20220630 Culture 5

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• 20220630_Culture_1 papers 1-10: 1: 英语笔译 卞王倩 Bian Wangqian 202170081563 Europeanized Chinese and Cultural Factors Behind it, 2: 英语笔译 曹姣 Cao Jiao 202170081564 Research on court culture in the Tang Dynasty from the perspective of poem -- take Changhenge for example, 3 英语笔译 陈路瑶 Chen Luyao 202170081565, 4 英语笔译 崔晓凡 Cui Xiaofan 202170081566, 5 英语笔译 邓阳林 Deng Yanglin 202170081567, 6 英语笔译 高智慧 Gao Zhihui 202170081568, 7 英语笔译 何丽娜 He Lina 202170081569, 8 英语笔译 胡良明 Hu Liangming 202170081570, 9 英语笔译 黄琼 Huang Qiong 202170081571, 10 英语笔译 邝雨琪 Kuang Yuqi 202170081572
• 20220630_Culture_2 papers 11-20: 11 英语笔译 黎溢佳 Li Yijia 202170081573, 12 英语笔译 李思敏 Li Simin 202170081574, 13 英语笔译 李思源 Li Siyuan 202170081575, 14 英语笔译 李婷 Li Ting 202170081576, 15 英语笔译 李欣 Li Xin 202170081577, 16 英语笔译 李颖 Li Ying 202170081578, 17 英语笔译 李媛 Li Yuan 202170081579, 18 英语笔译 李梓婕 Li Zijie 202170081580, 19 英语笔译 梁思婷 Liang Siting 202170081581, 20 英语笔译 廖诗韵 Liao Shiyun 202170081582
• 20220630_Culture_3 papers 21-30: 21 英语笔译 刘唱 Liu Chang 202170081583, 22 英语笔译 刘乐乐 Liu Lele 202170081584, 23 英语笔译 刘双英 Liu Shuangying 202170081585, 24 英语笔译 刘婷 Liu Ting 202170081586, 25 英语笔译 刘瑶 Liu Yao 202170081587, 26 英语笔译 刘珍 Liu Zhen 202170081588, 27 英语笔译 龙翰良 Long Hanliang 202170081589, 28 英语笔译 罗姚林 Luo Yaolin 202170081590, 29 英语笔译 马艳焕 Ma Yanhuan 202170081591, 30 英语笔译 聂薇 Nie Wei 202170081592
• 20220630_Culture_4 papers 31-40: 31 英语笔译 孙丽君 Sun Lijun 202170081593, 32 英语笔译 仝雨梦 Tong Yumeng 202170081594, 33 英语笔译 童略雅 Tong Lueya 202170081595, 34 英语笔译 庹树梅 Tuo Shumei 202170081596, 35 英语笔译 王思琪 Wang Siqi 202170081597, 36 英语笔译 王亚娟 Wang Yajuan 202170081598, 37 英语笔译 肖冬晴 Xiao Dongqing 202170081599, 38 英语笔译 肖佳莉 Xiao Jiali 202170081600, 39 英语笔译 谢晓莹 Xie Xiaoying 202170081601, 40 英语笔译 熊嘉玲 Xiong Jialing 202170081602
• 20220630_Culture_5 papers 41-50: 41 英语笔译 颜媛 Yan Yuan 202170081603, 42 英语笔译 杨心怡 Yang Xinyi 202170081604, 43 英语笔译 杨紫微 Yang Ziwei 202170081605, 44 英语笔译 张国浩 Zhang Guohao 202170081606, 45 英语笔译 张姣玲 Zhang Jiaoling 202170081607, 46 英语笔译 张瑞 Zhang Rui 202170081608, 47 英语笔译 赵宇翔 Zhao Yuxiang 202170081609, 48 英语笔译 郑冬琴 Zheng Dongqin 202170081610, 49 英语笔译 钟青 Zhong Qing 202170081611, 50 英语笔译 周皓熙 Zhou Haoxi 202170081612
• 20220630_Culture_6 papers 51-60: 51 英语笔译 周哲 Zhou Zhe 202170081613, 52 英语笔译 朱丽娟 Zhu Lijuan 202170081614, 53 英语口译 段小蝶 Duan Xiaodie 202170081615, 54 英语口译 方楚晗 Fang Chuhan 202170081616, 55 英语口译 胡雯雯 Hu Wenwen 202170081617, 56 英语口译 黄天琪 Huang Tianqi 202170081618, 57 英语口译 兰绮 Lan Qi 202170081619, 58 英语口译 李丹 Li Dan 202170081620, 59 英语口译 李立飞 Li Lifei 202170081621, 60 英语口译 莫雨婷 Mo Yuting 202170081622
• 20220630_Culture_7 papers 61-70: 61 英语口译 彭慧璇 Peng Huixuan 202170081623, 62 英语口译 时友洁 Shi Youjie 202170081624, 63 英语口译 伍佳惠 Wu Jiahui 202170081625, 64 英语口译 夏晶 Xia Jing 202170081626, 65 英语口译 向师琦 Xiang Shiqi 202170081627, 66 英语口译 向望 Xiang Wang 202170081628, 67 英语口译 徐舞 Xu Wu 202170081629, 68 英语口译 张静芝 Zhang Jingzhi 202170081630, 69 英语口译 张旻丰 Zhang Minfeng 202170081631, 70 日语笔译 曹梦然 Cao Mengran 202170081632
• 20220630_Culture_8 papers 71-80: 71 日语笔译 胡梦琪 Hu Mengqi 202170081633, 72 日语笔译 张白鹭 Zhang Bailu 202170081634, 73 朝鲜语笔译 刘安莉 Liu Anli 202170081635, 74 朝鲜语笔译 王思佳 Wang Sijia 202170081636, 75 朝朝鲜语笔译 徐盖 Xu Gai 202170081638, 76 朝鲜语笔译 徐文慧 Xu Wenhui 202170081639, 77 外国语言文学 Akira Jantarat 202121080009, 78 比较文学与跨文化研究 Mahzad 202021080004, 79 英语语言文学 Mimi 2020GBJ002301

英语笔译 颜媛 Yan Yuan 202170081603

An Analysis of Chinese Humor Language from the View of Formal Repetition Yan Yuan

Abstract

Multidisciplinary by nature,the study of humor has been approached from various perspectives,such as philosophy ,psychology,linguistics ,literature,sociology and anthropology.However,the previous research ,though somewhat comprehensive ,hasn't yet generated systematic and thus convincing theories concerning the definition,the working mechanism of humor as well as its linguistic expressions.A unanimous viewpoint is still in question.Whereas,the awkward situation has been reversed to some extent with the publication of the first academic works tackling Chinese humors The Linguistics of Humors by Professor Hu Fanzhu in 1987,which serves as an impetus for growing interest in and ensuing waves to the studies of humors .It's worthwhile to note that the works itself lays the way for future and further research and thus plays a milestone-like role.In this study we tried to study Chinese Humor language from the view of formal repetition without consideration of language units of all levels in traditional linguistics.Kinds of formal repetition are listed and given restrictions on it.

Key words

Formal Repetition; Chinese ; Humor Language

Introduction

Humor has always been an interesting topic in both ancient and modern times, and many people have studied the phenomenon from different perspectives,such as aesthetics,sociology ,psychology,linguistics,philosophy,etc.Theories about humor can also be described as a lot.Humor can be expressed in many different ways, in a dramatic way(comedy),in a pictorial way(cartoons), in a musical way, etc.Language, as a vehicle for the expression of human thought and ideas, is of course an important way and factor in constituting humor, and thus linguistic humor.Language is a complex system in which everything is based on relationships, and there is no such thing as a system of language system.The complexity of the language system is ,of course , a resource that can often used for humorous language. Humorous language is generated under certain conditions through certain linguistic elements and their relationships with each other.The current research on humor language in China is very one-sided and inadequate,mostly staying in the area of rhetorical patterns, words and the techniques of humor language formation,without a comprehensive, three-dimensional and explanatory study.In view of this,in this thesis we are interested in finding out the connection between the elements of the language system and their interrelationships with humor,i.e.,what forms or relationships are humorous?What forms or relationships are humorous and under what circumstances?In this way, we break the one-sidedness of the original research and think further about the study of humor language, deepen our understanding of the "surface structure"and "deep structure"of humor language , and identify some patterns between linguistic forms and humor language. It is an important reference for us to further understand the mechanism of humor language production and even the application of humor language.

Literature Review

As we are known,language is the most important communication tool for human being , though which people known the world and perceive it."The act of language , though not the whole state of human existence,is the basic state of human existence."(Qian Guanlian.2005) Heidegger said,"Man dwells in the dwelling built by language.Humor is also distinguishing feature of human beings (Nash,1985).Human beings mostly express humor through language, which can be divided into two man categories:oral language and written language. The spoken language is the basis of the written language, and the written language is only the expression of the spoken language.Therefore,humor can also be related to language through these two media,and the specific product is the general form of oral language humor,such as comedy ,skits and so on(Of course,they also include the body language of certain performs).Another form of expression is to record humorous scenes or stories in the form of words to make readers laugh,such as humorous stories in newspaper and magazines, humorous novels and so on. From this point of view, we can say that the relationship between language and humor is that language is the basis and the tool og humor.And without language, there would be no humor(except silent behavioral humor). This close relationship can be seen from the research history of language and humor.The research on the relationship between them has a long history and rich achievements.The study of humor has traditionally been concentrated and dominated within the disciplines of psychology,philosophy,and sociology. It was not until the the late 1970s that the study of humor in linguistics took its place and gained attention.Traditional linguistic studies of humor point out that humorous elements in oral jokes are more stable and explicit in phonological terms than in written jokes, and that linguistic humor arises when the first level of linguistic symbols(i.e., phonological or written units) moves to the second level(i.e.,the communicative system).This has led to a number of research approaches , such as ambiguity, which is prevalent in many humorous texts and can be divided into phonological-lexical ambiguity, semantic-pragmatic ambiguity,etc. Since the publication of the first academic book titled Humor Linguistics in China, the study of humor linguistics in China has been exciting.Chinese scholars have studied humorous language,especially Chinese humor language, from perspectives.Mr.Hu Fanzhu's Humor Linguistics is the first linguistic book in China that systematically studies humor.Starting from a review of the history of laugh and the theory of "laugh" in China and the west.The book proposes that humor is a spiritual phenomenon with three levels,namely:humor in the broad sense is comparable to ludicrousness, humor in the normal sense refers to ludicrousness that appeals to reason,and the humor in the narrow sense specifically refers to humor that contains intellectual lightning and generosity, a sense of spirituality and life.The book was published and had a great impact on the academic world.A large number of similar books have been published, but it can be said that they basically do not deviate from the technical lines and research ideas outlined by Mr. Hu in that book. According to incomplete statistics , in terms of published papers, we searched for 22 articles on the Chinese journals with the keywords "humor language"; 5 articles with the keyword " language humor";15 articles with the keywords "speech humor" ;9187 articles were searched by the keyword "humor". In terms of published monographs , in addition to "Humor linguistics", subsequent monographs on humor language or humor include Gua Tian's Humor Language Operations ,Gong Weicai's Humor Language Art, Li Junhua's Humor Language,Sun Shaozhen's Fundamentals of Humor and Fifty Methods of Humor Defense and so on. In terms of outstanding master's theses on China Journal Online, there are 15 master's theses with humor language as the topic or keywords.

Humor and The Definition of Humor

1.1The origin and definition of humor What is “humor”？There are many different answers to this question.People have interpreted and explained humor form a variety of perspectives, each with their own insights.However , it is a little known fact that the word “金数”is a foreign word in Chinese .The word “humor” in Chinese can be traced back to more than 200 years ago to the“Where silence and quietude reign” in “Longing for Changsha , The Nine Elegies，The Song of Chu”.Wang Yi notes，“Confucius is very good.As poetry written,“Confucius interpreted the word "默" as silence.The mountains in the south of the Yangtze River are high and the wild is very clean, and there is no voice in the desert.”In Shih Chi,“默”（silence) is protrayed as "墨"(Chinese ink).It can be seen that at that time,the word "默"（humor） meant silence.Since then,the basic meaning of "默"(Humor) has not changed for more than 2,000 years.For example, Li Bai,a great romantic poet in Tang Dynasty,wrote in Song of River in Farewell to Cen zhengjun ,"And yet it is worrying to live alone in such a lonely place ."If we consider the meaning of the word "humor", that is , as an aesthetic category we want to study.It is an exotic and a foreign transliteration word in Chinese.In the last century,Mr.Lin Yutang was transliterated from English "Humor" .The reason why Mr.Lin transliterates "幽默" with the word "humor" is to consider their implied meaning(or instant impression meaning) and morpheme association color.Therefore, we can say that humorous words are both transliterated words and free translated words.Since then,the word "幽默" in modern Chinese has gradually deviated from its original meaning， that is , it no longer means "silent", but points to the meaning of humor.According to the related works published in China, there are definitions of humor as follows:

Humorous style is one of the key rhetoric style in Chinese......Humor is the use of language conditions to show the humorous interest in things.It is characterized by a light-heartedness and cheerfulness.It is based on " truth"

Humor is a rhetorical technique.

Humor is a spiritual phenomenon. This spiritual phenomenon has a broad sense,a common sense. There are three levels of humor.Humor in the broad sense is comparable to ridiculousness ,such as comic, witty ,gagging,funny......Humor in the narrow sense refers to the layer of spiritual phenomenon that is most aesthetically valuable.Humor in the conventional sense is a mental phenomenon that has an appeal to the "ridiculousness " of reason.

Humor,like the comedy we see in our daily life,is created for a purpose to make people langh.

From the above definition of humor,we ca know how complicated its definition is, different viewpoint are different.This in itself shows its complexity as an object of study , and we can simplify it without getting entangled in the complexity of the definition.Based on the above viewpoints, we are more inclined to Hu Fanzhu's understanding and definition of humor in his monograph Humor Linguistic , that is , humor is a spiritual phenomenon, which can be divided into three levels:broad sense,ordinary sense and narrow sense.To sum up, in this paper we can define humor as laughable, that is, having the effect of inducing laughter. 1.1.1 The definiiton of humor language From the abpve definition of humor, we know that humor is a multidisciplinary research topic,people from philosophy,psychology,sciology,linguistics,literature and many other aspects of the phenomenon of humor research.This thesis mainly studies the humor language, and the so-called humor language is "created by the use of various elements of language vaiation humor.In dynamic terms, it is the atmosphere in which language is used,or a style of language;in static terms, it is a fuzzy collection of linguistic variants, or an aggregation of ways.”（Hu,1987)From this definition,we can draw the following two conclusions:firstly,humor language must be related to linguistic symbols,humor that dose not use linguistic symbols as a carrier is not within the scope of this study,such as Ding Cong's cartoons and mime act are certainly funnny, but they are not humor language; second , humor language shuld be created by the variation of linguistic elements, not just by the narration of language of language symbols.It is necessary to distinguish between humor expressed in language and humor created by language:

References

• Wang Jianhua (2021). The Reception of Liu Cixin's Three Body Problem in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 450 pp.

英语笔译 杨紫微 Yang Ziwei 202170081605

Appreciating the English Translation of Tang Poems from the Perspective of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Theory of "San Hua" Yang Ziwei

Abstract

Classical Chinese poetry is a gem of Chinese traditional culture. As for the translation of classical Chinese poetry, Mr. Xu Yuanchong is one of the most influential translator of classical Chinese poetry, and his translated works have been unanimously recognized and highly praised by many people at home and abroad. With more than 60 years of translation experience, he has summed up a set of translation theories of his own, which can be summed up in ten words in Chinese as “美化之艺术，创优似竞赛”. This paper mainly focuses on the analysis of the application and embodiment of the mainly translation theories-- the method of "San Hua" (equalization, deepenization and generalization) in Xu Yuanchong's translation of Tang poetry.

Key words

Xu Yuanchong; “San Hua” ; Tang poetry

Introduction

For a long time, translation has been playing an important role as one of the means to promote cultural communication and communication. The translation of many literary works has also achieved high achievements, but the translation of poetry has been mediocre, and it is difficult to produce high-quality translations, especially for the translation of ancient Chinese poetry. Mr. Xu Yuanchong, a modern translation master, has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years and has translated numerous works. His focuses on the English translation of ancient Chinese poems and has formed the method and theory of poem translation in rhyme form. In translation, he emphasized the subjectivity of the translator, the creativity and artistry of translation, and innovated and developed the translation theories of his predecessors. He believed that the translated works could not only convey the beauty of the original text, but even surpass it. In particular, his translation theory of "the art of beautification" has proved to be successful in the English translation of ancient Chinese poems. This paper focuses on the application of Xu Yuanchong's theory of "San Hua" in the translation of Tang poetry, and analyzes and explores its role and expression effect in the translation of ancient Chinese poetry into English. This thesis consists of four main parts, we will learn a lot about the previous study of translation of Tang poetry, the introduction and application of the method of "San Hua" in the translation of Tang poetry as well as the value and influence of Xu Yuanchong's translation theories. The purpose of the thesis is to search for realizing the beauty in form, sense and sound as well as making readers and translators themselves comprehend, enjoy and take delight in reading translation of Chinese classical poetry.

Literature Review

In the past research, people focused on the analysis and exploration of the three aspects of beauty of Xu Yuanchong, therefore, the analysis and research of another theory-- "San Hua" is a field that few people pay attention to. In this thesis, I focus on the analysis and application of the method of "San Hua" in the translation of Tang Poetry. Then in the dissertation of A Study On Xu Yuanchong As A Translator （2006）written by Chen Youyang, he introduce the source and definition of the method of "San Hua" which originates from Qian Zhongshu's "the realm of sublimation". In the Literature and Translation (2016) of Xu Yuanchong, it explains the method of "San Hua" in details and gives some examples to demonstrate its application of equalization（等化）、generalization（浅化） and deepenization（深化）. In addition, it analyzes the relationship between the method of "San Hua" and the three aspects of beauty as well as the "San Zhi". "San Hua" is the method to achieve beauty in sound, sense and form, what's more, it produces the translation works that bring joy and pleasure to readers. Now that my thesis stresses on the analysis of Tang poetry through the method of "San Hua", then I should learn clear about the features and categories of Tang poetry. In the article The Discussion of English Translation of Tang Poetry (1994), Gao Yukun analyzes the characteristics and development of Tang poetry translation and he holds that Chinese classical poetry are translatable. Academic journals of Su Lin and Wang Chengcheng, both of them analyze the significance of the expression of the beauty in sense through the method of "San Hua". Since there are culture–laden words and allusions that are difficult to translate, the proper application of "San Hua" cam help us deal with it well. Then I introduce several Tang poems translated by Xu Yuanchong to illustrate the detailed application and appreciation through the method of "San Hua". In conclusion, the method of "San Hua” is applied in literary and poem translation frequently and many translators praise it. Although sometimes in order to realize the three aspects of beauty, it causes some disputes in the accuracy and faithfulness of translation works, it makes great contributions to the translation field and spread of Chinese culture. Thus, the thesis will pay more attention to the analysis, application and appreciation of translation of Tang poetry through "San Hua" to get a clearer and deeper understanding of the translation method.

Methods and Theories

Research method: Literature analysis. By reading journal articles data online and entity books such as "beautiful suffocation of tang poetry", the selection of classic poetry translation works explore the analysis theory of "three concrete application as well as the significance of the translation method, to explore the untranslatability phenomenon in ancient Chinese poetry and the translator's clever translation method in Chinese and English is how to build a bridge; At the same time, it studies the value and function of the "three Modernizations" translation theory in translation and cultural transmission. Theories: "San Hua"--Equalization,deepenization and generalization.

