition yet. However, scholars Zhang Miao and others put forward  recognition steps and a selection standard for traditional Chinese medicine culture-loaded words. First of all, read through the text and divide the semantic groups. Secondly, judge whether the semantic group belongs to the shared vocabulary of all human culture, that is, to express one concept of things as a vocabulary in the context of one language and culture, and words that indicate the corresponding concept in another language and culture background. For example, the words "apple", "pear" and "fire" in Chinese express the same concept and corresponding words in English. If it does not belong to part of speech, then determine whether each semantic group belongs to the following three categories. First, the basic terminology of traditional Chinese medicine. Such terms are usually divided into basic theories of traditional Chinese medicine, diagnosis of traditional Chinese medicine, diseases of traditional Chinese medicine, treatment of traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and moxibustion, and prescriptions of traditional Chinese medicine. Second, words unique to Chinese material culture, such as unique characters and things. Third, the unique language phenomenon of ancient Chinese. Such as ancient and modern synonymous words, common false words, word polysemy, etc. If it belongs to, and there is no obvious English corresponding word in the above semantic group, it is a culturally loaded word(Zhang Miao, 2020:63-64). According to this method, this paper selects the culture-loaded words in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'' in the following article for analysis.
 
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====2.2 The Classification====
 
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After fingding out the culture-loaded words of traditional Chinese medicine, it is often necessary to classify and discuss them. Different scholars have different classification methods. Xu Xueyuan divided the culture-loaded words in ''Huangdi Neijing'' into basic philosophical concepts of traditional Chinese medicine, place names, traditional Chinese medicine terms and organs(Xu Xueyuan, 2018:148-149). Zhang Xuan divided the culture-loaded words in Su Wen into people's names, traditional Chinese medicine terminology, traditional Chinese medicine-related philosophical concepts, and other descriptive cultural load parts of speech(Zhang Xuan, 2009:12-16). Song Conghui and others divided the words of cultural load into: symptoms of traditional Chinese medicine, symptoms of traditional Chinese medicine, etiology and pathogenesis of traditional Chinese medicine, treatment of traditional Chinese medicine, basic philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine, etc(Song Conghui, 2016:121-122). Chen Zinuo and others divide the culture-loaded words of traditional Chinese medicine into five categories: syndrome, symptom, prescription, philosophy and rhetoric(Chen Zinuo, 2021:1698-1700). The latter includes the classification mentioned in the first three, and also opens up a rhetorical class to make the classification more detailed and clear. Therefore, this paper adopts Chen's classification method.
 
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===3. Translation Strategies Used for Culture-loaded Words in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold''===
 
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====3.1 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Syndrome====
 
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The translation of the syndrome affects the readability of the whole translation. ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'' has been written for a long time, and the simple structure of syndrome name carries a lot of information, so there are few modern terms that can be matched with ancient syndrome names. According to the methods mentioned above, most of the terms of traditional syndrome names belong to culture-loaded words. The author selected the syndrome -type culture-loaded words in Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold translated by Professor Luo Xiwen to study the translation strategies of these words.
 
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There are several syndromes mentioned in translation of Professor Luo: “太阳病” “阳明病” “少阳病” “太阴病” “少阴病” “厥阴病” “霍乱病” “阴阳易差后劳复病”. Sheng Jie believes that the translation of the syndrome name should be accurate first, then concise, and there is no need to overemphasize formal equivalence(Sheng Jie, 2013:15). When the meaning of the syndrome name has the corresponding words of Western medicine, the literal translation method should be directly used, and when there is no word to use, the method of additional translation can be selected.
 
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Luo mainly adopts transliteration and free translation for syndrome names, first transliteration, followed by free translation, extending the cultural connotation and giving readers a way to deepen understanding. The following analysis can be seen.
 
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“太阳病” appeares in chapter I, and Luo translates it into The Taiyang (Initial Yang) Syndromes. “太阳” does not refer to the celestial body “sun”, but to the Bladder of Foot-Taiyang. The bladder is located in the lower jiao, that is, below the belly button and above the bladder, which contains body fluid, which evaporizes to form "Qi of Taiyang", which is obvious on the body surface. This Qi has the function of protecting the body, also known as "Wei-qi". Because “Wei” meaning defensive, it is also reputed as “defensive Qi”. Because the Qi of Taiyang travels on the surface of human body, when exogenous pathogenic factors invade the human body, Taiyang must bear the brunt, and the syndromes presented as 太阳病. Professor Luo first gives the transliteration form of 太阳病, and then in view of Taiyang syndromes being the first from the law of transmission, Luo also adds “Initial Yang” as an expression of this kind of law of transmission.
 
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“阳明病” appears in Chapter 4, Luo translates it as: The Yangming (Greater Yang) Syndrome. “阳明病” is related to the stomach channel of Foot-Yangming and the Large Intestine Meridian of Hand-Yangming, which means that Yang Qi is so strong that can be observed. Luo uses "Greater" to indicate the prosperity of yang qi to help readers understand the degree of yang.
 
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“少阳病” appears in Chapter 5. Luo translates it as: The Shaoyang (Lesser Yang) Syndrome. Shaoyang is related to Sanjiao Meridian of Shaoyang and Shaoyang Gallbladder Meridian of Foot. It is one of the three Yang, but its ability to stand up to evil is not as good as Tiyang and Yangming, so "Lesser" is used to correspond to "少" in the name.
 
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“太阴病” and “少阴病”, which have similar names with the “太阳病” “少阳病”, just different from Yin and Yang, have similar translations, so there is no need to go into detail. It is worth mentioning that “厥阴病”, Luo translates it as: The Jueyin (Greater Yin) Syndrome. “厥” has the meaning of “extreme”. When the disease or syndrome reaches Jueyin, Yin is extremely cold. Therefore, the degree of Yin embodied with "Greater" is similar to that of Yangming.
 
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“霍乱” appears in Chapter 9, Luo translates it as: Huoluan (Cholera). “霍”, has the meaning of “suddenly” and “haste”, “乱” has the meaning of chaos. “霍乱” is an explosive gastrointestinal disease with vomiting and diarrhea as the main clinical manifestations. Traditional Chinese medicine believes that it is mostly caused by the combination of the six pathogenic factors and unhealthy diets. In Western medicine, Cholera is more likely to be an acute diarrheal infectious disease caused by the intake of food and water which is contaminated by Vibrio cholerae. It is not appropriate to have Cholera's literal translation of “霍乱” in Chinese medicine.
 
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“阴阳易差后劳复病” appears in Chapter 10, Luo translated it as: The Recurrence of Disease and Yin Yang Yi Syndrome. This chapter introduces two parts: one is related to Yin Yang Yi, that is, the differentiation and treatment of Yin Yang Yi syndrome caused by patients with typhoid fever when they are not healed or just recovering, giving way to their carnal desires; the other refers to the differentiation and treatment of recurring diseases resulted from that, at the beginning of recovering from an illness or no recovery, patients start to work. In this chapter, Luo does not add interpretations, but directly arranges the free translation and transliteration in a phrase. The language is concise, easy to be accepted and understood by readers, and achieve the purpose of communication between Chinese and Western medicine. As a matter of fact, observations show that Luo's translation is relatively accurate in grasping the prosperities of syndromes, and tends to use free translation to reflect the characteristics of the progress of syndromes. However, Luo still mainly uses transliteration to convey cultural information about Yin and Yang and other Chinese-specific philosophical characters. This method also has drawbacks, that is, the transmission of cultural connotation depends on the degree of such characters’ propagation and the reader’s cultural level. For some readers who are first exposed to Chinese medicine culture, the transliteration is not friendly, which is not conducive to their reception of Chinese specific cultural information.
 
