User:Zhao Jing

Media:Example.oggMy name is Zhao Jing, I come from Linyi City, Shandong Province, and I am now studying at Hunan Normal University, majoring in Korean translation. I love traveling, especially outdoor traveling, and I am very interested in natural landscape, and I am happy to taste the special food of different places, I have special feelings for the pancakes in Linyi and the rice noodle in Yunnan; I like cats and dogs, and I have some experience in raising cats and dogs; I love badminton, and I enjoy the feeling of swinging the racket; and I am more inclined to watch high quality movies and TV dramas.

Nov 1,2024

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面塑

朝鲜语笔译 赵晶

摘要：面塑是以面粉等为原料，用剪刀、梳子等辅助工具捏塑成多种造型而极具特色的民间艺术，它是黄河流域传统民俗文化的重要载体，承载着广大劳动人民的美好愿望，在新时代，正承受着一定程度的冲击。

1.引言

面塑也称面人、面花等，是以可食用的面粉、米粉等为原料，用手和相应塑形工具捏塑成人物、动物等造型的手工技艺，由中国悠久的面食文化衍生、发展而来（王江，2006，1-2）。面塑艺术的汉字记载最早出现在汉代，其蕴含着中国独特的文化内涵和艺术风格，是研究历史、美学不可或缺的实物资料。

2.面塑的起源

据史料记载，古代用面俑代替木俑、陶俑进行祭祀、祈福等仪式。想要制作面俑，面粉就必不可缺，面塑也多以小麦面粉为原料。《诗经.周颂.思文》中记载：“贻我来牟，帝命率育”，“来牟” 是古人对大小麦的称呼，这说明我国麦类种植历史悠久。新石器时期出土的磨盘，商周时期出土的青铜器笼屉、蒸锅等面食加工工具表明面食工艺逐步成熟（苗晟，2010，10）。小麦种植和面食加工为面塑的形成奠定了基础。

汉代出现面食加工的文字记载，《急就篇》中记载：“饼饵，麦饭，甘豆羹”，“饼饵”即糕和饼的统称。魏晋南北朝时期，面塑初具雏形，北魏贾思邈所著《齐民要术》一书中载有十余种饼的制作方法。与面食相关的民俗也于此时出现，《荆楚岁时记》中记载：“令世人正月十五作粥祷之……寒食挑菜……夏至食粽”（唐家路，1999，1）。

关于面塑确切的文字记载见于唐代，《封氏闻见记六》中载有：“玄宗朝，海内殷赡，送葬者或当街高祭，张施帷慢，有假花，假果，粉人，面杖之属”，此段文字描述了面塑做祭祀品使用。新疆吐鲁番阿斯塔那地区出土的唐永徽四年墓葬品中，一组女俑展示了当时簸粮舂麦到推磨抻面的全过程（见图1，引自《2023中国诗词大会》第四期），同时出土面制女俑头部、男俑上半身、小猪及花式糕点（见图2，引自《2023中国诗词大会》第四期），是现今最古老的面塑实物资料（王江，2006，3-4）。

图1：阿斯塔那出土的唐代彩绘泥塑劳动妇女俑

图2：阿斯塔那出土各类花式点心

宋代面塑艺术已全面成熟，各样的民俗活动中可见面塑的使用，孟元老所著《东京梦华录》有详实记载。如：“正月初一，京师人家大多食索饼；……上元节有丝笼和油外锤；……三月初三有面做的“镂人”……。部分习俗在如今很多地方仍有保留（袁崧林，2018，9-10）。

明清时期，“印花月饼”、“如意年糕”、“龙凤喜饼”等各式各样面塑都有实物考证，面塑艺术到达顶峰，广受人们喜爱。如今，许多明清面塑制作方法、模具仍在延用（袁崧林，2018，9-10）。

3.面塑的艺术特征

3.1 面塑的造型特征

面塑是源于中国人民生活的创作，所呈现的造型与日常所闻所见息息相关，有浓厚的乡土气息。常见的有如鹰、喜鹊、燕子等飞鸟，猪 、狗、牛、马、羊等家畜，鱼、青蛙等水中动物，八仙等神话人物。除此，戏曲和历史人物形象也时常出现（王江，2006，3-4）。不同地方呈现形式不同，有的讲究写实，有的重点表意，但都是广大劳动人民情感的表达和精神的寄托。

3.2 面塑造型的象征性

面塑是精美的艺术品，也承载着劳动人民的美好愿望。民间造型艺术讲究“有图必有意，有意必吉祥”，人们常常引申赋予直观表象更深层次意境。在面塑艺术的造型中，运用假托、借喻、谐音等传达美好向往，如龙凤、鸳鸯象征夫妻恩爱；鹤表示长寿吉祥；葫芦谐音“福禄”，认为它可驱灾辟邪、祈祷幸福；瓜结子多，蔓卧地而生，绵长不断，有子孙繁衍兴盛之寓意（宋新娟，2002，1-2；马知遥，2021，2-7）。

