20230630 final exam 06

202270081632 付静 Fu Jing 英语笔译(English translation)

A Systematic Review on the English Translation of Chinese Xiaopin (Short Essays) of Ming and Qing Dynasties

Abstract

Chinese xiaopin, also known as short essays or familiar essays, in the Ming and Qing dynasties, as a genre of Chinese classical prose, refers short, informal essays that were popular during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. With numerous examples found in Chinese classics, Xiaopin, as a literary genre, is an integral part of Chinese literature. Therefore, English translations and research on these essays are highly significant, as they enable a more comprehensive understanding of Chinese literature and culture for readers worldwide. However, compared with main stream literary work such as poetry, novels and plays, short essays of the Ming and Qing period in particular, has been neglected. This paper, by reviewing the English translation of familiar essays in Ming and Qing Dynasties and the relevant research achievements, summarizes the problems and shortcomings of the current research, and puts forward the ideas and methods of future research, intending to promote the study of the English translation of essays, expand the scope of the English translation of essays, supplement the shortcomings of the English translation of Chinese classical art essays, and deepen the study of the English translation of classics.

Key Words

xiaopin, short essays, familiar essays, Ming and Qing dynasties, C-E translation, overview

题目

明清小品英译研究综述

摘要

明清小品文是中国古典散文的一种体裁，指的是流行于十六世纪和十七世纪期间的短小精悍的非正式散文。明清小品作为散文的一种，分散于各类中华典籍，是中国文学的重要组成部分，其英译传播与翻译研究对“中国文化走出去”有重要意义，因为它们可以让世界各地的读者更全面地了解中国文学和文化。然而，与诗歌、小说、戏剧等主流文学作品相比，古典散文特别是明清小品文一直处在被忽视的地位。本文通过对明清小品散文英译成果的梳理，总结目前研究存在的问题与不足，并针对性地提出今后研究的思路与方法，以期推动小品散文的英译研究，进而扩大小品散文的英译作品推介范围，补充中国古典艺术散文英译的短板，深化典籍英译的研究。

关键词

明清小品、散文小品、小品文、汉英翻译、述论

Introduction

Xiaopin of Ming and Qing dynasties, as a kind of Chinese classical prose, existed in traditional classics as early as the pre-Qin period. However, it was not until the late Ming and early Qing dynasties (from the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries) that these essays reached their full glory, which marks this kind of prose as a literary symbol of the era that could match Han Fu, Tang Poetry, Song Ci and Yuan Qu. Since they are normally short in length, diverse in genre, and flexible in style, they become vehicles for displaying aspects of culture and people's wisdom of living in ancient China. The English translation of the essays not only contributes to the development of Chinese civilian culture but also fosters a better understanding of the social life and the mindset of the people during the Ming and Qing dynasties in the Western world. Furthermore, researching their translation can contribute to the development and broaden the dissemination of translated works from the eras.

A Brief Introduction to the Ming and Qing Short Essays and Their English Translations

1. The Concept of Chinese Xiaopin and the Characteristics of Them in Ming and Qing Dynasties

Xiaopin, or familiar essays, were regarded as part of and commonly seen in all kinds of classics in ancient China and were established as a distinct genre until the Ming and Qing dynasties. Essays of this kind are short with various forms including xu (prefaces), ji (records), ba (colophons), zhuan (biographies), ming (inscriptions), zan (panegyrics), zhi (necrologies), perhaps biao (memorials), you ji (records of excursions) and chi du (informal letters). During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the creation of short essays reached a level of maturity and an independent system of writing theory was established, which had a profound impact on the prose creation of later generations.

The essays of the Ming and Qing Dynasties have the dual character of scholasticism culture and civilian culture and are deeply influenced by the trend of thought of gaining pleasure in meditation, which originated from Laozi and Zhuangzi. Life perceptions of literators about cultivating themselves, living with people, and encouraging the world are truly and delicately expressed in the description of their lifestyle of cultivating family and adapting themselves to their own will and leisure (Zhao Botao, 1999) Therefore, these writings are characterized by personalization, lifestyle, and realism, as the integration of art and reality, wisdom and fun.

2. The Main Schools and Representative Writers and Their Works

During the period from the late Ming to early Qing dynasty, the development of familiar essays reached its peak, with an unprecedented level in the number of works, the variety of schools, and the excellence of writing styles in the history of ancient Chinese prose. The main schools of familiar essays in this period were the Gong'an school represented by the Three Yuan Brothers (Yuan Hongdao, Yuan Zongdao, and Yuan Zhongdao) and Jiang Yingke, Jingling school represented by Zhong Xing and Tan Yuanchun in the late Ming dynasty and Tongcheng school represented by Fang Bao, Liu Dakui, Yao Nai. Some writers were famous for their works during this period, including Hong Yingming, Chen Jiru, Zhang Dai, Li Yu, and Zhang Chao (Zhao Botao, 1999).

3. Translation of Works of the Ming and Qing Dynasties

Typically, English versions of translated works are chosen, excerpted, or abridged, with the works of multiple authors combined in a single collection.

In 1926, a Japanese translator, Isobe Yaichiro, brought the first English version of the book Cai Gen Tan entitled Musings of a Chinese Vegetarian(Wang Yongzhen, Gu Yiyan, 2017), which may be the first time when Chinese xiaopin, or short essays, entered the English world. Since then, other versions of it by different translators have appeared (Wang Yongzhen, Gu Yiyan, 2017). The first and most researched version in China is the translation completed by Jiang Jiansong, Cai Gen Tan: My Crude Philosophy of Life, which is published in 2001 as one of the Library of Chinese Classics series (Wang Yongzhen, Gu Yiyan, 2017).

In 1937, in the bestseller of Lin Yutang, The Importance of Living, many pieces of thoughtful writing in Zhang Chao's You Meng Ying (or Sweet Dream Shadows) were translated as quotations ( see in Chapter VII.THE EPIGRAMS OF CHANG CH'AO), which was also the first time when You Meng Ying was introduced to the English world.

In 1960, Lin's The Importance of Understanding was published in the United States, and it featured a significant excerpt from You Meng Ying (Quiet Dream Shadows). This time, the original maxims were organized by subject and supplemented with commentaries, annotations, and other contextual information, making them more accessible to Western readers.