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====3.2 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Symptom====
 
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When describing various syndromes in the book, it also points out the symptoms of the patient who is attacked by those disease. Most of the symptoms are described in detail at the beginning, and Chinese medical books are quite different from Western medical books in terms of the degree of language rigor. About Chinese medicine books, they make good use of rhetoric and pay attention to flowery characters and rhyme beauty, which adds a literary flavor to Chinese medicine, while it also causes the ambiguity and non-standardization of the concept of Chinese medicine, which increases the difficulty of translation as well. Examples are as follows.
 
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Example 1：阳浮者，热自发；阴弱者，汗自出。
 
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Translation：Floating at the surface signifies Heat weak in depth signifies spontaneous perspiration.
 
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This sentence is neatly formed and catchy to read. Luo's translation is roughly the same as the original in form. It is worth noting that Luo translates most of the character "热" which refers to heat symptoms caused by an exopathgen as "Heat" or "pathogenic Heat", and capitalized H to distinguish the "heat" from common heat.
 
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Example 2：鼻鸣干呕
 
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Translation：nauseous and with a tendency to snore
 
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In response to “干呕”, Luo uses the adjective “nauseous” to express "disgusting". In fact, the original text “干呕” is closer to “retching”, which refers to only the sound and action of vomiting, but no food or only salivation. This is not the same as complete nausea. “Nauseous” the word chosen by Luo here does not fit the context of Chinese medicine. “鼻鸣” are sounds made when the breath enters and exits due to suffocation in the nasal passages. It is manifested as thick breathing like a squeak, and snoring is the sound of thick breathing after falling asleep. Luo use the translation of “snore” is rather accurate.
 
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Example 3：不下利，但呕者
 
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Translation：……not cause diarrhea, but rather cause nausea and vomiting
 
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“下利” refers to having the trots in Chinese medicine. The literal translation of "diarrhea" here fits the context. Compared with using the previous term nauseous to indicate “干呕”, Luo treats the character “呕” more carefully, using two words nausea and vomit to expresse together. At the same time, ancient Chinese medical writings in classical style tend to use omissions and emphasize parataxis, while English paying more attention to hypotaxis, Luo uses the word “cause” to make sentences more coherent and clearer.
 
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In summary, it can be seen that the translation of symptoms extremely tests the translator's Chinese and English levels and medical understandings, and a slight difference will lead to deviations in meaning. For such culture loaded words, translators also use more literal translation and omission methods, and less transliteration. But there is also a problem, that is, most of the symptom names in Chinese and Western medicine can not completely point to the same content, and this subtle difference may cause doctors to make mistakes in judgment and cause major accidents. Therefore, the translation of symptoms should be more careful, and comments can be added when necessary to help understand.
 
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====3.3 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Prescription====
 
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Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold is the "ancestor of all prescriptions", which contains many culture loaded words related to prescriptions. Chai Hui has carried out research on the English translation of the prescriptions of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold, using the transliteration + literal translation + Latin notation of the "three insurances" translation method for prescription names to ensure that the translation is accurate and comprehensive(Chai Hui, 2010:703-704). Luo's translation mainly uses literal translation for such culturally loaded words. Examples are as follows.
 
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Example 1：芍药
 
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Translation：Radix Paeoniae
 
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The translation of medicinal materials needs to pay attention to the phenomenon of different medicines with the same name. For example, in Zhang Zhongjing's book, there is no distinction between white peony and red peony, but in modern times, white peony and red peony are clearly classified as two kinds of medicinal materials. At present, clinical physicians generally believe that white peony’s function is rather tonic and restorative, while that of red peony refers to ejecting or diarrhea, and two medicinal materials need to be used flexibly according to the condition of the disease. Professor Luo uses Radix Paeoniae to translate it in general, without any distinction or explanation.
 
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Example 2：潦水
 
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Translation：rain water
 
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In Chinese medicine, “潦水” refers to rain water. Luo Zhi literally translated it. “潦水” can be used to decoct herbal medicines whose functions are to nourish spleen and stomach and remove the dampness-heat. In fact, the translator can also explain the reasons for the use of rain water in Chinese medicine after the text, which is more conducive for readers to understand the connotation of Chinese medicine.
 
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Example 3：苦酒汤
 
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Translation：decoction of Bitter Wine (Ku Jiu Tang)
 
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"苦酒汤" in Chinese medicine is actually rice vinegar. Luo translates it as "bitter wine", which means wine with a bitter taste, which is not in line with the original meaning and can be misleading.
 
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Through the above analysis, we can find that the names of the prescriptions and the materials used in the book all have specific cultural connotations of traditional Chinese medicine. There are few corresponding words in Western languages, and even if they do, they are different from the original cultural connotations of the word in the West. We need to adopt appropriate methods in translation, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese medicine, but also facilitates the understanding of target readers.
 
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====3.4 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Philosophy====
 
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The philosophy of Chinese medicine is the ideological basis and theoretical guidance of Chinese medicine, covering Qi, Yin and Yang, and the Five Elements and so on. Among them, the theory of Yin and Yang is the main line of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold, which is expressed as two opposite sides of the same thing or two opposite things in a unified way. Jiang Mingde and others have analyzed the polysemous nature of the term "Yin and Yang" in Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold, and pointed out that Yin and Yang can represent multiple meanings such as pulse location, pulse condition, disease attributes, pathological characteristics, etc(Jiang Mingde, 1992:7-8). The specific meanings in terms vary according to the environment and the translators different. Some examples are analyzed as follows.
 
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Example 1：阴阳自和
 
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Translation：if yin and yang are still in harmony
 
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"阴阳自和" means that after sweating, vomiting, and using the purgation method, the human body achieves Yin-yang harmony and heals through self-regulation. This is an important content of Chinese philosophy. This tends to be a kind of dynamic balance, while Luo Yi's translation of “in harmony” is more inclined to a kind of static stability, which is somewhat different from the original meaning.
 
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Example 2：脉阴阳俱浮
 
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Translation：floating pulse at Yin and Yang
 
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The translations of “阴阳” here are still transliterated as Yin and Yang. As a matter of fact, the two terms here refer to “Cun” and “Chi” (the transliteration of “寸部” “尺部”) appearing as floating features. Cun pulse pertains to Yang, and Chi pulse is to Yin. Professor Luo only uses transliteration, without supplementing background knowledge and relevant contextual information, so that readers in the target language may not understand what exactly they refer to.
 
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Example 3：伤寒阴阳易之为病
 
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Translation：Febrile disease caused by Cold with Yin Yang Yi syndrome
 
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Luo adopts transliteration and free translation. In regard to Yin Yang Yi, Yin and Yang here refer to sexes of male and female, among which Yin Yi is the disease transmitted from female to male; Yang Yi is the diseases transmitted from male to female. After analysis, it can be found that most of philosophical characters such as Yin and Yang are transliterated by Luo, who does not provide additional explanations or supplementary background information. Without pre-connotations, this kind of translation would make the target language readers and feel confused and think that the translated work is obscure.
 