3.3 面塑的色彩风格

面塑艺术的色彩分为素色和彩色两种。素色面塑经过蒸制后，内部蓬松宣软，外表光滑亮泽，有一种玉石般的温润色泽，再以红色稍加点缀，使作品素雅而不失喜庆。彩色面塑颜色大红、深绿、深紫等原色为主，以黑、白等勾勒点缀，使作品色彩丰富且十分明快和喜庆（贺军，2007，1）。

4.面塑的主要地域分布及特点

面塑文化主要分布在黄河流域陕西、山东、山西、河北、河南等地，因历史积淀、文化交汇等原因，各地民俗文化丰富且各异，加之古代文化交流障碍明显，使得民间面塑艺术丰富多彩。陕西面塑做工精细、装饰华丽，在陕北和关中地区比较流行，关中地区又以华县、合阳县、大荔、韩城为代表；山西面塑有晋南、晋北之分，晋南做工精细、色彩艳丽，晋北不重彩绘，细腻之中带有粗犷；河北面塑用料考究，工艺精雕细磨，作品栩栩如生，邯郸磁县、石家庄井陉县、张家口康保县最有代表性； 河南面塑色彩丰富、造型独特多样，诸如“二龙戏珠”、“龙凤呈祥”等，灵宝县和沈丘县最具代表性；山东面塑多以施重彩为特色，是彩色面塑的代表，主要分布在莱州、菏泽、聊城等地区（王江，2006，1-2；崔萍，2008，1）。

5.面塑的制作

常见的面塑制作工艺有蒸制、油炸和焙面，蒸制是使用范围最广的面塑制作方法（王江，2006，12-13）。面塑制作主要步骤为：（1）和面，一般用精细小麦面，要注意面粉和水的比例，同时控制好水温；（2）发面，注意发酵程度，要保证面塑饱满；（3）捏塑，通过揉、压、搓、捻等步骤捏塑，也可借助剪刀、梳子等工具；（4）熟制，根据不同工艺通过蒸、烤焙、油炸等方式熟制；（5）上色，不同地方上色方式不同，有的在蒸制前上色，有的是等蒸好、晾干后才上色。上色有一定顺序，如山东面塑一般以黄、红、蓝、黑、 白、绿的顺序进行；（6）晾干，一般蒸制工艺需要进行该步骤（张国兴，1996，1-2）。

6.面塑的保护与传承

面塑是劳动人民智慧的结晶，是历史文化长河中的瑰宝，一定程度上代表着中国特色文化。在经济快速发展的今天，面塑慢慢淡出人们的视野，它似乎与时代“脱节”，面临着淘汰或被代替的风险，传承与发展势在必行。 为此，先要呼吁人们对传统民间艺术的保护，让大家都重视面塑这项文化遗产（Wong T，2010，2）；其次要有目的性地培养传承人，将面塑逐步引入艺术教学，培养更多的面塑人才（Sheng-Li, Z，2016，187-188）；最后要结合时代发展，不断创新面塑题材和形式，如在传统面塑造型中加入飞机、高楼等现代元素，在色彩上不局限于基本色系，以激发更加广阔的创作空间（王小路，2019，2-3）。总之，要让面塑艺术活跃在文化“舞台”上，让更多的人感受它的魅力。

术语和表达

面塑：Dough Sculpture

面花：dough figurines

面人：dough blossoms

和面：Kneading dough

发面：Proofing the dough

捏塑：Shaping

熟制：Cooking

上色：Coloring

晾干：Drying

印花月饼：imprinted mooncakes

如意年糕：auspicious rice cakes

龙凤喜饼：dragon and phoenix wedding cakes

二龙戏珠：Two Dragons Playing with a Pearl

龙凤呈祥：Dragon and Phoenix Bringing Prosperity

问题

1.关于面塑确切的文字记载在什么时期？

关于面塑确切文字记载见于唐代。

2.现今最古老的面塑实物资料出土于哪里？

新疆吐鲁番阿斯塔那地区出土的唐永徽四年墓葬品中。

3.面塑有什么造型？

常见的有如鹰、喜鹊、燕子等飞鸟，猪 、狗、牛、马、羊等家畜，鱼、青蛙等水中动物，八仙等神话人物。除此，戏曲、历史人物形象也常出现。

4.面塑文化主要分布在哪些地方？

面塑文化主要分布在黄河流域陕西、山东、山西、河北、河南等地。

5.面塑制作主要步骤是什么？

（1）和面；（2）发面；（3）捏塑；（4）熟制；（5）上色；（6）晾干

参考文献

[1]马知遥,赵静宜. 中国面塑艺术发展现状及可持续性探讨 [J]. 河北科技大学学报(社会科学版), 2021, 21 (01): 105-112.

[2]王小路. 面塑艺术的发展历程及创新 [J]. 长春师范大学学报, 2019, 38 (08): 166-168.

[3]袁崧林. 山西面塑艺术的数字化保护与品牌传承[D]. 山东大学, 2018.