In 1978, Pilgrim of the Clouds: Poems and Essays by Yuan Hung-tao and His Brothers, translated by Jonathan Chaves, was published by Weatherhill, New York, with many short essays of Yuan Hongdao like Letter to Li Tzu-jan included.

The Chinese Essay edited and translated by David Pollard was first published by The Chinese University of Hongkong Press in 1999 and later by Columbia University Press in 2002, with many familiar essays of Ming and Qing writers translated and introduced. These works include Gui Youguang's Xiang Ji Xuan Zhi (The Xiangji Studio ) and Xianpishilve (My Mother: A Brief Life), Li Yu's Four Parts of Xianqing'ouji (Pleasant Diversions:Judging Beauty; Pleasant Diversions:Accomplishments; Pleasant Diversions:Literacy; Pleasant Diversions:Clothes), and some famous articles of Zhang Dai's, such as Xihuqiyueban (The Full Moon Festival at the West Lake) and Liujingtingshu (Liu Jingting: Storyteller). In 2011, the compilation titled The Short Essays of the Ming and Qing Dynasties (Chinese-English Comparison) was published under the guidance of Zhou Xiaotian and Wang Hong (Zhang Xiaoxue, 2021). The collection features a systematic and comprehensive translation of 127 exceptional works from the Ming and Qing Dynasties. To a certain extent, it fills the gap in the availability of English translations for short essays in the eras and offers a window into the life and social culture of these eras, allowing global readers to gain a deeper understanding of Chinese literature and culture.

As is shown above, the English translations of familiar essays in the Chinese Ming and Qing dynasties (from the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries) as a whole appear in the form of selected, abstracted, and abridged works, and none of the other works have been fully translated to date except Cai Gen Tan (roots of wisdom). It is also worth noting that most of those works were translated by Chinese translators, which could indicate that short essays of this period as a whole have not attracted enough attention abroad.

The author tried to explain this phenomenon as follows. From the perspective of characteristics of familiar essays themselves, they cover various writing forms from records of excursions to informal letters, and display writers' life perceptions or understandings in a limited length of passages, which makes them not as unique or distinctive in the writing form as poems, novels or dramas, nor as profound in the content as philosophical or other professional classics, though they do share common with those in language beauty, knowledge or insights. Therefore, under the limited resources and conditions for introduction and promotion, translations of them are relatively neglected. In addition, despite English versions of Cai Gen Tan by Western translators, most of the translated works were done by Chinese translators, which could also imply that those works have not attracted the attention of Western translators who first acted as readers.

From the perspective of translators' motivations, the majority of translation activities, excluding those conducted by the government, maybe likely performed by people for livelihood reasons. In other words, works might be translated by bi-lingual or multi-lingual writers in exchange for payment to make a living. Consequently, if a translator starts a sample translation from an author's book but fails to find a publisher willing to pay for the translation of the entire one, the writer may not continue his work on the remaining parts. Furthermore, the presence of vague information in the original work, which cannot be verified in historical works of literature or may be difficult for the translator to understand properly, or content that does not quite meet the translator's interests may also be factors that prevent the presentation of the full translation. From the perspective of translation and promotion, the commercialization of translation and publication necessitates that translated works fulfill market demand. In other words, they must cater to readers' expectations as well as possess cultural dissemination value. Nevertheless, when a society's overall material needs surpass its spiritual pursuits, utilitarian reading gains prominence over leisurely reading. Consequently, the public's expectations for literary works, particularly recreational books such as Xiaopin or short essays in the Ming and Qing dynasties, diminish. Meanwhile, the growth of traditional paper media publishing has experienced a decline due to the challenges posed by digital media networks, and this has also significantly influenced the translation and dissemination of literary works, with no exception for short essays of the Ming and Qing period.

Early Studies of English Translation of Representative Works

1. Searching Results of Early Studies at Home and Abroad

In this part, the author gets results by searching for all relevant materials that are published and can be found before June 5th , 2023 on the CNKI, a major website of data resources for academic research, and the Web of Science, as well as Google Scholar.

Typing "Chinese literary vignettes" into Google scholar, there is only one book review relavant to the subject. When trying with "Chinese xiaopin", there is only a piece of academic dissertation related to the subject, which focuses on the studies of Zhang Dai's Tao An Yi Meng rather than the translation of it. There are also other key words, such as "Chinese short essays", "Chinese familiar essays","little prose", used to search for relevant papers in Google Scholar and the Web of Science, but no relevant paper is found.

When Chinese keywords related to this topic were typed into CNKI, the largest full text database of Chinese academic journals, there are findings as shown in the following table.

https://bou.de/u/wiki/File:Table.jpg

The number in the bracket shown in the table represents that of papers published in the core or top jounals in China. As is seen, the most researched work of xiaopin is Cai Gen Tan, with a total number of thirty senven papers but only three of them being high-quality. It is worth noting that there is only one piece of doctoral dissertation searched in this area. In terms of publication frequency, the average number of papers on the most research subject is less than two piece per year.

2. Perspectives or Main Contents of Early Studies

From the overall studies of the Ming and Qing essays, two papers discuss short essays of the Ming and Qing dynasties as a whole. Taking the anthology of translated works of essays in the eras as the research object, Zhang Shunsheng and Wang Xiaoli discuss the title translation strategy of those works and concludes that the title translation of essays of this kind is still based on literal and free translation, with aesthetic principles as practical guidance (Zhang Shunsheng, Wang Li, 2013). The other analyzes the overseas acceptance of Short Essays of Ming and Qing Dynasties, discusses factors influencing the circulation and reception of the translation from the perspectives of translators, readers, translations, and translation environment, and formulates corresponding strategy suggestions based on the successful experience of Lin Yutang's translations (Zhang Xiaoxue, 2021). In Li Jie's dissertation for her doctoral degree, several works of Xiaopin are discussed as part of ancient Chinese artistic prose from a perspective of aesthetic communication.(Li Jie, 2008)

Others focus on individual case studies mainly from different perspectives such as aesthetic reproduction, translation strategies or methods, and translators' behavior analysis and so on. According to Ao Zheng, most studies of the English translation of Cai Gen Tan focus on translation strategies or approaches and each of them provides a summary of enlightenment from translation practice (Ao Zheng, 2020). For example, Chen Hui analyzes and discusses Jiang Jiansong's and Paul White's versions in comparison from the perspective of pragmatics. With examples of two versions analyzed from the equivalence of language to the equivalence of social interaction, she points out that in translation classics, translators need to follow the principles of contextual translation, conform to and meet the cultural background and reading expectations of the target readers, and carry out translation with the best contextual effect, so as to truly convey the intention of the original author to the target readers (Chen Hui, 2011). There is also an overview of translation history of different versions of Cai Gen Tan by Wang Yongzhen, who provide a clue of translations of the book and reflects on intralingual and interlingual translations as well as the understanding of the concept of "classics" and factors of being "classics" (Wang Yongzhen, 2017).

