20230630 final exam culture 06

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Zhao Xizhen 赵喜珍 Chinese traditional custom: Draw lots

Chinese traditional custom: Draw lots

Abstract

Draw lots, also called Shi'er（试儿）、Shizhou（试周）,which means a vocational inclination test for an infant. It is a very important ceremony in the one-year-old ceremony. It was first seen in the ancient customs of the Northern and Southern Dynasties(AD420-589) and spread among the people.The baby is born one year, accounting for "ZHOU"（周）, now called one full year of life. In this day, the whole family not only to celebrate, but also to hold a grand ceremony.It is not only a traditional cultural custom, but also reflects the cultural significance of the Chinese traditional family model.

抓周，也叫试儿、试周、揸生日。它是周岁礼中一项很重要的仪式，最早见于南北朝时期的古俗，在民间流传。婴儿出生满一年，占称“周”，现称周岁，周岁这天，全家人不仅要庆贺，而且还要举行隆重的抓周仪式。抓周不仅是一项传统文化习俗，也从中体现了中国传统家庭模式的文化意义。

Keywords

Draw Lots, customs, cultural significance.

抓周，习俗，文化意义。

Introduction

This custom, which has been passed down in folklore for a long time, is a ceremony held when a child turns one year old to predict his future and temperament, and is a way to celebrate the first birthday anniversary. It belongs to the traditional birth rituals as well as the birth annunciation, the full moon ceremony and the 100th day ceremony, etc. Its core is the wish for the continuation, smoothness and prosperity of life, with the nature of family games,reflecting the parents' very affectionate toward their children, and also is a kind of faith custom with human relations and the pursuit of child rearing; at the same time, it also objectively tests how the mother enlightens her children. With the improvement of living standards, the custom of Draw lots is being paid more and more attention to many families, and many places are also holding organized this activity as a way to celebrate the baby's birthday.

抓周，又称拭儿、试晬、拈周、试周，英文为Draw lots。这种习俗，在民间流传已久，它是小孩周岁时举行的一种预测前途和性情的仪式，是第一个生日纪念日的庆祝方式。它与产儿报喜、三朝洗儿、满月礼、百日礼等一样，都属于传统的诞生礼仪，其核心是对生命延续、顺利和兴旺的祝愿，反映了父母对子女的舐犊情深，具有家庭游戏性质，是一种具有人伦味、以育儿为追求的信仰风俗；同时也在客观上检验了母亲是如何对孩童进行启蒙教育的。随着生活水平的提高，抓周这一习俗被越来越多的许多家庭重视，许多地方也在有组织地集体举行抓周活动，以此来庆祝宝宝的生日。

It objectively tests how birth mothers and wet nurses educate their children through this way, which is why some parents are not superstitious but advocate Draw lots, and it is also one of the reasons why this custom is spread among the people.

通过抓周，在客观上检验了生母、奶妈对小孩是如何教育的，这也是为何有些家长不迷信但却主张抓周的原因所在，同时也是这一习俗得以在民间流传的原因之一。

Source Search

There should be a time process for a custom to form and develop. In the Southern dynasty, Draw lots was already popular in Jiangnan(which is the region south of the Yangtze River), so the generation time should be a little earlier. Therefore, according to Tales of The Three Kingdoms circulated among the people, the origin of Draw lots was pushed forward to the Three Kingdoms time.

一种习俗从产生形成到发展流传，应当有一个时间过程。南朝时抓周便已流行于江南，所以其产生时间应当更早一点。因此，又有人根据民间流传的《三国外传》，将抓周的起源时间向前推至三国时间。

According to legend, after Sun Quan's(founder of the Wu country in the dynasty of three kingdoms) ascending to the throne, his son Sun Deng died of illness, so that Sun Quan had to choose another successor from among his descendants. A man named Jing Yang asked to see Sun Quan, saying that the succession was a great task throughout the ages, and that it should not only depend on the virtue of the princes, but also on thier talent. He also proposed to Sun Quan how he should choose his son. So Sun Quan, according to Jing Yang's way, recruited all the royal descendants into the palace on an auspicious day, then Jing Yang brought out a plate full of beads and shells, ivory, rhinoceros horn, etc., and let the young royal descendants grab them at will. Some of the children grabbed jade and some took rhinoceros horn. Only Sun Hao, the son of Sun He, grabbed the booklet with one hand and the Sui belt with the other. Sun Quan was so happy to see this that he immediately crowned Sun He as the crown prince. After this, many people also used similar methods to test the future of their children and grandchildren, thus forming the custom of "testing children" or Shi'er（试儿） which spread in Jiangnan.