Subtitle 1

The Previous Study on Translation of Tang Poetry at Home and Abroad

The Tang dynasty is one of the most prosper dynasties in Chinese history. At that time, the development of Tang poetry has reached the highest level and left Chinese people a large number of valuable assets. Tang poetry possesses a very significant position in Chinese culture.

The ancient poetry of the Tang Dynasty are mainly five–or–seven–character regulated verse（五言或七言诗）. There are also two kinds of modern poetry, one is called quatrains（绝句） and the other is called metrical verse（律诗）. What's more, the quatrains and the metrical verse have five characters and seven characters respectively, so there are basically six basic forms of Tang poetry: five-character ancient style poem, seven-character ancient style poem, five-character quatrains, seven-character quatrains, five-character metrical verse, and seven-character metrical verse. Ancient poetry requires a wide range of rhymes: in a poem, the number of sentences can be more or less, the chapter can be long or short, and the rhyme can be changed. However, modern poetry has strict requirements on rhyme and disciplines of metre: a poem has a limited number of sentences, that is, the quatrains consist of four sentences while the metrical verse of eight sentences. The rhyme schemes or level and oblique tone of the words in each line has a certain regularity, and rhyme cannot be converted. It also requires the middle four lines to be antitheses. The style of ancient poetry is handed down from previous generations, so it is also called gufeng or ancient style. And modern poetry has a strict meter, so some people call it metrical poetry. The forms and styles of Tang poetry are colorful and innovative. It not only inherited the Han and Wei folk songs, Yuefu tradition, and greatly developed the style of free verse; It not only inherited the five and seven ancient poems of the previous generation, but also developed into a long epic narrative; It not only expanded the use of five-character and seven-character forms, but also created modern poetry with a particularly beautiful and neat style. It pushed the artistic characteristics of the harmony of syllables and the refinement of words to an unprecedented height, and found a most typical form for the ancient lyric poetry, which is still particularly popular with the people. However, due to the strict metrical restrictions in modern poetry, the content of the poem is easily fettered and cannot be created and played freely, which is a great defect brought by its advantages and creates troubles for its translation as well.

It is a hard work to produce high–quality and beautiful translation work of Tang poetry. Since there are not only various themes and styles in Tang poetry, but also allusions, numerals, images, phonetic words, customs, natural scenery, place names and etc. All of these pose greater troubles for translating Tang poetry. Therefore, different translators hold different views in translating Tang poetry and they have their own translation theories.

Since 80s century, there are lots of English versions of Tang poetry, such as Poetry and Prose of Tang and Song, which is translated by Yang Xianyi and Gladys, Xu Zhongjie's New Translations of Two Hundred Tang Poems, Wu Juntao's Translation of Du Fu's Poetry, Xu Yuanchong's New Translation of Three Hundred Tang Poems and Selective Translation of Li Bai's Poems, Zhang Tingchen and Bruce M.Willson's Translation of One Hundred Tang Poems and Weng Xianliang's Translation of Classical Chinese Poetry. In early times, some people thought that poems can not be translated. P.B.Shelly and R.Frost were supporters. Frost said that poetry is what gets lost in translation (Gao,1994). An Austrian philosopher, R. Jakobson believes that poetry is strictly untranslatable (Gao,1994). Although there were such opinions, most people believed that poems are translatable and many translators have explored and formed new translation theories. In addition, E.A. Nida's equivalent effect and functional equivalence theories support that poems can be translated because of language regularity. Among them, some hold to translate poems with English metrical verse, such as Xu Yuanchong and Wu Juntao; while others use free verse on poetry translation, such as Weng Xianliang and Wang Shouyi. Because of intricate features of Tang poetry, translation work is difficult to realize its original beauty in form, sound and sense at the same time, so the former pays much attention to maintain the beauty in form, sound and sense and pursues to realize the combination of sense and form, and the latter emphasizes the importance of sense and seek to reproduce the meaning of the original poem and convey the true feelings of the poet, but sometimes it lost the original beauty of rhyme and sound. As L. Wittgenstein said, "translating from one language to another is doing a ma-thematic task. And translating an emotional poem into another language is like addressing a ma-thematic problem..., which can be solved but lack of a systematic method" (Gao Yukun,1994,22). The French translator, Le Marquis d'Henvey–Saint–Denys also wrote in the preface of his translation work Collection of Tang Poetry in 1862, "Poem translation is taking great risk and it is also hard and painful, because we found that those true beauties lie in the poetry can not be expressed in any foreign language."

No matter what translation theories they use, all of them believe that the translation of poetry is an art. Under the guidance of Yan Fu's translating standards--faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, they have been trying to achieve the beauty in form, sound and sense. Xu Yuanchong, who has been translating Chinese classical poetry for more than 60 years, made great contributions to the translation field and had remarkable achievements.

Subtitle 2

Main Ideas of Xu Yuanchong’s Literature Translation Theory

2.1 An introduction to Xu Yuanchong

Xu Yuanchong was born in Nanchang, the capital city of Jiangxi province in 1921. He graduated from the Department of Foreign Languages of Tsinghua University in 1943. He entered the Institute of Foreign Literature of Tsinghua University in 44 years and then went to Europe to study. After returning to China, he served as a professor of English and French in foreign languages schools in Beijing, Zhangjiakou and Luoyang. He has been a professor of international culture at Peking University since 1983. He has been teaching the course Translation and Appreciation of Ancient Chinese Poetry at Tsinghua University since 1999. Xu is a famous translator in our country and is called the only expert in translating classical Chinese poetry into English and French verse. He has been nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Xu's business card reads "the only person who translates poetry into English and French". He advocated "Dare to be the first in translation studies", and was regarded as a crazy talent in the field of translation. "I used to like to go my own way by myself, I still like to go my own way by myself, and I will continue to like to go my own way by myself." This is the last thing Xu said to everyone.

Xu's 42 works are all translated works, except for a memoir--Remembrance of the Past, and three works on translation theory--The Art of Translation, On Chinese Verse in English Rhyme, and On Literary Translation. These translations can be divided into four categories. One is Chinese-English translation, including 22 titles such as 600 Ancient Chinese Poems, 300 Immortal Chinese Poems, The Book of Songs, Romance of the Western Chamber, and Selected Poems of Mao Zedong. The second is the Chinese translation, which includes 150 Poems of the Tang and Song Dynasties and 100 Selected Lyrics of the Tang and Song Dynasties and so on. The third type is the Chinese-English translation, including Dryden's All for Love, Scott's Quentin Duward and so on. The fourth category is French-Chinese translation, including Hugo's Selected Plays, Stendhal's Red and Black and other eight kinds. Among them, the most striking is that he translated the literary masterpieces of the past 3,000 years into English and French verse and published them one by one, which has initially outlined the development of verse in the history of Chinese literature. It can be called a great feat in the field of translation. Among his works, 300 immortal Chinese poems, published by the British Penguin Publishing Company, is listed in its "Penguin series". Mr. Xu Yuanchong is the first Chinese to publish translated books in this world famous publishing house.

In 2010, Xu Yuanchong was awarded the "Lifetime Achievement Award in Translation Culture" by the Translators Association of China. On August 2, 2014, Xu Yuanchong won the Northern Lights Award for Outstanding Literary Translation, one of the highest awards in the international translation circle. He is the first Asian translator to win this award.

2.2 A Detailed Introduction to the Method of “San Hua”--Equalization, Deepenization and Generalization

As we have mentioned that the beauty of sense is hard to reach, and these measures can help us to improve our translation capability and learn to deal with translation problems in a appropriate manner. These three measures are methodologies of translation. Xu was inspired by Qian Zhongshu's theory of " the realm of sublimation" and came up with the free translation methods.

Equalization aims to achieve the equivalence between the source language and the target language, and it can only be used when the surface meaning and the deep meaning of a poem are the same. It includes word formation, syntactic transfer, affirmation and negation and allusion transplantation, etc. For instance, Xu Yuanchong translates “孤山寺北贾亭西，水面初平云脚低”into " West of Jia Pavilion and north of Lonely Hill, Water brims level with the bank and clouds hang low". The translation of place names is consistent with the original work. This sentence belongs to literal translation and it is easy to understand. Another sentence“树深时见鹿，溪午不闻钟”is translated into " In the thick woods a deer is seen at times, Along the stream I hear no noonday chimes". It also uses the method of equalization and realize the functional equivalence.

Deepenization refers to the fact that when there are differences between English and Chinese in the process of translation, the expression of the source language and the target language is not consistent, it is necessary to complete the unspoken content in the source language in the translation, so that the target reader can understand it. This method mainly includes amplification, creating something out of nothing, splitting translation or adding some content in the translation that is not explicitly stated in the original text but has this meaning. Here are examples of Xu's translation of Tang poems:

(1)白雪却嫌春色晚，故穿庭树作飞花。 But white snow dislikes the late coming vernal breeze, It plays the parting flowers flying through the trees.

In the translation, the words " dislikes, plays and flying" show us the lovely and brisk white snow with the personification. It expresses the poet's avid expectation for spring with the help of flying snowflakes.

(2)随意春芳歇，王孙自可留。 Though fragrant spring may pass away, Still here's the place for you to stay.

This translation explicitly convey the deep meaning of the sentence. Although the spring is gone, but the autumn scenery is better. The poet is willing to stay. He likes to return to nature, loves the landscape and advocates quiet and pastoral life. It shows the poet's noble feelings and the pursuit of his ideal life. In contrast to " deepenization", there are contents involving different cultures in the two languages. Sometimes it is not easy to translate directly, so we need to use a certain method, such as subtraction, to delete the culture-heavy contents in the original text and replace them with more general and understandable contents.

(3)相见时难别亦难，东风无力百花残。 It’s difficult for us to meet and hard to part； The east wind is too weak to revive flowers dead.

In this translation, it omits the word “百”which has no influence on the meaning expression. In this way, Xu also maintains the beauty in form and sound. What's more, the word "flowers" has involved the meaning of hundreds of flowers. This is what we call subtraction, which is one of the methods of generalization. Among them, deepenization is the best way to show us the beauty of sense. It is the high standard of literary translation and generally the translation work supersedes the original one. Thus, it is regarded as creation. In the translation of Tang poetry, we have to be clear that which method we should use in the process of translation to achieve the three aspects of beauty, especially the beauty in sense. The ultimate goal of translation is to produce high–quality translation works which are better than the original ones.

Subtitle 3

The Analysis and Appreciation of Xu's Translation of Tang Poetry through the Method of “San Hua” In this part, we will study Xu Yuanchong's translation methods of “San Hua” deeply and know more about their use in translation of Tang poetry.

3.1 An analysis of Happy Rain on a Spring Night through the Method of “San Hua”

春夜喜雨 （唐）杜甫 好雨知时节，当春乃发生。 随风潜入夜，润物细无声。 野径云俱黑，江船火独明。 晓看红湿处，花重锦官城。

Happy Rain on a Spring Night Du Fu Good rain knows its time right, it will fall when comes spring. With wind it steals in night; mute, it wets everything. Over wild lanes dark cloud spreads; in boat a lantern looms. Dawn sees saturated reds; the town's heavy with blooms(Xu Yuanchong,2020,32).

This poem describes the poet's happy and brisk feelings to see the spring rain. It was written in the spring of 761 (the second year of Shangyuan). After a period of exile, Du Fu finally settled down in Chengdu, Sichuan Province due to the drought in Shaanxi Province and began a relatively stable life in the middle of Sichuan Province. When he wrote this poem, he had been living in a cottage in Chengdu for two years. He personally cultivated, planted vegetables and flowers, and socialized with farmers. He had a deep love for spring rain, so he wrote this beautiful poem describing the rain on a spring night that moistens everything.

Spring rain knows to adapt to the season. When all things germinate and grow, accompanied by the spring breeze, spring rain secretly in time to come at night to nourish all things silently. The country path and the clouds in the sky hide in the darkness, the lights of the fishing boats on the river are particularly bright. Till dawn, I saw that drizzle had moistened red flowers, which made them more charming. And beautiful flowers are full of Jin Guan City. At first, from the perspective of the beauty in three aspects, this is a five–character metrical poem and every sentence is divided into two parts. The first part includes two syllables and the second part includes three syllables. When translated into English, there are five syllables in each sentence and the first part includes two or three syllables and the second part includes three or two syllables. Moreover, the first and second sentences rhyme and so do the third and fourth sentences in both original and translation works. These show the beauty in form and sound. With regard to the expression of beauty in sense, it is not hard to know that the title and the whole poem basically used equalization(等化) so that it is easy for us to understand. In the first sentence, in order to maintain the end rhyme, Xu reversed the order of words "when spring comes" but translated it into "when comes spring". The words "good rain" express the poet's love to spring rain, which sets the general tone for the poem. And in the second sentence, he used "steals" to describe the falling rain which adopted personification and presented us a lively and dramatic picture. He also reversed words in the sentence of "mute, it wets everything", such kind of inverted sentences also seen in the second and third lines. The clouds are spreading the sky gradually indicates the upcoming of the very rain. And "looms" also reveals the carefulness of Xu's word selection. Because of the sullen weather and distance, the light from a lantern in a boat is weak and flickering due to the wind, so he chose the word "looms". Besides, words like "saturated" and "heavy" are appropriate choices. As for “锦官城”, he just translated it into "the town", which is the use of generalization(浅化) that omitted the explanation to allusion. As a whole, by means of the “San Hua”, readers can understand the poem without any difficulty and they can also feel the poet’s true feelings. Meanwhile, the choice of words, lengths of sentences and rhymes are pleasing to read and the meaning of the poem as well as the poet's true emotion are showed in the translation work. We can not only feel the poet's excited and surprised mood but also appreciate the musical beauty of the poem through reading it, which means this translation let readers enjoy and love it.

3.2 An analysis of The Sad Zither through the Method of “San Hua”

锦瑟 (唐）李商隐 锦瑟无端五十弦， 一弦一柱思华年。 庄生晓梦迷蝴蝶， 望帝春心托杜鹃。 沧海月明珠有泪， 蓝田日暖玉生烟。 此情可待成追忆， 只是当时已惘然。

The Sad Zither Li Shangyin Why should the sad zither have fifty strings? Each string, each strain evokes but vanished springs: Dim morning dream to be a butterfly; Amorous heart poured out in cuckoo’s cry. In moonlit pearls see tears in mermaid’s eyes; From sunburnt jade in Blue Field let smoke rise. Such feeling cannot be recalled again: It seemed lost even when it was felt then(Xu Yuanchong,2020,124).

It is one of the most significant poems of Li Shangyin. From the title -- the Sad Zither, we can know that the main focus of the poem is "sad".

This poem has been variously annotated. Some people thought it was a mourning work, some thought it was patriotic, and some thought it was deploring with sighs for all his talent, and others thought it was a description of missing the poet's maid Jin Se. But most people agreed with the first idea. In Xu's translation, most poems use the end rhyme and so does this. From the structure of the poem, we can see that forms of the original and translated works are the same. In regard to the full expression of its meaning, we can analyse it one by one sentence. The first couplet expresses the poet mourns for the lost golden years which we can see from words “思华年”, he translated “华年”into "springs" instead of "golden years" for the beauty of sound by means of generalization. Moreover, as the beginning of a year, spring represents vitality, energy and beauty which is like the most valuable years of people and expresses the poet cherish the golden years greatly. And "vanished springs" uses deepenization which told us that his golden years were lost forever and he was very regretful. Going forward, the second and third sentences include many allusions which is the most difficult task to deal with. The second couplet uses an allusion from Zhuangzi. It says that Zhuangzhou dreamed that he was a butterfly when he woke up from his dream, he found that Zhuangzhou was still there and he did not know where the butterfly was going. The poet took this as a metaphor for the beautiful situation he indulged in when he was young. “望帝春心托杜鹃”comes from a legend that in the late Zhou Dynasty, Shu monarch Du Yu abdicated and retired from public life, but he was unfortunately died. After death, his soul into the cuckoo, crying sadly and moving people's hearts. The poet used the story to convey his hatred and also the ardent miss for his wife. In Xu's translation, he did not translated these allusions directly into "Zhuangsheng" or "the emperor Wang", but omitted the subject. This is the adoption of generalization which avoids complicate and unnecessary explanation of allusions. Then he used the word "dim" actually showed the poet's confusion and melancholy, and "amorous heart" indicated the emperor Wang as well as the poet himself and the word "cry" expressed his sorrow for the vanished golden years and his dead wife directly. In this translation, Xu directly expresses the poet's true feelings which is hid in allusions, it is the method of specification in deepenization. In the third couplet, “沧海月明珠有泪”refers to the tears of mermaids that can turn into pearls. The poet combines the moon beads and tears into a hazy wonderland, expressing a kind of complex feelings of dis-consolation, which includes both the love for its high and clear, and the sadness for its cold and loneliness. And “蓝田日暖玉生烟”refers to the phenomenon that the jade mountain of Blue Field is often illuminated by the sun and the essence of the beautiful jade in it is rising gradually, which is as fine as hair from a distance, but nothing at all from a close look. The poet took advantage of the ideal scenery with high aesthetic meaning to express a kind of regret that can not be close to noble spirits. It is the same as the third allusion. Different from the second couplet, the first half of the third sentence roughly explained what the allusion talked about to readers while the second half used literal translation. If not understand these allusions, it will be hard for us to make it clear that what the poet want to express. Therefore, the proper translation of allusions is really formidable. The last couplet conveys the poet's grief and regrets again but it is much stronger than before. “可待成追忆”was translated into " cannot be recalled again" by Xu Yuanchong, which used negation translation in equalization. In fact, it emphasized that the beautiful days and loved ones were gone for good and it was too late to redeem for him. The word "lost" was tantamount to “惘然”that revealed the inner world of the poet. Xu had not translated“当时”into "when it was felt then" instead of “at that time”, which also belongs to the specification in deepenization, he described the feelings of the poet in details and made it clear to readers.

So from this piece of work, we can get to know that how difficult to deal with allusions properly because of the cultural differences between China and foreign countries. In my opinion, Xu did a really remarkable work. Through his translation, we can not only feel the beauty in form, sound and sense of the Chinese version, but also learn to make full use of the method of “San Hua” to help us understand its main idea and the poet's emotions. Particularly the translation of allusions that eliminates the tedious and unnecessary explanation of them which foreigners can not understand, and maintains the original beauty in form and expresses the important things involved in them as well.

3.3 An analysis of The Mourning Day through the Method of “San Hua” 清明 （唐）杜牧 清明时节雨纷纷， 路上行人欲断魂。 借问酒家何处有， 牧童遥指杏花村。

The Mourning Day Du Mu A drizzling rain falls like tears on the Mourning Day； The mourner' heart is going to break on his way. Where can a wine shop be found to drown his sad hours? A cowherd points to a cot' mid apricot flowers(Xu YUanchong,2020,160).