Studies on Lin Yutang's translation of You Meng Ying mainly discuss translation strategies from the perspective of aesthetic reproduction by analyzing the translation of words, phrases, sentences, and discourse. There is only one Chinese paper discussing the mistranslation in Lin's version by Xiao Xian and Liu Hongyu who attributed the mistranslation to Lin's "misinterpretation of the background knowledge of the original work" and "insufficient understanding or refinement of the original words and sentences" (Xiao Xian, Liu Hongyu, 2007). But regrettably, they do not provide their solutions or translation in response.

Review of Early Research on Translation Studies

From the above overview, it can be seen that there is occasional research on the English translation of Chinese short essays written from the sixteenth to seventeenth centuries, but compared with the research done in other popular translation fields, the research in this field is still very much underdeveloped. Meanwhile, the published papers show shortcomings in the following aspects.

1. Not many of Total Papers and Much Less in High-quality Ones

There may be several possible reasons for it. Firstly, there are relatively fewer English translations of Ming and Qing short essays, and most translated works are not full versions of the original representatives of the times, which results in a scarcity of research materials. Secondly, the majority of translated works are completed by lesser-known translators compared to the more acclaimed translations. Therefore, it is less possible for them to attract researchers' attention, considering the translators' fame or the quality of their translations. Thirdly, at present, most researchers in this field are young postgraduate students, rather than university faculty who are experienced in translation practice and research, and no certain research groups have been established among them, which also makes it difficult to form a joint force to conduct systematic and in-depth research on short essays of the Ming and Qing period.

2. Limited Themes and Overlapping Perspectives without Adequate Originality and Innovation

The majority of research papers examine and discuss translations from an aesthetic perspective, concentrating on translations at micro levels such as words, phrases, sentences, and texts. A limited quantity of research papers focuses on culture and translators' identities, but each of them merely analyzing on a specific case study, which lacks a comprehensive and systematic vision of the translation of short essays during the period and draws a less objective conclusion. Although there are papers that analyze translations from a perspective of translation criticism by making comparisons between different versions of a certain work, most of them show full praise and personal admiration for famous translators, rather than making righteous assessments and providing rational reflection and in-depth discussion on the translated works themselves. In addition, most papers focus on the analysis and discussion of the main text, and the sub-texts of English versions, which could provide a fuller picture of the whole translation practice of the original book though, are normally neglected or discussed in a much smaller proportion of the whole paper.

3. More Individual Case Studies But Less Systematic Studies

A majority of papers focus on individual case studies rather than systematic and in-depth ones on a translator and all his translations or on a writer and all his translated works. According to Zhang Nanfeng, translation studies in China "tend to focus on only one or a few translations of a work rather than provide an in-depth study of a writer's works or a translator's entire translations, and a comprehensive and in-depth study of a genre or a period of translation is even rarer." He also shares his worries about when systematic knowledge reflecting the translation phenomenon will be accumulated by doing research in an existing way (Zhang Nanfeng, 2004:14-15). Given the short size of essays in the Ming and Qing dynasties and the incomplete translations of representatives, there is a lack of sufficient corpus to support the analysis of individual cases. This probably explains why there are fewer research papers on translations of other works than those on Cai Gen Tan and You Meng Ying. However, individual cases do not represent familiar essays of the Ming and Qing period as a whole. Translation studies on individual cases cannot comprehensively and deeply explore the translation strategies for short essays as a genre, and it is also difficult to verify the effectiveness of a translation theory to guide the translation practice of works of this kind. Furthermore, it is essential to consider the historical context and translation environment when examining translators or their translations. Without this comprehensive approach, any conclusions drawn will inevitably remain partial and incomplete.

Research Reflects and Prospects

Xiaopin of Ming and Qing dynasties, as a transition form between ancient and modern prose, not only has obvious characteristics of the times to deeply reflect the social culture and life patterns in a certain context of the social environment but is also unique due to its short size with sufficient content, poetic and elegant language, as well as intelligent and witty thoughts. Characterized by its literariness, insights, wits, and readability (being easier to be understood linguistically compared with ancient prose in China), xiaopin, or familiar essays during the Ming and Qing period has a natural reader advantage, especially in today's social environment with a fast pace of life and fragmented time patterns. The promotion of short essays of this kind can cater to the needs of a wide range of readers to use their fragmented time to get relaxed spiritually. Therefore, the promotion of the English translation of short essays in the eras can not only add more vivid and realistic details for Westerners to understand Chinese literature and its development, as well as Chinese attitudes and reaction to the world in a fuller picture but also provide a just right solution to the global readers' pursuit of self-cultivation or personality in nature.

In the future, there is still a wide space for the translation and dissemination of short essays of the Ming and Qing period into English and even into multiple languages, as well as the translation studies of them.

In terms of the production of translations, given the characteristics and nature of Ming and Qing essays, such as pursuing personality and innate sensibility shown in the works, future English translations for untranslated works or retranslations of existing translations may be more appropriate to be completed by freelance or commercial translation companies than those work for the government since some translation flexibility may be lost in the latter's versions. However, considering the relatively unfavorable market for literary translation, the government could also offer financial support to promote such projects. This may include providing subsidies for literary translation projects completed by freelance translators or translation companies, using the quantity and quality of translations as a reference. Such incentives would encourage more translators to engage in literary translation and ultimately improve the overall quality of translations. In addition, for the translation of literary works, it is also necessary to abandon the mentality of "not to translate non-serious literature and not to translate non-classical works". Instead, the nature of "literature" needs to be viewed with a more inclusive and open-minded attitude rather than being regarded as something "elegant" or "serious". The final destination of literature is life, life for all. If readers' acceptabilities and needs are ignored because of the exclusive pursuit of traditional "elegant or serious" literature, the value of literature itself is lost.