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====3.5 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Rhetoric====
 
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The language of Chinese medicine has its unique features, which are mainly manifested in its literariness, rich philosophical thoughts, and good at comparing images and analogies. Various rhetoric techniques can be seen everywhere in the book. While deepening people’s understanding of the original text, it also increases the difficulty of literary translation into English. The correct transmission and translation of the true meaning requires a solid foundation in Chinese medicine and linguistics.
 
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Example 1四肢烦疼：
 
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Translation：the patient feels heavy and painful in the extremities
 
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The "烦" in this phrase, Explanation of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold and other books explain it as an annoyance, a kind of feeling for people. The Chinese sentence here is a non-spirited sentence to replace people with limbs. Luo’s version of the translation emphasizes people's feelings. It rather focuses on people's feelings of heavy pain in their limbs, than translates people's feelings of boredom.
 
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Example 2：啬啬恶寒，渐渐恶风，翕翕发热
 
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Translation：The patient feels chill and fears wind, uneasy because of a fever.
 
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Among them, “啬啬” “渐渐” and “翕翕” manifest various kinds of rhetoric techniques. “啬啬” reflects the howling shudder look, expressing that the degree of people’s aversion to cold is severe. And “渐渐” describes the onomatopoeia of mild wind and rain, while “翕翕” describes the appearance of mild fever, but these characters are not translated in Luo's translation, and Luo adopts the omission method.
 
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===4. Conclusion===
 
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''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'' is a classic work of Chinese medicine and a treasure of Chinese medicine culture. The translation and dissemination of this book has extraordinary significance for the promotion of Chinese culture and the connotation of Chinese medicine. The culture loaded words are the condensed form of the unique national culture, and their translation is related to the readability of the entire book. The English translation of culture loaded words in Chinese medical classics is an extremely complex cross-cultural translation activity. It not only takes cultural characteristics into account, but also reflects the characteristics of scientific and technological styles, which is a great test for the level of translators. Professor Luo’s translation of this book is the world's first fully translated English translation of TCM classics. The book was published earlier than most translations. Under the background of that time, Luo Xiwen's translation of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold is no doubt of pioneering significance.
 
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The translation strategies Professor Luo chooses are basically literal translation, free translation, omission, and transliteration, with few additional interpretations. Each of these translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. The ultimate goal of translation is for readers to better understand the original text, and there is definitely a great similarity between the two different medical systems of Chinese and Western medicine, which cannot be separated. Literal translation can be used appropriately, and some of Western medicine terms can be used to express some concepts of that of Chinese medicine. Literal translation is a translation method that maintains both the original content and the original form. Generally, when the target language and the original language can express the same content in the same form, we will use literal translation. However, culture loaded words are the difficulties of translation due to the vocabulary vacancy in the target language. The use of literal translation seems to be contradictory. In fact, the choice of literal translation is also for the construction of the concept of TCM culture. Although Chinese medicine culture loaded words are not only a language full of Chinese national characteristics, but also a part of the world's national culture. We should also have full cultural self-confidence. In the translation process, we should dare to retain the national cultural characteristics, express the Chinese medicine culture with the conceptual language of Chinese medicine, and present the pure and natural Chinese medicine culture to Western readers, so as to increase the understanding, recognition and respect of the Chinese medicine culture. This is why Professor Luo extensively use transliteration is his translation, which reflects his care and thought. At the same time, we have to admit that Luo’s translation also has its shortcomings, such as mistranslation or incomplete translation of culture loaded words with multiple meanings, omission of some modifiers, and no supplementary explanations for relatively large differences between Chinese and Western cultures. In the future, Chinese medicine Translation needs to continue to explore, innovate, revise and develop.
 
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All in all, the translation of Chinese medical culture loaded words must not only maintain national cultural characteristics, but also be conducive to the understanding and acceptance of target readers. All major translation strategies are worthy of careful consideration. Only translators familiarize themselves with the original text, master the similarities and differences between the two languages, choose the most appropriate translation strategy in different contexts, and supplement the relevant cultural background when necessary to help readers understand, translations of Traditional Chinese Medicine classics can be rather outstanding.
 
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Munday J. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications[M].London and New York: Routledge, 2001:101-102.
 
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Chai Hui柴卉，吴承艳 Wu Chengyan.浅谈《份寒论》方名翻译[J] Discussion on the Traslation of Prescriptions in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold''.光明中医 Guangming Chinese Medicine,2010.25(4):703-704.
 
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Chen Zhile陈智乐,平文江 Ping Wenjiang.目的论视阈下《伤寒论》中文化负载词的英译策略研究——以罗希文译本为例[J] Research on the Translation Methods of Culture Loaded Words in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'' from the Perspective of the Skopos Theory -- A Case Study of Luo Xiwen's Translation.海外英语 Overseas English,2021(06):59-60.
 
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Chen Zinuo谌子诺, Wang Jie王阶, He Haoqiang何浩强,沈艺 Shen yi.从《伤寒论》桂枝汤方证的英译谈中医文化负载词的英译方法[J] On the Translation Methods of Chinese Medicine Culture Loaded Words from the Translation of Decoction of Ramulus Cinnamomi in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold''.环球中医药 Global Traditional Chinese Medicine,2021,14(09):1697-1700.
 
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Fan Yanni范延妮.中医方剂文化负载词英译对比研究——以《伤寒论》为例[J] A Comparative Study of the Translation of Culture Loaded Words of Traditional Chinese Medicine Prescriptions——Taking ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'' as an Example.西部中医药 Western Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine,2019,32(11):157-160.
 
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Liao Qiyi廖七一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M]An Exploration of Contemporary Western Translation Theories.南京 Nanjing：译林出版社 Yilin Press, 2000:232.
 
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Gu feng谷峰.中医药文化传播视角下《伤寒论》中方剂名的英译[J] On the Translation of Prescriptions in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold''  from the Perspective of Cultural Communication of Traditional Chinese Medicine.中国中医基础医学杂志Chinese Journal of Basic Medicine in Traditional Chinese Medicine,2021,27(01):146-148+163.
 
  
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Hui Jiabei惠佳蓓. 关联理论与《伤寒论》文化负载词英译对比研究：基于两种译本[D]A Comparative Study of Different English Translations of Culture Loaded Words in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold''  from the Perspective of Relevance Theory: Based on Two Translation Versions.南京中医药大学 Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine,2011.
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目的论视阈下文化负载词的翻译研究——以习近平《治国理政》为例
  
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Jiang Mingde蒋明德,何家武 He Jiawu.《伤寒论》阴阳涵义浅见[J]On the Meaning of Yin and Yang in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold''.贵阳中医学院学报Journal of Guiyang College of Traditional Chinese Medicine,1992(01):7-8.
 
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Song Conghui宋聪慧. 生态翻译学视角下《伤寒论》文化负载词英译研究[D]A Study on the English Translation of Culture Loaded Words in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'' from the Perspective of Eco-translatology.南京中医药大学Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine,2016.
 
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Sheng Jie盛洁. 基于奈达功能对等理论的《伤寒论》病证名英译研究——以Nigel Wiseman译本和罗希文译本为例[D]Research on English Translation of Disease and Syndrome Names in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'' Based on Nida's Functional Equivalence Theory——Taking the Translation of Nigel Wiseman and the Translation of Luo Xiwen as Examples.南京中医药大学Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine,2013.
 