[4]Sheng-Li, Z. Protecting Traditional Cultures in China. In: Liyanage, I., Nima, B. (eds) Multidisciplinary Research Perspectives in Education. SensePublishers, Rotterdam. 2016.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6300-615-6_22

[5]苗晟. 山东民间面塑艺术的传承与发展[D]. 山东大学, 2010.

[6] Wong T , Fernandini C .Traditional cultural expressions: Preservation and innovation[J]. 2010.

[7]崔萍. 面塑的艺术风格及文化内涵 [J]. 美术大观, 2008, (03): 71.

[8]贺军. 试论郎庄面塑艺术的独创性 [J]. 美术界, 2007, (12): 62.

[9]王江. 中国民间面塑艺术研究[D]. 河北师范大学, 2006.

[10]宋新娟. 民间面塑艺术文化内涵之研究 [J]. 沧桑, 2002, (05): 53-54.

[11]唐家路. 民间面塑艺术的源流与技艺特征 [J]. 湖北美术学院学报, 1999, (02): 31-32+49-50.

[12]张国兴. 郎庄面塑的制作及启示 [J]. 吉林师范学院学报, 1996, (06): 8-10.

Dough Sculpture

Abstract: Dough sculpture, employing flour and related materials as its principal constituents, is a remarkable folk art form. Through the utilization of ancillary implements such as scissors and combs, it is meticulously fashioned into a diverse array of configurations. It serves as a crucial conduit for the traditional folk culture within the Yellow River Basin, encapsulating the sanguine aspirations of the laboring populace. However, in the contemporary epoch, it is encountering a certain degree of perturbation.

1. Introduction

Dough sculpture, alternatively denominated as dough figurines or dough blossoms, constitutes a manual artistry wherein edible substances such as wheat flour and rice flour are deployed as the foundational materials. With the dexterous manipulation of hands and congruent shaping apparatuses, it is transmuted into an assortment of forms including human figures and animals. This artistry germinates and evolves from China's time-honored pasta culture (Wang Jiang, 2006, 1-2). The earliest Chinese character inscriptions pertaining to dough sculpture art emerged during the Han Dynasty. It harbors unique cultural implications and artistic modalities within China and represents indispensable tangible resources for the exploration of history and aesthetics.

2. The Origin of Dough Sculpture

As documented in historical annals, in antiquity, dough figurines supplanted wooden or earthenware figurines in sacrificial and benedictory rites such as offerings and invocations for felicity. For the fabrication of dough figurines, flour was of primordial importance, and dough sculpture predominantly employs wheat flour as its principal raw material. In the “Si Wen” chapter of “The Book of Songs - Hymns of Zhou”, it is inscribed that “Bestow upon us lai’mou, by the decree of the Deity to foster their propagation”, where “lai’mou” were the appellations ancients used to denominate different varieties of wheat, signifying that China boasts a protracted history of wheat cultivation. The querns unearthed during the Neolithic Age and the bronze steamers and boiling cauldrons for pasta processing unearthed in the Shang and Zhou dynasties evince the progressive maturation of pasta-making techniques (Miao Sheng, 2010, 10). The cultivation of wheat and the processing of pasta furnished the groundwork for the genesis of dough sculpture.

Written chronicles pertaining to pasta processing surfaced in the Han Dynasty. In the chapter of “Jijiu”, it is recorded that “There were baked goods, wheat-based meals, and sweet bean broths”, wherein “baked goods” served as a collective term for cakes and pastries. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, dough sculpture initiated its embryonic stage. In the magnum opus “Qi Min Yao Shu” authored by Jia Sixie in the Northern Wei Dynasty, over a dozen methods for cake-making were delineated. Folkways correlated with pasta likewise emerged during this epoch. As recorded in “Records of the Jingchu Region during the Festive Seasons”, “Contemporaneous denizens would concoct porridge on the fifteenth day of the first lunar month for supplication... They would gather wild vegetables during the Cold Food Festival... And consume zongzi on the Summer Solstice”.(Tang Jialu, 1999, 1)

The precise written accounts of dough sculpture can be traced back to the Tang Dynasty. In “Records of Things Heard and Seen by Mr. Feng, Volume VI”, it is documented that “During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, the realm was affluent. Some of the funeral attendees would stage grandiose sacrifices on the thoroughfares, erect draperies, and there were artificial blossoms, faux fruits, powdered figurines, and dough sticks, amongst other paraphernalia”. This textual passage depicts the utilization of dough sculpture as sacrificial tributes. Among the funerary artifacts unearthed from the tomb of the fourth year of Yonghui in the Astana region of Turpan, Xinjiang, a cohort of female figurines illustrated the entire procedure from winnowing grains, pounding wheat to grinding and stretching dough (see Figure 1, cited from the fourth episode of “2023 Chinese Poetry Conference”). Concomitantly, the heads of female dough figurines, the upper torsos of male dough figurines, small pigs, and ornate pastries were also exhumed (see Figure 2, cited from the fourth episode of “2023 Chinese Poetry Conference”), which constitute the most archaic extant physical specimens of dough sculpture (Wang Jiang, 2006, 3-4).