The first line of the poem points to the natural conditions in which the poet is exposed, such as the time and weather. Tomb-sweeping day is one of the big festivals of the tang dynasty on which people will hold family reunion, visit a grave, outing, and attend various activities. Du Mu did not see the sun in the Qingming Festival in Chizhou（池州）, but only drizzle. The second sentence turns from the perspective of objective to the subjective, focusing on the poet's emotional world. He saw passers-by on the road were busy mourning their dead loved ones, and he felt very sad and grieve. In the third sentence, the poet's feelings mingled with scenes. He was very sad when traveled in the rain. The rain wet his clothes and the weather was chilly. Then the poet sought to drown his sorrows in wine, so he asked the way. The last line tells us to whom the poet asks for directions. "A cowherd points to a cot' mid apricot flowers" brings the reader into a completely new realm, which is completely different from the previous melancholy and misery. The cowherd's warm and sweet voice, distant apricot flowers blooming like brocade, the spring is in the air, and the wine flag at the village head is fluttering. The first two lines of the poem create a sad and sentimental picture, while the last two lines show a vivid and lively one, which is contrasted and interlaced with each other. It also shows us the change of emotions of the poet.

First and foremost, from the three aspects of beauty, Xu still adopts the end rhyme. The number of words in every sentence varies by only one or two, so from the perspective of form, the whole poem is relatively neat after translation.

Then what matters most is the adoption of the method of “San Hua” in the expression of the beauty in sense. Firstly, the title “清明”was not translated into "Pure Brightness Day" or "the Qingming festival", but "the mourning day" because the poem mainly talks about the scenes and poet's feelings on mourning relatives on this very day. And for target readers, especially foreigners, they do not understand what is the Qingming festival or Pure Brightness Day and what people do on this day. Comparatively speaking, " the mourning day" makes the main idea of the poem clear and it is also in line with the original meaning. Therefore, in this poem, Xu mainly used the method of deepenization. In the first sentence,"a drizzling rain" depicts the features of spring rain which is not thick and fast. "Fall like tears" is not showed in the original work, but it is implicated in the sentence. The falling rain is like mourners' tears on their way to visit their dead loved ones. Xu excavates and expresses the implicit meanings of the original text, which eases the burden to fully understand the poem. Then “路上行人” actually do not "pedestrians" or "travelers", but "mourners". Because on the mourning day, those people were engaged in paying respect to the dead and they hurried on the road due to the rain. Xu translated “欲断魂” into "heart is going to break" which belongs to free translation and expressed the mourner's deep sorrow. In the third line, "wineshop" points out that the poet wants to drink down his sorrow, and "drown his sad hours" makes it clear and touching. In the original text, there is also not the purpose why the poet looks for a wineshop, but Xu's translation reveals everything. It belongs to specification and amplification. The last sentence is the answer to the question before--There is a wineshop mid apricot flowers. If let us translate“杏花村”, it could be "apricot village". But after thinking twice, we will notice that it could not be an apricot village, but a cot hid among the apricot flowers which is more appropriate and beautiful. On the whole, through reading Xu's The Mourning Day, we tapped the implicit meaning of every sentence out. And in this English version, Xu directly expressed the poet's heartfelt sorrow, dis-consolation and gratification. In reading this poem, we sympathize with the poet, mourn with him, and find comfort in the discovery of a wineshop hidden in an apricot flowers.

In conclusion, through the analysis and appreciation of the three poems translated by Xu Yuanchong, we further understand the use of his translation methods ”San Hua” in poetry. In general, equalization and deepenization are used frequently in poetry while generalization is mostly used to deal with allusions and etc. Generally speaking, to reverse the disadvantages of the target language, we can use the generalization method to make readers understand the text. Striving for the same high quality of translation as the original work, we can use the equalization method to make readers appreciate it. Developing the advantage of translation and make it surpass the original text, we can use the deepenization method to make readers admire it. This is Xu's skopos theory of literary translation.

Subtitle 4

The Influence of Xu's Translation Theories As an expert of translation, Xu Yuanchong forms his own systematic translation theories which are applauded by most people. And these theories are clearly showed in every piece of his work. We have to admit that his translation theories indeed shed new lights on translation and make tremendous contributions to the exchange between Chinese and foreign cultures. His translation work not only let Chinese people enjoy the foreign literary works in a fresh manner, but also present the original beauty of Chinese literature to foreigners. Under the guidance of his specific translation theories, we get a clearer map to translate poetry, novel and etc. Xu Yuanchong's translation theories “美化之艺术”is combined by extracting one word from predecessors' translation theories. It is based on their experiences and his own translation practice for more than sixty years. He inherited and developed these theories and explained them explicitly. Firstly, He believed that "elegant" no longer means quaint in today's world, but elegance or beauty. Xu said:"According to my own translation practice, I think Yan Fu's 'faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance' can be understood today as 'faithfulness to the original content, smooth translation form and giving play to the linguistic advantages of the translation.' "In my opinion,'faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance' can be understood as 'faithfulness, expressiveness and excellence'. Excellent is to give full play to the advantages of the target language, which is to use the best way of expression of the target language with words of beautiful meaning, sound and form, in other words, 'excellent' is' beautiful '." Secondly, he explains the relationship between science and art, translation words and taste or styles, truth and beauty with simple formulas. Xu says:" Chinese poetry often has multiple meanings with endless aftertaste, while English poetry expresses the literal meaning." Thus, the western science school put forward the theory of "equivalence", "equivalence of function", "equivalence of effect" and literal translation theories. Because the meaning is greater than the words, the Chinese school of art puts forward the theory of free translation and spiritual resemblance, giving play to the advantages of the target language, that is to say, the translator can not only translate all the contents of the original text but also contents are not showed in the original text. Therefore, the formula for literary translation is 1+1>2. Thirdly, he advocates literary translation should create beauty, so he proposes the advantage theory. The translation of cultural allusions is the most difficult. Literal translation cannot preserve beauty even if it can preserve truth. But if we adopt free translation, even if it can be beautiful, it is often hard to avoid distortion. A true translation can make readers comprehend it; a beautiful one can readers enjoy it, and a translation that preserves both truth and beauty will delight the reader. Therefore, the translation of poems should preserve the beauty of the original poems with as little distortion as possible. Since literary translation is an art and literary works are about people, so they have to be fascinating and exciting. If we only pursue truth without paying attention to beauty, it may be not a beautiful work, so the beauty of it is more significant than the truth.

Conclusion

Xu is a very confident, talented and prolific translator with strong character and innovative spirits in the translation field. He has a special calling card; in it there are two phrases "over sixty books published in China and aboard,the one and only person translated series of Classical Chinese poetry into English and French." In another calling card reads "without the title of academician, but he excels an academician; translated over one thousand classical Chinese poems to Europe and America". His translation theories and practices gained a wide range of recognition at home and abroad. Reading his translation of Tang poetry is an enjoyment. Nowadays, there are still many translators and translation theorists support his translation theories, particularly three aspects of beauty and the method of “San Hua”. Looking at the translation of Tang poetry in history, Xu Yuanchong's translation makes our eyes shine. The beauty of classical Chinese poetry, which is thought could not be translated, came to life in his writing. Under the guidance of the beauty in form, sound and sense, translators adopt approaches of equalization, generalization and deepenization to pursue their goals of letting readers comprehend, appreciate and even admire their translations. Although some of his translation theories are still controversial and questioned by some translation staffs, as the saying goes:" There are spots even on the sun", this does neither affect his lofty status in the translation field, nor does it negate his great contribution to the inheritance and dissemination of translation field and culture. Mr. Xu Yuanchong devoted his whole life to the cause of translation and the pursuit of beauty. He spent most of his life summarizing his valuable translation experience and forming his own translation theory system, which is helpful for us to further understand translation and further practice it. His works let us appreciate the local conditions and customs of foreign countries, but also bring foreigners to enjoy the beauty of classical Chinese poetry. In this paper, we studied Xu's mainly translation theories and cited several Tang poems to illustrate his translation methods. Through the analysis of his works, we get a clearer picture on the use of his translation theories, and we also know more about the defects of his translation which casses our reflection. After all, translation theory system can not be completed in one day. It requires us to explore and improve it through trial and error.

References

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• Wang Peng(2008). A Study of Xu Yuanchong's Poetry Translation Thoughts. China University of Petroleum.
• Xu Xiufeng(2006). On the Aesthetic Transference of Poem Translation (From Chinese to English)––Xu Yuanchong's Thought on Poem Translation. Ocean University of China.
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• Gao Yukun 高玉昆(1994).论唐诗英译[On the English translation of Tang Poetry].国际关系学院学报[Journal of the Institute of International Relations],(4).
• Lu Su, Xu Yuanchong 陆苏,许渊冲(2020).美得窒息的唐诗[Suffocating Tang Poetry].湖北：长江文艺出版社[Hubei:Changjiang Literature and Art Publishing House].
• Su Lin 苏琳(2020).“变通”译唐典音美意深远——从“三化论”角度看唐诗中典故的英译[The Translation of Allusions in Tang Poetry from the Perspective of "San Hua"].四川职业技术学院学报[Journal of Sichuan Vocational and Technical College],30(2):73~77.
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英语笔译 张国浩 Zhang Guohao 202170081606

The Influence of Electronic Language on Chinese Language and Culture in the Internet Age Zhang Guohao

Abstract

Language is the most important communication tool and the carrier of culture. Language itself is also a cultural phenomenon. The Chinese nation has a long history of thousands of years, and its language and culture are an indispensable part of Chinese traditional culture. With the development of electronic network and information technology, electronic language is also booming under this background. Electronic language is the product of the times. It has both positive and negative effects on Chinese language and culture. Starting with the analysis of the emergence and characteristics of electronic language, this paper focuses on the positive and negative impact of electronic language on Chinese traditional language and culture in the new media era, and further puts forward a series of measures to protect Chinese traditional language and culture.

Key words

New media; Electronic language; Language culture

Introduction

With the development of current information technology and network technology, a large number of electronic languages, also known as network languages, have appeared on the Internet. And they have increasingly penetrated into people’s daily life with the development of the Internet. Electronic languages reflect the current hot social issues, and have the characteristics of simplicity. With the increase of electronic languages, it is bound to have a certain impact on Chinese traditional language and culture. Electronic languages have both positive and negative effects on Chinese traditional language and culture. While expanding the vocabulary of modern Chinese, some vulgar and malicious electronic languages are eroding the traditional Chinese language and culture. How to make electronic language and Chinese traditional language and culture coexist harmoniously in the new media era is a topic that is worth studying and discussing. This paper will introduce the background of electronic languages, the characteristics of electronic languages and the impact of electronic languages on Chinese traditional language and culture, and explore measures to protect Chinese traditional culture in the new media era.

The Electronic Language in the New Media Era

1.1. The Emergence of Electronic Language in the New Media Era

After three technological revolutions, the new media era has finally arrived. With the rapid development of the Internet, the momentum of new media in people’s lives is also growing. And the electronic language that followed became one of the most important parts of it. Today, under the circumstance of the new media era, electronic language has developed with the development of the network. The continuous development of society has made the traditional language unable to meet people’s spiritual needs. People are now facing a colorful language world on the computer screen. While lamenting people’s strong adaptability, we have to say that this is the result of the transformation of the media. The media carrier has to decide the trend of culture. When we look at the characteristics of electronic language in the era of fresh media, it is not difficult for us to have such results.

1.2. The Definition of the Electronic Language

Electronic language refers to the new language form used in new media such as network forum, chat software, mobile phone short message and so on. It was born in the electronic media and developed with the popularity of the network. Electronic language is participated by the public and can not be separated from the carrier of electronic media. It passes between the instructors of electronic media. Compared with the traditional language, there is no classical version of the electronic language because the electronic media has only appeared for a few decades. Therefore, the grammar and word order of it do not seem to conform to the traditional language norms.

1.3. The Characteristics of Electronic Language in the New Media Era

1.3.1 Electronic language is the combination of written language and spoken language.

According to different media, language can be divided into written language and spoken language. Written language has very restrictive grammar rules, a standard punctuation system and a very strong logic. With no intuitive feeling like spoken language, written language has a deterrent to people and help to form people’s rigorous rational thinking. However, spoken language is very flexible, and is not stick to one pattern. It has the characteristics of immediacy and transience, which makes spoken language not as easy to store and popularize as written language. There is a confrontation between written language and spoken language inadvertently, and this confrontation has been eased in today’s new media era. Electronic language acts as such a bridge. Electronic language not only has the expression environment of written language, but also has an obvious tendency of colloquialism. Whether it is online chat, forum post or mobile phone short message, it is not completely the same as the traditional expression. Since electronic language requires users to type what they want to say on the screen, and requires the receiver to browse the information through their eyes, so it has obvious characteristics of written style in this way. However, it is also influenced by the colloquial style, so there is obvious mutual penetration from both sides. Generally speaking, electronic language is a kind of colloquial written language, which fully integrates the two types to serve its own needs.

1.3.2 Electronic language is pictorial and vivid.

In the new media era, the recipients of electronic media can not learn the rich body language of the communicator from the electronic screen, but they can get some information by some vivid dynamic expressions sent by the messenger. People often use various symbols on the keyboard to create a lot of very vivid and humorous facial expressions to express their body language at that time, in which there is almost no difference between happiness and sadness in real life. These electronic languages are very interesting on the electronic screen and often make people laugh, which instantly shorten the distance between the information sender and the receiver. Through these vivid cartoon symbols which are different from words, the communicator penetrates parts of the meaning he wants to convey, making the virtual electronic media full of reality and immediacy. As a result, many relaxing and humorous electronic languages have emerged. They are not only humorous, but also easy to understand. This kind of relaxing and humorous style caters to the needs of modern people to relax their body and mind, so that the tense young generation can speak freely. When facing a boring topic, they can also discuss with each other in a humorous tone, which undoubtedly brings an unparalleled happy experience to the users of new media.

1.3.3 The expression of electronic language depends on the context and its meaning is vague.

Context refers to the speech environment, which includes both linguistic factors and non-linguistic factors. Contextual factors such as context, time, space, situation, object, and discourse premise, are all related to the use of words. Context includes specific time, specific space, specific scenes, specific characters and so on. Electronic context mainly refers to some new media such as electronic bulletin boards and e-mails. Electronic language in the new media era has a great dependence on the context of electronic media, and many electronic languages are no longer relevant after leaving the environment of electronic media. Electronic context mainly refers to some new media such as e-mails. Electronic language in the new media era has a great dependence on the context of electronic media, and many electronic languages are no longer relevant after leaving the environment of electronic media. Therefore, electronic language is bound to be misunderstood without a big context. The context of electronic language has always been open, allowing everyone to join freely. Different media will produce different languages. Electronic language is generated with the arrival of the new media era and will develop with the continuous development of the new media. The characteristics of electronic language are inseparable from the convenience of transmission, fast replication and various presentations of new media. Therefore, with the continuous development of new media, the era of electronic language has come.

1.3.4 Electronic language is highly dependent on network information technology media.

The intelligent terminals represented by computer, electronic information technology and Internet technology have created electronic language and the unique paralanguage of electronic language such as emoji, which not only makes up for the lack of body language such as expressions, movements and moods of language users, but also makes electronic language form multiple forms of expression, such as structured, semi-structured and unstructured forms. At the same time, network information technology has built a platform for the use of electronic languages, such as various forums, QQ groups, micro-blogs, We Chat and other virtual spaces, so that spoken or written languages and other different types of languages and dialects communicate with each other. Without the network information technology, the electronic language cannot exist. This technology also breaks the limitation of traditional spoken and written language, making the electronic language a super language without the limitation of time, space and region. Therefore, the modern information technology with computer, communication, network and electronic technology as the core is the material basis for the generation and use of electronic language.

The Influence of Electronic Language on Chinese Traditional Language Culture

The new media era is a multilingual society, so there is an obvious language-mixing phenomenon in electronic language. In electronic language, there is no absolute authority and anyone can speak freely, which makes the electronic language have a strong vitality and a huge impact on the traditional Chinese language and culture.

2.1 The Positive Influence

2.1.1 It can promote the development of Chinese language and culture

The electronic language has a variety of changes. Its simple, fast and vivid features not only meet the needs of the new media era, but also give people a fresh and lively feeling. Any language in the world is constantly updated and developed in use. Language innovation is an extremely important factor and a manifestation of vitality of a language. Without innovation, there is no development of language. Denying innovation and resisting innovation are equal to killing the vitality of a language. With the continuous development of electronic language, a large number of new words have emerged and the number of loanwords have increased. And with the extensive use of lettered words and numerals, Chinese vocabulary has been greatly enriched and developed. In the aspect of pronunciation, we use some homophonies to replace some Chinese words. For example, now we use “酱紫”to replace “这样子”. In terms of grammar, electronic language does not adhere to traditional grammar, which enriches and transforms the grammar system, and distorts conventions. In addition, electronic language has accelerated the demise of some old words. This series of characteristics makes the Chinese language fully nourished and breaks the barriers to knowledge. As a result, Chinese language spreads rapidly. At the same time, it adds the fun and color of people’s lives, making cultural exchanges unprecedentedly free and prosperous.

2.1.2 It can promote the transformation of reading methods.

In the era of new media, electronic language is constantly innovating and changing. With the continuous progress of technology, people’s reading methods are changing. Today’s electronic media reading is basically replaced by “hypertext” and “hyperlink”. People can read everything related to the text by clicking on links one by one, which is much more convenient than before. This way also satisfies people’s psychology of seeking knowledge and curiosity. In addition, with the popularization of high-tech products such as mobile phones and tablet PCs, mobile reading begins to prevail. People’s reading is no longer confined to a place. Through these new media, people can easily read anytime and anywhere, which generally improves the reading efficiency.

2.2 The Negative Influence

Firstly, the emergence of electronic language may make Chinese traditional language and culture be in danger of dating. Chinese traditional language and culture is the summary of experience of the continuous development of the Chinese nation. And it is also the national spirit gradually condensed in the long-term social practice. The language culture full of the fine tradition of the Chinese nation not only provided great power for the development of the Chinese nation in the past, but also will play an important role in the future of the Chinese nation. However, in today’s new media era, young students are the main users of electronic media. Since they are particularly sensitive to new things and electronic language has the characteristics of convenience, rapidity and image, it has a fatal attraction for young students who like to pursue new things. While they continue to create electronic language, they also continue to penetrate electronic language into their own lives, which makes Chinese traditional language and culture more and more distant from them. If things go on like this, it will inevitably lead to the dating of Chinese traditional language and culture, and make the future of traditional language and culture bleak.

Secondly, the trend of vulgarization of some electronic language has produced cultural garbage. In the new media era, electronic language constantly pursues individuality and innovation. However, there are also some shortcomings. The virtuality and obscurity of the network make it easy for both sides of the dialogue to relax or even unbridled in their communication, which results in the uncivilized electronic language. Some electronic languages abuse other people or even carry out personal attacks with rude words and dirty words, losing the minimum civilization. And information surplus will produce information garbage, making people consume more time to filter the information. This is a manifestation of information pollution. All these phenomena will seriously affect people’s normal life order. Nowadays, the vulgarization trend of electronic language is becoming more and more serious, and it begins to penetrate into the traditional media. If it is not guided as soon as possible, our traditional language and culture will be destroyed.

Thirdly, electronic language does not conform to grammatical norms. Since electronic language does not conform to grammatical norms and blindly pursues novelty and convenience, it violates Chinese language norms in many ways. Some typos and words and phrases with misinterpreted meanings will have a negative impact on the education of Chinese language. Although these nondescript languages are novel, their damages to Chinese or other languages are obvious. Adolescents are extremely sensitive groups and are willing to accept new things. However, their ability to generally distinguish between right and wrong is not strong. Therefore, in the process of learning, it is easy for them to be affected by these electronic languages, which makes them easy to develop bad habits of not using standard words and standard expressions. As a result, it is detrimental to the learning of traditional language and culture, and their appreciation ability will be decreased.