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Xu  Xueyuan徐雪元.权力与抗争:浅析后殖民主义翻译理论视角下中医文化负载词的英译[J] Power and Resistance: An Analysis of the English Translation of TCM Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Postcolonial Translation Theory.海外英语Overseas English,2018(19):148-150.
 
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Zuo Gui左桂. 关联翻译理论视域下《伤寒论》通假字英译研究[D]A Study on the English Translation of Tongjia Characters in ''Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold'' from the Perspective of Relevance Translation Theory.南京中医药大学Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine,2021.
 
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Zhang Miao张淼,李莉Zhang Li.中医典籍中文化负载词的识别及翻译策略刍议[J] On the Identification and Translation Strategies of Culturally Loaded Words in Chinese Medical Classics.医学与哲学Medicine & Philosophy,2020,41(02):61-65.
 
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Zhang Xuan张璇. 《黄帝内经》文化负载词英译研究[D] Research on the English Translation of Culturally Loaded Words in Huangdi Neijing.南京中医药大学Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine,2009.
 
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Zhang Zhongjing张仲景.伤寒论[M]Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold.罗希文Luo Xiwen,英译the English Translation,北京Beijing：新世界出版社New World Press.2007.
 
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--[[User:Hu Shuqing|Hu Shuqing]] ([[User talk:Hu Shuqing|talk]]) 14:07, 8 December 2021 (UTC)
 
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=15 陈静 The Translation of Culture-loaded Words From the Perspective of Skopos Theory: A Case Study of ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China''=
 
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_15]]
 
[[Cult_Load_Words_EN_15]]
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===Abstract===
 
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The Communist Party of China celebrates its 100th anniversary in 2021. Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III) was published at a critical juncture. Xi Jinping's political vision is expanded in the third version. This book provides foreign readers with a window into China's leadership and insight into China's unique governance. Hence, the book is critical in assisting foreigners in understanding China's political position in domestic and international affairs. The purpose of this article is to investigate and analyze the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III) using the framework of the Skopos Theory.
 
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===Key words===
 
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Culture-loaded words; Skopos theory; ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China
 
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''
 
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===Introduction===
 
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this subtitle is repeated I think, you can delete this one. And delete this my sentence as well.--[[User:Yang Ye|Yang Ye]] ([[User talk:Yang Ye|talk]]) 11:48, 13 December 2021 (UTC)
 
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===1. Introduction===
 
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====1.1 Research Backgrounds====
 
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Language is a cultural carrier as well as an important means of understanding specific ethnic and national cultures. Each country’s language contains more or less culture-loaded words, and the connotation of these words differs from people’s general cognition of them in the context of globalization, reflecting their own unique culture, national color, and historical context. Because each nation has its own development history, social system, ecological environment, religious beliefs, and so on, the language will inevitably derive a large number of words, allusions, and idioms condensing the national historical and cultural characteristics during the development process of history. With a five-thousand-year-long history, Chinese has amassed a large number of culture-loaded words, and translation of culture-loaded words is an important carrier for cultural readers from other countries to understand Chinese culture without relevant cultural background.
 
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From my perspective, "five-thousand-year-long history" is a little Chinglish, maybe "five-thousand-year history" is better.--[[User:Yang Ye|Yang Ye]] ([[User talk:Yang Ye|talk]]) 11:58, 13 December 2021 (UTC)
 
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At the specific practice level, a large number of culture-loaded words will inevitably appear in the text as a material to publicize all aspects of the country. A good example is Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III). General Secretary Xi Jinping quoted classics and used approachable language in his speech. His use of words infused with Chinese culture made this series of speeches more vivid and appealing to the audience. Through careful text reading, analysis, and summarization, it has been discovered that the culture-loaded words used in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III) primarily fall into the following categories: Chinese political words, including political slogans and political characters; a large number of ancient Chinese poems, with cultural connotation primarily reflected in the characters, allusions, and images appearing in poetry; unique Chinese sayings and idioms; and special words with Chinese cultural connotation, such as numbers, etc. The translation of culture-loaded words necessitates translators faithfully conveying the essence and soul of their national culture while accurately and properly understanding the beliefs, customs, and aesthetic values in other national cultures in order to achieve true cultural communication. As a result, in order to achieve the goal of Chinese culture spreading, translators should carefully deal with culture-loaded words and strive to accurately convey the essence of traditional Chinese culture to target language readers.
 
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====1.2 Research Significance====
 
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China’s politics and policies are attracting increasing attention from the outside world as China’s overall national strength and economic development improve. The Communist Party of China celebrates its 100th anniversary in 2021. This is a significant event in Chinese ruling party's historical and political development. ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III)'' was published at a critical juncture. Xi Jinping’s political vision is expanded in the third version. The language in the book is rich and diverse. In addition to general political terms, the book employs rhetorical devices such as exclusion and repetition to improve the language’s persuasion. The books also contain a large number of poems, proverbs, and idioms rich in Chinese cultural heritage. A minor blunder may result in cultural misunderstanding, a negative national image, and an impact on international relations.
 
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According to Gao Fang (2010), in the context of “Chinese culture go out”, the country has taken various measures to strengthen cultural export, but Chinese readers disregard for local literature, western readers of Chinese culture cognition, English world innate discrimination against translation work and translation strategy decisions, which reflects the difficulties in the broadcast of Chinese culture. As a result, it has piqued the interest of the domestic literary circle, the translation circle, and various publishing institutions: how to successfully realize cross-cultural communication of cultural works, how to properly and effectively solve the translation problem?
 
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The paper uses the English translation of culture-load words in ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China'' as the research content, and attempts to summarize and analyze the translator’s translation strategy and rationality when translating Chinese culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos Theory, as well as providing a reference for the English translation of Chinese cultural load words in current publicity materials.
 
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===2. Literature Review ===
 
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====2.1 Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Nida proposed the theory of culture-loaded terms translation for the first time in 1945.
 
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Nida classified culture-loaded terms into five categories, including ecological, material, social, religious, and linguistic culture-loaded terms. Ecological culture-loaded terms are words or phrases that are distinct due to their ecological and environmental conditions, which typically involve animals, plants, and climate. Material culture-loaded terms refer to physical objects that are specific to a culture, such as vehicles, food, or clothing. Social culture-loaded terms encompass a broader range of cultural content, encompassing all aspects of social life such as cultural background, social rules, history, traditions, and so on. Religious beliefs, including myths and fairy tales, are examples of religious culture-loaded terms. Linguistic culture-loaded terms are expressions with rich cultural characteristics, such as specific pronunciation, word, and syntax. From the author’s perspective, Aixela (1996) provided two primary classifications of culture-loaded terms: specialized nouns and common expressions.
 
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Newmark (2001: 70) classified culture-loaded terms into five categories based on Nida’s research: proper names, historical institutional terms, international institutional terms, national institutional terms, and cultural terms. Proper names, according to Newmark (2001: 70), refer to “persons, objects, and processes distinctively owned by an ethnic community with singular references”. Brand names, trademarks, geographical names, names of newspapers, firms, journals, and private institutions, as well as proprietary names, are all examples of proper names, according to Newmark (2001). According to Newmark (2001: 74), historical institutional terms are “token words that give color and flavor to a period”. International institutional terms are words used by international organizations that have an official translation. According to Newmark (2001: 75), national institutional terms are those involving modern politics, finance, administration, and society. The scope of general cultural terms is broader, including ecological terms, loanwords with no specific cultural characteristics, and so on.
 