Figure 1: Painted Clay Figurines of Working Women of the Tang Dynasty Unearthed in Astana

Figure 2: Diversified Fancy Pastries Unearthed in Astana

In the Song Dynasty, the art of dough sculpture had attained comprehensive maturity, with its application manifestly observable in sundry folk activities, as exhaustively documented in “Dongjing Menghua Lu” authored by Meng Yuanlao. For instance, “On the first day of the first lunar month, the majority of households in the capital partook of plain cakes;... During the Lantern Festival, silk cages and fried pastries were prevalent;... On the third day of the third lunar month, ‘carved human effigies’ fabricated from dough were presented... Certain of these traditions have endured and are still extant in numerous localities at present (Yuan Songlin, 2018, 9-10).

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, a plethora of dough sculptures, such as “imprinted mooncakes”, “auspicious rice cakes”, and “dragon and phoenix wedding cakes”, had tangible corroborative artifacts, signifying that the art of dough sculpture had scaled its zenith and was avidly cherished by the populace. Even nowadays, copious dough sculpture fabrication methodologies and molds dating back to the Ming and Qing Dynasties remain in continued utilization (Yuan Songlin, 2018, 9-10).

3.Artistic Characteristics of Dough Sculpture

3.1 Modeling Attributes of Dough Sculpture

Dough sculpture constitutes a creative oeuvre stemming from the quotidian existence of the Chinese populace. The manifested forms are inextricably linked to the commonplace sights and sounds of daily life, imbued with a pronounced rustic ambience. Prevailing exemplars encompass flying creatures like eagles, magpies, and swallows, domestic livestock such as pigs, dogs, cows, horses, and sheep, aquatic fauna including fish and frogs, as well as mythological personages like the Eight Immortals. Additionally, the likenesses of operatic and historical figures also recurrently surface (Wang Jiang, 2006, 3-4). Divergent locales feature disparate modes of presentation; some prioritize verisimilitude, whilst others accentuate semantic conveyance, yet all serve as conduits for the emotional outpourings and spiritual anchorage of the extensive laboring strata.

3.2 Symbolism Embodied in Dough Sculpture Modeling

Dough sculpture represents an exquisitely wrought artistic entity and concurrently functions as a bearer of the sanguine aspirations of the working populace. Folk plastic artistry adheres to the tenet that “every graphical motif must encapsulate a connotation, and every connotation must augur auspiciousness”. The populace habitually extrapolates and endows the ostensibly straightforward appearances with more profound aesthetic connotations. Within the purview of dough sculpture artistry, rhetorical devices such as pretexts, metonymy, and homophonic allusions are enlisted to convey felicitous yearnings. By way of illustration, dragons and phoenixes, along with mandarin ducks, epitomize conjugal affection; cranes denote longevity and felicity; gourds, being homophonic with “fortune and emolument”, are reputed to ward off calamities and malevolent spirits and beseech happiness; melons, by virtue of their copious seed production and the continuous sprawl of their vines, symbolize the prolific proliferation of descendants (Song Xinjuan, 2016, 1-2; Ma Zhiyao, 2021, 2-7).

3.3 Color Styles of Dough Sculpture

The colors of dough sculpture art can be classified into two categories: plain and colorful. After being steamed, the plain dough sculpture becomes fluffy and soft inside, with a smooth and lustrous exterior, possessing a warm and moist luster similar to that of jade. Slightly embellished with red, the work appears simple yet elegant, without losing its festive atmosphere. Colorful dough sculptures mainly use primary colors such as bright red, dark green, and deep purple, and are outlined and decorated with black, white, etc., making the works rich in color, bright, and festive (He Jun, 2007, 1).

4.Main Regional Distributions and Characteristics of Dough Sculpture

The dough sculpture culture is mainly distributed in regions along the Yellow River, such as Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei, and Henan. Due to historical accumulations, cultural interchanges, and other reasons, the folk cultures in these regions are rich and diverse. Coupled with significant obstacles to ancient cultural exchanges, the folk dough sculpture art has become rich and colorful. Shaanxi dough sculptures are exquisitely crafted and elaborately decorated, being popular in northern Shaanxi and the Guanzhong region. The Guanzhong region is represented by Huaxian, Heyang, Dali, and Hancheng. Shanxi dough sculptures can be divided into southern and northern Shanxi. Southern Shanxi ones are exquisitely made and brightly colored, while those in northern Shanxi do not emphasize painted decoration, showing a combination of delicacy and boldness. Hebei dough sculptures use carefully selected materials and are meticulously crafted, making the works vivid. Cixian in Handan, Jingxing County in Shijiazhuang, and Kangbao County in Zhangjiakou are the most representative. Henan dough sculptures are rich in color and unique in shape, such as “Two Dragons Playing with a Pearl” and “Dragon and Phoenix Bringing Prosperity”. Lingbao County and Shenqiu County are the most representative. Shandong dough sculptures are mostly characterized by heavy use of colors and are representatives of colorful dough sculptures, mainly distributed in regions such as Laizhou, Heze, and Liaocheng (Wang Jiang, 2006, 1-2; Cui Ping, 2008, 1).