相传，三国时,孙权登基没有多久,太子孙登就因病去世了，孙权只能从其他后辈中再选一名继承人。有个叫景养的人求见孙权，说立嗣传位是千秋万代的大业，不能只看皇子是否贤德，还要看他的天赋。并且向孙权提出了他选择皇子的办法。于是孙权按照景养所说，在一个良辰吉日将所有皇室后辈招进宫里，然后景养端出一个装满珠贝、象牙、犀角等物的盘子，让小皇孙们任意地抓取。众小儿有的抓翡翠，有的取犀角。只有孙和的儿子孙皓，一手抓过简册，一手抓过绥带。孙权看到后很高兴，立马册封孙和为太子。在这之后，许多人也用类似的方法来测试儿孙的未来，由此形成了流传江南的“试儿”习俗。（佚名《抓周源自三国时期》）

Historical Development

The documentary record of Draw Lots dated back to the North and South Dynasties. The custom of Draw Lots is clearly recorded in Yan Zhitui's Yan Family Sutra of the Northern Qi Dynasty, when it was still known as "testing children". When discussing the history of the custom, many writers claimed that the custom was widespread in the Jiangnan area at least during the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and gradually spread throughout the country during the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

文献上有关抓周的记载可上溯到南北朝时期。北齐颜之推《颜氏家训》就明确记载了抓周这一习俗，此时它还被称作是“拭儿”。不少著述在论及抓周习俗的历史时，都称这个习俗至少在南北朝时已普遍流行于江南地区，至隋唐时逐渐普及全国。

By the Tang and Song dynasties, this custom had spread from Jiangnan to all parts of the country, and at this time it was called "Shizui"（试晬） or "Zhouzui"（周晬）. In the Yuan and Ming dynasties, this custom became more prevalent and was called "Qiyang"（期扬）, and only in the Qing dynasty was the name of "Zhuazhou"（抓周） and "Shizhou"（试周）.

到了唐宋时期，这一风俗已从江南传开至全国各地，此时叫做“试晬”或“周晬”。元代和明代，此习俗更加盛行，被称之为“期扬”，到了清代才有“抓周”、“试周”之称。 In the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period, this kind of ceremony was still prevalent in Beijing. No big banquet was held for the child's birthday, but friends and relatives still came to congratulate the child and brought small gifts (such as cakes and toys). In addition, it was customary for the elders who met the child for the first time to attach a white thread to a coin and put it around the child's neck, which was called a "hanging thread" (you can also do the same in normal times).

清末民初，北京民间仍然盛行这种“抓周”礼。小儿周岁不举办大酒席，但亲朋好友仍会来贺岁，且带上小礼物（如糕点玩具等）。另外，在习惯上，只要是和小孩第一次见面的长辈，都会用一挂白线拴上钱币，给小孩套在脖子上，这叫做“挂线”（在平时也一样）。（黄晓《抓周仪式的文化解读》）

Nowadays, many places still retain the custom of Draw Lots, but there is no longer a superstitious element, which can be seen as an inheritance of traditional customs.

现在不少地方仍然保留着“抓周”这一习俗，但是已经没有了迷信的成分，这可以看做是对传统习俗的一种继承。

The process of Draw Lots

On the day of the child's first birthday, parents will dress the child and put on new clothes, and then begin to worship the ancestors, first telling them that today is the offspring's birthday, praying for blessing the child to grow up healthy. Then choose a spacious room, set up two square tables or a round table covered with cloth or mat, and arrange the prepared items in a semi-curved shape at one end of the table, then place the baby on the table and ask him/her to grab the objects on the table.After that,we can infer the interests of the baby and the possible future profession from he/she grabs.

在孩童周岁这天，父母给孩子梳洗打扮，换上新衣，然后开始祭拜祖先，先告诉祖先今日是后代的周岁，祈求保佑孩子能够健康成长。然后选一间比较宽敞的房间，摆上两张方桌或一张圆桌，上面铺好布或席子，将准备好的抓周物品呈半弧形摆放至桌子的一端，将宝宝放在桌上让宝宝抓桌上的物品，然后根据宝宝所抓物品推测宝宝的兴趣爱好以及将来可能从事的行业。

Draw Lots ceremony in each region

In the book Chinese National Customs compiled by Hu Pu'an, the custom of Draw Lots in many regions of China in modern times, such as Beijing, Zhejiang, Jiangxi and Anhui, is recorded. In the Beijing area, all the items are put on the table, and newly clothed child is carried to the tablel. If he grabs a pen, he will be a great writer; if he grabs an abacus, he will be a merchant.

近人胡朴安所编的《中华全国风俗志》一书中，对我国近代很多地区如北京、浙江、江西、安徽等地的抓周习俗都有记载。北京地区是把所有物品都放在桌子上，等小孩穿上新衣后抱到桌子上，让他随意抓取。如果抓的是笔，则代表他以后是大作家；如果抓的是算盘，则代表他以后会是商人。

All over Jiangxi and Beijing area is similar, but in the former Qing Dynasty, a kind of Chaohu(which was a string of beads worn on a Qing dynasty court dress) was added, if the child caught this item, the family will be very happy, outsiders will also congratulate for this, because it represents the child will become an official in the future.

江西各地和北京地区类似，但在前清的时候，又加入了朝珠一种，如果小孩抓了这个物品，家人都会很高兴，外人也会为此道贺，因为这代表着小孩以后会当官。

The Qiongya region of Hainan Province calls the child's first birthday "Duisui"（对岁）, this day to congratulate more friends and relatives than the child's full moon day. Elders family will put pen, ink, paper and ink stone, abacus toys, etc. in a sieve, then invite the Taoist priest to come over to worship the gods, and then put the sieve in front of the gods, let the children themselves to grab at will. Those who choose stationery may like studying, and those who choose abacus and silver yuan may like business.