From the perspective of translation studies, more research angles or topics are waiting to be found, from the influence of original creation conditions or historical environment on the translatability of the source text to the important role that the relevant historical documents play in the application of certain translation strategies or the production of the final translation. Alternatively, in terms of interdisciplinary research, analysis of a translator's behavior, as well as the acceptance and dissemination effect of a certain translated work, from an economic or psychological perspective can also be explored.

In summary, translation, as a cultural communication activity, involves various fields of society, and the understanding of translation activities should not be limited to the translation field itself. While the short essays of the Ming and Qing dynasties, as a distinctive category of prose involving various fields of social life, deserve more attention in the literary translation field.

References

[1]Zhang Xiaoxue 张晓雪（2021）.“翻译说服论”视角下中华典籍外译与传播策略研究——以明清小品文英译为例[On the Extraverted Translation and Circulation of Ancient Chinese Classics from the Perspective of Persuasion - A Case Study of the English Versions of Some Short Essays of the Ming and Qing Dynasties][J]. Journal of Xiangtan University(Philosophy and Social Sciences) 湘潭大学学报(哲学社会科学版) 2021,45(05):171-176.

[2]Wang Yongzhen, Gu Yiyan王永真,顾怡燕（2017）.《菜根谭》译史初探[A Preliminary Study on the Translation History of Cai Gen Tan][J]. Shanghai Journal of Translator.上海翻译,2017,No.134(03):62-68.

[3]Chen Hui陈惠(2011).语用视野下《菜根谭》英译评析[A Review of the English TranslationS of Cai Gen Tan from the Perspective of Pragmatics][J].Social Sciences in Huna.湖南社会科学,2011,No.145(03):186-188.

[4]Xiao Xian, Liu Hongyu肖娴,刘红裕.(2007)《幽梦影》林译本误译评析[Criticism on Lin Yutang's Translation of Quiet Dream Shadows][J]. Journal of Maoming University茂名学院学报,2007,No.56(05):71-73+76.

[5]Zhao Botao 赵伯陶.（1999）《明清小品：个性天趣的显现》Xiaopin in Ming and Qing Dynasties : The Display of Personality and Enjoyment, Guangxi Normal University Press, 1999.06

[6]Li Jie李洁. （2008）The Same Music in Different Notes -- A Study on the Aesthetic Communication in the Translations of Chinese Classical Artistic Essays琴声何处不悠扬——中国古典艺术散文英译的审美沟通研究[D]. Suzhou University苏州大学,2008.

[7]Zhang Shunsheng, Wang Li. (2013) 张顺生,王丽. Methods to Translate Chinese Literary Titles into English: A Case Study of the Titles in The Short Essays of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 中文标题英译方法——《明清小品文》个案研究[J]. Contemporary Foreign Language Studies 当代外语研究,2013,No.389(05):43-48+78.

202271080010 夏玲珑 Xia Linglong (Saitova Madina) 英语笔译(English translation)

The Evolution of Chinese Female Characters Perception in the West Based on Chinese Literature

Abstract

Chinese literature is a rich source of historical knowledge about the lifestyle, traditions, and culture of Chinese people. Even though the study of ancient and classical Chinese literature is given great attention by sinologists, the study of the development of female characters in Chinese literature remains a relatively understudied field. In this paper, we aim to trace the process of Chinese female characters' evolution along with analyzing the perception of female images in Chinese literature in the West by taking into consideration key factors that influence the perception of a literary work by Western readers. To conduct the study general scientific research methods such as comparative, analytical, and comparative-historical were used. The research is based on relevant recent studies, including the author's reflection and analysis of Chinese literary works from the Han, Tang, and Yuan dynasties.

Keywords

Chinese literature, Chinese female characters, reception

摘要

中国文学是关于中国人的生活方式、传统文化的丰富历史知识来源。 尽管中国文学典籍的研究受到汉学家的高度重视，但文学作品中的女性角色发展仍然是一个相对缺乏研究的领域。 在本文中，我们旨在追溯中国文学中女性角色的演变过程，分析西方读者对中国文学中女性形象的看法，并探讨影响西方读者对文学作品看法的关键因素。 为了进行研究，本文使用了比较、分析和比较历史等一般科学研究方法。该研究基于前期的相关研究展开，也包括了作者对中国汉唐元文学作品的反思和分析。

关键词

中国文学，中国女性角色，接受

Introduction

The relevance of the research topic is attributed to the lack of a structured comparative analysis of female images and the identification of the main differences and factors that had a significant impact on the formation of the female image in Chinese literature of different historical periods. The practical significance of the conducted research lies in the possibility of studying, analyzing, comparing, and identifying the features of the images of Chinese women from different periods, as well as in the way their images were perceived in the West. The theoretical significance of the work lies in an attempt to analyze female images based on stories and novels by Chinese authors of 206 B.C. - 1368 China. The literary works analyzed in the research cover the period from the Han Dynasty to Yuan Dynasty.

1.1. Women's Images in Western Literature.

Literary works usually serve as an accurate reflection of people's lives in different historical epochs. They can combine and represent the personal position of the author regarding specific historical events, social problems as well as culture and traditions of the country. Literary artworks are of great historical value because they provide scientists and historians with a clearer picture of the past. In particular, the following points get described quite often: customs, appearance (including dresses and biological portraits), social stratification, the presence or absence of social equality between two genders, moral and ethical values, and characteristics of people's images. Undoubtedly, at the initial stages of the development of writing and literature in most cultures of the world, male characters typically tend to always be prescribed the main role. This was due to some historical and social factors. Since ancient times, a man was considered a food provider and a guarantor of safety for the family. If we turn to the later model of a man in the written fiction of European countries, we can note the following male figures would prevail: male knights, brave warriors, and witty tacticians.

In terms of Russian literature, one can see that the main figures to come into prominence were heroic bogatyrs, knyaz's (often regarded as the analog name for a "prince" in a Western canon), and their military campaigns and battles. The main role in the works of the initial stage of writing was assigned to men, and it wasn't until many centuries later that the first female images written by female authors began to appear. The start of female education in Russia is considered to be 1764, when the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was founded in St. Petersburg, which became the first secular educational institution in Russia. (Ivan Solovkov 1985, 21) The dominance of male authors in the literary field has led to many female figures being perceived by the reader as one-sided and unrevealed to the full extent.