5.Production of Dough Sculpture

Common dough sculpture production techniques include steaming, frying, and baking. Steaming is the most widely used method for making dough sculptures (Wang Jiang, 2006, 12-13). The main steps of dough sculpture production are: (1) Kneading dough, generally using fine wheat flour. Pay attention to the ratio of flour to water and control the water temperature at the same time; (2) Proofing the dough, pay attention to the fermentation degree to ensure the fullness of the dough sculpture; (3) Shaping, through steps such as kneading, pressing, rubbing, and twisting for shaping, and tools such as scissors and combs can also be used; (4) Cooking, according to different techniques, through steaming, baking, frying, etc.; (5) Coloring, the coloring methods vary in different regions. Some color before steaming, while some color after steaming and drying. There is a certain order of coloring. For example, Shandong dough sculptures are generally colored in the order of yellow, red, blue, black, white, and green; (6) Drying, generally, this step is required for the steaming process (Zhang Guoxing, 1996, 1-2).

6.Protection and Inheritance of Dough Sculpture

Dough sculpture is the crystallization of the wisdom of the working people and a treasure in the long history and culture. To a certain extent, it represents Chinese characteristic culture. In today's era of rapid economic development, dough sculpture has gradually faded from people's sight. It seems to be “out of touch” with the times and faces the risks of being eliminated or replaced. Therefore, its inheritance and development are imperative.

To this end, first of all, it is necessary to appeal to people for the protection of traditional folk arts and make everyone attach importance to dough sculpture as a cultural heritage (Wong T, 2010, 2). Secondly, it is essential to purposefully cultivate inheritors and gradually introduce dough sculpture into art teaching to foster more talents in this field (Sheng-Li, Z, 2016, 187 - 188). Finally, in combination with the development of the times, we should continuously innovate the themes and forms of dough sculpture. For example, modern elements such as airplanes and high-rise buildings can be incorporated into traditional dough sculpture shapes, and in terms of color, we should not be limited to basic color systems, so as to stimulate broader creative space (Wang Xiaolu, 2019, 2 - 3). In short, we should enable the art of dough sculpture to thrive on the cultural “stage” and let more people experience its charm.

Terms and Expressions

Dough Sculpture：面塑

dough figurines：面花

dough blossoms：面人

Kneading dough：和面

Proofing the dough：发面

Shaping：捏塑

Cooking：熟制

Coloring：上色

Drying：晾干

imprinted mooncakes：印花月饼

auspicious rice cakes：如意年糕

dragon and phoenix wedding cakes：龙凤喜饼

Two Dragons Playing with a Pearl：二龙戏珠

Dragon and Phoenix Bringing Prosperity：龙凤呈祥

Questions

1.During which period were the exact written records about dough sculpture found?

The exact written records about dough sculpture can be found in the Tang Dynasty.

2.Where were the oldest existing physical materials of dough sculpture unearthed?

Among the burial objects unearthed from the tomb of the fourth year of Yonghui in the Astana region of Turpan, Xinjiang.

3.What kinds of shapes does dough sculpture have?

Common ones include flying birds such as eagles, magpies, and swallows, domestic animals such as pigs, dogs, cows, and horses, aquatic animals such as fish and frogs, and mythological figures such as the Eight Immortals. Besides, the images of operas and historical figures also often appear.

4.Where is the dough sculpture culture mainly distributed?

The dough sculpture culture is mainly distributed in regions along the Yellow River Basin, such as Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei, and Henan.

5. What are the main steps in making dough sculptures?

(1) Kneading dough; (2) Proofing the dough; (3) Shaping; (4) Cooking; (5) Coloring; (6) Drying.

References

[1]zhi yao Ma,jingyi Zhao. Discussion on the Development Status and Sustainability of Chinese Dough Sculpture Art[J]. Journal of Hebei University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences), 2021, 21 (01): 105-112.

[2]xiao lu Wang. The development process and innovation of dough sculpture art [J]. Journal of Changchun Normlal University, 2019, 38 (08): 166-168.

[3]lin song Yuan. Digital Protection and Brand Inheritance of Shanxi Miansu[D]. Shandong University, 2018.

[4]Sheng-Li, Z. Protecting Traditional Cultures in China. In: Liyanage, I., Nima, B. (eds) Multidisciplinary Research Perspectives in Education. SensePublishers, Rotterdam. 2016.https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6300-615-6_22

[5]sheng Miao. Inheritance and Development of Shandong Dough Statue[D]. Shandong University, 2010.

[6] Wong T , Fernandini C .Traditional cultural expressions: Preservation and innovation[J]. 2010.

[7]ping Cui. Dough Modeling and Its Cultural Meaning [J]. Art Panorama, 2008, (03): 71.

[8]jun He. On the Originality of Langzhuang Noodle Sculpture Art [J]. Arts Circle, 2007, (12): 62.