海南省琼崖地区称小儿周岁为“对岁”，这一天来祝贺的亲朋好友比小孩满月那天还要多。外祖父家将笔墨纸砚、算盘玩具等都放在一个筛子中，父亲家则请道士过来奉神，然后把筛子放在神明面前，让小孩自己去随意抓取。择文具者为喜读书，择算盘、银元者则近于商(陈顺宣《汉族生养益寿风俗》)。

The Korean people living in Jilin, Heilongjiang and Liaoning attach importance to celebrating the baby's first birthday and also hold the ceremony. On this day, the mother will first dress herself up and then dress the child. The guests gather around and praise the baby, then carry it to the birthday table prepared in advance. The table is decorated with cakes, sweets and symbolic items such as pens, books, beads and toys. After the guests arrive, the child is asked to choose his or her favorite item from the wide variety of items. When the child stretches out his small hand and picks up an item from the table, people burst into a frenzy as if they had discovered some mystery, praising how clever the child was to make the host happy. There are also those who set up Yepan（晔盘a container that looks like a plate）, on which they put rice, noodles, cakes, fruits, coins, silk thread, books, ink and pencils, bows and arrows (for female babies, scissor and ruler are used instead of bows and arrows) and other things for the baby to grab. And the silk thread symbolizes longevity. At the same time, an old man puts a white velvet around the baby's neck to express his hope that the baby will be a pure and innocent person like the snowy white velvet and will live a long life like the long velvet thread.

居住在吉林、黑龙江、辽宁等地的朝鲜族，重视庆贺婴儿周岁，也举行抓周之礼。这一天，母亲先会把自己装扮一番，再给孩子穿上精致的衣服。客人们会先围着小宝宝夸奖一番，接着把孩子抱到事先准备好的生日席桌前。席上摆设着打糕、糖果和笔、书、珠算、玩具等带有象征意义的东西。待客人到齐之后，就让孩子从这五花八门的东西中选择自已最喜爱的物品。当孩子伸出小手，从席桌上拿起一样东西时，人们就像发现了什么奥秘似的，顿时欢腾起来，赞扬这孩子如何聪明等，使主人高兴。也有设置晔盘者，上放人米、面条、糕点、水果、钱币、丝线、书本、笔墨、弓箭 (女婴则以剪刀、尺子代替弓箭) 等物，令婴儿抓取。其中丝线象征咨长寿。主家设晔宴招待贺客，贺客则送童装或玩具等，以祝婴儿健康成长，表达美好的祝愿，同时由一位上了年纪的老人在孩子脖预上套一团素白色绒，以示希望孩子像雪白的绒团那样做一个清白纯洁的人，能像长长的绒线那样长年延寿。（黄晓《抓周仪式的文化解读》）

It can be seen that the custom of Draw Lots exists in many regions of the country. Parents' hopes for their children can be seen in the items that are set up. But in terms of what is placed around, more or less, the variety varies slightly, and the meaning signified by what is grasped is much the same.This is a reflection of the degree of ethnic culture and local cultural standards of different historical periods and local regions in the custom of Draw Lots.

由此可以看出，在我国许多地区都存在着抓周习俗。从摆设的物品可看出家长对孩子的希望。但从各地摆设的东西来看，或多或少，种类稍有差异，抓取什么所表示的含义也大同小异。这是不同历史时期、不同地方区域的民族文化程度、地方文化水准在抓周习俗上的体现。

The meaning of the items representing the items（Baidu）

1. Books: good at study; suitable for scholars, experts.

2. Pen and ink: will become a writer or painter.

3. seal: powerful; will be a big official.

4. Abacus / calculator: will be a businessman, accountant; suitable for business.

5. Coins: will be very rich in the future.

6. Chicken legs: blessed, and will not worry about food and clothing in life.

7. Ruler: can become designers and architects in the future.

8.Scallion: on behalf of smart(because "scallion" is pronounced with the Chinese pronunciation "cong", meaning smart).

9. Garlic: represents good at calculation or arrangement(pronounced with the Chinese pronunciation "suan", meaning good at calculation or arrangement).

10. Celery: on behalf of hard work(also because of its Chinese pronunciation "qin").

11. Straw: suitable for agricultural work.

12. Swords: can be officers, police.

1、书：会读书；适合做学者、专家

2、笔墨：会成为作家、画家

3、印章：有权势，会做大官

4、算盘/计算器：会当商人、会计师，适合从商

5、钱币：将来会很富有

6、鸡腿：有福气，表示一生将不愁吃穿

7、尺：将来可成为设计师、建筑师

8、葱：代表聪明

9、蒜：代表善于计算

10、芹菜：代表勤劳

11、稻草：适合农事工作

12、刀剑：能当军官、警察

13、听筒：适合医护工作 

Cultural significance

"The ritual of Draw Lots marks the end of one stage of a child's life and the beginning of another. Through the various aspects of the ritual, the people express their reverence for their gods and ancestors, as well as conveying their expectations for their offspring and their aspirations for a better life. The ritual of Draw Lots is also an important carrier for family gatherings and assumes a certain entertainment function."

“抓周仪式标志着儿童一个生命阶段的结束和另一个生命阶段的开始。通过仪式的各个环节，既表达了人们对神灵和祖先的崇敬之情，也传递了对后辈的期待和对美好生活的向往。抓周礼俗也是家族聚会的重要载体，承担了一定的娱乐功能。”（徐森阳，王宇鹏《抓周仪式的内容及其文化心理意义探析》）

(1) The beginning of a new phase of the newborn.

（1）新生儿新阶段的开始。

The Draw Lots ceremony is held when the newborn is one year old and represents a growth ritual. The newborn moves from infancy to early childhood and slowly grows from an ignorant baby to an individual exploring the outside world on his or her own.