Russian literature is rich in descriptions of simple peasant women who are "beautiful in any clothes" and "dexterous for any work." Such female characters would be described as responsible for the well-being of her children and family in one of Nekrasov's poems called "In Russ hamlets women are dwelling": "Her consciousness is clear and strong, She finds salvation in her work, She gets a reward for all she did: Her family does not struggle in need" (Translated by Saitova Madina) However, it cannot be argued that the image of Western female characters remained static and did not change over time. Many well-known Russian authors in their stories and poems present to the reader their female image, which was formed based on the author's worldview and was endowed with unique features. In other works by Western writers we can also view how women were portrayed: in Coventry Patmore's poem "The Angel in the House" which is considered to be one of his most renowned ones, it is possible to note the influence of patriarchy on moral principles and social values. This poem gained wide popularity in the 19th century, in which a woman is credited with the roles of an exemplary wife and caring mother. The woman in the work of Coventry Patmore does not show excessive independence and does not go against her husband's will. Similar character traits were praised by the authors of many other European countries of that time.

At the end of the XIX century - the beginning of the XX century women in Europe began to have more opportunities and, as a result of the suffragette movement, gained the right to vote equally with men, they also obtained the right to have personal property, the right to divorce their husband, and the right for decent education and working outside their homes. At the beginning of the 20th century, women were no longer perceived as the weak and helpless sex; Having equal rights with men marked the beginning of an era of new women's and men's literature, in which the female image runs counter to the canonical image of the ideal woman of past centuries.

The common values of Western women include the desire to be a loving mother and a reliable wife. Based on this, we can conclude that for women of the XVIII-XVIV centuries such character traits were praised: diligence, hospitality, modesty, loyalty, etc. After English women started to fight for their rights, women from other European countries followed their example and also actively began to pave their way for freedom from patriarchy, which as a result led to a change in the social position of women in society, and, therefore, was reflected in literature and portrayal of Western women.

1.2. The Image of a Woman in Chinese Literature and its Specific Features: Overall Review.

To begin with, it is important to stress the fact that Chinese literature itself is a valuable source of historical knowledge about one of the most high-context cultures existing nowadays. Chinese literature is still being studied by literary critics and sinologists around the world: a great contribution to the study of this scientific field was made by such scholars and researchers as Daniel Hsieh and Hu Ying whose main points will be analyzed and mentioned in this sub-chapter.

"Love and Women in Early Chinese Fiction" by Daniel Hsieh is focused on the study of the most popular and influential female character prototypes in literary artworks circulating in times of the Six Dynasties as well as the Tang period. According to the researcher, the literature containing female portraits would display a wide range of historically valuable topics such as the place of a woman in the society of previous epochs, the perception of women through the prism of male author's perception, specificity of male fantasy, as well as unleashing the unique blend of Chinese folklore, setting a solid ground base for further research of such fundamental literary pieces like "Dream of the Red Chamber", which can be considered as a treasure of utterly detailed female character description.

First "小说" (xiaoshuo) are showing the noticeable pattern of Chinese men being attracted to "dangerous" and "mysterious" types of female characters. Fox-spirit serves as a perfect example of this tendency in the story of "Chunyu Jin" (淳于矜), being just one of the precedents among many other mystical Chinese female characters the display of which has reached its culmination in the literature of Ming and Qing dynasties. (Daniel Hsieh 2008, 55) Despite the deep impact that Confucianism had on every sphere of Chinese people's lives, people managed to find their way out to satisfy their heart's longings, sometimes mixing reality with the worlds of their dreams, fueled by enticing romantic stories of Tang and other periods. (Daniel Hsieh 2008, 60) The novels expanded the image of a woman not only with a more detailed and aesthetic description of her appearance, but also with the ability to find a way out of difficult life situations. Thanks to the popularity of "小说", the woman appeared not only as a mother or an exemplary daughter or wife model, but she was depicted as an object of male sexual fantasies. Sometimes the fidelity and love of a woman were valued more than her beauty. It is also noticeable how female characters of that time tend to break some of the Confucious canons, by being the first ones to approach the main male character, even though in reality it was something to never be done by a woman, making her human nature debatable in eyes of the man. (Daniel Hsieh 2008, 61)

Hu Ying when reviewing the book "Women and National Trauma in Late Imperial Chinese Literature" (2014) by Li Wai-yee, points out the importance of conducted research in the way it provides readers with a profound explanation of what role female characters played in the time of Ming and Qing Dynasties. Apart from introducing clear and detailed information on women's education and their lifestyle based on poetry, the author states that a diverse set of female characters often served as "intermediaries or tropes" for a more appealing portrayal of male characters. (Hu Ying 2014, 285) The Tang dynasty and in particular the works written in this era served as an impetus for the development of not only genres and their branches, but also in terms of bringing diversity to the description of female characters. The relationship between a man and a woman increasingly began to be presented from a brand new perspective not restricted and limited by Confucian canons. The novels expanded the image of a woman not only with a more detailed and aesthetic description of her appearance, but also with the ability to find a way out of difficult life situations. Due to the rise of "xiaoshuo" popularity in ancient China, different categories of female characters began to appear, making women's intellectual characteristics valued equally to their looks.

Summary of the Chapter I

As in the case of Western works, the spirit of patriarchy also remained present in the literature of Chinese authors. At the initial stage of the development of poetry, female images served as a kind of "tool" with which it was possible to fully reveal the image of a man. Confucian canons and morality had a significant impact on the ideal image of a woman. Since Confucianism is deeply rooted in every sphere of Chinese culture, for many centuries the most valuable character traits of female characters were the following: modesty, loyalty, humility, gentleness, and erudition. With the development of writing tradition the perception of female portraits has also evolved, setting the "fertile soil" for fantastic depictions of women, not bound by traditional moral and literary canons. Since then the female image has undergone major changes, which will be discussed in one of the following paragraphs.

2.1. "飛燕外傳", Zhao Feiyan waizhuan (汉朝) (Han Dynasty)

The earliest example of Chinese palace literature that is of big importance in terms of depicting female characters is "飛燕外傳" "Zhao Feiyan waizhuan", also known as "Unorthodox Biography of Zhao Feiyan". Ling Xuan, a former chancellor of Huainan in his preface to "Zhao Feiyan waizhuan" states, that the plot is viewed through the prism of "women's gaze", due to the fact that information was told from women's perspective by one of the palace concubines who was a relative of Zhao Feiyan. (Milburn Olivia 2018, 95) The main female characters of this novella are Zhao Feiyan and her younger sister Zhao Hede, previously existing historical figures, whose biographies were quite controversial. When analyzing all literary pieces inspired by the impact sisters had on the situation in the palace, many of them contain a description of them being criminals, except for "飛燕外傳", which mainly focuses on the aesthetic part of their lives ( Milburn Olivia 2018, 97).