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Chinese academics also proposed their own classifications of culturally charged terms. Tu Guoyuan (1996) agreed with Nida and Newmark’s classification and defined culture in a broader sense as human society's mental and practical activities. In a broad sense, culture is defined as a community's distinct way of life and how it expresses its ideas. Culture-loaded terms, according to Liao Huihua and Ge Lingling(2010: 101), are words, phrases, and idioms that represent unique items in certain cultures. These terms reflect the distinct activities of specific ethnic groups that have accrued over time and distinguish them from other cultures.
 
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====2.2 The Skopos Theory====
 
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Skopos Theory, the foundation of Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by Vermeer, a student of Reiss. According to Skopos Theory, the primary principle determining the translation process is the purpose of translation activities.
 
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There are three types of purposes, according to Vermeer. To begin, there is a broad goal that a translator strives for, such as translating as a source of professional income. Second, a target text's communicative purpose in a target context, such as instructing the audience. Third, the goal of a translation strategy or approach, such as displaying structural characteristics of the source language. The theory views the source text as a "offer of information in a target culture," which is a result of constructivist comprehension theories.
 
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The Skopos Theory states that there are three basic rules.
 
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First and foremost, the Skopos rule. It is the highest-ranking rule for any translation, implying that translation activities are determined by the translation purpose. Each text is written with a specific purpose in mind and should be used for that purpose only. Because translation behavior is determined by the purpose of the translation, the Skopos rule is the primary rule for all types of translation.
 
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The coherence rule is the second. This rule states that the target text must be coherent enough to be understandable given the intended receivers' background and context. At the very least, the translator should ensure that the translation is understandable to people from the target culture. Furthermore, only when the target text meets the standard of being intratextually coherent can it be expected to play a presupposed role in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received, and the audience will understand it without difficulty.
 
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The third is the rule of fidelity. This rule focuses on the intertextual coherence between the translation and the original text, which is not the same thing. The former is thought to be inferior to the latter, and both are subject to the Skopos rule. When the purpose of the function changes, the standard is no longer intertextual coherence with the source language, but adequacy or appropriateness in relation to the purpose (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984). It is critical in translation that there is intertextual coherence between the source and target texts, and the form of this coherence depends on both the translator's understanding of the original text and the translator's translation purpose. There is only one possible intertextual coherence: maximum fidelity to the original text.
 
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Skopos Theory’s three basic rules are intended to guide the translator throughout the translation process. In most cases, the translation cannot meet all three rules at the same time because doing so causes it to deviate from the original intention of the source text. In general, the Skopos rule should be followed by the coherence rule, followed by the fidelity rule, or, to put it another way, the need for loyalty is considered to be subject to intratextual coherence, both of which are subject to the Skopos rule. When a faithful translation of the original text cannot be effectively understood by receivers of the target text, the translator should abandon the fidelity rule and follow the coherence rule, that is, to make the translation meaningful in the target language’s communicative context and culture. If the function changes, the required standard will no longer be intertextual consistency with the source text, but adequacy or appropriateness in terms of the purpose (Nord, 2001). If the purpose necessitates intratextual incoherence, the intratextual coherence criterion is no longer applicable.
 
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====2.3 The Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Wang Jianguo (2019) identified four limitations in translating culture-loaded words.
 
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First, culture-loaded words are untranslatable. Culture has a distinguishing feature that sets it apart from the culture of the target language. Culture-loaded words are difficult to translate in certain literary works because they require more explanation and thus have the potential to influence the structural and aesthetic value of the target text. Second, cultural information that is highly relevant to the theme should be translated, and explanatory notes should be included as needed. If the culture-loaded word is unrelated to the source text, the target text will most likely be deleted or omitted. If the target text translated with literal translation can be understood, then literal translation is the most likely translation strategy to be used. Third, cultural values are difficult to convey. As a result, while translating culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics, western media translation can be borrowed. Gu Hongmin, for example, translated “君子” as “a wise man”. Western culture emphasized wisdom, whereas Chinese culture emphasized benevolence. Gu translated “君子” as “wise man” because he thought the two words were culturally equivalent. Fourth, the principle of economy should be applied in translation. Wang discovered that when culture-loaded terms in the source text have little influence on comprehending the whole article, translators can find culturally equivalent words so that the target text will be more concise.
 
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Wang also classified translation strategies into three categories: literal translation, non-literal translation, and translating words with unique cultural information.
 
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The first strategy is literal translation. When there are words with similar cultural meanings, a literal translation is usually used. One type of literal translation is transliteral translation, which refers to the use of pinyin to translate culturally loaded words. Because transliteral translation preserves more cultural characteristics of the source language, it is frequently used in target text of the Big Breasts and Wide Hips. A translation strategy like this can help to avoid misinterpretation of the source language’s culture.
 
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The second strategy is non-literal translation. This translation strategy is typically used in reader-friendly texts in the target language. Such a translation strategy does not adhere to the source text and overcomes constraints in language structure, which is a widely accepted strategy among targeted readers. Nonliteral translation strategies include explanatory notes both inside and outside the main body, including footnotes and tail notes. Filling-in translation is commonly used with literal translations, but it is also one of the non-literal translation strategies. Deletion refers to the practice of translators removing unnecessary words when the original meaning is unaffected.
 
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The third strategy is to translate words that contain specific cultural information. Wang pointed out that idioms, aphorisms and maxims, two-part allegorical saying, the common saying, idioms and proverbs are the six major categories of idiomatic expressions. In many cases, the target text contains no words or phrases that are completely culturally equivalent to the source text.
 
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===3. Analysis of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China''===
 
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====3.1 Translation Strategy of Social Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Social culture-loaded words reflect social ideology, which refers to the system in the form of social and economic factors in specific classes or groups. Social culture-loaded words encompass all aspects of social life, such as social activities, historical allusions, and festival customs. Words or phrases containing social culture-loaded words will emerge from a specific social context. As a result, it encompasses a wide range of word collocations. Political terms with Chinese characteristics, Chinese common saying, and rhetoric in Chinese are examples of social culture-loaded terms.
 
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ST: 中国在人类发展史上曾经长期处于领先地位，自古以来逐步形成了一整套包括朝廷制度、郡县制度、土地制度、税赋制度、科举制度、监察制度、军事制度等各方面制度在内的国家制度和国家治理体系。
 
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TT: Over a long period of history China led the world in development. It forged a complete set of state and governance systems covering the court, administration of prefectures and counties, land, taxation, civil service examination, supervision and the military.
 
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“朝廷制度、郡县制度、土地制度、税赋制度、科举制度、监察制度” are institutions in the past of China that international readers may not be familiar with. In this case, the translators use literal translation by looking for words with similar meanings in the target language and the source language while adhering to the fidelity rule. “郡县” is translated into the modern expression of “prefectures and counties”. Such a translation strategy is in accordance with the principle of efficiency in dealing with cultural information. When the cultural information in the source text has limited influence on comprehending the entire passage, most translators will use a common strategy of finding words or phrases with similar meanings. By doing so, the original context's structure is not jeopardized, and the target text can adhere to the original meaning, which meets the fidelity rule’s requirement.
 