Fourthly, electronic language can form linguistic generation gap and cause communication difficulties. Electronic language represents a certain type of language and culture in the new media era, and has been widely used in the new media era. It continues to penetrate into the life of the young generation pursuing fashion. In this specific new media language environment, electronic language has its significance. However, when it leaves this specific environment, it will no longer become a tool for people to communicate with each other. If people do not understand it, it will hinder normal communication between people. In terms of the communication effect of a language, this generation gap misleads the communication between the communicator and the receiver, and has a great impact on the traditional language and culture. Many electronic languages cause generation gap between parents and children. Due to the non-standard use of language, parents often don’t know what their children mean. The gap between the two generations is hard to erase. Now, coupled with the novel electronic language, the generation gap between the two generations is bound to deepen and the communication between them will become more and more difficult.

Measures to Protect Chinese Traditional Language and Culture

First of all, the government should introduce relevant laws and regulations to regulate electronic language. The support of the government is like a beacon, which can guide Chinese traditional language and culture to a bright road. In this aspect, China has also made some attempts, such as popularizing Mandarin Chinese nationwide, which is not only the necessary measures to facilitate communication, but also can effectively regulate the Chinese language so as to promote effective dissemination of Chinese language and culture. In addition, in the aspect of creating a good new media environment, the role of national laws and regulations cannot be replaced by other methods. This kind of compelling force can guide the development of electronic language towards the right path. While standardizing itself, it will also promote the traditional language and culture and electronic language to absorb the advantages of each other, learn from each other, and finally achieve a win-win situation.

Secondly, the government should popularize the education of Chinese traditional language and culture. Education has always been the foundation of people’s livelihood. Improving education has no harm to the spread of traditional language and culture. In order to strengthen the proportion of Chinese studies and standardized the use of Chinese language in compulsory education, teachers should pay attention to the cultivation of students’ traditional language accomplishment. High school period can’t pay more attention to the science education but to grasp both sides. In addition, it is necessary to popularize quality education and improve the overall quality of students from all aspects in order to lay a good foundation for entering university. In the university curriculum, we should add the curriculum of Chinese traditional language and culture and the comparative appreciation of Chinese language and culture with other countries, especially in western countries. In this way, we can increase students’ appreciation ability, so that the majority of students can feel the charm of Chinese traditional language and culture, deepen the understanding of Chinese traditional language and culture in the process of comparison with other countries, and make more efforts to protect our traditional language and culture. Many attempts have been made in folk such as the rise of modern private school. Although there is a conflict with the law of compulsory education, but its spirit of exploration should be affirmed and supported.

Thirdly, we need greater efforts to enhance the development of traditional media. Under the pressure of new media, traditional media has a trend of decline. Newspapers are in danger of dying out in the new media age; book sales are also declining year by year. Although journals have entered the digital age, the cultural capacity of them is not high and the transmission channel is not unblocked. If all of these are not solved in time, the consequences will be serious. Moreover, traditional media is an excellent way to spread traditional language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary to continuously explore the new advantages of traditional media and learn advantages from other media, so as to make the traditional language and culture flourish in the traditional media.

Fourthly, The media should hold more programs about traditional culture. The traditional language and culture should be consciously or unconsciously integrated into the program, so that the audience can get spiritual sublimation. Traditional cultural programs may have low viewing rate due to their monotony and slow rhythms. This requires the media director to find a way. In this regard, CCTV’s Lecture Room is a good example. It integrates traditional language and culture into the program in a novel and unique way. It not only spreads Chinese traditional language and culture to the audience, but also leads to an active atmosphere and increase the attraction. As a result, the viewing rate will naturally be higher. In recent years, the film about traditional language and culture is also very popular. The film Confucius and Sacrifice have achieved good earnings. These films show the charm of Chinese traditional style to the world, and have a great significance for the inheritance and development of traditional language and culture. The media therefore has a long way to go in this regard.

Fifthly, we need to speed up the construction of websites that can inherit Chinese traditional language and culture. In the new media era, with the rapid development of science and technology, electronic language is also sweeping the whole network. How to open up a new world of Chinese traditional language and culture in this new field has attracted more and more attention. From my perspective, it is very important for us to adhere to our own principles in the virtual network. In order to protect the traditional language and culture and resist the invasion of electronic language, we must first make the traditional language itself become strong. It is a good choice to run a website that can inherit Chinese traditional language and culture. The website we want is not a pile of meaningless electronic language, but to carry forward the development of Chinese traditional language and culture. This is a spirit that needs to be firmly observed. There is no doubt that if all of these are truly achieved, it will be of great significance to the standardization of language.

Inheritance and Innovation of Chinese Traditional Language and Culture through New Media Means

The above measures are general protection measures for Chinese traditional language and culture. With the continuous development of the new media era and the continuous innovation of science and technology, we need to learn to use the means of new media to protect and inherit Chinese traditional language and culture. This part takes cultural TV programs as an example to discuss how to use TV cultural programs to effectively inherit traditional language and culture.

In recent years, TV cultural programs have become increasingly popular. Under this background, many TV media have participated in the creation of traditional cultural TV programs. The explosive and hot broadcast of TV cultural programs can not only give full play to the communication function of TV programs, but also realize the role of TV program communication in promoting traditional language and cultural spirit. Therefore, how to maintain the original intention of traditional cultural heritage of TV cultural programs is the main purpose of its development. At the same time, through the continuous optimization of the content of the program, it realizes the effective dissemination of traditional language and culture, and thus plays a good role in promoting the construction of a harmonious society.

The first thing is to innovate the program content so as to inherite our excellent language and culture. As a kind of mass media, TV has its own artistic variability. This is mainly because television provides a lot of communication channels, and also shows the diversity of traditional cultural content in the process of inheriting traditional language and culture. Therefore, television should be the main channel for inheriting traditional language and culture. When disseminating knowledge, TV cultural programs also choose higher quality traditional language and culture and realize the inheritance of high-quality traditional language and culture through the continuous innovation of communication forms, thus showing the vitality of traditional language and culture and the responsibility of mainstream media. As early as 2016, the State Administration of Radio made a new deployment for the innovation of radio and television programs. At the same time, it also guided radio and television stations at all levels to actively do a good job in building cultural self-confidence, encouraged radio and television stations to actively innovate, so as to lay a good foundation for the prosperity and development of socialism and high-quality traditional language and cultural programs. It also constantly promotes the effective integration between television media and traditional language and culture. The innovation and creation of excellent TV cultural programs can not only realize the inheritance of traditional language and culture, but also guide young people to actively undertake the main task of inheriting traditional language and culture, which provides reliable support for traditional culture education. At the same time, young people can be striven to be the promoter of traditional language and culture. Students have a certain leading ability and exemplary role. They can not only show the cultural confidence of contemporary young people through the program and enhance the educational function of traditional culture, but also accumulate traditional language and culture in the process of continuous exploration.

Secondly, television should improve the program structure so as to undertake the educational function. With the advent of the information age, there has been an ideological collision between various cultures, which has also affected the traditional consumption concept. With the rapid development of modern information technology, television, as an important cultural industry, plays an important role in cultural communication and transmission of Chinese cultural ideas. Under the background of cultural infiltration, China should actively publicize traditional language and culture and take it as the key content of its soft power development. Cultural strength is an important factor for the prosperity of a nation. TV cultural programs should actively enhance their comprehensive strength in the process of its development. At present, the diversified world culture is booming and the culture of various countries are infiltrating each other. The national cultural soft power plays a major role in the world development competition. TV media should actively undertake the task of spreading the traditional language and culture of the Chinese nation, and take TV cultural programs as the main way to enhance the development of national cultural soft power. In addition, the content of traditional language and culture spread by TV media should also have unique characteristics and highlight the advantages of traditional culture. Only by strengthening the dissemination of traditional language and culture can we lay a good foundation for the future development of China. At the same time, we can also spread the high-quality traditional cultural spirit for young people so that 5000 years of brilliant treasures can be inherited and carried forward. As an important carrier of socialist core values, television should realize the arduous task of carrying forward traditional culture, accelerate the popularization and inheritance of Chinese traditional language and culture and guide teenagers to correctly understand excellent traditional language and culture so as to realize the effective penetration of socialist core values. Although the Internet has had a great impact on the media, and also made the cultural communication have a new direction and mode, the television communication media still occupy a dominant position and should take the responsibility of the mainstream media. Therefore, TV cultural programs should take full use of the advantages of TV media, choose innovative communication methods, fully display the characteristics of traditional language and culture through the optimization of communication content. With the assistance of Internet media, we can inherit and carry forward traditional language and culture, and promote the sustainable development of traditional language and culture in the era of new media.

On the other hand, cultural TV programs should enrich their forms and highlight characteristics of Chinese language and culture. TV cultural programs should actively use the interactive mode of all media. Many TV cultural programs in their production process are integrated with variety show forms to attract audience attention. In addition to the traditional on-site interaction, TV programs should also actively mobilize the participation and interaction of off-site audience in the new media era. In addition, we should also actively enrich the stage manifestation of TV programs. Through the effective application of modern data technology, high-tech elements can be added to the broadcast of TV programs, so that the audience can be immersive and close the distance between traditional language and culture and them. Especially with the continuous improvement of people’s aesthetic level, the design of TV cultural programs should actively innovate the stage design, show the charm of cultural programs under the support of high-tech forces, and build a dynamic artistic space.

Conclusion

In a word, Chinese language and culture has a long history, which has made great contributions to the progress of human civilization. The inheritance of traditional Chinese language and culture needs our continuous efforts. In the new media era, the electronic language is characterized by humor and vague context, which makes it a double-edged sword. Therefore, it will also have an impact on the traditional language and culture in the process of its development, which has both positive and negative sides. This requires the state and society to actively guide the electronic language. The formulation of laws and regulations, the popularization of education and the development of traditional media are all important measures to guide the healthy development of electronic language. It is believed that electronic language can coexist peacefully with traditional language and culture and develop together through continuous efforts of all parties in the near future. At the same time, in the new information age, the mainstream TV media should actively take full advantages of new media, increase the dissemination of traditional language and culture through media integration, improve the national cultural soft power, and shoulder the arduous task of inheriting culture. In addition, we should also actively create original program content with our own characteristics. Under the influence of traditional language and culture, we should increase the communication effect through the form of media integration, so that the influence of traditional language and culture can be fully displayed.

References

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Terms and Expressions

• 电子语言 electronic language
• 文化垃圾 cultural garbage
• 粗俗化 vulgarization
• 普通话 Mandarin Chinese
• 素质教育 quality-oriented education
• 现代私塾 modern private school
• 《百家讲坛》 Lecture Room
• 《孔子》 Confucius
• 《赵氏孤儿》 Sacrifice
• 广电总局 the State Administration of Radio

Questions

• 1. What is the definition of the electronic language?
• 2. The expression of electronic language depends on the context and its meaning is vague. (T/F)
• 3. Why is the viewing rate of traditional culture programs low?
• 4. Adolescents are not extremely sensitive groups and are not willing to accept new things. (T/F)
• 5. What are important measures to guide the healthy development of electronic language?

Keys

• 1. Electronic language refers to the new language form used in new media such as network forum, chat software, mobile phone short message and so on.
• 2. T
• 3. Traditional cultural programs may have low viewing rate due to their monotony and slow rhythms.
• 4. F
• 5. The formulation of laws and regulations, the popularization of education and the development of traditional media are all important measures to guide the healthy development of electronic language.

英语笔译 张姣玲 Zhang Jiaoling 202170081607

The comparison of the translations of Li Bai’s poem Changgan Xing(Ezra.Pound's Version and Xu Yuanchong's) Zhang Jiaoling

Abstract

As one of the representatives of Traditional Chinese culture, poetry and its English translation are favored by literati. Li Bai's masterpiece Changgan Xing has been translated by many Chinese and foreign scholars. This paper makes a comparative study of Ezra Pound's and Xu Yuanchong's translations under the guidance of functional equivalence theory, and finally points out the translation steps that should be followed when translating poems under the guidance of this theory.

Key words

Comparison; ChangGanXing; Ezra Pound; Xu Yuanchong; Functional Equivalence

Introduction

As a literary genre, poetry is rich in thoughts, emotions and imagination, with refined language and beautiful rhyme, and particularly strong imagery. The translation of poetry not only requires accurate reflection of the original content and its imagery, but also requires the translation to be consistent with the original in form and style. When it comes to Chinese poetry, especially Romantic poetry, one can easily associate it with the Poet Immortal Li Bai. He wrote more than 1000 poems throughout his life, which occupy an important position in the development of Chinese classical poetry. His poems is wild and unrestrained, dashing and bold, thus leaving a deep impression on readers. Li Bai's life was unusual in that he revered freedom, loathed the worldly officialdom, and lived his own life. His romantic life provided material for his poetry, and he left many masterpieces in the history of Chinese poetry. It is noteworthy that it was his rich life experiences that had a profound influence on his poetic creation. The poem Changgan Xing is a household Yuefu poem written by Li Bai. The whole poem is written in the form of a merchant woman living in Changganli self-talking, recalling her loving past with her husband and expressing her undying love for her husband in another country. The poem mainly describes the merchant woman’s memory of her and her husband’s innocent childhood, then their wonderful married life, and the protagonist’s endless missing of for her husband after his departure.

Xu Yuanchong is a professor at Peking University and a renowned translator. He has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years, and his achievements are so high that he was awarded the Aurora Borealis Prize for Outstanding Translation of Literature in 2014, one of the highest awards in the international translation community. He has been publishing his translations since 1956, and his major works include The Songs of Chu, Three Hundred Tang Poems, and Three Hundred Song Lyrics. Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation works have promoted the exchange between Chinese and Western cultures and brought outstanding Chinese literary works to the world, especially his translations of classical Chinese poems. In addition, he put forward a series of translation theories, which enriched the traditional Chinese translation theory and promoted the development of translation studies. Mr. Xu Yuanchong's translation theory is mainly based on his "Three Beauties" principle, which holds that "the beauty of meaning means that translated poems should touch the reader's heart as much as the original poems do; while the beauty of sound is that they should have pleasant rhythm as the original poems have; and the beauty of form means that the translated ones should maintain the form of the original poem as much as possible.” Mr. Xu once talked about the relationship between the "Three Beauties" in his article on translating poems: "the beauty of meaning" is the most important, "the beauty of sound" the second, and "the beauty of form" is even less important. (Xu Yuanchong, 1979).

Ezra Pound (1885-1972), a leading representative of 20th century imagist poetry, was also a major founder of British and American modernist poetry. Both a poet and a translator, Pound translated many Confucian classics as well as classical Chinese poems. In 1915, Pound published his English translation of an ancient Chinese poetry anthology, Cathay, which was immediately received by Western society as "one of the best ten or so American poems of the 20th century”. Jeff Twitchell says, "Before Pound, China had no literature worthy of her name popular in English-speaking countries." (Jeff Twitchell, 1992) Pound's idea of poetry creation greatly influenced his idea of translation. Pound advocated translation without emphasizing fidelity to the meaning of the original text; what he sought was to reproduce the details and imagery of the original text in the translation. Imagery is the soul of the poetry translation, without which the translation of poetry would be meaningless.

This paper takes Li Bai's Changgan Xing as the object of study and compares and analyzes Pound's translation “TheRiver-Merchant’s Wife: a Letter” and Xu Yuanchong's translation “Ballad of a Trader’s Wife” under the perspective of Eugene Nida’s functional equivalence theory.

Methods and Theories

The term "dynamic equivalence" was first proposed by Eugene Nida in his 1964 book Toward A Science of Translating, emphasizing that "the relationship between receptor and messageIn such a translation (dynamic equivalent translation) one is not so concerned with matching the receptor-language message should be substantially the same as that existed between the original receptors and the message"(1964:159). In The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida proposed that "Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style." (Nida & Taber 1982: 74). By the end of the 1980s, Nida replaced "dynamic equivalence" with "functional equivalence" in order to emphasize the concept of "function" and to avoid the misunderstandings of "dynamics" by some people, emphasizing that translation is a form of communication focused on reproducing the original language. Functional equivalence requires "not only the equivalence of the content of the message, but also, as far as possible, the equivalence of the form.” Nida clearly states that "the closest natural equivalence" is used to reproduce the original message. In the early 1990s, "functional equivalence" was further divided into two categories including the maximal level of equivalence and the minimal level of equivalence; the former is defined as “The readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" , which is the highest level pursued by the translation, while the latter is stated as “The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it”.(Nida 1995:224;1993:118) The highest level of functional equivalence is an ideal state, which is rarely achieved in texts other than those with little aesthetic value of factual information. The lowest level of functional equivalence is more realistic, and any translation below this level is unacceptable (Nida, 1993: 118). A good translation always lies somewhere between the two levels (Nida, 1995). The theory of "functional equivalence" is flexible, and there is considerable diversity between the highest and lowest levels. Compared with other translation theories that focus on a single theoretical criterion, the "functional equivalence theory" allows for diversity in the translation process. Translators have more autonomy to "deal with some of the problems of variability in different texts, of significant differences between readers, and of differences in the use of translation for research, for publicity, for pleasure, etc." (Nida, 1996: 114).

On the level of word

First, from the translation of the title, Xu Yuanchong translated it as "Ballad of a Trader's Wife", while Pound translated it as "The River-merchant's Wife: A Letter". Both of them are translated by understanding the whole poem, rather than simply translating it as "Changgan Xing". This is because the whole poem is mainly about the woman's longing for her husband through the description of various imagery. Such a translation is also closely related to the context in which the poem was composed. In the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River and the Han River valley, business was flourishing back then, and cities were prosperous with frequent trade contacts, and merchants were running their businesses from region to region. The wives of merchants had to wait and miss their husbands at home. Xu Yuanchong's and Pound's translations are all appropriate in this respect.

Every word in Changgan Xing is carefully chosen as it describes the merchant wife's longing for her husband. As words are the smallest unit in poetry, they are nevertheless the first step in translating poetry. In the first six sentences of this poem, Li Bai described the growth of two children, depicting the happy childhood of a boy and a girl playing merrily, leaving readers a good memory of the protagonist and her husband, and creating a pair of innocent and lively children images.

妾发初覆额，折花门前剧。 郎骑竹马来，绕床弄青梅。 同居长干里，两小无嫌猜。

Pound’s version: While my hair was still cut straight across my forehead： I played about the front gate：pulling flowers. You came by on bamboo stilts: playing horse. You walked about my seat: playing with blue plums. And we went on living in the village of Chokan. Two small people：without dislike or suspicion.

Xu Yuanchong’s version: My forehead barely covered by my hair： outdoors I plucked and played with flowers fair. On hobby horse you came upon the scene： around the well we played with plums still green. We lived: close neighbors on Riverside Lane： carefree and innocent: we children twain.

Analyzing the translation of these sentences, it is easy for us to see that Pound only tried to express the meaning of the original poem, while Xu tried to make the translation more like the original poem. In the first line, Pound chose the word "still" to emphasize the time and state, making the translation closer to the original. As for the understanding of the two’s playground, Pound translated it literally as "front-gate", while Xu chose "outdoors", the same thing was meant with their different choice of words. Then concerning the understanding and illustrating of an ancient toy made of bamboo, Pound chose "bamboo stilts," which is less faithful but easier for foreigners to understand, while Xu chose the word "hobby horse," which is easy to understand for the Chinese, but not so easy for foreigners. The word "bed" in modern times has a different meaning than it does in ancient times, so Pound chose "seat", while Xu chose "well" according to his understanding. In the last sentence, Li Bai described the friendship between two children, and Pound chose "two small people" to indicate their childhood, while Xu's "children twain" is a further explanation, which is more faithful to the original poem as it shows the happy sporting and innocent friendship between the boy and the girl.