This exact novella portrays young Zhao Feiyan (whose given name was Yi Zhu) as an educated, intelligent, gifted dancer, talented not only in music, but also in learning Taoist practice. In one of the episodes, Feiyan holds her breath to maintain her body temperature at the level required to remain warm in cold weather. According to "飛燕外傳", a young woman got her name "Feiyan" (飛燕) or "Flying Swallow" due to her dainty figure and being light on her feet.

Hede's appearance is also described in an appealing, but rather abstract way, providing freedom for the reader's fantasy. Hede's body was described as smooth as if smeared with ointments, so after bathing her skin was never wet. In addition to this, Hede mastered the art of singing.

Even when they were servants, the sisters began to comprehend all the subtleties of the art of singing and dancing, furtively imitating dancers and singers. They could listen to singing all day long, sometimes they were so carried away by this pastime that they forgot about food. By that time, they knew they were in dire need of both money and a dress since almost all their savings were spent on trifles like ointments, bath fragrances, and powder.

Before describing the main events in the plot, the author briefly describes the life and occupation of their relatives to show the reader characters' origin. Their father, Feng Wanjin, was a songwriter, which, apparently, influenced both sisters' passion for the art of dancing and singing. The work describes Feiyan's ability to control body temperature through the use of breathing practices.

When she first met Emperor Feiyan, she was frightened and did not want to become his concubine. The emperor could not "bend" the young women's spirit for several days. When, after some time, the ladies of the palace, close to the king, asked him about the young girl, the emperor described her as soft, as if she had no bones, as well as being gentle and timid, After the appearance of the younger sister in the palace, the ruler begins to pay more attention to Hede and moves away from the elder Zhao. Feiyan begins to be jealous and worried about her position - she did not want to lose the title of "Lady Zhao" and just at that time one of the old servants - Fanyi - reminds the king of his duty - to bring a concubine closer to her, who will give birth to an heir. The work says that being too saddened by the lack of attention from the emperor, Feiyan begins to meet with servants and officers. At the same time, Hede tries to "protect" her sister's reputation with the emperor. But after Feiyan's birthday, the sisters' relationship deteriorates. Feiyan becomes more impulsive and begins to get involved in drugs that supposedly could prolong youth. Having quarreled with Feiyan over a slave, Hede calls out to her sister, reminds her of their difficult past together, and both sisters reconcile.

The author describes in detail the clothes of the youngest of the sisters - Hede, when she is going to the palace, saying that Hede took a bath twice, perfumed herself with the fragrant infusion of aloe from Jiuqu, and cleaned herself up like this: she twisted her hair into a knot "in a modern way", subtly drew her eyebrows with black mascara. in the style of "the outlines of distant mountains" and completed her dress with a careless touch, adding a red dot to her face. Lacking proper clothing, she wore a simple short-sleeved dress and an embroidered skirt and completed the outfit with plum-patterned socks. This passage provides valuable knowledge not only about the fashion trends of traditional China, but also about the personal preferences of the girl. Unlike her older sister, who used to bathe herself in water to which she added seven incense, Hede preferred a cardamom bath.

It is also notable, that this short novella contains depictions of certain erotic scenes, which, despite a very veiled description, also can serve as a source for characterizing the heroines. The main characters are described with an indication of all their vices, which adds realism to the work. The image of the fatal temperamental beauty Feiyan and her calmer but no less attractive younger sister Hede are still rightfully considered as striking female images in the initial stage of the development of the genre of biographies.

In many literary works, female characters are involved as key figures, or they can influence the development of the plot to a great extent. However, in the period of the Han dynasty, it is quite hard to find many writings in which the woman would play an important role in the development of the main storyline unless it's a story based on a real existing person, like in case with "Zhao Feiyan waizhuan". Another problem is quite acute and topical regarding this literary piece: even though Zhao Feiyan is considered to be one of the most famous, or, we can say, notorious characters in Chinese history and her biography is well-researched by Chinese scholars, the biggest contribution to the study of her character in the West was made by Olivia Milburn, what can be proved by some of her research papers. "Zhao Feiyan waizhuang" is not well-researched at the moment, even though it is of great historical and literary importance for Chinese literary framework.

2.2. 《长恨歌》"Song of Everlasting Sorrow" (唐朝) (Tang Dynasty)

"Song of Everlasting Sorrow" or "Song of Everlasting Regret" is a dramatical poem written by renowned Tang dynasty poet Bai Juyi, that had a great impact on the literary scene not only in China, but also abroad ("The Tale of Genji" by Murasaki Shikibu) (Fay Beauchamp 2009).

In this poem, the author tells the story of the love relationship between emperor Xuanzong and his consort Yang Guifei, who was accused of being linked to the An Lushan Rebellion (755 CE.). In order to triumph in a battle, imperial warriors insisted on the slaughter of the consort, which eventually was carried out. A grief-stricken ruler successfully attempts to reach his lover's "soul" in another realm with a Taoist monk's assistance, being given a promise to reunite with her in the afterlife.

Equally to the case of analyzing Zhao Feiyan's portrait, studying Yang Guifei's image in this exact poem would not be right without considering the historical background. The execution of the consort can rightfully be considered the culmination of the poem, hence, it would be reasonable to study this part, relying on scholars' research papers as the solid ground for further assessment of Yang Guifei's portrait.

In the research article " History of Xuanzong and Yang Guifei in Tang Literature: the Choice Between the Duty of the Ruler and Personal Happiness" Russian sinologist Alexandre Storozhuk claims that Yang Guifei had an influential position in the palace due to the emperor's favor, that created a fertile ground for nepotism and her secret relationship with general An Lushan. (Storozhuk Alexandre 2009, 169) There are various theories regarding the relationship that emperor Xuanzong and Yang Guifei had and what was the real reason behind the concubine's execution. According to the most trustworthy version, the emperor had a clue about the relations between An Lushan and his consort, because she danced a Sogdian dance, that was interpreted by the ruler as a sign of Yang Guifei's disloyalty. (Fay Beauchamp 2009).