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A similar strategy is adopted in translating “税赋” and “土地”. As for“税赋”in ancient China, the feudal land tax and taxation are included. However, the purpose of this excerpt is only to provide context for China's magnificent culture. Translators look for culturally equivalent words so that the target text is more precise and coherent. When translating “税赋”, since feudal land tax is a unique expression of the social system in ancient China and has little influence on the meaning of the whole passage, the translators use deletion and only translate the meaning of “税”. “土地制度” is also translated into the brief version of “land”, also using the strategy of deletion. Instead, inline annotation is used by translators when translating “科举制度”. “科举制度” is a unique examination system for public officials in ancient China, and it is difficult to find culturally equivalent words for it. To avoid misinterpretation from international readers, the translators explain this noun through explanatory notes, employing the Skopos rule to ensure effective cross-cultural communication. The translators take into account the cultural backgrounds of international readers and used culturally equivalent words in the target language. The goal of these two different translation strategies is to make cross-cultural communication easier. The Skopos rule and the coherence rule have been followed as a result of these strategies.
 
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ST: 广大青年要坚定理想信念，志存高远，脚踏实地，勇做时代的弄潮儿，在实现中国梦的生动实践中放飞青春梦想。
 
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TT: To all our young people, you should have firm ideals and convictions, aim high, and have your feet firmly on the ground. You should ride the waves of your day; and in the course of realizing the Chinese Dream, fulfill your youthful dreams.
 
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“弄潮儿” is a common Chinese saying that originally referred to swimmers who swim against the tide but has since come to refer to people who are brave and entrepreneurial. This phrase has Chinese cultural characteristics and comes from a poem written during the Tang dynasty. This phrase was translated literally by the translators in accordance with the fidelity rule. The fidelity rule requires translators to avoid contradicting the original meaning of the source text while making the translation more understandable in light of the cultural differences. In the target text, the translators use literal translation to directly translate “弄潮儿”, implying that people should follow the trend of the times, which also meets President Xi’s extended meaning. Certain cultural information has its uniqueness, making it untranslatable. “弄潮儿” is a distinctive Chinese expression, and “ride the waves” refers to enjoying the advantage or benefit of a particularly successful, popular, fortunate or interesting moment. It can be difficult to find phrases that are completely culturally equivalent, so the translated version restored as much of the original information as possible, demonstrating how the fidelity rule is applied in the target text.
 
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The above-mentioned social culture-loaded terms demonstrate a high level of adherence to the coherence rule and the Skopos rule, most likely due to the fact that social culture-loaded terms vary greatly across cultures. Target readers may find it difficult to interpret translations that strictly adhere to the fidelity rule, whereas translations that adhere to the coherence and Skopos rules can better facilitate cross-cultural communication. According to the appendix’s collected social culture-loaded terms, the majority of social culture-loaded terms used deletion, literal translation, and inline annotation. These three strategies allow international readers with limited knowledge of Chinese society to comprehend China’s policies and read the volume fluently.
 
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====3.2 Translation Strategy of Material Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Material culture-loaded words include material products and technology invented by human beings derived from the development of society. The third volume’s material culture-loaded terms can be divided into four categories: construction, items, literary works, and names. Most material culture-loaded terms use transliteration and amplification strategies when translating literary works and names, as well as substitutions when translating constructions and products. Materials can have a variety of meanings in different cultures. For example, in Chinese culture, the terms “勤务员” and “伙夫” are distinct expressions that may not have equivalent words or phrases in English. While translating these words, translators should be aware of expressions in Western culture with similar meanings.
 
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ST: 中华民族伟大复兴，绝不是轻轻松松、敲锣打鼓就能实现的。
 
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TT: Achieving national rejuvenation will be no walk in the park; it will take more than drum beating and gong clanging to get there.
 
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East and Southeast Asian musical instruments include drums and gongs. Gongs and drums, with their symbolic meaning of hyping up, can be used in times of grand celebrations in Chinese culture. President Xi is emphasizing the difficult efforts that the Chinese people must make in order to achieve national rejuvenation. As a result, the translators use the translation strategy of addition to limit the boundaries the source text may transform so that the readers can have a more precise understanding, as shown in this excerpt by how the Skopos rule is applied. Meanwhile, the translators render the phrase as "drum beating and gong clanging," demonstrating the fidelity rule. The literal translation is used here to restore Chinese cultural connotations. The fidelity rule in translation requires equivalence in meaning and refers to word for word translation. In this case, the translators have kept the names of well-known Chinese musical instruments. At the same time, the translators explain their connotations, in order to maintain the fidelity of the target text to the source text and to improve cross-cultural communication. Understanding and conveying information of “rejuvenation is no easy task” to international readers is facilitated.
 
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ST: 天宫、蛟龙、天眼、悟空、墨子、大飞机等重大科技成果相继问世。
 
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TT: ... with major advances made in science and technology, including the successful launch of space lab Tiangong, the commissioning of the deep-sea manned submersible Jiaolong and of the five-hundred-meter aperture spherical telescope (FAST) Tianyan, the launch of the dark matter probe satellite Wukong and the quantum science satellite Mozi, and the test flight of the airliner C919.
 
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In material culture-loaded terms, the aforementioned Chinese innovations fall under the category of "names."  Tiangong, Jiaolong, Tianyan, Wukong, and Mozi are all important cultural figures in China, representing advances in science and technology. The translators use inline annotation to further explain these terms, demonstrating the application of the Skopos rule. This type of explanatory inline annotation takes into account English readers' understanding of Chinese culture-loaded terms. It is a limitation of language form of culturally loaded terms that also facilitates international readers' understanding of Chinese cutting-edge technology. Though the length of the article is longer, semantic conveyance can be realized through the explanation that Tianyan is the five-hundred-meter aperture spherical telescope, and the purpose of the book of showing international readers China’s accomplishments is achieved. The original names are faithfully conveyed through transliteration of these advances in science and technology. On the one hand, international readers can still see Chinese culture embodied in cutting-edge technology. Readers from different cultures, on the other hand, can still understand what these terms are thanks to inline annotation, which follows the Skopos and fidelity rules.
 
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In these examples, the fidelity rule takes precedence over the skopos rule. Material culture-loaded terms are typically objects with Chinese characteristics. In most cases, these objects will have no effect on the coherence of the target text. As a result, fidelity to the original text and facilitation of cross-cultural communication are given top priority. Transliteration and inline annotation are the most widely used methods for translating material culture-loaded terms, demonstrating that translators prioritize preserving cultural information and making target text easily understood by international readers.
 
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====3.3 Translation Strategy of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Linguistic culture-loaded words reflect phonetic meaning of language at the language family level. In contrast to English, Chinese language, particularly idioms, typically uses four-character structures. Linguistic culture-loaded terms can be found in a variety of contexts. Linguistic culture-loaded terms include idioms, classical literary prose, the two-part allegorical saying, proverbs, and so on. Linguistic terms that are culturally loaded are more difficult for international readers to understand. As a result, translators must employ translation strategies that are both effective and skillful in order to facilitate cross-cultural communication.
 
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ST: 鸦片战争后，中国陷入内忧外患的黑暗境地，中国人民经历了战乱频仍、山河破碎、民不聊生的深重苦难。为了民族复兴，无数仁人志士不屈不挠、前仆后继，进行了可歌可泣的斗争。
 
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TT: But with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression; its people, ravaged by war, saw their homeland torn apart, and lived in poverty and despair. With tenacity and heroism, countless dedicated patriots fought, pressed ahead against the odds, and tried every possible means to seek the nation’s salvation.
 