抓周仪式在新生儿一周岁时举行，代表了一种成长仪式。新生儿从婴儿时期迈入幼儿时期，从一个懵懂无知的婴儿慢慢成长为一个自主探索外部世界的个体。

(2) The ritual of Draw Lots represents the reverence for the gods and the wish for the children.

（2）抓周仪式代表对神明的敬畏和对孩童的祝愿。

The Draw Lots ceremony begins with worshiping the gods and praying to them to bless the newborn's healthy growth. The birth of a newborn is a family legacy, representing a new hope for a family and reflecting the continuity of life.

抓周仪式首先要祭拜神明，并向神明祈祷保佑新生儿健康成长。新生儿的出生，是一个家族的传承，代表了一个家族的新希望，反映了生命的延续。

(3) The Draw Lots ceremony can promote family heritage and social interaction.

（3）抓周仪式能促进家庭传承和社会交往。

With the development of society, people have more and more convenient ways to communicate and interact with each other, but people are less able to experience the traditional strong family ties. The appearance of a newborn child is a link between family members, who bring them together again to feel the traditional kinship between families, enhance their feelings, and strengthen their sense of identity in the relationship of family members. At the same time, the Draw Lots ceremony unites family and friends, and people are able to further promote social interaction and interpersonal relationships during the conversation.

随着社会发展，人们交流交往的方式越来越便捷，但人们却较少能体验到传统的家族浓厚亲情。新生儿的出现，是家庭成员联系的纽带，他使家庭成员再次相聚在一起，感受家庭之间传统的亲情、增进感情，强化对家族成员关系的认同感。同时，抓周仪式凝聚亲朋好友，人们在交谈的过程中能够进一步促进社会交往，推动人际关系的发展。

References

1.Xu Senyang, Wang Yupeng徐森阳，王宇鹏. 抓周仪式的内容及其文化心理意义探析 ——以苏州地区为例

2.Huang Xiao黄晓. 抓周仪式的文化解读 ——以广德地区为例

3.Li Songling, Qu Chunhai李松龄，屈春海. 话说抓周习俗

4.Yi Ming 抓周源自三国时期

Questions

1.When did the Draw Lots from?

2.What's the meaning of abacus?

3.Can you talk about the cultural significance of Draw Lots?

Answers

1.The documentary record of Draw Lots dated back to the North and South Dynasties.

2.It means the child will be a businessman, accountant; suitable for business.

3.The ritual of Draw Lots marks the end of one stage of a child's life and the beginning of another. Through the various aspects of the ritual, the people express their reverence for their gods and ancestors, as well as conveying their expectations for their offspring and their aspirations for a better life. The ritual of Draw Lots is also an important carrier for family gatherings and assumes a certain entertainment function.

Cao Wen 曹文 traditional crafts：raw lacquer

Traditional crafts: raw lacquer 传统工艺:生漆

Abstract

Known as the king of paint, China's national lacquer—— raw lacquer, can make coffins more than two thousand years ago bright and complete. It is hard to come by and that’s what makes it so valuable. 

梗概： 素有“油漆之王”之称的中国国漆——生漆，能使两千多年前的棺木光洁完整。它的珍贵主要在于生漆的难得。

Key words

raw lacquer, a particular type of paint, different degrees of allergies, a long history, durability, bottleneck of development, synthetic coatings

关键词： 生漆；一种特殊类型的涂料；不同程度的过敏；历史悠久；经久耐用；合成涂料；发展瓶颈

Introduction

Raw lacquer is a milky natural liquid paint cut from sumac. After being cutting, the paint gradually turns brown due to contact with air. After about four hours, the surface of the liquid dries and hardens to form a paint film. Raw lacquer is a particular type of paint with high economic value and also one of the important materials traditionally exported by China. It is famous for its quantity and quality.

引言： 生漆是一种乳白色的天然液体涂料，从漆树中切割而成。油漆切割后，由于与空气接触，逐渐变成褐色。大约四个小时后，液体表面变干变硬，形成一层漆膜。生漆是一种特殊的具有较高经济价值的涂料，也是中国传统出口的重要原料之一，以量多质好著称于世。

Text

Raw paint can produce different degrees of allergies. The cause of human skin allergy caused by it is not fully understood. Not only does touching the raw lacquer and sumac will cause sores, but some people are allergic to the smell of it. People with mild allergy to raw paint only show in the exposed part of the skin, such as the face, the back of the hand, the fingers and so on, and then develop to the neck, pubic region and other parts. People will initially feel the area swollen and itchy, and after scratching, it will appear red mounds. Severe cases show chickenpox size blisters, if the skin is scratched, it is easy to be infected and ulcerated. But after treatment, it can heal without leaving any trace. Only 10 kilos of raw paint can be cut in a lifetime of a wild sumac. The farmer makes a shallow cut in the sumac and collects the sap. A dozen sumac trees produce only a shallow layer of liquid. The craftsman will mix the filtered sand and ash to fill the gap, brush it carefully for the first time, and leave it to dry, then cover it with gauze for polishing. This process has to be done three times, and finally the varnish. The whole operation is done by hand. They apply it with the palm , and press it again and again to firm up.