In the poem, on the contrary, Bai Juyi doesn't mention any of Yang Guifei's wrongdoings, instead of it, he states that the emperor is the one who was influenced by her beauty. To support our point of view we will provide extracts from "The Song of Everlasting Regret" translated by Ying Sun.

"Her heavenly glamour could not be concealed forever. One day she was chosen to entertain the Emperor. When she turned and smiled, the coquetry created was tremendous, Rendering all concubines of the six palaces lusterless. " (Translation from Chinese into English by Ying Sun (c) 2008)

Taking into account these poetic lines mentioned in the first verse, it is possible to draw a vague, yet quite vivid image of Yang Guifei's appearance. In one of the following verses the author depicts her in a more detailed way, describing her skin as "creamy", her face as "flowery" and her hair as "cloud-like". Even though the descriptions of her appearance tend to be to the highest degree appealing, her beauty and the effect that she had on emperor Xuanzong are mainly shown through verses like:

"Between revels and banquets, the Emperor was fully occupied. Every spring day they toured and by night they copulated. All three thousand concubines in the rear palaces were ignored. On only one person was the royal affection concentrated."

Based on the mentioned verse we can see how much Yang Guifei was adored by the emperor, being the outstanding female figure in the ruler's harem, drawing the emperor's attention to her persona. Despite the abstract vividness of her physical portrayal, her character is described solely through her deeds: for instance, the way that she helped her relatives to hold high positions at the court:

"All her sisters and brothers had royal demesnes granted. Imperial but pitiful glory on the Yang family was bestowed."

Concluding everything mentioned above, we can see that despite some historical evidence of the consort's misdeeds, Bai Juyi managed to some extent rehabilitate the image of Yang Guifei by creating his poem "Song of Everlasting Sorrow" and avoiding mentioning her love affair with An Lushan.

2.3. 《窦娥冤》"Snow in Midsummer" (元朝) (Yuan Dynasty)

"Snow in Midsummer" also known in the West as "Dou E Yuan" or "The Injustice to Dou E" is a play written in times of the Yuan dynasty by one of the most influential and prominent playwrights of that time Guan Hanqing. Even though there are numerous translations of this literary piece, the most renowned one was done by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang. Despite its wide dissemination in the English-speaking world, some scholars have detected certain deviations or inaccuracies in terms of cultural representation, syntax, and the possible ambiguity of interpretation of some terms (Cao Guangtao, Liu Zilei 2020, 21).

In this drama play the main attention is focused on telling the story of a girl Dou E (in some other versions of translation called Tou Ngo), that was given by her poor father to the widow Mrs. Tsai, who later gave a new name to the girl - Dou E. She marries Mrs. Tsai's son who dies 3 years after, and in accordance with her deeply rooted loyalty to Confuscious morality, she doesn't accept the marriage proposal from one of the play's antagonists - Donkey, the son of a poor Old Chang who in his turn marries Mrs. Tsai for saving her from Doctor Lu, who tried to strangle the widow. Dou E strongly disapproves of Mrs. Tsai's decision to marry Old Chang, commenting on her age:

"Now your hair is as white as snow, How can you wear the bright silk veil of a bride?... You're no tender bamboo shoot, no tender shoot. How can you paint your eyebrows and remarry?"

Dou E also laments the fact that women's moral character traits such as loyalty, ability to love sincerely, and decency are long gone, which also creates her portrait as of an upright model role of a traditional Chinese woman abiding Confucious canons:

"Unwilling to sleep alone; First, she married one, and now she has picked another.... And before their husband's graves are dry They set aside their mourning for new clothes.... Where is the woman whose tears for her husband Caused the Great Wall to crumble?"

Apart from being headstrong with her beliefs, she also is very kindhearted, which can be noticed in the third act of the drama: to save her mother-in-law, the young woman admits her guilt for the crime she did not commit and gets executed.

The plot involves numerous literary cliches which would often be intervened and widespread in the literature of that time: paranormal things (ghosts in particular), a step-mother figure that usually turns out to be rather negative (Anthony C. Yu, 1987, 416) and, the cliched fate of the main character to suffer in real life to get revenge on those who wronged them. Stories featuring ghosts can be met in Chinese fiction of all periods. (Anthony C. Yu, 1987, 399). Many writings that involved female ghosts would in most cases be related to love stories in which lovers reunite in the afterlife, while the main character of "Snow in Midsummer" Dou E represents a vengeful type of ghost, that seeks justice and craves punishment for those who accused her of committing one of the most cruel crimes regarding Confucius morality: poisoning her father in law. Taking into consideration certain studies dedicated to the analysis of ghost images in Chinese literature, we can get a deeper understanding of Dou E as a female character, as well as emphasize the importance of studying her female portrait. Among all types of ghosts in Chinese literary pieces, Dou E can be attributed to the "avenging ghost type", which is described in detail in one of the chapters of the study conducted by Anthony C. Yu.

In this exact short play, we consider it reasonable to mention not only the main character Dou E, or, as she was referred to before her father left her Duanyun (Tuan-yun), but also her step-mother, widow Mistress Tsai, who also in a great way contributes to the plot's development. Unlike stepmothers mentioned by Anthony C. Yu in his study (Anthony C. Yu, 1987, 416)., she is represented as a relatively neutral character, if not as a victim of certain circumstances.

Speaking of the reception this play got in the West, we can say that it is highly receptive, especially in modern literary society. It also serves as a subject for many studies in the literary field: the main female character Dou E is compared to Shakespearean characters - Christina-Madalina Dinu in her research "A Comparative Study of the Ghost Literary Motif in Snow in Midsummer by Guan Hanqing and Hamlet by Shakespeare" draws an analogy by outlining main features of ghost images in both works and comparing them. The scholar stresses the fact that both plays have strong connotations to religion and express authors' rebellious tendencies regarding the social system of that time, as well as have justice as the common theme of plays (Christina-Madalina Dinu 2021, 131).

Since it's a play, the plot can undergo slight changes, depending on the preference of the play director. The original version of the text was translated by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang in the second half of the 20th century and recently got changed by Frances Ya-Chu Cowhig in 2017, unfolding the story in a modern setting and making some adjustments in the characters set (Ying Keyi, 2021).