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In this excerpt, “战乱频仍”，“民不聊生”, “仁人志士”, “不屈不挠”, “前仆后继” and “可歌可泣” are Chinese idioms, with distinct national characteristics in language structure and expression. These idioms have a distinct origin in Chinese culture and are inextricably linked to national culture. It is not necessary to find culturally equivalent idioms in English when translating these idioms. The Chinese nation and Western countries share a wide range of values and aesthetics. If too many idioms are used in English translation, the same tired formulas will appear. The translations of these idioms are divided into two categories based on the coherence and fidelity rule. The first is deletion, and the second is literal translation. These idioms are intended to demonstrate that, even in difficult situations, Chinese patriots are willing to press on, which has a low chance of causing cultural misinterpretation for international readers. As a result, “战乱频仍”, “民不聊生”, “不屈不挠” and “前仆后继” adopt literal translations that improved the original meaning and demonstrated how the fidelity rule is applied. “仁人志士” is translated as “dedicated patriots” because, while it originally referred to people who were charitable, its meaning later evolved to patriots, which is also translationally adapted to the context. This translation eliminates ambiguity and allows for a more coherent reading experience. Meanwhile, “可歌可泣” was removed while translators worked from a results-oriented perspective and demonstrated the outcome of their struggle, which is "tried every possible means to seek the nation's salvation." The coherence rule was followed in this case by making the reading process for the target text readers smooth and interrupted.
 
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ST: 应该风雨同舟，荣辱与共，努力把我们生于斯、长于斯的这个星球建成一个和睦的大家庭，把世界各国人民对美好生活的向往变成现实。
 
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TT: We are in the same boat, and we should stick together, share weal and woe, endeavor to build this planet of ours into a single harmonious family, and turn peopled longing for a better life into reality.
 
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The translators used two translation strategies in the passage: literal translation and full implication. These strategies adhere to the Skopos rule. When translating “风雨同舟” and “荣辱与共”，the translators restore the meaning of the two idioms, because these two idioms are an essential part of the source text in the construction of meaning. However, “生于斯、长于斯” has been translated into “the planet of ours", demonstrating the adoption of full implication. “生” and “长” are part of the process, and this process is implicated in the “the planet of ours”, which is a result-oriented structure. The translators omitted the process and presented the end results to international readers, restoring the meaning, by employing various translation strategies. The use of various strategies exemplifies the Skopos rule of facilitating cross-cultural communication.
 
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The examples above show that the coherence rule and the skopos rule can be found frequently in the translation of these linguistic culture-loaded terms. Literal translation, inline annotation, deletion, and full implication are the most common translation strategies used when translating linguistic culture-loaded terms. Linguistic culture loaded terms are words or phrases with distinct Chinese characteristics; thus, most translators adhere to the Skopos of improving cross-cultural communication and use literal translation and inline annotation to preserve cultural value. In some cases, the linguistic culture-loaded terms are too difficult to restore their implication; therefore, the translators used deletion and full implication to improve the reading experience of international readers, demonstrating the importance of the coherence rule in the target text. With the impression that international readers will be unable to fully comprehend the meaning of such cultur3-loaded words unless they have a basic understanding of the Chinese social, ecological, and cultural environment, translators should shoulder the responsibility of selecting different translation strategies under the guidance of the Skopos theory and constructing a bridge between different cultures.
 
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====3.4 Translation Strategy of Ecological Culture-loaded Words====
 
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Ecological culture-loaded words reflect the climatic features, natural environment and geographical conditions in an area. People from various regions have distinct expressions that reflect regional characteristics. There are three major categories of ecological culture-loaded terms: animals, plants, and places. Cows and oxen, for example, are animals that represent diligence and industriousness in China, whereas in Western countries, the expression "work all day like a donkey" is common. As is well known, the geographical environment of China gives rise to an agriculture-based culture with a large vocabulary for animals and plants. It explains why many idioms in Chinese and English have completely different meanings. To help international readers fully understand different cultures, translators should use different strategies when translating ecologically and culturally loaded terms. The following examples will demonstrate the use of translation strategy.
 
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ST: 坚定不移“打虎”、“拍蝇”、“猎狐”
 
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TT: We have taken firm action to “take out tigers”, “swat flies”, and “hunt down foxes”.
 
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In Chinese culture, the tiger is both a revered entity and a hunted beast. Tigers are used as a symbol of vigor and vitality in Chinese idioms such as “虎虎生威” (forge ahead with the vigor and vitality of the tiger) and “生龙活虎” (with furious energy). Nonetheless, there are numerous expressions and literary works in which tigers are portrayed as ferocious villains, such as the stories of Wu Song or Li Kui beating tigers. President Xi Jinping’s expression here is reminiscent of tiger figures in fiction, in which heroes battle tigers. The image of a tiger has various meanings in Western culture as well. On the one hand, it is associated with beauty and power, but it has also been referred to as a man-eater on numerous occasions. Tigers are described as “burning bright” and “dare seize the fire”, but it also appeared in Jim Corbett's adventures in India, where he used to hunt "man-eaters," including tigers. Because the images of tigers are so similar, the translators used literal translation in their translation strategy under the rule of fidelity. To save space, translators will use literal translation when a targeted language has words with the same or similar cultural meaning as the source language. Meanwhile, the ecological culture-loaded term revealed the Skopos theory’s fidelity rule. “打虎”, “拍蝇” and “猎狐” are expressions with Chinese roots. Fighting corruption is like fighting tigers, flies, and foxes. Tigers and flies can refer to corrupt officials at various levels in these expressions, while the original meaning of the source text is preserved. It is difficult to find words in Western culture that are culturally equivalent to these ecologically loaded terms. Therefore, the translators did not change the meaning of source text by using literal translation. Such selection of translation strategy shows how fidelity rule is applied.
 
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ST: 深入开展调查研究，解剖麻雀，发现问题。
 
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TT: We should conduct in-depth research to identify prominent problems.
 
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In Chinese culture, there is an old proverb of “麻雀虽小五脏俱全”, which means “A sparrow may be small but it has all the vital organs”. Sparrows can represent small but vital items, whereas such expressions are difficult to find culturally equivalent terms in Western culture. The similarity between “解剖麻雀” and “发现典型”  is understandable in Chinese, but the literal translation of “anatomy of a sparrow” may be difficult to grasp for an international audience. As a result, translators use deletion to make target text more fluent without affecting the original text, and the coherence rule is demonstrated in the translation strategy selection. The translation of “解剖麻雀” is omitted, and the translation of “发现典型” encompasses the extended meaning of “sparrow as the major problems”. If both terms are translated, the English expression will be reductant and not conform to English expressions. According to the coherence rule, the author omitted the explanation of why sparrow means prominent problems to facilitate readers’ reading experience and made the reading uninterrupted.
 
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The example above show that when translating ecological culture-loaded words, translators would consider three rules of the Skopos theory, with the coherence rule taking precedence. It is most likely because most ecological culture-loaded words are names of places or animals, which may be unfamiliar to international readers. To ensure that target readers read in a consistent manner. In translating ecologically loaded terms, the translators use literal translation (including transliteration, implication, and deletion). The mixed-use of translation strategies revealed various rules that are used in translation.
 