These two lines delicately depict the shyness and sweetness of the newly married.

十四为君妇，羞颜未尝开。 低头向暗壁，千唤不一回。

Pound’s version: When I was fourteen: I married my master. I never laughed: and I was shy. I lowered my head and looked at the wall. I had never looked back at one thousand calls.

Xu Yuanchong’s version: When I was fourteen：I became his bride. I often turned my shyness face to the side. I hung my head on the dark wall： and I refused to answer his call.

In the translation of these two sentences, Pound chose to use "my master" to explain the meaning of "husband" to expresses the wife's respect and obedience to her husband, which is very appropriate for the time. Compared with Xu's choice of "he", "my master" seemed to be more appropriate. As for Pound's choice of the phrase "one thousand calls", it clearly showed the girl's shyness and her respect for her husband. Taking the fact that the girl is only 14 years old, and they live in a feudal society, so Pound's choice of words was very appropriate. As for Xu's choice of "dark wall", he actually misunderstood the original meaning, so his choice of words seemed to be inferior.

The following two sentences indicate the wife’s worries about her husband's business trip, showing her genuine concern and love for her husband, creating a heavier atmosphere for the reader.

十六君远行，瞿塘滟滪堆。 五月不可触，猿声天上哀。

Pound’s version: At sixteen years old：you leave： you go to a distant place：in a swirling whirlpool. You’ve been away for five months. The monkey made a sad voice on the top of his head.

Xu Yuanchong’s version: When I was sixteen years old： he went far away： through three Canyon covered with rock gray. In the ship crash： when the spring flood was rising： The crying in Gibbons seemed to come from the sky.

Pound chose to translate these two verses indirectly. The biggest problem with his translation is the misunderstanding of five months. In the original poem, Li Bai meant May. While Xu wisely skipped the time marker and used only phrases to express the time.

门前迟行迹，一一生绿苔。 苔深不能扫，落叶秋风早。 八月蝴蝶来，双飞西园草。 感此伤妾心，坐愁红颜老。

Pound’s version: You’ve dragged your feet when you go out. Now：the moss are green： different moss：too deep to clear them! In autumn the leaves fall early in the wind. The pairs of butterflies have turned yellow on the lawn of the Western Garden in August. They hurt me. I’m getting old.

Xu Yuanchong’s version: Now the green moss in front of our door are slight; his footprints：hidden：can no longer be seen. The moss cannot be washed away：the dense leaves will grow： and when the wind blows： the leaves will fall early. The yellow butterflies in the autumn will pass two on the grass on the west side of the garden. The scene would break my heart： and I was afraid to sit alone： and my cheeks would fade.

In these next four lines, in Li Bai's description, the protagonist was touched by the scene she saw and then fell into a constant state of anxiety. The description of the scene gives the reader an immersive experience as well. Pound's translation of these four lines also created a more vivid picture than Xu's. In order to show worry and fear, Pound chose the word "hurt" to imply the double meaning, referring to both psychological and physical injuries. The protagonist's mourning showed her helplessness as a feudal woman. Xu's choosing of "cheeks" and “fade” was even better, because women's cheeks are like roses which only shine their beauty in youth, while fading indicated her growth and fear of growing old.

On the level of sentence

In the translation process, when the translator has decided and embellished the words to be used, they must also take the entire sentence pattern into account.

郎骑竹马来，绕床弄青梅。 同居长干里，两小无嫌猜。

Pound’s version: You came by on bamboo stilts: playing horse. You walked about my seat: playing with blue plums. And we went on living in the village of Chokan. Two small people: without dislike or suspicion.

Xu Yuanchong’s version: On hobby horse you came upon the scene： around the wall we played with plums still green. We lived: close neighbors on Riverside Lane： carefree and innocent: we children twain.

Through analysis, it is easy to see that Pound used different syntactic techniques, such as "playing" to express two actions at the same time, while Xu only used simple past tense to imply the time, which is slightly inferior.

The last two lines of the poem express the protagonist's hope and deep love for her husband, and her wishes of him coming home early and promises that she will meet him not far from home.

早晚下三巴，预将书报家。 相迎不道远，直至长风沙。

Pound’s version: If you are coming down through the narrows of the river Kiang： please let me know beforehand. And I will come out to meet you as far as Cho-fu-sa.

Xu Yuanchong’s version: O when are you to leave the western land? Do not forget to tell me beforehand! I’ll walk to meet you and would not call it far Even to go to Long Wind Beach where you are.

By comparing the two translations, Pound used "If you are coming down" to express the wife’s longing for her husband; Xu chose direct words to show what the wife wanted to say to her husband, creating a more vivid scene. For readers, Xu's inner monologue is more touching than Pound's.

On the level of culture

1.Translation of Idioms and Allusions. There are two idioms and two allusions in the overall content of Changgan Xing. They are "青梅竹马（Qingmei Zhuma）" and "两小无猜（Liangxiaowucai）"; "抱柱信（Baozhuxin）" and "望夫台（Wangfutai）". The cultural interpretation of "Qingmei Zhuma": Qingmei refers to green plum; Zhuma is a bamboo pole played by children as a symbol of horse. It describes the innocence and playfulness of young children. Now it refers to the intimacy between men and women when they were young. Pound obviously failed to interpret the cultural meaning of it, and mistook it for the boy stepping on bamboo stilts and playing horse, which is a ridiculous mistranslation in Chinese readers’ eyes, but fills English readers with a surprised and fresh feeling and making them impressed on how romantic the young boys and girls in ancient China were! This unintentionally became his punch line. Professor Xu Yuanchong's translation cleverly replaces the "Zhuma" in the original poem with the "hobby horse", a common childhood game tool, so that English readers can easily appreciate the true meaning of the innocent game of boys and girls in the original poem according to their own life experience. This not only preserves the real intention of the original poem, but also makes it easy to be understood by English readers. It may seem to be unfaithful to the original poem in the surface, but in fact it is an evocative interpretation of the classical Chinese culture contained. In addition, "around the well" is even more impressive, vividly depicting the happy scene of boys and girls chasing and playing in the courtyard and by the well.

The allusion "Baozhuxin" is from Zhuangzi, a man named Weisheng made an appointment with a woman to met under a bridge, Weisheng arrived first, and suddenly the water rose, he kept his promise and refused to leave, so as a result, he was drowned while holding to the pillar of the bridge. Since then, people used "Baozhuxin" as a metaphor for keeping faith with love. "Wangfu tai" is taken from the Southern Dynasty Liu Yiqing’s The Book of Ghost Stories: there is a stone resembling a woman in Beishan, Yangxin County, Wuchang; Legend has it that: in the past, there is a chaste woman, her husband joined the army to save their country, so the woman together with their weak son bid farewell to him to this mountain, standing there lookout and turned into a stone, therefore got the name of “Wangfutai”. This is an allusion used to describe a wife missing her husband, or to describe the utmost sincerity. These two lines mainly express the wishes of the merchant woman to her husband, who should remember the vow he made on that day and never leave her and adhere to their love, so that the merchant woman will never have to climb up the mountain to look at her husband’s direction. These two lines contain both the wife to her husband's entrust as well as her hidden worry for him. Pound failed to translate these two allusions, and delivered a weak transformation in the cultural dimension. Xu Yuanchong's translation adopted the domesticating method, as he avoided a direct translation of the allusions but managed to convey the spirit of the allusions: that is men should keep their promises.

2.Translation of rhetorical devices. Figures of speech are used to express the true feelings of the protagonist. Therefore, translators must pay attention to the translation of those devices. The use of simile, metaphor, personification and other figures of speech are prominent features of Li Bai's poems. Both Pound and Xu Yuanchong are flexible in dealing with exaggeration in this poem, which can also reflect the translator's skills in choosing appropriate sentence patterns in translation. The change of words or sentence patterns will affect the feeling of translation, so the artistic conception of the original poem must be taken into consideration by the translator.

Conclusion

This paper mainly studies two translated versions of Changgan Xing. One is Pound's interpretation and translation. , because Pound himself knew little about Chinese as well as about Chinese historical background. Pound, American poet and literary critic, is a representative of the magist. He is one of the leading figures of postsymbolism. From the study of the Chinese classical poetry and the Japanese haiku, he put forward the theory of “poetic imagery”, and made great contributions to the study of Eastern and Western poetry. Pound does not understand Chinese. The Chinese classical poetry can be translated because he got Earnest Fenollosa’s private manuscript. Pound chooses 19 Chinese classical poems and translates them into English, including Li Bai’s Changgan Xing. Pound’s translation of Li Bai’s works has already been the second interpretation, which can cause misunderstanding to the poem. Although Pound’s translated poem has enjoyed a high popularity in the western literature and is named as one of the excellent translations, it has some obvious mistakes, which deserve our attention and discussion. The other translator is Xu Yuanchong, an expert in translation of the classical poetry, who has published numbers of works of translation and translation theories. As a representative of the imagist movement, Pound is very fond of imagist poetry which especially emphasizes the hazy beauty. Therefore, the interpretation of concrete words is not taken very seriously. In order to pursue the creation of hazy beauty, Pound’s interpretation of Li Bai’s poetry damages the poetic mood and rhythmic beauty of the original poem. And Pound himself also explained that he was eager to pursue the image of the poem and did not blindly interpret the meaning of poem but to grasp more details and compress the author’s thoughts and feelings. As the first translator to win the Aurora Borealis Prize for Outstanding Translation of Literature, one of the highest awards in the international translation community, he has made great contributions to Chinese literary translation. In his translation career, Mr. Xu not only translated a large number of Chinese and Western cultural classics, but also wrote several books on translation theory. In particular, his views of "Three Beauties" (beauty of sound, meaning and form) and "Three Perfections" (equalization, simplification and deepening) in poetry translation have been gradually accepted by the translation community. In particular, his principle of "Three Beauties" has been regarded by many scholars as the criterion for judging poetry translation. In Xu Yuanchong’s opinion, “to preserve the beauty in sense we may use the method of ‘paraphrase’ (free or liberal translation); to preserve the beauty in sound, we may use the method of ‘imitation’ (or adaptation); to preserve the beauty in form, we may use the method of ‘metaphrase’ (or literal translation)” (2006: 131). Different translations have distinctive styles. In the process of translation, complete equivalence with the original is not advocated. The translator's aim is to satisfy the needs of readers, not to cater to them. Choosing how to translate the original text is actually a balancing process between the target language and the source language. When translators try to translate some works, they can be guided by functional equivalence in order to be faithful to the original text. For functional equivalence to be achieved in poetry translation, the following steps need to be followed: The first step is to understand not only the literal meaning of the original text, but also the implied meaning of it, so as to achieve functional equivalence in poetry translation. The second step is to use one’s own words to express, to translate the allusion properly, and also to choose the appropriate rhetoric. Only in this way can the translation be easier to understand for its receiver.

Terms and Expressions

Changgan Xing; TheRiver-Merchant’s Wife: a Letter; Ballad of a Trader’s Wife: 《长干行》

"Three Beauties" (beauty of sound, meaning and form)：“三美”（音美，意美，形美）

"Three Perfections" (equalization, simplification and deepening)：“三化”（等化，浅化，深化）

functional equivalence theory：功能对等理论

Eugene Nida：尤金·奈达

Toward A Science of Translating：《翻译科学探索》

The Theory and Practice of Translation：《翻译理论与实践》

Zhuangzi：《庄子》

The Book of Ghost Stories：《幽明录》

the Aurora Borealis Prize for Outstanding Translation of Literature：“北极光”杰出文学翻译奖

poetic imagery: 诗学意象

Questions

1.What are the main methods adopted by Pound in his translation?

2.What are the main methods adopted by Xu Yuanchong in his translation?

3.Since there are many mistranslations in Pound’s version of Chang Gan Xing, is it ok for us to draw the conclusion that Pound’s translation is inferior than Xu’s?

4.Is it possible for us to find the best or a precisly equivalent translation of the original poem?

Answers

1.Free translation and domestication.

2.A combination of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization.

3.No, it’s not. Different translations have distinctive styles. Pound’s translation has its own merits and demerits and so has Xu’s translation.

4.It is almost impoosible for us to find a precisly equivalent translation since there are always something untranslatable because of the cultural differences, and it is also difficult for us to choose the best version that everyone agrees on as each has one’s own standards.

References

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• Liao qian, Luo Dijiang, 廖倩,罗迪江.许渊冲“三美”翻译原则和庞德创意翻译理论对比研究——以李白《长干行》为例[A Contrastive Study of Xu Yuanchong's "Three Beauties" Translation Principle and Pound's Creative Translation Theory -- A Case Study of Li Bai's Changgan Xing][J].牡丹江大学学报[Journal of Mudanjiang University],2018,27(12):103-105.DOI:10.15907/j.cnki.23-1450.2018.12.029.

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• Zhang Qiaoping, 张巧平.诗学视域下李白《长干行》两英译本的对比研究——以庞德、许渊冲译本为例[A Comparative Study of the Two English Versions of Changgan Xing by Li Bai from the Perspective of Poetics -- A Case Study of the Two Versions by Pound and Xu Yuanchong][J].发展[The Development],2017(01):89-90.

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英语笔译 张瑞 Zhang Rui 202170081608

An analysis of honorifics between Chinese and English 张瑞 Zhang Rui

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to study the use of honorifics in modern languages and the expressions of politeness in address forms. In this paper, English and Chinese are selected to study the corresponding expressions by means of data collection and analysis. The results show that the use of honorifics is influenced by language habits, cultural backgrounds, social changes and other aspects, and the development direction of honorifics is explored.

Key words

Honorific; personal pronouns; Comparison

Introduction

1.1 Background of research

In recent years, with the background of globalization, international communication and cross-culture contact has become an essential part in the modern world. When communicating with others, the question “How do I want to be addressed” might come to the mind. Languages, seen as human culture relics, have their own features that embody different customs in different societies. In everyday life, the use of language is an essential part which enables us to express, receive and communicate ideas as well as massages. Among different functions of languages, honorifics stand apart from other functions. Even though there are various forms of honorific used in different languages, the existence of honorifics serves one very purpose: to express your respect to others. The use of honorifics changes from one culture to another culture and different usages of honorifics in different languages deserve our attention.

1.2 Aims of research

Different honorifics have different meanings and are used for different purposes. Honorifics have developed along with the language itself. Theories that are used in the study of honorific include Language typology and linguistic anthropology theories. Thus, in the following part, I’d like to illustrate the development of honorifics, similar and different uses of honorifics and the cultural connotations that honorifics indicate. Besides, the relationship between politeness and honorifics will be discussed.

Literature Review

2.1 Theoretical Framework

Moravcsik (2013) claims that Language typology aims to describe and explain the common properties and the structural diversity of the world's languages. Goals and tools for language typology are the key points, on which the author had put most attention and efforts to introduce and illustrate. And the author focused more on the similarities of different languages when looking into language patterns.

The key question raised is that: What is the reason for their differences and for their similarities? To find out the reasons, the author put his attention more on the similarities and differences in vocabularies, word structures, and word orders. By comparing the similarities of vocabularies, three reasons— shared historical origin, language contact and shared cultural environment (supported by respectful person pronouns)—are discussed. Then, the author talks about language types and universals with the examples of different word orders and sentence structures, and introduced the definition of language typology—the study of typologically and universally shared features of languages.

Another focus point is different kinds of statement types and corresponding statements. Statement types differ in mainly three aspects. First, the author gives the examples of alveolar nasals with the illustration of examples of food stores. Crosslinguistic statements are existential and universal. Existential statements tell us results under different language conditions. Based on universal statements, they differ in modality (absolute universals and statistical universals) and the universe they pertain to (unrestricted universals and implicational universals). Statistical statements are about probabilities: it is not only possible that the next language that you encounter has a particular feature – it is said to be probable. Absolute universals in turn are about certainties: they say that the next language you look at will have a particular feature. Difference between unrestricted universals and implicational universals lies in the relationship between implicans and implicatum as well as their complexity.

According to the relationship between terms, we can label the three implicational types: paradigmatic, syntagmatic and reflexive universals. According to their complexity, there are single implicans and/or implicatum and complex implicans and/or implicatum.

When it comes to language samples, we cannot inspect all languages. The reason for that is we cannot know what future languages will be like. Secondly, we don’t know about all the languages which have existed throughout human history. Thirdly, even with today’s extensive data bases, no linguist can consult all descriptions that are available. Thus, Matthew Dryer’s theory aims to find out a universally valid tendency based on genetic groups, geographic groups and measure of universal tendencies. The type of a language influences the way it express meanings (金立鑫, 2006). For example, inflected languages, such as English, changes meanings by changing word forms, while isolating languages, such as Chinese, use isolated words to express special meanings.

2.2 Honorifics

Honorifics are one way we express our honor or respect to others. They are in both spoken or written languages. Different words are used to express different level of honorific. Honorifics are a simple language mechanic that allow us to express esteem or respect for the person we are speaking to. Most languages use honorifics up to some extent. But at the same time, in many languages, the need to use honorifics dissipates when we know someone well. For example, some languages like English consider it acceptable to address a senior without any title.

There are situations where one generally uses an honorific outside of official environments.

David (2013) surveys the use of honorifics in a variety of languages illustrate the forms of honorifics vary in different languages. According to the author, honorifics refer to the addressee, the utterance referent and the bystander of the discourse. How we make use of honorifics determines categories of honorifics. In most cases, we change words we use on occasions where we are supposed to revere others, so that we can communicate better. That means honorifics are lexically different. The use of honorific varies based on the situations. With different individuals’ status being expressed, there are three main types of honorifics.

The first type of honorifics is the addressee honorific, which aims to indicate the social status of the individual spoken to, or the hearer. Addressee honorifics express the social status of the person being spoken, which are normally higher than that of the speakers. Besides, people may use honorifics to show his politeness to the hearers, even though their social statuses are equal. For instance, honorifics in Javanese are involved in this type. And the contents of the conversations don’t matter.

The second type of honorifics is the referent honorific, which is used to express the status of the one being spoken about. Addressee honorifics change forms of words, while referent honorifics are marked by the lexicon. In some Indo-European languages, there is another second person pronoun used to express respect, such as tu/vous in French, or du/Sie in German, siz in Turkish, thee in Middle English. In Chinese the similar variation is 你/您. For example,

German Du isst Sie essen. French Tu manges Vous mangez.

                     You eat.  

The T-V distinction contains the terms T-form and V-form. The idea introduced by Brown and Gilman (1960) that the use of T-V distinction was governed by power and solidarity. The T-form refers to the Latin tu, the singular pronoun indicating informality. The V-form refers to the Latin vos, plural pronoun that indicates respect and formality. By choosing a different form of pronouns, relative social status of the speaker and the hearer is shown. However, in modern English this variation has disappeared.

Another type is the bystander honorifics, which express the status of someone who is nearby, but not participating in the conversation (the overhearer). This is the rarest form of honorifics, which is mostly seen in aboriginal languages in Australian languages—the "mother-in-law languages". In these languages people change their speeches when there are in-law or other tabooed relatives’ presence. The lexicon, morphology and phonology are all affected.