Conclusion of Chapter II

The evolution of female characters in literary works written in different periods of Chinese history tends to portray women in various ways. Even though it would be incorrect to describe the way women were portrayed in certain dynasties solely based on one literary piece and regard it as the reflection of this whole period, analyzing not very well-known pieces, or analyzing famous and important novellas from a different perspective, supporting the analysis with studies conducted by other researchers would result in a contribution to the research in the literary field.

3.1. Reception of Chinese Literature by Western Countries: Variation and Obstacles

The history of the reception of Chinese female characters in the West can be traced back to the first literary pieces that arrived in the Western world. For instance, the version of "Cinderella" that is known in almost any part of the world, in fact, originates from the oldest version of it, which was previously invented in 9th century China and its original plot is quite different from the version that is familiar to the modern reader in Western countries (Derk Bodde, 2004, 2).

Talking about the reception of Chinese literature in the 18th century, it is valuable to mention Voltaire, one of the most authoritative and prolific philosophers and writers of 18th-century Europe, who also made his contribution to the dissemination of Chinese culture and ideas in the Western world. "The Chinese Orphan" is a play produced by Voltaire, based on the 13th-century Chinese zaju play called "The Orphan of Zhao" that underwent some adjustments before being introduced to the Western public (Derk Bodde, 2004, 6). The play itself was translated by Joseph Henri Marie de Prémare in 1731 and is considered to be the first Chinese play translated into a European language(Liu Wuchi 1953, 193). It also served as the source of inspiration for Goethe's "Elpenor", that wasn't finished (Derk Bodde, 2004, 10).

Fashion for Chinese culture that was called "chinoiserie" became widely spread in Europe in the 17-18th centuries has eventually led to the increased import of Chinese literature, which resulted not only in the fact that more European readers started to read Chinese literature, but chinoiserie has also influenced works of European authors. A new form of literature called "Chinese letters" appeared, usually uncovering stories about the adventures of a Chinese sage in Europe (Derk Bodde, 2004, 9). Thus, we can state that the process of cultural exchange between China and Europe in previous centuries never was one-sided.

Taking into consideration all mentioned above, we can see that when Chinese literature came into contact with the Western world, in order to be perceived and get an increased reception, it had to be adapted to fit the certain standards of the receptive culture. Shunqin Qiao in his research on variation theory and the reception of Chinese literature in the English-speaking world has studied in what way Chinese Literature was influenced to get adopted and accepted in the West. He states that the dissemination of Chinese literature is not possible without certain risks of it being misread or misinterpreted by translators(Cao Shunqing 2015, 2). This happens due to the fact that heterogeneous cultures have their own "filters" which screen out the literature that can be accepted, not accepted, or accepted only after being altered to some extent, to comply with the standards of the receiving culture. That is the reason for the "variation" to occur(Cao Shunqing 2015, 3). The translator has to aim for not only the translation itself, but also take into consideration the ways to make the literary piece cater the taste of Western readership. Cao Shunqing pays attention to the importance of understanding the theories, literature, and aesthetics of different civilizations, relying on the discursive rules and theoretical discourses of Chinese literary tradition. Doing so will result in an improved dissimilation process, as well as in reaching a much deeper level of reception. To prove the rightness of his statements regarding the crucial role of translation in his study, the researcher draws another example by referring to two translations of "The Dream of the Red Chamber": the more successfully accepted one was done by David Hawkes, owing to the language style, and the one that despite being inferior to the original, was less successful in terms of the reception was done by Hsien-yi Yang and Gladys Yang. Consequently, the Chinese original version of the text that was to some extent altered with certain variations gets "recreated" for improved perception in the West(Cao Shunqing 2015, 6).

3.2. Reception of Chinese Female Characters in the West: Problematiques and Proposed Solutions

Currently, there is an apparent shortage of studies with a systematized comparative analysis of female characters in Chinese ancient literature. Usually works that are considered to be classics or which got widely recognized in both China and abroad were studied more frequently and on a much deeper level than those, which might be known in China, but less known abroad or not translated in other languages. Even though there is a wide range of factors that influence the perception of Chinese literature in the West, translation plays a decisive role in its adaptation. Yanyan Bi and Deyu Zhang claim that for the past few years, very few papers that would be focused on the analysis and perception of Chinese female characters in Chinese classical literature were written (Bi Yanyan, Zhang Deyu 2021, 3). The shortage of such researches leads to many drawbacks in female literary studies: firstly, it results in a lack of historical knowledge about the way Western society perceived Chinese female images, and if there were some more researches conducted regarding this matter, it would provide scholars with greater evidence about the reflections of Western people, perhaps, some comparison of Chinese and Western female portraits. Secondly, it would provide more evidence for tracing the evolution of Chinese female characters starting from ancient times to modernity. Thirdly, more advanced research regarding this matter would contribute to female studies.

In a study conducted by Bi Yanyan and Zhang Deyu researchers provide an analysis of female images in Classical literature, based on a comparison of both original text and its translation done by using corpus-based machine translation, to obtain data on the perception of Chinese female characters in other languages and identify certain cases of variation (Bi Yanyan, Zhang Deyu 2021, 6). Despite the staggering amount of profound research works focused on the study of Chinese women and changes in their role in society done by both Chinese and Western scholars, not much attention is drawn to the analysis of female portraits in pre-war literature.

Conclusion

In the process of conducting the research, we have studied and analyzed Chinese female characters in literary works written at the time of different dynasties. These works include: "飛燕外傳" "Zhao Feiyan waizhuan", 《长恨歌》"Song of Everlasting Sorrow" and 《窦娥冤》"Snow in Midsummer". We have identified the change in characters' portrayal in terms of the degree to which they are depicted - the character's description evolves from a brief description, to more profound and detailed. Previously serving as a "tool" for male character's portrayal, female characters start taking the leading role in the plot, representing the change of focus from woman's beauty to woman's beliefs and moral values.

As for the Western reception of Chinese female characters in ancient literature, we have concluded that the decisive role in literary works reception is played by translation. Having supported our conclusions with the research of other scholars, as well as with our reasons, we consider it important to emphasize that for Chinese literature to become highly accepted in the West, it is essential to go through "adaptation" to become more appealing for western readers by adding variation in translation for increased dissemination of the literature.

We believe that our research will not only draw attention to the lack of sufficient studies dedicated to the way Chinese female characters are perceived in the West, but also provide a fertile ground for future profound studies in this field.

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