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===4. Conclusion===
 
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Since the publication of ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III)'', it has served as the Chinese government's authoritative voice and a window for the rest of the world to understand China's policies. It crystallizes Chinese governance theory and practices and has high research value.This thesis is concerned with the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation strategies, and how these strategies demonstrate the application of three Skopos theory rules.
 
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The Skopos theory, according to the analysis of these examples, can be used as a guiding principle for translating texts similar to those in ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III)''. The Skopos rule states that the translation strategy is determined by the purpose of the target text. The coherence rule, also known as intertextual coherence, requires readability in the target text and will not cause dyslexia in grammar or logic. Using the fidelity rule, the target text should be faithful to the original text. However, the fidelity rule does not require literal word-for-word translations; rather, it necessitates flexibility on the part of the translator.
 
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Following a brief examination, it is discovered that culture-loaded words in ''Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III)'' can be divided into four major categories, with social and linguistic culture-loaded words accounting for the lion’s share. The coherence rule is frequently demonstrated in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Names of places or animals are examples of ecological culture-loaded words. To achieve coherence in the target text, the translators employ literal translation (including transliteration), implication, and deletion strategies when translating ecological culture-loaded words. The fidelity rule and the Skopos rule are frequently seen in target text when translating material culture-loaded words. The majority of material culture-loaded words are objects with Chinese characteristics. Transliteration and inline annotation are the most widely used, demonstrating that translators prioritize being faithful and making target text understandable to international readers. The translation of social culture-loaded words demonstrates a high level of adherence to the coherence and Skopos rules, which is likely due to the fact that social culture-loaded words differ greatly across cultures. The majority of social culture-loaded words were deleted, literal translated, or annotated inline. These three strategies promote coherence in the target text, making it easier to read and comprehend. Linguistic culture-loaded words are words or phrases that have distinct Chinese features. When translating terms of this nature, the translator usually adhered to the coherence and Skopos rules. Literal translation, inline annotation, deletion, and full implication are the most common translation strategies used when translating linguistic culture-loaded words.
 
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To sum up, different translation strategies are very important and indispensable. Different translators would adopt different translation strategies when translating culture-loaded words due to the constraints of history, politics, culture, language and translation objectives. In order to better carry out the translation and transmission of literature and culture, different translation strategies should be used together to supplement each other.
 
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===References===
 
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Nida, E. A.. Linguistics and Ethnology in Translation-Problems[J]. WORD 1 (2): 194-208, 1945.
 
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廖慧华,戈玲玲.从目的论角度对比分析《李清照词》中文化负载词的翻译[J].南华大学学报(社会科学版),2010,11(01):101-103.
 
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王建国. 汉英翻译学：基础理论与实践[M]. 北京：中译出版社，2019.
 
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Chen Jing, 陈静, Hunan Normal University, China

Latest revision as of 17:55, 29 December 2021

Culture Loaded Words

Overview Page of Culture Loaded Words

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Cult_Load_Words_EN_1 Cult_Load_Words_EN_2 Cult_Load_Words_EN_3 Cult_Load_Words_EN_4 Cult_Load_Words_EN_5 Cult_Load_Words_EN_6 Cult_Load_Words_EN_7 Cult_Load_Words_EN_8 Cult_Load_Words_EN_9 Cult_Load_Words_EN_10 Cult_Load_Words_EN_11 Cult_Load_Words_EN_12 Cult_Load_Words_EN_13 Cult_Load_Words_EN_14 Cult_Load_Words_EN_15 Cult_Load_Words_EN_16 Cult_Load_Words_EN_17 Cult_Load_Words_EN_18 Cult_Load_Words_EN_19 Cult_Load_Words_EN_20 Cult_Load_Words_EN_21 Cult_Load_Words_EN_22 Cult_Load_Words_EN_23 Cult_Load_Words_EN_24 Cult_Load_Words_EN_25 Cult_Load_Words_EN_26 Cult_Load_Words_EN_27 Cult_Load_Words_EN_28 Cult_Load_Words_EN_29 Cult_Load_Words_EN_30 ...

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Chapter 1: The Analysis of Culture-loaded Words of English Subtitle Translation in Chinese Movies-Taking Farewell to My Concubine as an Example

Cult_Load_Words_EN_1

羊叶Yang Ye, Hunan Normal University, China

2 谢庆琳 The Analysis of the Chinese Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Russian

Cult_Load_Words_EN_2

3 罗曦 Gary Snyder’s Translation of the Culture-loaded Words in Han Shan’s Poems from the Perspective of the Functionalist Skopos Theory

功能主义目的论视角下加里斯奈德对寒山诗的英译研究

罗曦 Luo Xi, Hunan Normal University, China

Cult_Load_Words_EN_3

4 何芩 The Translation of Cultural-loaded words in Jiu Zhang in Chu Ci Translated by Xu Yuanchong 《九章》许渊冲译本文化负载词的翻译

Cult_Load_Words_EN_4

5 孙雅诗 Study on the translation of culture loaded words under the ecological translation theory——Take the English translation of Dou E Yuan as an example 生态翻译学视域下文化负载词翻译研究——以《窦娥冤》英译本为例

Cult_Load_Words_EN_5

6 杜莉娜 On the English Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Tourism Texts from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication—Exemplified by Zhangjiajie

跨文化交际视角下旅游文本中文化负载词的英译研究--以张家界为例

杜莉娜 Du Lina, Hunan Normal University, China

Cult_Load_Words_EN_6

7 宫博雅 An analysis of the Chinese translation of culture-loaded words in Russian Idioms

俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析

宫博雅 Gong Boya, Hunan Normal University, China

Cult_Load_Words_EN_7

8周小雪 The Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English and Japanese Versions of Medicine

Cult_Load_Words_EN_8

9 付诗雨 On Translating Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Cultural Relics Commentaries into Japanese——A Case Study of Hunan Museum

Cult_Load_Words_EN_9

10 丁旋 On the Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in The Concubine Market of Yangchow of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory

Cult_Load_Words_EN_10

11 高蜜On the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Lao Can You Ji from the Perspective of Cultural Schema Theory 从文化图式理论看《老残游记》中文化负载词的英译

Cult_Load_Words_EN_11

12 殷慧珍 A study on the English Translation of Culture-loaded Words in The Spring Festival written by Fang Huawen Based on Domestication and Foreignization Strategies

殷慧珍 Yin Huizhen, Hunan Normal University, China

Cult_Load_Words_EN_12

13 程杨 Translation of Cultural-loaded Words in Border Town: A Case Study of Gladys Yang’s English translation

Cult_Load_Words_EN_13

《边城》中文化负载词的翻译—以戴乃迭英译本为例

程杨 Cheng Yang, Hunan Normal University, China

14 胡舒情 On Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words in Traditional Chinese Medical Classics: A Case Study of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold

浅谈中医典籍中文化负载词的翻译策略——以《伤寒论》为例

胡舒情 Hu Shuqing, Hunan Normal University

Cult_Load_Words_EN_14

15 陈静 The Translation of Culture-loaded Words From the Perspective of Skopos Theory: A Case Study of Xi Jinping: The Governance of China

目的论视阈下文化负载词的翻译研究——以习近平《治国理政》为例

Cult_Load_Words_EN_15

Chen Jing, 陈静, Hunan Normal University, China

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