正文： 生漆会产生不同程度的过敏。它引起人体皮肤过敏的原因尚不清楚。不仅触摸了生漆和漆树会生漆疮，有的人嗅了生漆味，也会过敏生疮。对生漆轻度过敏的人只表现在皮肤裸露部位，如脸部、手背、手指等，然后发展到颈部、阴部等部位。人们最初会感到该区域肿胀发痒，抓挠后会出现红色小丘斑。严重者皮肤局部呈现水痘大小的水泡，若皮肤被抓破，则很容易受感染而溃烂。但经过治疗后，它可以愈合而不留任何痕迹。一棵野生漆树一生只能割下10公斤的原漆。漆农会在漆树上割一浅口，再收集流出的汁液。十几棵漆树只能集浅浅一层。工匠将过滤后的沙子和灰混合在一起填补空缺，第一次仔细刷，待其干燥后，再用纱布盖上进行抛光。这样的工序要做三次，最后上亮漆。整个操作都是手工完成的。他们用手掌涂抹，一遍又一遍地按压紧实。

In traditional Chinese furniture, the use of raw lacquer has a long history. As early as in ancient times, there are records about sumac. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, raw lacquer was once exported to Southeast Asia as a royal tribute.

在中国传统家具中，生漆的使用有着悠久的历史。早在远古时代，就有关于漆树的记载。明清时期，生漆曾作为皇家贡品远销东南亚各国。

The durability of raw lacquer has been confirmed by unearthed cultural relics. For example, the coffin and lacquerware of the Western Han Dynasty unearthed in Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan Province in 1972 have been dating back to more than 2,000 years ago. The paint film is so bright and complete, which fully proves that the raw lacquer is resistant to water and moisture.

生漆的漆膜耐久性，早已从出土的文物证实。如1972年在湖南长沙马王堆出土的西汉棺椁和漆器，其历史可追溯到2000多年前。其漆膜仍如此光亮完整，充分证明了生漆的耐水、防潮性。

Sumac is mainly distributed in east and central Asia. There are raw lacquer too in other countries such as Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Myanmar, but the output and quality are not as good as in China. Chinese sumac grows in the southern region from Gansu to Shandong. The humid temperature and environment in these regions are very suitable for the growth of sumac. April to August is a good time to cut each year. Particularly in the dog days of summer, the quality of paint is the best, because of the fast moisture volatilization and the full of sunshine. Additionally, the time before sunrise is the best time to cut.

漆树主要分布在东亚和中亚。越南、韩国、日本、缅甸等其他国家也有生漆，但产量和质量都不如中国。中国的漆树生长于甘肃南部至山东一线的南方地区，这些地区潮湿的温度和环境非常适合漆树的生长。每年的4月到8月是割漆的好时机。三伏天所割的漆质最佳，因为盛夏时水分挥发快，阳光充足。此外，每天日出之前也是割漆的最好时机。

Raw lacquer can be used as an excellent preservative, the ideal coating for textile printing and dyeing industry. It can also be used as a good insulating material for electrical equipment, and is a good coating for lacquer craft products. The Temple of Heaven in Beijing, the capital of China, has been around for hundreds of years. Its beams and columns are not rotten, mainly because they are coated with raw lacquer. The crude oil from the oil well contains a certain amount of sulfur and the equipment is easy to break down. If it is coated with raw lacquer or raw lacquer modified coating, the utilization rate of the equipment can be significantly improved.

生漆可作为优良的防腐剂，是纺织印染行业的理想涂料，也可作为电气设备的良好绝缘材料，是漆工艺制品的良好涂料。中国首都北京的天坛迄今已有数百年之久。它的梁柱不腐，主要是因为涂了生漆。油井的原油中含有一定量的硫，设备容易发生故障。如涂生漆或生漆改性涂料，可显著提高设备的利用率。

In addition, dry lacquer is an important traditional Chinese medicine, which can be used to treat diseases and stop bleeding after brewing. Because of its many excellent properties, raw lacquer is widely used. With the development of modified coatings, the need of raw lacquer in national economic construction will increase day by day. It is of great significance to develop the production of raw lacquer to support the construction of the Four Modernizations of socialism and to develop the economy of mountainous areas.

此外，干漆是一种重要的中药，冲泡后可用于治疗疾病和止血。由于生漆具有许多优良的性能，因此被广泛使用。随着改性涂料的发展，国民经济建设对生漆的需求将日益增加。发展生漆生产，对支持社会主义四个现代化建设和发展山区经济具有重要意义。

However, in recent years, our country lacquer industry faces bottleneck of development.

然而近年来，我国生漆产业面临发展瓶颈。

1.Raw lacquer industry lacks perfect production system.

With the rise of modern chemical industry, the variety and properties of paint coatings have changed fundamentally. In many fields, synthetic coatings have replaced raw paint and developed into a huge modern industrial system. This will undoubtedly give a ruthless blow to the development of raw paint industry, so that its survival space is increasingly narrow.

1.生漆行业缺乏完善的生产体系。 随着现代化学工业的崛起，油漆涂料的品种和性能发生了根本性的变化。在许多领域，合成涂料已经取代了原漆，发展成为一个庞大的现代工业体系。这无疑会给生漆行业的发展予以无情打击，使其生存的空间日益狭小。

2.The defects of raw lacquer itself hinder its development.

The quality of raw paint is uneven and the quality control is difficult. Secondly, the production process of raw paint is demanding, and certain temperature and humidity conditions need to be controlled. It can only be operated by hand and is difficult to operate in a mechanized way. At the same time, raw lacquer is also easy to cause skin allergic reaction, so far there is no cure raw lacquer allergy prescription. The defects of raw paint itself make people turn to other substitutes, develop new kinds of paint and coatings, and divide up the market share of raw paint.