As far as I am concerned, the existence of honorifics results from the differentiation of communities and societies across the world. Honorifics are seen as an embodiment of speakers’ or hearers’ social status. On the other hand, the choices of honorifics also depend on whether it is formal or informal. Chinese scholar 孙芮乔 (2019) takes English and Chinese honorifics as examples, illustrating the politeness strategies that honorifics follow. Face-saving viewing by Brown,P. and Levinson,S (1987) refers that all qualified social adults attaches importance to their face, which consists of positive(to be praised) and negative(not to interrupt others) faces. The politeness strategy thus follows these two aspects.

Honorifics have experienced a very long history. The use of honorifics might vary in different language. But the purpose seems to be clear: to contact with other social individuals more comfortably and efficiently.

2.3 Linguistic anthropology

Linguistic anthropology is one of the branches of anthropology. Unlike linguistics which is the scientific study of the language, linguistic anthropology gives its attention more to language as it relates to socialization and culture. Linguistic Typology analyzes, compares and classifies languages according to their common structural features and forms. Tasks and aims of linguistic anthropology includes a) the classification of languages, i.e., the construction of a system to order natural languages on the basis of their overall similarity; b) the discovery of the mechanism of construction of languages, i.e., the construction of a system of relationships, a 'network' by means of which not only the obvious, categorial mechanisms of language can be read but also the latent ones.

According to Pier Paolo Giglioli (1990) in "Language and Social Context," anthropologists study the relationships between worldviews, grammatical categories and semantic fields as well as the influence of speech based on socialization and personal relationships, and the interaction of linguistic and social members and communities.

Another scholar Wierzbicka (1997) demonstrates that every language has its key concepts and that these key concepts reflect the core values of the culture. Further, she argues that within a culture-independent analytical framework one can study, compare, and even explain cultures to outsiders through their key concepts.

According to Alessandro Duranti (1997), linguistic anthropology is the study of language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice. As an interdisciplinary study of language, it covers interdisciplinary fields of language and puts its focus especially on the effects given by the different usages of language in society. Constitutive social acts represent the social orders that people follow interpsychological (between individuals) and intrapsychological (in the same individual). linguistic anthropology specializes in the questions and topics that are at the core of anthropological research, politics of representation, the constitution of authority, cultural contact and social change, etc. The author attached importance to the culture and language diversity theories, giving the idea that “What used to be thought of as outside of language is now more and more often seen as part of language”. In the following chapters, the author illustrated Meaning in linguistic forms Speaking as social action, Conversational exchanges and Units of participation.

The author introduced ethnographic methods. That means committed to traditional ethnographic methods including participant-observation and work with native speakers, linguistic anthropologists obtain local interpretive glosses of the communicative material they record. Otherwise, they also use elicitation techniques similar to those employed by typological linguists who are interested in grammatical patterns. Recently, these methods have been combined with new forms of documentation of verbal practices developed in such fields, like urban sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and conversation analysis.

Duranti introduces linguistic anthropology as an interdisciplinary field that studies language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice. B discussing about linguistic diversity, grammar in use, the role of speaking in social interaction, the organization and meaning of conversational structures, and the notion of participation as a unit of analysis., the theories or methods of linguistic anthropology are introduced.

One example given by the author about the standards of acceptability is that pauses and overlaps are used to interpret what is going on. And these re-starts, cut-offs as well as other corrections that speakers make of their own talk. The author noticed that the position of the corrected item is typically at the word which leads to the new topic. In the joint work of Zdenek, S., James M, S., & Nobuko, A. (2012), it is mentioned that society and culture are key elements that differs linguistic anthropology from linguistic. Linguistic anthropologists study language in its cultural framework and think about the rules for its social use. In this way, linguistic anthropology is defined as the study of language in its biological and sociocultural contexts. An obvious difference between linguistic and linguistic anthropology is that those who study linguistic anthropology have never isolated language from social intercourses but have in interdependence with cultural and social structure.

According to the author, the method that linguistic anthropologists commit to is participant observation—observe the day-to-day activities in the field places. And then, the author analyzed speech sounds, sentence as a link to social behaviors and nonverbal communications such as emotions and feeling. From chapter 3 to chapter 10 the author focused on the different aspects of language itself. In the following chapters, cultural elements were introduced to elaborate how language shapes communication and influences culture.

One example is the salespeople’s pronunciation of r-sound in New York City. The researcher, Labov who later gathers examples in a supermarket, assumed that salespeople in large department stores were likely to borrow prestige from their customers and hypothesized that “salespeople in the highest-ranked store will have the highest values of (r); those in the middle-ranked store will have intermediate values of (r); those in the lowest-ranked store will show the lowest values”, which was proved to be true. That means language reflects personal identity.

Christine Jourdan (2006) takes language as a tool of thought and perception and discussed how language influences our perception of the world.

Linguistic anthropology solves the problems such as how to collect language data and how language influences the understanding and perception of human societies. It aims at the actual use.

Methodology

3.1 Collection of examples and data

To compare different languages, we need a great number of data as well as examples. As loads of examples are gathered, the first problem that gets in the way is that: what are the most typical examples that we can use to support the theories? The subject of this paper is honorifics of languages: English and Chinese. Most examples were collected from actual use of languages including living honorifics that are used nowadays and ones that are in limited use or are already ‘dead’. To compare different examples, we need not only those we are using but also ones that appeared in the history and later were abandoned. Attentions are also put to clearly support the theories. The examples as well as terms are obtained from dictionaries, grammar books or Internet.

3.2 research questions

1) In different languages, the standards in choosing most proper words are quite different. Still, it shouldn’t be neglected that there are similar or even same forms of honorifics used in the different languages. So, here comes the first question: What are the culture connotations that differentiate the various uses of honorifics? 2)Languages in the same culture groups share many similarities. But as languages develop, uses of honorifics may go on separate ways. In the following part, I’d like to discuss: what are the elements that have made languages formed their own expressions and rules? 3) As we are studying and analyzing existing samples, it is also important that we get our eyes on the future: In which direction may honorifics develop? What are the development patterns of honorifics?

To sum up, by gathering, comparing and analyzing data and examples in different languages, the author focuses on above questions.

Honorific examples in English and Chinese

Nationality, language and religion—these are the elements that influence people of certain cultures. As languages reflect nationality, so do honorifics. Even though there may be as many forms of honorifics as languages, the very purpose is basically the same—express respect and communicate in a better way. It reflects the relationship between the speaker and the listener. Moreover, the use of honorifics shows difference in social status, distance as well as in occasions.

To compare different languages, we need a great number of data as well as examples. Most examples were collected from actual use of languages including living honorifics that are used nowadays and ones that are already ‘dead’. To compare different examples, we need not only those we are using but also ones that appeared in the history and later were abandoned. Attentions are also put to clearly support the theories.

4.1 English honorifics

In Modern English, honorifics are also frequently used. However, its honorific terms are relatively few compared with languages like others. Usually, a man is cited as Mr. and a woman Miss. By prefixing a person’s name could we express our respect to the listener. Such prefixes include: Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms, Mx, Sir, Dr, Lady or Lord as well as titles or positions—President, General, Captain, Father, Doctor,etc. In Table 1 are some English honorifics that are frequently used.

Neutral Male Female Mx Master Miss/Mrs M Mr Ms Gentleman Ladies Sir Madam/Ma’am Sire Dame Lord/Baron Lady Fr: (Father) Br: (Brother) Sr: (Sister) His/her Excelency His/her Honour

Linguistically, there are basically three types of honorific terms in English: honorifics. that prefixes immediately a person’s name (Mr., Ms.); honorifics denoting the honored person's occupation (Doctor, Father); some honorifics completely replace a name or occupation, as "Sir" or "Ma'am", or "Your Honor”. Subordinates will often use honorifics as punctuation before asking people of higher status a question or after responding to an order: "Yes, sir" or even "Sir, yes, sir."

Based on the actual uses, there are common tiles, formal titles, and religious titles. Common titles, such as Mr., are frequently used in daily life. These honorifics don’t put too much emphasis on one’s social status. Their classifications are based on the natures of hearers—ages and genders. For formal titles, the difference of social status does make a difference. By addressing someone with his academic or professional titles, both politeness and respect is achieved. Under some circumstances these appellations are necessary. For example, “John Bercow, Speaker, Britain's First Commoner (that's an honorific for the class conscious of you out there), was greeting and welcoming his new intake in Portcullis House. He is master of this domain."(Simon Carr, "My Ill-Tempered Encounter With the Speaker." The Independent, May 12, 2010)

Affected by religions like Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Buddhism, there are also relevant terms for believers to express their respect in special situations. In some religious organizations, members follow certain religious orders where appellations also follow some rules. Here is an example from Bible:

But when you pray, go into your room, close the door and pray to your Father, who is unseen. Then your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you.

Matthew 6:6 As we can see, English honorific terms mostly belong to the referent honorific and the bystander honorific, which means English users express their respect to the ones they are talking to and talking about in a direct way.

4.2 Chinese honorifics

Etiquette, one of characters that has been valued in Chinese’s society, reflects special features of Chinese culture. Choices of honorific terms or titles are an important element in the proper observation of etiquette. The history of Chinese honorifics could be divided by New Culture Movement into two periods: honorifics in Classical Chinese and in vernacular Chinese. There are general four types of honorifics: Respectful Language(employs modified words or substitutes called respectful vocabulary that convey a sense of respect for the addressee), Humble Language(Language employs modified words or substitutes called humble vocabulary that convey a sense of self-deprecation and humility for the speaker), Indirect Language(employs words called indirect vocabulary - e.g., euphemisms that are used to hide or beautify an otherwise unfortunate event or action.), and Courteous Language(employs specific words or phrases that have courteous and praising connotations intended to flatter the addressee). Most honorific appellations belong to the range of Respect Language and Humble Language, which will be talked about.

In Classical Chinese, the difference of social status and classifications breeds respectful and humble forms in the use of language. The honorific system is quite complex. A large number of fields, including pronoun substitutes, modified nouns, proper nouns, and pronouns, modified verbs, honorific adjectives, honorific idioms, and honorific alternatives for other neutral or deprecating words, indicate its complicacy. During a conversation or when writing a letter, using proper appellations is necessary. Speakers always employs humble terms to indirectly beautify the listener and respectful terms to directly for the same purpose.

Speaker（I, me） Listener（You） 某 公 在下 足下 先生 君侯 For example, “某为医一生，未尝见此，君侯真天神也！” —《三国演义》第七十五回 As one indicates someone or something that is not present in the conversation, he would prefix XX with following prefixes and suffixes. (the bystander honorifics)

Praise degradation 贵~（noble） 鄙~（humble） 尊~（Respected） 贱~（lowly） 令~（excellent） 舍~（my/our） 贤~ ~公

With the promotion of vernacular Chinese, New Culture Movement in China further hastened the demise of the traditional Chinese honorific system. In modern China, those terms representing traditional monarchy have been outdated in the history. Instead, salutations, such as 亲爱的/尊敬的/敬爱的, are frequently used in speeches and letters. Other appellations, according to one’s social position (老师，科长，处长)，age or gender (大伯，大婶，大爷) convey respect to the listener. The second person pronoun“您”and variants such as“您老人家”are also another form of honorifics in modern China.

Comparison

As time goes by, languages are changing initiatively or passively. Even though most languages do not look like its original forms, the inner spirits of the way languages used could somehow pass down with history. When it comes to honorifics, both eastern and western languages conform to that. Whether it is English or Chinese, honorifics in different periods of time reflected the specifically social conditions and social background of its time.

Nowadays, based on the above examples of these languages, we can find that concerns about elements like gender, age or the degree of intimacy. Thus, the use frequency, word choices, attitudes, classifications, existence basis and development levels vary greatly from each other. In the process of communications, languages, seen as the reflection of cultures, may have different methodologies. One of them is the use of honorific terms. Even though languages differ from each other in many ways, we can still find something common when honorific terms are employed. Nowadays, contacts between nations have never been so convenient and frequent. During the conversations, people would like to take certain methods to express ways in crosslinguistic communications. For example, the term Mr. /Miss. Is always welcome. There were also counterparts of the term Mr./Miss which were not used in their languages. So, it is international communication that has somehow contributed to the transformation of certain languages.

As far as I am concerned, two key elements are showing respect and avoiding taboos. The earth is seen as a small village where members can exchange different ideas though convenient technologies. Still, it comes first how we can communicate better and more effectively, how we can be respected by those from another culture? Face with these problems, language users may have increased their tolerance for wrong usages in their languages and tried to avoid taboos. In the following part, I would like to illustrate some points during the study.

5.1 T-V distinction

Of more than ninety languages, there is a different form of second personal pronoun to deliver formality. Such phenomenon is called T-V distinction, which is named from the Latin pronouns tu and vos. Originally in Latin, two terms differ only in singular/plural use. The idea introduced by Brown and Gilman (1960) that the use of T-V distinction was governed by power and solidarity. A powerful person to use a T-form but expect a V-form in return.

Take English and Chinese as examples. In Modern English, there is no such variation. The pronoun you is used both in formal and informal situations. And its function of showing respect towards addressee is not that clear as its counterparts in German or French. However, back in Middle English, the second person pronouns thou and ye conformed to the distinction, as T form (thou) was used by people with higher social status to lower ones and V form (ye) is used by people with lower social status to higher ones. But over time that was considered polite to use the formal meaning in more and more contexts until the informal meaning was lost. Besides, T form was used within lower classes, when addressing God and when the addressee was not absent. and V form was also used by upper-class members when talking to each other. Such usage was believed to have come into effect with imitation of French among Norman French nobility. Later as other pronouns demised in Modern English, leaving you as V singular and plural pronoun. English was discarded from T-V languages. In modern Chinese, this distinction shows as 你/您. Its V form (您), however, didn’t exist in Middle Chinese when it was in Tang Dynasty. Later in Yuan Dynasty, it appeared in the form of 恁, which worked as second person plural pronoun in vernacular language. With Beijing dialect taking -們 as plural, the plural function of 您 was decaying as honorific function was accepted in the second half period of Qing Dynasty. As vernacular Chinese promoted across the country, the honorific 您 was accepted as out-of-date personal pronouns were abandoned.

As we can see, English and Chinese went on the separate ways on T-V distinction: while Chinese created a new word and changed its semantic functions, English deprived the word of its respective meaning. However, these changes ended up in the same direction.

Under the rule of feudalism for more than two thousand years, Chinese had developed the concept and psychology of distinguishing the dignity from the inferiority and the order of the nobleness deep in mind (蔡红艳, 2015). Influenced by Confucianism, Chinese people associate language communication with morality and ethics, and regard rhetoric as an important means to regulate interpersonal relationship. Complicated honorific systems and terms are just the evidence for that. Nowadays, the word 您 has taken the place of traditional appellations used at feudal times. In western culture, which values individualism democracy and equality, s seen as a tool to extend individual influence.

Simplification of the distinction reflects the pragmatism of English users. Today they generally indicate formal address by using a salutation and last name.

5.2 Development trend of Honorifics

    In the modern society where feudal systems were discarded and different forms of democracy system were established in most countries, languages have also changed a lot. In the above discussion, we have talked about some elements that affect the use of honorifics. Based on that, we may find out some points of how honorifics develop in the next step.

The essence of honorifics is the recognition of different personalities. The change of honorific represents the change of how people view diverse personalities. In most countries, there are different kinds of social hierarchy, which offered social basis to the existence of honorifics. Social status, therefore, is the only standard for the use of honorifics, which has the supremacy and was matched with the feudal systems. Therefore, although the addressee character who possessed a higher social status was not respected by the speaker, he must use the honorifics with high respect blindly according to the social rules and principles at that time. The speaker, with a lower social status, was deprived of the basic personality as a man. Compulsory social standards directly influenced the use of the language. On the contrary, the existence of modern honorifics bases on the consciousness of social equality and mutual respect among people, emphasizing the respect for each other's personality, which is adapted to the modern social system. As social systems shifted from feudalism to democracy, people no longer use honorifics involuntarily in the process of communication. Instead, according to the relationships with each other, they would judge whether to use honorifics based on the degree of respect other, the contents as well as the environment. The voluntary use of honorifics follows the process of equalization of personalities. In this way, honorifics no longer serves traditional hierarchy, as people pay more and more attention to mutual respect, mutual recognition and equal personality. But that doesn’t mean extreme equality among people, which ignores the difference of age or ability.

The objects of using honorifics are no longer limited to people with social status in feudal system. The use of honorifics depends on the individual's judgment as well as the situation at that time. To whom honorifics are used, what honorifics are supposed to be used, what levels of respect one should present, all of these matters conforms to the specific circumstances. In this way, as honorifics changed from status use to social use, their functions are correspondingly changing. For language users, social characters honorifics, which contributes to the better communication, are increasing prominent. The number of people who study and use honorifics has increased dramatically. Honorifics have become an essential part of work and social life. It can be seen from this that the subject and object of using honorifics have been extended to all social members, and the purpose of using honorifics is mainly to serve as a "lubricant" for dealing with interpersonal relationships. The function and applicability of their use have changed qualitatively. In this way, the objects of honorifics are gradually used by lower classes that once was ignored.

Since the new social ideological basis of the existence of honorifics - mutual respect, basic personality equality has been deeply rooted in the minds of the people, honorifics are really freed from the shackles of the former absolute honorifics and identity honorifics, and develop towards the direction of relative honorifics and social honorifics. At the same time, in this process, people's ideological activity is greatly improved, and they should always use their proper honorifics according to different environments and different objects they face. However, with the popularity of honorifics, the semantic meaning of honorifics has turned upside down - the mutual change from high to low, from low to high, that is, the functional usage of honorifics has changed, which has appeared some sprouts in today's new trend of honorifics, and even some have been widely used. One of the main reasons for the emergence of the new expression of honorifics is the establishment of a new social ideology - basic personality equality and mutual respect.

Following the trend of economy development and globalisation, honorifics would focus more on the function of facilitating communications instead of distinguishing different ranks in a society. As far as I am concerned, honorifics are going to simplify itself: traditional honorific titles were abandoned while there might be new forms of honorifics which are easily accepted by large members.

Conclusion

As the clock ticks, languages are also changing. The change of languages follows the change of those who use the language. As we invent a word, abandon a word, or transform a word, the underlying changes of the language are going on. When something new appears, we give it a new word. When something old is no longer needed, we keep it in the vault. With small changes happening, the language might look like something different compared with its original forms. Through the study we can find that honorifics are used in many languages. Here are my conclusions:

Firstly, in different languages, the appellation systems differ in scale. Languages such as Chinese have more complex appellations systems than western languages. The reason for the difference lies in the different historical political and cultural structures. They also differ in methodologies. The English language prefers to using different words to express respect while the Chinese language adds prefixes. Another difference between honorific expressions lies in the existence of self-depreciation terms, which shows different attitudes towards modesty that eastern cultures highly valued. The forms of address ale in a dynamic course，differ from period to period and vary from one situation to another.

Secondly, with globalization and international communication pushing forward, the appellation systems might be affected by another language. In different languages there might be some similar expressions that spread between nations. We can find honorific titles in a language and their counterparts in other language. As cultures are spreading across the world, religions for instance, we can find similar religious titles in related languages. Thoughts or new ideas from other countries may also influence one’s honorifics. Such as the appellation 先生 in Chinese, which was used to address teachers, now is commonly used to address other males— just like Mr. in English.

Thirdly, it is true that honorifics convey respect. But as learning a second or third language is welcomed by more and mor people across the world, individuals from a language without a complex honorific system would have difficulty learning a language with a complex honorific system. Besides, in translation honorifics might be a tough part. Whether to use honorifics or not actually reflects the conflict between cultures.