[9]jiang Wang. Research on Chinese Folk Noodle Sculpture Art [D]. Hebei Normal University, 2006.

[10]xin juan Song. Research on the Cultural Connotation of Folk Noodle Sculpture Art [J]. Vicissitudes, 2002, (05): 53-54.

[11]jia lu Tang. The origin and technical characteristics of Folk Dough sculpture art [J]. Hubei Institute of Fine Arts Journal, 1999, (02): 31-32+49-50.

[12]xing guo Zhang. Production and Enlightenment of Langzhuang dough sculpture [J]. Jilin Normal University Journal, 1996, (06): 8-10.

老师，您好。由于本人的英语水平较差，使用英文翻译上述文章时准确度稍差。为更好地保证论文质量，故再次使用本专业韩语翻译，本人保证论文为自己的成果，未使用ai。

면소

초 록: 면소(面塑,찹쌀반죽 공예)는 밀가루 등을 원료로 하고 가위와 빗 등 도구들을 사용하여 조형이 다양하고 특색이 있는 민간 공예다. 이는 황허 유역(黄河流域)의 전통적 민속 문화의 중요한 매체이며 많은 노동자들의 아름다운 소망을 담고 있다. 그러나 현대 사회에서는 어느 정도의 충격을 받고 있다.

1. 머리말

면소는 '면화(面花)', '면인(面人)' 이라고 부르고 먹을 수 있는 밀가루와 쌀가루 등을 원료로 하며 손과 조형 도구를 사용하여 인물과 동물 등의 조형을 만들 수 있는 수공예 기술이다. 이는 중국의 오래된 밀가루 음식 문화에서 나타나서 발전되어 왔다 (왕장, 2006, 1-2). 면소 공예에 대한 한자 기록은 한나라 시대에 거슬러 갈 수 있고 이는 중국의 독특한 의미와 예술적 스타일을 지니고 있으며 역사와 미학을 연구하는 과정에서 없어서 안 되는 실물 자료다.

2. 면소의 기원

사료에 따르면 고대에서는 제사나 기복 의식을 하기 위하여 밀가루 인형으로 나무 인형이나 도자기 인형을 대신하여 사용한 적이 있다. 밀가루 인형을 만들려면 밀가루가 반드시 필요하고 면소도 주로 밀가루를 원료로 한다. <시경>은 '이아래모, 제명솔육(貽我來牟，帝命率育)'이라고 하고 '래모'는 바로 고대 사람들이 밀과 보리를 일컫는 말이다. 이는 중국의 밀 재배 역사가 오래되였음을 보여준다. 신석기 시대에 나타난 맷돌, 상주 시대에 출토된 청동기 시루, 찜기 등의 밀가루 음식 가공 도구는 밀가루 음식 공예가 점차 성숙해진 것을 보여준다 (묘성, 2010, 10). 밀 재배와 밀가루 가공은 면소 형성에 기초를 다져 주었다.

한나라에서 밀가루 음식 가공에 대한 문자 기록이 있었다. <급취편(急就篇)>에는 '병이, 맥반, 감두갱'이라는 기록이 있고 '병이'는 떡과 병의 통칭이다. 위진남북조 시대에서 면소가 기본적으로 형성되었고 북위 가사묘(賈思邈)가 저술한 <제민요술(齊民要術)>에는 기록한 병을 만든 방법이 10여 가지가 있다. 밀가루 음식과 관련된 민속도 같은 때에 나타났다. <형초세시기(荊楚歲時記)>에 '정월 대보름에 사람들이 죽을 만들어 기도하게 하고(令世人正月十五作粥禱之)... 한식날에 캐낸 채소를 날로 먹어야 하며(寒食挑菜)... 하지에 쭝즈를 먹어여 한다(夏至食粽)'고 기록된다 (당가로, 1999, 1).

면소에 대한 명확한 문자 기록은 당나라부터 볼 수 있다. <봉씨문견기육(封氏聞見記六)>은 '현종 시 중국에서는 풍요롭기 때문에 장례를 치른 사람들이 길가에서 제사를 지내며 가짜 꽃, 가짜 과일, 밀가루 사람과 막대기 등을 했다(玄宗朝，海內殷贍，送葬者或當街高祭，張施帷慢，有假花，假果，粉人，面杖之屬)'고 기록된다. 위의 글은 면소가 제사 용품으로 했음을 말해 주고 있다. 신장(新疆)위구르자치구 투루판(吐魯番) 아스타나(阿斯塔那） 지역에서 발견된 당나라 영휘(永徽) 4년의 무덤에서는 밀을 까고 맷돌을 돌리는 전 과정을 묘사한 여자 인형들이 있다(그림 1는 '2023 중국시어대회' 제4호에서 인용한 것이다). 또한 밀로 만든 여자 인형의 머리, 남자 인형의 상반신, 돼지와 꽃 모양의 떡도 있으며(그림2는 '2023 중국시어대회' 제4호에서 인용한 것이다.) 현재 가장 오래된 면소에 대한 실물 자료다 (왕장, 2006, 3-4).