2.生漆本身存在的缺陷阻碍了生漆的发展。 生漆品质参差不齐，质量控制困难。其次，原漆的生产过程要求很高，需要控制一定的温度和湿度条件。它只能手工操作，难以采用机械化方式作业。同时，生漆也容易引起皮肤过敏反应，到目前为止还没有治愈生漆过敏的处方。原漆本身存在的这些缺陷使人们转而寻找其它替代品，开发新的油漆和涂料种类，瓜分原漆的市场份额。

3.The industrial management of raw lacquer is extensive.

Due to the insufficient understanding of the significance of scientific management of sumac resources, the state has not formulated the policy based on sustainable development and sustainable utilization. Secondly, there is no directional cultivation of sumac superior plant, which results in inferior varieties of sumac and low paint production. It seriously reduces the ecological function and productivity of lacquer forest and restricts the development of raw lacquer industry.

3.漆产业经营管理粗放。 由于对漆树资源科学管理的重要性认识不足，国家没有制定以持续发展、持续利用为基础的方针、政策。其次，没有定向培育漆树优株，导致漆树品种低劣，油漆产量低。严重降低了漆林的生态功能和生产力，制约了生漆工业的发展。

Our country's lacquer industry development has a good market prospect, but to break through the existing bottleneck, we need to improve production level and ability, perfect production system, and achieve large-scale and intensive development. The development of lacquer industry promotes economic development, beautify environment and protect cultural heritage.

我国的生漆产业发展具有良好的市场前景，但要突破现有瓶颈，还需要提高生产水平和能力，完善生产体系，实现规模化、集约化发展。生漆行业的发展促进了我国的经济发展，环境美化、文化遗产的保护。

Questions

1. What limits does the development of lacquer industry have?

2. Where is the sumac mainly distributed?

3. When is the best time to cut the sumac?

4. How much raw paint can a wild sumac cut in its lifetime?

Answers

1. Raw lacquer industry lacks perfect production system; the defects of raw lacquer itself hinder its development; the industrial management of raw lacquer is extensive. 2. Sumac is mainly distributed in east and central Asia. 3. April to August is a good time to cut each year, particularly in the dog days of summer. Additionally, the time before sunrise is the best time to cut. 4. Only 10 kilos of raw paint can be cut in a lifetime of a wild sumac.

Wang Jiaqi 王佳绮 the image of cattle in Chinese culture

Abstract

Cattle plays an extremely important role in Chinese culture and have a great influence on both ancient and modern society. This chapter will analyze the reasons why cattle are so important in Chinese culture from a historical perspective, briefly analyze the image of cattle in Chinese culture and its guiding significance to the development of modern China, and briefly compare the cattle culture of other countries.

牛在中国文化中有着极其重要的地位，对古今社会都有极大的影响。本文将从历史角度分析牛在中国文化中如此重要的原因，简要分析牛在中国文化中的形象和对现代中国发展的指导意义，并简单对比其他国家的牛文化。

Key Words

Traditional Chinese Culture, cattle, cattle culture, culture and society

中国传统文化 牛 牛文化 社会文化

Introduction

China has a long history, industrious and intelligent Chinese people have forged a broad and profound Chinese excellent traditional culture, and the culture related to cattle is a significant one. The Chinese people have deep and complex feelings for this kind of animal. We can see the image of cattle no matter in literary works or in political programs.

中国历史悠久，勤劳智慧的中国人民铸就了博大精深的中国优秀传统文化，而与牛有关的文化更是其中浓墨重彩的一笔。中国人民对有着深厚而复杂的情感，无论是在文学作品还是政治纲领中，都能见到这种动物的身影。

Origin: Totemism in Chinese Farming Society

As far back as the period of clan tribes in primitive China, tribes usually chose animals in nature as clan insignias, which also produce the primitive totem worship. The cattle is one of the main objects of totem worship of the ancient Chinese, symbolizing wealth and power. One of the ancestors of the Chinese people, the Emperor Yan, whose tribal totem symbol is the cattle. From Sima Zhen’s completing Shiji, the creator of Chinese agriculture Emperor Yan as a person with a cattle's head.

早在中国原始氏族部落时期，就通常以自然界存在的动物作为氏族徽帜，因此产生了原始的图腾崇拜。牛是古人图腾崇拜的主要对象之一，象征着财富和权力。中华民族祖先之一的炎帝，其部落图腾标志崇拜物就是牛。司马贞《补史记》载中国农业的创造者炎帝为人身牛头。

Cattle are the first livestock to be tamed by human beings, and the Chinese call them "the first of the six domestic animals". According to historical records, cattle were domesticated and used as early as 7000 years ago in the Neolithic Age. And it was discovered that cattle were larger and stronger than other animals, which improved the efficiency of farming and made them more suitable as laborers for ploughing. Chinese civilization is a typical farming civilization, and the development of agriculture is an important manifestation of the progress of Chinese society. Cattle provides a great contribution to it, and the combination of farm cattle and iron farming tools is also a great technological innovation in Chinese society.