We may predict the development trend of honorifics. Even though expressions of honorifics in different languages are diverse, many languages are gradually simplifying themselves, as a result of economic development, political changes or mentalities changes. Honorific changes happen normally after social changes. The influence and restrictions between language and culture are two-way. This kind of relationship requires us to study honorifics as a social and cultural phenomenon, to put it under the broad social and national cultural background and to analyze problems and find rules. Certain changes of language contain rich national cultural connotation, condensing the cultural characteristics of national world outlook, philosophy, thinking mode, concept mentality, religious belief, folk custom and folk sentiment, aesthetic interest, etc., which is worth the future research.

References

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David, A. (2013). Honorifics: Types, Data, and Importance for Linguistic Theory. Frankfurt a.M.

Duranti, A. (2013). Linguistic anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Giglioli, P. (1990). Language and Social Context. New York: Penguin Books.

Moravcsik, E. (2013). Introducing language typology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Jourdan, C., & Tuite, K. (2006). Language, Culture, and Society: Key Topics in Linguistic Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zdenek, S., James M, S., & Nobuko, A. (2012). Language, culture and society: an introduction to linguistic anthropology. Boulder: Westview Press.

Cai Hongyan 蔡红艳.(2015).浅谈汉语敬语及英汉尊敬表达方式差异.[The differences between Chinese honorific and English-Chinese respectful expressions]. 南京：江苏经贸职业技术学院.

Jin Lixin 金立鑫.(2006).什么是语言类型学.[What is language typology]. 上海：上海外语教育出版社.

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英语笔译 赵宇翔 Zhao Yuxiang 202170081609

Zhao Yuxiang: Dunhuang Frescoes In Contemporary China： Taking the Skins in Honor Of Kings As Examples 赵宇翔Zhao Yuxiang

Abstract

 Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes complex is the treasure house of cultural exchange and collision between the East and the West in China and Dunhuang frescoes are the typical representatives of Dunhuang culture. Over the years, It has been arousing more and more  people's thinking and attention on protecting and spreading Dunhuang culture. In this paper, the author first introduces the formation of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, the origin and value of Dunhuang culture, and then starts with three cooperation cases between Dunhuang Academy and Honor of Kings, showing the new ways for people to protect traditional culture in modern society, and hopes that more people can participate in protecting and spreading traditional culture through this article. 

Key words

Duhuang Frescoes; Mogao Grottoes; Dunhuang culture; Honor of Kings

Introduction

 Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes was built in the former Qin Dynasty. After the construction and repair of each dynasty and generation, the diligent ancient people have formed a huge group of caves with a large number of frescoes in them. It is the largest existing Buddhist art place in the world. The Mogao grottoes digging was originally out of the need of religious rituals, belonging to a kind of religious activity. However, it was more and more loved and followed by civilians in the later years. Its value was not limited to religion, including many fields such as art, military affairs, science and technology, agriculture, transportation, etc., And it became a symbol of national culture in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. However, after entering the new century, the dazzling Dunhuang culture is facing the danger of being ignored and eliminated by the society, and the precious frescoes in the caves are in danger of experiencing wind and sand. It is imperative to protect Dunhuang frescoes and spread Dunhuang culture. It is necessary for everyone to feel Dunhuang culture with their hearts and understand the connotation of Dunhuang culture.

1.Introduction On Mogao Grottoes

 Mogao grottoes, commonly known as thousand-buddha cave, is located in the west end of the Hexi Corridor of Dunhuang. It was built in the Xuanzhao period of Emperor Fu Jian of the former Qin Dynasty. After that, it went through the construction of the Northern Dynasty, Sui Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, Western Xia Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty and other dynasties, forming a huge scale. There are 735 caves, 45,000 square meters of frescoes and 2,415 muddy colored sculptures. It is the largest and richest Buddhist art place in the world.  In 1961, Mogao Grottoes was announced by the State Council of the People's Republic of China as one of the first batch of national key cultural relics protection units. In 1987, Mogao Grottoes were listed as world cultural heritage. Mogao Grottoes, altogether with Longmen Grottoes in Luoyang, Henan province and Yungang Grottoes in Datong, Shanxi province are called as China's Three Grottoes, then Maijishan Grottoes was added to them to be the Four Grottoes. On August 31, 2019, the large-scale documentary Dialogue between Mogao Grottoes and Angkor Wat, co-produced by Dunhuang Academy and other units, premiered in Dunhuang International Convention and Exhibition Center. With the theme of dialogue among Asian civilizations, the documentary shows people the wonderful connection between different civilizations in terms of destiny, culture and art. 

Mogao grottoes frescoes were painted in the walls, roof and niches of the caves with extensive and profound contents, mainly including seven kinds of themes: the figure of Buddha, buddhist stories, buddhist historic sites, Sutra Illustration Paintings (Jingbian Illustrations), genie, benefactors, decorative patterns and so on. In addition, there are many social life paintings of all aspects performing hunting, farming, textile, transportation, war, construction, dance, weddings and so on. Some of these paintings are bold and broad, while some are bright and magnificent, reflecting the artistic styles and characteristics of different periods. Most of the paintings before the Five Dynasties have been lost. The frescoes in Mogao Grottoes provide important objects for the study of Chinese art history, as well as valuable images and patterns for the study of ancient Chinese customs. According to the calculation, if these frescoes are arranged by 2 meters high, they can be arranged to be a 25km-long gallery. Grotto frescoes are richly colorful, such as all kinds of buddhist stories, mountains and rivers scenery, pavilions and other architectural painting, landscape painting, flower design, flying Buddha and the working people to produce all kinds of scenes, etc., which is the artistic reproduction of more than 1500 years of folk customs and historical changes from sixteen Kingdoms to Qing Dynasty, magnificent and magnificent. It can also be found in a large number of mural art, ancient artists on the basis of nationalization, have absorbed the ancient art of Iran, India, Greece and other countries, which is a symbol of the developed civilization of the Chinese nation.The frescoes of different dynasties show different painting styles, reflecting the political, economic and cultural conditions of China's feudal society. They are glorious chapters in the history of ancient Chinese art and provide precious historical materials for the study of ancient Chinese history.

2.The Origin of Dunhuang civilization

Mogao grottoes was built during XuanZhao period of emperor Fu Jian of the former Qin Dynasty. According to records, in the second year of Jianyuan of the former Qin Dynasty (366 A.D), Lezun, a monk, passed by the mountain and suddenly saw golden light shining like seeing Buddha, so he dug the first cave on the wall. Later on, monks like Faliang continued to build caves to practice meditation, which is called "Desert Cave", meaning "high place in the desert." Later, due to the common use of "漠" and "莫" it was renamed "Mogao Grottoes." Another saying is: Buddhists have said that the construction of Buddha Cave has boundless merit and there is no one better then him. So the name of Mogao Grottoes means that there is no higher cultivation than the construction of Buddha Cave. During the Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou dynasties, the rulers believed in Buddhism, and the grottoes were built with the support of nobles and developed rapidly. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, with the prosperity of the Silk Road, Mogao Grottoes flourished even more, with more than a thousand caves During the rein of emperor Wu Zetian. After the Anshi Rebellion, Dunhuang was occupied by Tubo and Guiyi armies successively, but the statue making activities were not greatly affected. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the Western Xia Dynasty and the Yuan Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes gradually declined, mainly rebuilding the caves of the previous dynasty, with few new ones. After the Yuan Dynasty, Dunhuang stopped opening caves and the caves were gradually deserted. In the seventh year of Jiajing of Ming Dynasty ( 1528), Jiayuguan Pass was closed, making Dunhuang a nomadic place of frontier fortress. In the fifty-seventh year of Emperor Kangxi of Qing Dynasty ( 1718), Xinjiang was pacified. In the first year of Yongzheng ( 1723), Shazhou Office was set up in Dunhuang. In the third year ( 1725), it was changed to Shazhou Guard, and immigrants came from Gansu province to Dunhuang wasteland and rebuilt Shazhou City. In the twenty-fifth year of Qianlong ( 1760), Shazhou Guard was changed to Dunhuang County, and Dunhuang's economy began to recover. Mogao Grottoes began to be noticed. In the 26th year of Guangxu ( 1900) of Qing Dynasty, a world-shaking Sutra Cave was discovered. Unfortunately, under the specific historical background of the corruption and incompetence of the late Qing government and the invasion of China by western powers, shortly after the discovery of the cultural relics in the Sutra Cave, western explorers such as British Stein, French Boshihe, Japanese Ju Ruichao and Russian Odenberg came to Dunhuang and defrauded a large number of cultural relics from Taoist Wang by unfair means, resulting in the looting of the cultural relics in the Sutra Cave. Most of them were unfortunately scattered and collected in many public and private collection institutions in Britain, France, Russia, Japan and other countries.

3.The Value of Dunhuang Frescoes

Dunhuang frescoes preserve materials belonging to sports attributes, such as riding and shooting, shooting targets, horse skills, prancing horses, sumo wrestling, wrestling, weightlifting (raising elephants and bells), chess, throwing pots, martial arts, swimming, polo, kick-off, etc. The colored sculptures and frescoes in Dunhuang grottoes are mostly Buddhist contents, such as the statues of colored sculptures and frescoes, sakyamuni's stories of The Buddha, karma and karma, various kinds of buddhist classics paintings, numerous Stories of the East of Buddhism, and mythological figure paintings, etc., each of which has a large amount of rich and systematic materials. It also involves India, West Asia, Central Asia, Xinjiang and other regions, which can help us understand the Buddhist thought, sect, belief and dissemination of ancient Dunhuang and Hexi Corridor, the integration of Buddhism and Chinese traditional culture, the process of Buddhism sinicization, etc. The construction of Dunhuang Grottoes for one thousand years was an important period of development in which China was divided for a long time after the West and East Han Dynasties, moved towards national integration and unification between the north and the south, reached the peak of the Tang Dynasty, and then declined. During this period, it was the formation and development period of the procedure, genre, category and theory of Chinese art. It was also the period when Buddhism and Buddhist art were introduced into China, the Buddhist theory and Buddhist sect were established and developed in China, and Buddhist art became an important category of Chinese art, and finally completed the sinicization. From the perspective of Chinese painting art, the figure painting, landscape painting, animal painting and decorative pattern painting in Dunhuang frescoes have a history of thousands of years, which can become an independent history of figure painting, landscape painting, animal painting and decorative pattern painting. It is abundant in figure painting, landscape painting, animal painting, decorative pattern of instance, especially preserved before the song dynasty in China(the 10th century), which the world museum collections have not seen. There are more than 200 caves with music themes in Dunhuang frescoes, painted with numerous bands, musicians and musical instruments. According to statistics, there are more than 500 groups of different types of bands, more than 40 kinds of musical instruments of blowing, playing, pulling and playing, totaling more than 4,500 pieces. There are also musical scores and other musical materials in Dunhuang Sutra Cave documents. The abundant music image data shows the continuous development and change of Chinese music culture for nearly one thousand years. It provides valuable materials for the study of Chinese music history and the exchange of Chinese and Western music. Most of the frescoes in Dunhuang grottoes contain dancing images. There are dance scenes and dance images that reflect human social life and customs, such as western region music and dance, folk banquet and wedding dance; There are palace and noble yan Yue song and dance scenes reflected in the Sutra Ilustration Paintings; There are dance images of the celestial circle, such as the dancing image of flying apsaras, etc.There are also dance music and related materials preserved in the Cave. Dance art is unable to retain the space-time art, ancient dance image, modern people already know very little about, in terms of collection of Dunhuang grottoes dance image, dance art museum, saved countless superb dance skills and perfect dance artistic image, on behalf of the dance development and its development course in each era.

4.Dunhuang Frescoes Are Enjoying New Life:

Yu Jian Fei Tian (Meeting A Flying Apsaras)

Yu Jian Shen Lu (Meeting A Golden Deer)

Yu Jian Hu Xuan (Meeting A Huxuan Dancer)

英语笔译 郑冬琴 Zheng Dongqin 202170081610

A Study on the Influence of Sino-German Cultural Differences on International Business Negotiation and Its Countermeasures Zheng Dongqin

Abstract

In 1972, China and Germany formally established diplomatic relations. Since then, trade exchanges between the two countries have become more frequent and the diplomatic relation has become closer. With the continuous improvement of China's opening up to the outside world, a large number of economic and trade exchanges have been carried out between China and Germany. In recent years, through the efforts of both governments, Germany has gradually become one of China's most important trading partners. However, "ten miles of different wind, a hundred miles of different customs". First of all, international business negotiation belongs to the field of economic activity, and also, it is a cross-cultural communication activity involving various cultural factors. Cultural differences between countries are often one of the most prominent obstacles in international business negotiations. In this thesis, the author studies and analyzes the impact of cultural differences on Sino-German international business negotiations from the following aspects: values, communication style, verbal and non-verbal behavior, dietary habits, corporate culture and fulfillment of contract. In view of the objective facts of the cultural diversity of the world, this thesis mainly discusses the cultural differences between China and Germany by means of illustration and comparative analysis, and then puts forward some useful countermeasures in order to provide some reference for negotiators to overcome some unnecessary barriers to negotiation.

Key Words

China; Germany; cultural differences; international business negotiation; influence; countermeasures

Introduction

In the era of highly developed economic globalization, the economic policies, political attitudes and cultural factors are playing an increasingly important role in international affairs and daily exchanges between different countries and regions. And among these main factors, culture is often a factor that cannot be underestimated. Because the success or failure of intercultural communication is determined by culture to a large extent. Fortunately, nowadays, we have a more open and inclusive world. Although there are some obvious or subtle distinction among different cultures, we are still able to carry out some effective international communication activities. In October 1972, Germany and China formally established diplomatic relations. Since then, the exchanges between the two countries have been generally smooth in all aspects. For example, the leaders of China and Germany met at the UN General Assembly. In addition, the two countries frequently conducted high-level state visits and carried out various economic consultations. Especially since China's accession to the World Trade Organization, the trade exchanges between Germany and China has developed rapidly. Furthermore, in 2013, the Chinese government proposed "the Belt and Road" Initiative. With the development and promotion of this initiative, extensive cooperation and exchanges have been carried out between China and many other countries. In this case, China's foreign trade has reached a new level. Moreover, the China-Europe Railway Express has also greatly promoted the economic exchanges between Germany and China. Besides, in the last few years, the United States has launched a trade war against China, which has dramatically reduced the volume of trade transactions between China and the United States. To a certain extent, it has also created more opportunities for Sino-German trade transactions. As an important trading partner of China, Germany often needs to conduct business negotiations with China. However, it is not easy to successfully reach the negotiation goal due to the complexity of international negotiations. They involves foreign policies, economic strategies and cultural differences. As we all know, the special negotiations with different modes of thinking and behaviors are more challenging than general negotiations. Whether we can correctly understand and deal with the cultural differences between China and Germany is crucial to the success of the negotiations. So negotiators need to master some useful business negotiation skills. They also should try to cultivate their keen awareness of cross-cultural communication. Only when they pay attention to the commonalities and differences between different cultures can they understand others better and communicate more effectively in cross-cultural activities, so as to promote the success of international business negotiations.

Definition of Culture and Intercultural Communication

1.1 The Definition of Culture

Regarding the definition of culture, different scholars hold different views. If we consider it in a narrow sense, culture refers to the behaviors, habits, traditions or beliefs peculiar to a particular region or organization. However, if we regard it as a broad concept, culture is considered to be the way of life of a country or a nation. It includes customs, religious belief, political system, science and technology, language and other elements. Culture is usually considered to be a broad concept in international business negotiations. Generally speaking, it refers to the modes of thinking and behaviors and the values of a country or a nation, which affects people’s social style to a great extent. It also embodies the characteristics of a particular social group. Due to the specific history and tradition, different countries or regions have developed their own cultural characteristics and cultural models. Due to the differences in traditional habits, value system and social styles, we can find that there are some trade frictions in Sino-German business negotiations.

1.2 The Definition of Intercultural Communication

"Communication between native speakers and non-native speakers, or between any people who are different in terms of language and cultural background, is called cross-cultural communication."(Zhuang Enping, 2004:8)In essence, it refers to the direct verbal communication between two parties. What it studies includes the differences in value orientation, way of thinking, language norms, customs and habits and so on, and it involves not only in-depth theoretical analysis, but also practical application. And only in this way can it better serve the intercultural communication activities.

Concept and Characteristics of International Business Negotiation

2.1 Concept of International Business Negotiation

"International business negotiation is a process of consultation. It involves two or more negotiators who are from different countries and represent different interests. They are meant to conclude a transaction with each other."(Salacuse.J.W, 1991:40) As we all know, there are inevitable conflicts of economic interests in negotiation. If negotiators are unable to reduce trade frictions and settle disputes, it will be very difficult for them to conclude a transaction in the end. In essence, international business negotiation belongs to a kind of cross-cultural communication activity. Therefore, culture plays an important role in international business negotiations. In a word, in foreign trade activities, we need to recognize the close relationship between culture and international business negotiation.

2.2 Characteristics of International Business Negotiation

2.2.1 Being Closely Related to National Policies

Essentially, international business negotiation is an international communication activity, which is closely related to national policies. Generally speaking, international business negotiation involves at least two countries or nations. Different countries or nations have different national policies. For example, a product is allowed to be sold in one country, but it may be explicitly prohibited in another country. From this we can see that national policies vary among many countries and affect economic activities to a large extent. Therefore, in international business negotiations, negotiators are supported to be very familiar with their own country's national policies. At the same time, they also need to have a basic understanding of the national policies of other countries and abide by a series of laws and rules governing foreign trade and economic relations, which can greatly help reduce unnecessary trade frictions.

2.2.2 Being Much More Complex

Negotiators who come from different countries and regions have different cultural backgrounds, values, ways of thinking, ways of behavior, languages and personal habits. Therefore, in the face of an unfamiliar cultural environment, it is inevitable that there will be some communication barriers and different opinions between negotiators, which will easily produce conflicts of interest and unpleasant phenomena in the negotiation process. At last, it will make the negotiation environment more complex. So it will be more difficult for both parties to come to an agreement.

2.2.3 Being both Conflicting and Cooperative

International business negotiation is a process of conflict and cooperation. If the interests of both sides are exactly the same, there is no need to negotiate. So it is normal that there are conflicts of opinions and interests between the two parties. International business negotiation, in fact, is a process of reducing differences through consultation so that the interests and objectives of both parties tend to converge and finally reach an agreement. If disputes escalate and differences widen, it is easy to lead to the breakdown of the negotiations. Therefore, it is very important for both parties to seek common ground while reserving differences in order to gain mutual benefits.

The Embodiment and Causes of the Cultural Differences between China and Germany

3.1 Difference in Values

"In the process of international business activities, time is an important concept worthy of our attention. However, people's view of time varies greatly since there are cultural differences between different nations."(Wang Tianwen,Wang Shimin, 2008:39) Germans are strictly punctual, doing only one thing at a time. The plans they made were highly binding. Even if things do not end within a specified period of time, they must stop without affecting the next arrangement or keeping the next person waiting. What's more, they think being punctual is a kind of basic courtesy as well as a sense of responsibility. If someone don't be punctual, it not only wastes the time of both parties, but also is a lack of honesty of someone. On the contrary, Chinese people tend to do many things at the same time or many people do the same thing together. They emphasize multiple participation and better completion of tasks. In most cases, people get along very well. Generally speaking, Chinese people have a more flexible schedule or plan, which does not emphasize that everything should be in accordance with a fixed schedule or a strict plan. Chinese people don't like to make appointments because they think plans can be changed depending on specific circumstances. Instead, they prefer to visit at any time. In most cases, even if an appointment is made in advance, the visitor may not come.