그림1：아스타나 지역에서 발견된 여자 인형들

그림2：아스타나 지역에서 발견된 각종 떡

송나라의 면소가 완전히 성숙해져 다양한 민속 활동에서 볼 수 있다. 멍위안라오(孟元老)가 한 <동경몽화록(東京夢華錄)>에서 면소에 대한 기록이 상세하다. 예를 들면 '정월 초하루에, 동경 사람들은 보통 소병을 먹고(正月初一，京師人家大多食索餅)…… 음력 정월 대보름날에는 실롱과 기름에서 튀긴 찹쌀떡을 먹으며(上元節有絲籠和油外錘)……3월 3일에는 밀가루로 만든 '인형'을 먹는다(三月初三有面做的“鏤人”)'고 한다. 현재 많은 지역에서 여전히 일부 민속이 보존되고 있다 (위안숭린, 2018, 9-10).

명청 시기에 '인화월병(印花月餅)', '여의설떡(如意年糕)', '용봉희병(龍鳳喜餅)' 등 다양한 면소 실물이 실제적으로 존재했고 면소 공예는 절정에 이르러 많은 사람들에게 사랑을 받았다. 현재도 명청 시기의 각종 면소 가공 방법과 모형이 여전히 사용되고 있다 (위안숭린, 2018, 9-10).

3. 면소의 예술적 특징

3.1 면소의 조형 특징

면소는 중국 국민들 생활에서 비롯된 창작한 것이며 그 조형이 일상에서 볼 수 있고 들 수 있는 것과 밀접하게 관련되어 진한 향토의 정취가 풍기고 있다. 흔히 볼 수 있는 조형은 독수리, 까치, 제비 등 새가 있고 돼지, 개, 소, 말, 양 등 가축이 있으며 물고기, 개구리 등 수중 동물도 있고 팔선 등 신화 인물도 있다. 이 외에도 연극과 역사 인물 형상이 자주 등장한다 (왕장, 2006, 3-4). 지역에 따라서 표현 방식이 다르고 어떤 곳에서 사실주의를 중요시하고 어떤 곳에서는 사의주의에 중점을 두고 있는데 모두가 노동자들의 감정 표현이자 정신적 지주다.

3.2 면소 조형의 상징성

면소는 정교한 공예품일 뿐만 아니라 노동자들의 아름다운 소망도 담는다. 민간 조형 공예는 '그림이 있으면 반드시 의미가 있고 의미가 있으면 반드시 상서롭다'고 한다. 사람들은 자주 직관적 표상에 깊은 의미를 부여한다. 면소의 조형에서 가탁, 은유와 음유 등 방법을 사용하여 아름다운 희망을 전한다. 예를 들면 용과 봉황 그리고 원앙새는 사랑한 부부를 상징하고 학은 장수와 상서를 표현하며 조롱박은 중국어에서 '복록'과 음이 같아 재난을 막고 행복을 기원한다고 여겨지면서 수박이 열매가 많고 넝굴이 땅에 누워 자라며 끊임없이 길게 하니까 자손이 번성할 것이라는 의미가 지닌다 (송신쥐안, 2002, 1-2; 마즈야오, 2021, 2-7).

3.3 면소의 색채 스타일

면소 공예의 색채는 단순한 색과 채색 두 가지가 있다. 단순한 색의 면소는 찐 후 그 속에서가 부드럽고 겉에서는 매끄러워 옥과 같은 색을 띠며 빨간색으로 살짝 장식하면 작품이 소박하면서도 경사스럽다. 채색 면소는 빨강, 진초록, 진보라 등 원색을 하고 검정, 흰색 등으로 장식하니까 작품의 색채가 풍부하고 밝으면서 경쾌하게 된다 (허쥔, 2007, 1).

4. 면소의 주요 지역 분포 및 특징

면소 문화는 주로 황허 유역의 산시(陝西)성, 산둥(山東)성, 산시(山西)성, 허베이(河北)성, 허난(河南)성 등에 있다. 역사적 축적, 문화적 교류로 각 지역의 민속 문화는 풍부하고 각자 특색이 있다. 게다가 고대에 문화 교류를 하기 장애가 되기 때문에 민간 면소 공예가 다양하다. 산시 면소는 정교하고 장식이 화려하며 산북과 관중 지역에서 인기가 있다. 대표된 관중 지역은 화현(華縣), 허양현(合陽縣), 다리현(大荔), 한청(韓城)이 있다. 산시 면소는 남산과 북산으로 나눌 수 있다. 남산 면소는 정교하고 색채가 화려하는 반면 북산 면소는 채색을 많이 하지 않고 세밀하면서도 거칠다. 허베이 면소는 재료 사용이 중요시하고 공예가 정밀하여 만든 작품이 생동감 있으며 대표적인 지역은 한단(邯鄲)시의 자석현(磁縣), 스자좡(石家莊)시의 징싱현(井陉縣), 장자커우(張家口)시의 캉바오현(康保縣)이 있다. 허난 면소는 색채가 풍부하고 조형이 다양하며 예를 들면 ‘두 마리 용이 구슬을 갖고 놀기(二龍戲珠)’와 ‘용과 봉황은 상서로운 조짐을 나타내기(龍鳳呈祥)’ 등이 있으면서 대표적인 지역은 린바오현(靈寶縣)과 셴커우현(沈丘縣)이 있다. 산동 면소는 채색 면소의 대표 지역으로 색채가 짙고 라저우(萊州), 허저(菏澤), 랴오청(聊城) 등의 지역에 있다 (왕장, 2006, 1-2; 최평, 2008, 1).