牛是人类最早驯服的牲畜，中国人称其为“六畜之首”。根据史料记载，早在 7000 多年前新石器时代人类就把牛驯化进行役用，人们发现牛相比其他动物而言，体型更大，力气更大，提高了耕作的效率，更适合作为拉犁耕地的劳动力。中国是典型的农耕文明国家，农业的发展是中国社会进步的一个重要表现，而牛为农业发展提供了极大的贡献，耕牛与铁器相结合也是中国社会的一次伟大技术变革。

The cattle have played an important role in Chinese culture as they have enabled the Chinese farmers to increase their productivity, to expand their living space, to provide the basis for population reproduction, and to lay the foundation for the development of Chinese civilization.

牛让中国劳动人民的生产效率得到极大的提高，生存空间得以扩展，为人口繁衍提供基础，为中国社会文明的发展奠定了基础，因此牛在中国文化中有及其重要的地位。

Cattle in Sacrifices

In ancient China, sacrifices is as important as defending the land. In ancient times, at the end of the year, people hold more solemn sacrifices than ususal to their ancestors and gods. People generally chose cattle as the main sacrifice in major rituals to show the solemn because cattle were domesticated by humans earlier and played an important role in social life. It also symbolizes wealth and high status. Also, in ancient Chinese’s minds, cattle were spiritual animals and could communicate with the gods.

在古代中国，祭祀与保疆卫土同等重要。古人在年终岁尾，都要举行比较隆重的祭祀先祖和神灵的活动，由于牛是较早为人类所驯化的家畜，且在社会生活中具有重要作用，象征着财富和地位，而且牛在古代中国人的心目中是具有灵性的动物，可以通神，所以重大的祭祀仪式上，人们一般都要选用牛作为主要的祭品，以示祭祀活动的庄重肃穆。

The Image of Cattle in Traditional Chines Culture

According to the traditional Chinese sexagenary cycle, the “Ten Heavenly Stems and the Twelve Earthly Branches”, the cattle is used instead of the 2nd of the twelve Earthly Branches. In the Chinese classic "Yijing", the cattle is the symbol of the hexagram Kun. The cattle symbolizes the Earth and the Mother. It represents the suppleness and gentleness, the ability to contain and store everything like a gentle and kind mother.

在中国传统纪年法“天干地支”中，以牛代丑。中国古代的《易经》中，则以牛为坤卦的象征。牛象征地，象征母。表示柔顺和温和，能包藏储存万物，像温顺慈祥的母亲。

The cattle represents farming. Agricultural activities can only be carried out normally in times of peace. So cattle are also messengers of peace, reflecting Chinese people's aversion to war. Also, because of their influence on farming culture, cattle often represents great strength. The words "old ox" and "old yellow ox" refer to an old cattle, but they are also a metaphor for those who serve the people in a down-to-earth manner and with dedication. The image of the cattle is also often found in traditional Chinese artworks, usually representing the noble qualities of selflessness, hard-working and being enterprising. The Chinese people also have a fine tradition of praising the qualities of kindness, simplicity, hard-work and bravery. Chinese people have always been known for their stout attitude, straightforwardness, righteousness and loyalty, so the image of the cattle has been given special attention.

牛代表农事，在和平年代农业活动才得以正常进行，因此牛也是和平的使者，体现着中国人民对战争的厌恶。同时因为牛对农耕文化的影响很大，牛也常代表极大的力量。“老牛”、“老黄牛”虽指年老的牛，但同时亦比喻那些踏踏实实、任劳任怨地为人民服务的人。牛的形象也经常出现在中国传统艺术作品中，通常代表着无私风险、勤劳进取的高尚品质，中国人民也有赞扬善良朴实、勤劳勇敢品质的优良传统，一直以姿态敦厚、质直好义和忠厚淳朴的性格而著称，因此牛的形象受到了格外的重视。

The cattle also has a negative connotation. The cattle is a representative of being industrious and simplicity, but also a typical example of stupidity and stubbornness. The cattle is also used as a metaphor for living in poverty or heavy burdens since the ancient Chinese people are mainly agriculturalists and need to work very hard to survive.

牛也有负面的含义。牛是勤劳憨厚的代表，同时也是愚笨、倔强的典型。由于中国古代人民以农业为主，为生存需要极大的劳动付出，因此牛也用于比喻生活贫苦或负担沉重。

The Three Ox Spirit in Modern Chinese Dream

China's reform and opening-up has allowed the country to develop sharply. Today China's economy is growing continuously, steadily and rapidly, and the people's living and cultural level has been improved as never before. At the CPPCC 2021 New Year's Tea Party, General Secretary Xi Jinping emphasized the need to carry forward the spirit of the "three ox spirit", and move forward on the new journey of building a modern socialist country in a comprehensive manner, as follows. In the face of the growing needs of the people for a better life, strive to be "serving-the-people ox" and be selfless. In the face of new challenges and new tasks in the new development stage, strive to the "pioneering ox" and to seek innovation and development and overcome difficulties. In the face of the great dream of national rejuvenation, strive to be the “persisting ox” and be hard-working. (Baidu baike three ox spirit)

改革开放让中国飞速发展，如今中国经济得到了持续、稳定、快速的发展，人民生活文化水平得到了前所未有的提高。在全国政协2021新年茶话会上，习近平总书记强调要发扬“三牛精神”，在全面建设社会主义现代化国家新征程上奋勇前进，具体内容为： 面对人民群众日益增长的美好生活需要，争当为民服务、无私奉献的“孺子牛”；面对新发展阶段的新挑战新任务，争当创新发展、攻坚克难的“拓荒牛”；面对民族复兴伟大梦想，争当艰苦奋斗、吃苦耐劳的“老黄牛”。