Due to the totally different modes of thinking between Chinese and Germans, people tend to have opposing or misunderstanding views on things. “The individualism＆collectivism dimension describes the extent to which the society is organized around individuals or the group.”(Xue Qi, 2006:6)The ideological core of Chinese culture is collectivism. The Chinese believe that everyone is not a separate individual, but an individual living in a social group. No matter what they do, they should follow the principle of collectivism, stick to the collective wisdom and give full consideration to the collective common interests. Otherwise, people will not be able to live in society and community, and may even be abandoned by society and group. In conclusion, it is obvious that Chinese people are more talkative and are fond of participating in various social activities. They often get together with relatives and friends, and attach great importance to the harmony of the group. In German culture, the basic unit of society is not the collective but the individual, and people attach great importance to the existence and achievement of the individual. German culture also does not emphasize the maintenance of collective harmony and consensus of opinion. They tend to pay more attention to the expression of their personal opinions when considering problems, and will not easily make concessions even when they disagree with others. Moreover, Germans, who are deeply influenced by individualism, prefer to be quiet and alone, enjoying a good time by themselves. They think that frequent socializing is a waste of time.

3.2 Difference in Communication Style

"In order to better explain and show the diversity of world culture, the American anthropologist Edward T. Hall proposed the concept of high and low context culture."(Fan Lei,Fan Weiwei, 2001:148) As we all know, China and Germany are classified as two totally different contextual cultures. China is known as a high-context country. Chinese people attach great importance to the role of context in interpersonal communication. They often express their thoughts and feelings in a very implicit and euphemistic way. This makes it difficult for others to quickly understand what the speaker is really trying to express. While Germany is a typical low-context country, people usually express their views and true feelings directly and clearly. And they seldom say some nonsense or crack a joke that is irrelevant to the topic. This inevitably gives the impression that Germans are serious and difficult to approach. Therefore, different contextual cultures influence communication styles to a great extent.

In addition, the Chinese and Germans have completely different attitudes to the concept of face, which largely affects their communication styles. As is known to all, Chinese people prefer to attach great importance to their so-called honor and reputation. In interpersonal communication, they will feel very embarrassed and disgusted if others directly say something negative or rejecting. Because in their opinion, it is a kind of inconsiderate and damaging behavior of others' reputation. In Germany, people don't care much about so-called face. They do not express their thoughts and opinions in a roundabout way. Hence, sometimes it is easy to offend others unintentionally.

3.3 Difference in Verbal and Non-verbal Behavior

German, as a typical Germanic language, of course belongs to the Indo-European language family. Each language has its own characteristics. And accuracy is one of the labels of German. German has many prescribed sentence structures and grammatical rules, which are naturally reflected in its expression patterns. Germans often use words such as "have to" and "must", which tends to give people the impression of being rigid and arrogant. In fact, it is a manifestation of German conscientiousness and preciseness. There are also many words in German that require foreigners to understand their usage environment and idioms in detail so as to accurately understand the real intention of the other party. However, Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, which has rich and profound connotations and flexible and diverse sentence patterns. “Chinese people tend to speak in a euphemistic way, which usually gives people the impression of humility.”(Tong Fang, 2006:58) When expressing opinions, Chinese people are fond of adopting the mode of induction, explaining the reasons first and then drawing a conclusion. The Germans, on the other hand, prefer the deductive method, which states the conclusion first and then puts forward the reasons.

We also need to pay attention to nonverbal behavior because it is a critical part in intercultural communication. It consists of various gestures, body movements, eye contact and so on. The meanings of these behaviors may be quite different in different cultures. Therefore, negotiators should have a good command of different non-verbal signals of their own nations and other nations. Otherwise, it would be easy for them to misunderstand these signals, and then they may not be aware of the mistakes. In Germany, for example, silence signifies approval. While in China, the embodiment of politeness and respect to others is given priority. Therefore, people do not express their disagreement or dissatisfaction directly. If someone remains silent for a long time, he may disagree with something. In addition, Chinese people also like to use eyes and expressions to show their attitudes. So it is also important to learn to observe the changes of Chinese people’s expression.

3.4 Difference in Dietary Habit

Speaking of the dietary habit, we know that people from different countries and regions have different dietary habits. To be specific, Chinese people prefer to eat rice and drink tea while Germans prefer bread, noodles and coffee. In addition, Chinese people adopt the dinner party system.They believe that eating is not just to replenish the body's energy needs. What is more important is to meet people's spiritual and emotional needs through dinner. Eating in groups and chatting together can strengthen relationships with friends and family. In Germany, people prefer separate meals. Even though many people sit at the same table, everyone eats their own food and there is little interaction. In addition, by the way, the wine culture of China and Germany are distinctly different. Chinese people have the habit of toasting and encouraging people to drink in order to show the host's hospitality. If the guests enjoy drinking the wine provided by the host, the host will be wonderfully happy. In Germany, there is no such habit. Germans are used to drinking beer, usually alone, in a do-it-yourself way.

3.5 Difference in Corporate Culture

The outstanding characteristic of German enterprise culture is to pay attention to the cultivation of ability and solve the actual problems. Each employee is given sufficient space to think freely. It can greatly improve the quality and problem-solving ability of the participants. Another very important task of German corporate training is to let employees identify with the values of the company. As is known to all, German enterprises always put product quality in the first place. They believe that there are no both good and cheap products, only good or bad ones. Most German products are famous for their quality and become world-famous brands. However, Compared with the German enterprise culture, China's enterprise culture pays much more attention to the form of corporate culture. In this way, it naturally ignore the true connotation of corporate culture. Influenced by traditional culture, Chinese enterprises attach great importance to the paramount power of leaders and the harmonious relationship between teams.

3.6 Difference in Fulfillment of Contract

"In 1980, Hofstede put forward a four-dimensional model of national culture in The Effect of Culture. After the four dimensions, he put forward the fifth dimension, which is called the long-term orientation and short-term orientation."(Geert Hofstede, 1984:82)Specifically, long-term orientation is a type of behavior that fosters and encourages the pursuit of future returns. China is a long-term oriented country. Managers of Chinese enterprises pay attention to the development prospects and future profitability of the enterprise. And they are willing to make great efforts for achieving long-term goals. However Germany is a short-term oriented country. Germans are more concerned with the current profits of companies. When the adverse factors in economic activities increase, they will hold the attitude of uncertainty avoidance. In a word, as for international business negotiation, Chinese and German negotiators have very different views on the fulfillment of contract.

The Impact of Cultural Differences between China and Germany on Negotiation

4.1 Impact on Communication

First of all, in terms of verbal communication, due to the existing different cultural traditions of different countries, Chinese people are very roundabout. But Germans are straightforward. In the eyes of Germans, however, euphemism is not sincerity but pretence. “Chinese people always need to think again and again when they make decisions. To the Germans, this is a sign of indecision. Germans often bristle at such behaviour.”(Lin Zhengqi, 2016:40)Sometimes, the two sides of a negotiation have very different understandings of the same thing. For example, "dragon" is a mascot in all ages in China. It mainly stands for happiness and good luck. In Germany, however, it is an evil monster and is generally believed to bring misfortune to people.

When it comes to non-verbal communication, what i want to mention is body language. Different body languages deliver different messages. Sometimes, in different situations, even the same body language can convey completely different meanings. For example, Chinese people are used to nodding their heads repeatedly in conversation. People nodding their heads in different situations conveys different messages, such as encouragement, hesitation and agreement. Germans, on the other hand, often regard a nod as simply agreement. Therefore, in the process of international business negotiations, negotiators are easy to misunderstand the body language, which reduces the possibility of successful negotiations to a large extent.

4.2 Impact on Negotiation Mode

The mode of thinking of Chinese is totally different from that of Germans. The way of thinking of Chinese is subjective. They often attach great importance to the humanities and interpersonal relationship, which makes Chinese people be in the hope of making friends with foreigners before negotiations. They think that many problems are easier to solve if they have a close relationship with others. While Germans are objective in their thinking. They attach more importance to issues rather than relationship. Besides, they devote themselves to dealing with problems in a rational and efficient way. As a result, they don't want to take the time to build relationships before doing business. In the business negotiation, there will be some misunderstanding between the two countries. For example, Germans may make a bad impression on Chinese. In this way, Chinese would think that the Germans are so indifferent and serious that it is difficult to contact with them. While on the other hand, Germans may hold the idea that Chinese people are fond of cottoning up with others. As a result, both sides will think the other is insincere. Thus, there is little possibility of continuing negotiations.

4.3 Impact on Decision-making

Chinese and Germans have different values orientation, which will certainly affect the negotiators' behavior. Generally speaking, Chinese attach great importance to building an excellent negotiating group. And they have a strong sense of hierarchy and collectivism. Each person in the group is responsible for specific task, and there must be irreplaceable chief leader. In contrast, Germans emphasize individuality. Members of the group respect each other's views. In short, they are more inclined to show the independent personality of each individual. In international business negotiations, if cultural difference is not realized, it may well be impossible to carry on the negotiation successfully at the very beginning.

4.4 Impact on the Signing of the Contract

Influenced by the traditional Chinese culture, Chinese people are more inclined to pay much more attention to the feelings of others. And in their opinion, it is very important to build harmonious interpersonal relationships. Even in the process of international business negotiations, in order to maintain the good economic partnership that has been established, the Chinese sometimes take the initiative to make compromises and concessions to the terms of the contract. In the choice between emotion and law, they often choose the heartwarming emotion rather than the severe law. For them, rigid laws tend to damage the relationship between people, so it is worth doing a little harm to their own interests to maintain a harmonious relationship. However, for the Germans, the choice of emotion and law is just the opposite of the Chinese. They believe that rules and laws are the basis for settling the matter, so they often write almost all the details into the contract explicitly. “In case of breach of contract, compensation or return of goods must be made in strict accordance with the contract. ”(Chen Zhaoyang,Chen Jingliang, 2007:2)It is precisely because of the two different attitudes that there is a potential risk that the negotiation will break down during the signing of the contract.

Countermeasures to Reduce the Impact of Sino-German Cultural Differences on Negotiation

5.1 Recognizing the Existence of Cultural Differences

As we all know, the existence of cultural differences cannot be changed. So it is very important to overcome the cultural differences and reduce the conflicts in negotiations. There is no doubt that the recognition of the cultural diversity of the world is the premise of a correct understanding of cultural differences. "First of all, we should have a sense of identity with our own national culture. At the same time, it is necessary to respect the culture of other nations."(Dou Weilin, 2014:24) In international business negotiations, the excellent negotiators are supported to recognize and respect cultural differences in the first place. And then, they should try their best to adapt to it. Furthermore, it is essential that negotiators have a tolerant attitude towards cultural differences. Of course, striving for "common ground while reserving differences" is not the same as fully absorbing other cultures. One should hold a moderate view of foreign culture rather than totally tolerate or ignore it. Therefore, it is very important to respect the etiquette, customs and taboos of various countries and nationalities for a successful negotiation.

5.2 Making Adequate Preparations before the Negotiation

As the saying goes, "Opportunity favors the minds that are prepared". If the negotiators want to be in the active position in the negotiation, they must make full preparations in advance. Only in this way, the negotiators can deal with the various adverse situations that may appear in the negotiation process, and finally achieve the success of the negotiation.To be brief, the preparation for the negotiation includes the background of the negotiation, the purpose of the negotiation, the differences that may be encountered during the negotiation, the agenda, alternative plans and concession strategies and so on. The negotiation background includes negotiation place, negotiation time, negotiation expectation, scene layout, the number of participants and so on. Compared with the monoculture, the preparation of international business negotiation is more complicated because of the intercultural factor. As a result, different countries have different views on these issues. Before the negotiation, the negotiators should have a comprehensive understanding of the partners' expectations, customs, negotiation means and so on. For example, the Chinese and the Germans have very different notions of time. For the Germans, time is money, and they are very efficient when negotiating. In China, by contrast, the Chinese like to cement a partnership through brief chats before the negotiations begin.In a word, sufficient preparations before a negotiation can greatly improve the possibility of a successful negotiation.

5.3 Respecting Each Other's Customs

Custom is a very important concept. It is passed down over a long period of time. It has the characteristics of relative stability, variability and spontaneity. And custom is also the external embodiment of the lifestyle and values of a particular group of people. It includes modes of production, ways of life, manners and beliefs. Compared with the external elements of culture, such as language, body language and behavior, customs are more subtle and complex. If we are not careful enough, we may offend others unintentionally.Therefore, before international business negotiations, negotiators should have a full understanding of the customs of each other in order to avoid accidentally offending others. In the process of negotiation, it is especially important to respect the customs of each other. It can create a more harmonious atmosphere for negotiators to achieve the success of negotiations.

5.4 Eliminating Conflict through Effective Communication

In the cross-cultural negotiations, the two sides from different cultural modes often have communication barriers due to cultural differences. Negotiators must master the necessary cross-cultural negotiation skills to overcome the communication barriers in cross-cultural negotiation.Generally speaking, in international business negotiations, the following communication barriers are the most common. The first obstacle may be caused by the misunderstanding of speech expression, translation error, and even the meaning of a word or phrase. For example, Chinese people think red represents good luck, happiness and enthusiasm. In Germany, red is associated with evil, radicalism and brutality. The second obstacle is caused by different ways of expression. It is affected by negotiators' professional habits, professional knowledge and understanding ability. For example, most Chinese people speak tactfully, and they usually don't express their true intentions. In this case, negotiators need to communicate effectively to avoid some unnecessary conflicts. The third obstacle is caused by the psychological factors of the negotiators. It includes attitudes, biases, and negotiation experience.In short, in the negotiation, especially in the cross-cultural negotiation, negotiators should try to overcome the above three communication barriers. Therefore, negotiators can manage to avoid some unnecessary problems and troubles. If they are confronted with obstacles and difficulties, they need to break the deadlock through effective communication.

Conclusion

Due to the impact of a variety of uncertain factors, there is a more complex and changeable negotiation environment in international business negotiations. So it is very important to enhance sensibility of cultural differences, which can help to create more favourable conditions for effective communication and cooperation. In view of the cultural differences between Germany and China, this thesis mainly compares Chinese culture with German culture, and then analyzes and explains the reasons for the differences. In addition, this paper adopts lots of cases to study and discuss the impact of cultural differences on business negotiations.Finally, it puts forward some specific coping strategies. Looking at the existing research results on this topic, it is not difficult to find that most of the previous scholars paid more attention to the study of business negotiation principles and skills, while ignoring the role of culture. However, this paper find that culture has great significance for the success of business negotiations.But I know there are some shortcomings in this thesis. For example, because cultural difference is a comprehensive concept, it's impossible for me to give examples one by one and conduct comprehensive research and analysis in this thesis. Therefore, I think that future scholars can make further analysis and research on this topic from other aspects so as to promote the improvement of this issue.

References

• Hofstede,Geert.(1984).Cultural Dimensions in Management and Planning. Asia Pacific Journal of Management(2)81-83.
• Salacuse,J,W.(1991).Making Global Deals: Negotiating in the International Marketplace. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
• Tong,Fang.(2006).Negotiation:the Chinese Style. Journal of Business & Industrial Marketing(1)58-60.
• Chen Zhaoyang,Chen Jingliang 陈朝阳,陈京亮.(2007).浅谈中德商务谈判差异[The Differences between Chinese and German Business Negotiations].商场现代化Mall Modernization(12)1-2.
• Dou Weilin 窦卫霖.(2014).跨文化商务交流案例分析[Case Studies on Cross-cultural Business Communication].Beijing:University of International Business and Economics Press对外经济贸易大学出版社.
• Fan Lei,Fan Weiwei 范蕾,樊葳葳.(2001). 跨文化交际失败实例分析及启示[Analysis of the Failure of Intercultural Communication and Its Implications].外语教育Foreign Language Education(1)148.
• Lin Zhengqi 林正奇.(2016).中德商务谈判文化差异案例的跨文化视角分析[A Cross-cultural Perspective Analysis of the Case of Cultural Differences in Sino-German Business Negotiations].华东理工大学硕士学位论文Master's Thesis of East China University of Science and Technology.
• Wang Tianwen,Wang Shimin 汪天文,王仕民.(2008).文化差异与时间观念的冲突[Cultural Differences and the Conflict of Time Concepts]. 学术研究Academic Research(7)37-39
• Xue Qi 薛琦.(2006).文化差异对中德商务谈判者谈判风格的影响[The Influence of Cultural Differences on the Negotiation Style of Chinese and German Business Negotiators].对外经济贸易大学硕士学位论文Master's Thesis of University of International Business and Economics.
• Zhuang Enping 庄恩平.(2004).跨文化商务沟通案例教程[Case Study of Intercultural Business Communication].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

Terms and Expressions

• high-level state visits 高层国事访问
• high context culture 高语境文化
• low context culture 低语境文化
• ten miles of different wind, a hundred miles of different customs 十里不同风，百里不同俗
• the Belt and Road Initiative “一带一路”倡议
• the China-European Railway Express 中欧班列
• Theory of Face 面子理论
• individualism＆collectivism 个体主义&集体主义
• Indo-European language family 印欧语系
• Sino-Tibetan language family 汉藏语系
• the dinner party system 聚餐制
• the individual dining system 分餐制
• four-dimensional model of national culture 民族文化的四维模式
• long-term orientation and short-term orientation 长期导向和短期导向

Questions

• 1.Which of the following countries belongs to typical high-context culture?

A.China B.Canada C.German D.America

• 2.Which of the following countries belongs to typical low-context culture?

A.China B.Japan C.North Korea D.German

• 3.Which of the following countries are long-term oriented and short-term oriented countries respectively?

A.China and German B.Canada and China C.German and Canada D.America and German

• 4.Which of the following countries takes the theory of face very seriously?

A.German B.UK C.China D.America

• 5.When did Hofstede propose the four-dimensional model of national culture?

A.In 1979 B.In 1980 C.In 1981 D.In 1982

Answers

• 1.A
• 2.D
• 3.A
• 4.C
• 5.B

英语笔译 钟青 Zhong Qing 202170081611

论文标题 Zhong Qing

Abstract

The History of Imperial China is a series of general histories of China edited by Canadian historian Timothy Brook, which was published in Chinese by China's CITIC Publishing House in 2016. This article collects the administrative terms of each dynasty in the History of Imperial China, and explores the translation methods of them. There are a total of 201 administrative terms, spanning the six stages of the Qin and Han Dynasties, the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the Sui Dynasty, the Tang Dynasty, the Yuan and Ming Dynasties, and the Qing Dynasty. According to the statistics, % of the Chinese administrative terms use the word-for word translation method, % subtraction, and % amplification. It is found that in the same book, the same administrative term has different translations, badly affecting readability and coherency. In addition, many administrative terms are rendered into the counterpart in the foreign official system, which may be misleading to the reader. By analyzing the translation strategies of the administrative terms in the History of Imperial China, this paper intends to fill some gaps in the study of English translation of administrative terms, and to provide reference for the translation of administrative terms in the English translation of Chinese works in the future.

Key words

History of Imperial China; Administrative Terms; Translation Strategy; Consistency

Subtitle 1

正文.

References

• Wang Jianhua (2021). The Reception of Liu Cixin's Three Body Problem in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 450 pp.