5.면소의 가공

면소 가공에는 흔이 볼 수 있는 방법이 찜, 튀김, 반죽이 있고 그 중에서 찜이 가장 많이 사용된다 (왕장, 2006, 12-13). 면소 가공의 주요 단계는 다음과 같다: (1)반죽: 보통 밀가루를 사용하고 밀가루와 물의 비율을 신경써야 하며 물의 온도도 주의해야 한다. (2)발효: 반죽을 발효시키는 정도를 주의하고 속이 꽉 들어차야 한다. (3)조형: 반죽을 이기기, 누르기, 빚기, 꼬나물기 등으로 조형하고 가위나 빗 등 도구를 사용할 수도 있다. (4)익히기: 찜, 구움과 튀김 등 방법으로 반죽을 익히게 한다. (5)색칠: 지역에 따라 색칠 방식이 각각 다르고 찌기 전에 색칠하는 곳이 있는 반면 찌기 후에 색칠하는 곳도 있다. 예를 들면 산둥 면소의 색칠 순서는 보통 노랑, 빨강, 파랑, 검정, 흰색, 초록의 순서로 한다. (6)건조: 일반적으로 찌기 후에야 건조한다 (장궈싱, 1996, 1-2).

6. 면소의 보호 및 계승

면소는 노동자들의 지혜 결정체이자 역사적 보물이다. 어느 정도는 특색이 있는 중국 문화를 대표할 수 있다. 오늘날 경제가 급속하게 발전되면서 면소는 사람들의 시야에서 점점 사라진 것 같다. 면소는 시대에 뒤떨어지고 어느 날 도태될 위험이 있다. 따라서 면소의 계승과 발전이 피할 수 없는 추세다.

이를 위하여 먼저 사람들에게 전통 민속 공예를 보호할 수 있도록 호소하고 면소가 중요한 문화 유산인 것을 잘 알게 해야 한다（Wong T，2010，2）. 다음으로 기예능 보유자를 양성하고 면소을 공예 교육에 도입하여 더 많은 면소 인재를 양성해야 한다（Sheng-Li, Z，2016，187-188）. 마지막으로 시대가 발전됨에 따라 면소의 주제와 형식을 끊임없이 창조해야 한다. 예를 들면 전통적 면소에 비행기와 빌딩과 같은 현대적 요소를 추가하고 기본 색채에 국한되지 않으며 창작에 더 넓은 공간을 주어야 한다 (왕샤오루, 2019, 2-3). 결국적으로 말하면 더 많은 사람들이 그 매력을 느낄 수 있도록 면소 공예가 문화의 무대에서 활동하게 해야 한다.

전문 용어 및 표현

면소：面塑

면화：面花

면인：面人

반죽：和面

발효：发面

조형：捏塑

익히기：熟制

색칠：上色

건조：晾干

인화월병：印花月饼

여의설떡：如意年糕

용봉희병：龙凤喜饼

두 마리 용이 구슬을 갖고 놀기：二龙戏珠

용과 봉황은 상서로운 조짐을 나타내기：龙凤呈祥

문제

1.면소에 대한 명확한 문자 기록은 언제부터 시작한건가?

면소에 대한 명확한 문자 기록은 당나라부터 시작한다.

2.현재까지 가장 오래된 면소에 대한 실물 자료는 어디에서 발견된건가?

신장(新疆)위구르자치구 투루판(吐魯番) 아스타나(阿斯塔那） 지역의 당나라 영휘(永徽) 4년의 무덤에서 발견되었다.

3.면소는 어떤 조형이 있는건가?

흔히 볼 수 있는 조형은 독수리, 까치, 제비 등 새가 있고 돼지, 개, 소, 말, 양 등 가축이 있으며 물고기, 개구리 등 수중 동물도 있고 팔선 등 신화 인물도 있다. 이 외에도 연극과 역사 인물 형상이 자주 등장한다.

4.면소는 주로 어떤 곳에서 분포한건가?

면소 문화는 주로 황허 유역의 산시(陝西)성, 산둥(山東)성, 산시(山西)성, 허베이(河北)성, 허난(河南)성 등에 있다.

5.면소 가공의 주요 단계는 무엇인가?

(1)반죽 (2)발효 (3)조형 (4)익히기 (5)색칠 (6)건조.

AI声明：

本人在此保证，该篇期末论文未使用AI的帮助。