The spirit of the ox demands that every Chinese sons and daughters should carry forward the "three ox spirit", work hard and perseveringly, be practical to achieve the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

牛精神要求每一个中华儿女都应弘扬“牛精神”，艰苦奋斗，脚踏实地，实现中华民族的伟大复兴。

The Image of Cattle in British, Japan and India

In British history, cattle were used to help farming at first, but gradually horse farming took the place of cattle farming. So in Britain, a country dominated by animal husbandry, cattle were only used to provide meat and dairy products. In 1986, the first case of mad cow disease was discovered in England, and the damage of mad cow disease was almost fatal to the cattle storage industry in England, which also hit the British economy hard. In British culture, cattle mostly represent savagery, violence, ferocity, recklessness, stupidity, cowardice, incompetence and so on. In their eyes, cattle, especially bulls, are often associated with intimidation, rudeness and other obnoxious things.

英国历史中，一开始也选用牛帮助耕作，但逐渐马耕代替牛耕，于是在英国这样一个以畜牧业为主的国家，牛只是用来提供肉类和乳制品的动物。1986年在英国第一次发现了疯牛病病例，疯牛病对英国的牛蓄产业的伤害几乎是致命的，这也沉重打击了英国的经济。在英国文化中，牛大都代表着野蛮、暴力、凶猛、鲁莽、愚蠢、懦弱、无能等。在西方人眼中，牛尤其是公牛往往与恐吓、粗暴等令人讨厌的事物相关。

Japan is an island country with the culture of fishing people. The culture of farming people was introduced to Japan in the middle of Jomon Period, and it was mainly in the inland areas, while the coastal areas were still mainly fishing. So farming culture does not have an important position in Japan, and the relationship between cattle and Japanese people is not so vital like in China. The Japanese word for cattle is mostly derogatory, referring to stupidity and inferiority, but also to "many," "great," and “to a great extent”. Japanese culture does not give cattle human nature or divinity as Chinese culture does.

日本是一个岛国，固有的是渔民文化，绳文中期耕民文化才传入日本，而且主要是在内陆地区，沿海则主要还是捕鱼，所以农耕文化在日本并不占有重要地位，牛与日本人民的关系并不像在中国是关乎生计。日语中关于牛的词汇多为贬义，比喻愚笨、卑贱，也表示“多”“大”、程度之甚。日本文化中也不会像中国文化一样，赋予牛人性或神性。

In India, the cow is considered sacred and inviolable. The sanctity of the cow derives from its economic value and ritual function, as well as being a product of religious struggle. According to ancient Indian mythology, Brahma gave life to priests as well as to cows. Cows were also used as ritual sacrifices and beef was served as a dish for distinguished guests, and the concept of not killing cows was gradually made sacrosanct. From an environmental and sustainability perspective, the ban on cow slaughter, though a religious mandate, has helped the entire Indian agricultural system to recover from frequent drought seasons, and the ban on beef has served as an insurance policy against natural disasters.

在印度，母牛被认为是神圣不可侵犯的。母牛的神圣性源自其经济价值和仪式功能，也是宗教斗争的产物。根据印度古神话，梵天在赋予祭司生命同时也赋予母牛生命；母牛也曾是仪式性祭品，牛肉也曾是招待贵宾的菜品，不杀生观念逐渐使母牛被尊为神圣不可侵犯。在环保和可持续发展角度来看，禁止宰牛虽是宗教律令，却有助于印度整个农业体系在频繁遭遇旱灾的季节里恢复生产，禁食牛肉相当于抗御自然灾害的一道保险。

Conclusion

China's long history and rich cultural heritage are the prerequisites for the richness of the Chinese cattle culture. Modern China has also taken the best out of traditional culture according to its development needs and innovated the "three ox spirit" to further guide China's development.

中国悠久的历史和丰厚的文化底蕴，中国牛文化如此丰富多彩的前提条件，同时现代中国也根据发展需要，对传统文化去其糟粕取其精华，创新提出了“三牛精神”，进一步指导中国发展。

Reference

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[6]王晴锋.印度圣牛观解析——基于宗教、历史、理性选择与文化唯物主义[J].北方民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2017,No.134(02):63-67.

Terms and Expressions

Farming society 农耕社会

Totemism 图腾崇拜

Clan tribes 氏族部落

Clan insignias 氏族徽帜

Totem worship 图腾崇拜

Emperor Yan 炎帝

Six domestic animals 六畜

Neolithic Age 新石器时期

Ten Heavenly Stems and the Twelve Earthly Branches 天干地支

The 2nd of the twelve Earthly Branches 十二地支中的丑

The hexagram Kun 坤卦

Serving-the-people ox 孺子牛

Pioneering ox 拓荒牛

Persisting ox 老黄牛

Mad cow disease 疯牛病

Jomon Period 绳文时期

Brahma 梵天

Questions

1.Whose tribal totem symbol is the cattle in ancient China?

2.Which kind of animal do people generally chose cattle as the main sacrifice in major rituals?

3.Is the image of the cattle all positive in Chinese culture?

4.The three ox spirit includes three aspects. What are they?

Answers

1.Emperor Yan.

2.The cattle.

3.No. The cattle is a typical example of stupidity and stubbornness, and it is also used as a metaphor for living in poverty or heavy burdens.

4.Serving-the-people ox, Pioneering ox and Persisting ox.