Buddhism

Datong Yungang Cave, among the earliest remaining examples of Buddhist art in China. Photo by Áine Hickey. Click [1] for original source.

Buddhism originated from an innocent boy shielded behind palace walls who grew to become a sage and reformer. This religion has climbed over mountains and traveled across seas to become a central philosophy and religion in China. By pursuing Buddhism, which stems from the Four Noble Truths and following the Eight-fold path, one can find bliss and achieve enlightenment. Regardless of class, economic status, age, sex, or ethnicity, Buddhism successfully offers a basis for mixing any portion of the population. Buddhism has also been successful because it answers the mysteries behind why we are here, why we experience suffering, and why we die.

About where the village of Lumbini would have been. Google Maps.

Origins

My name is Siddhartha Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, and I was an Indian Prince born around 560 B.C.E. in Lumbini, located in Southern Nepal. The story told about my birth was somewhat miraculous. When I was conceived, my mother had a dream of a white elephant floating down from the skies and entering into her belly. According to the culture in India, elephants were once white, heavenly creatures that flew around amidst the clouds. Eventually the elephants came down to earth to be with mankind and to help them through life's many cycles. After coming down from the skies, they lost their white skin and it slowly began to turn gray. The fact that my mother had this dream of a white elephant, meant that I was sent from heaven to help mankind just as the elephants had done.

The birth of Siddhartha. A painting in the Laotian Temple. Photo by Sacca. Click [2] for original source.

When I was born, I came forth out of my mother's side and immediately took three steps, with lotuses springing up as my feet touched the ground. As if a walking new born wasn't astonishing enough, I proceeded to talk and proclaimed that I was meant to be the Buddha of this world (White 2013).

Many names are attributed to me, such as: Gautama, Siddhartha, Sakyamuni, and The Buddha or Historical Buddha. Gautama is my family name, Siddhartha means goal accomplished, Sakyamuni means sage of the Sakya clan, and Buddha is a title that means the enlightened one. There have been many other Buddhas after my lifetime, and so some call me The Buddha because I was the first or the Historical Buddha because I started the history of Buddhism. Most of these names were given to me according to the things which I did during my lifetime, and some of these names were never used by me (White 2013).

After my birth, a wise man came to my father (Suddhodana) and prophesied to him concerning my role in life with two possible outcomes. Either I would become a powerful King or I would become a sage and reformer (Boeree 2011). However, my father did not like the second part of the prophesy and did everything he could to keep it from coming true. My father wanted me to continue in the family business as a ruler in his palace. He realized that I would not have any desire to become a reformer if there was nothing to reform. So he orchestrated a perfect world inside the palace in order to hide me from any suffering, imperfections, or illness.

The marriage of Prince Siddhartha. Painted by Hintha. Click [3] for original source.

Siddhartha leaving his sleeping wife and child. Photo by Jonathan Rotondo. Click [4] for original source.

The four sightings: age, sickness, death, and the monk. A painting in the Laotian Temple. Photo by Sacca. Click [5] for original source.

Siddhartha, with Channa and Kanthaka, cutting his hair. A painting in the Laotian monastery. Photo by Sacca. Click [6] for original source.

He made sure that all the servants working in the palace were young, strong, and healthy, and the old and sick were never allowed inside. This allowed me no choice but to grow up knowing nothing but the life of royalty. My entire environment was protected from the harsh realities of the world, and I was forbidden to leave the palace walls (White 2013).

I was a prince of the Kshatriya (warrior/noble) caste, and so as I grew older I practiced daily in the arts of war. When I was about sixteen years of age I met a very lovely princess named Yashodhara from one of the adjacent kingdoms whom I fell in love with. One day there was an event held where many Kshatriyas competed in a variety of sports for the princess's hand in marriage and I became determined to win. After defeating all those at the competition, I married Yashodhara and we were both only sixteen years old at the time (Boeree 2011).

However, by the age of 29, I still had not been outside of the palace walls and my father still forbade it. After much demanding, my father relented and allowed me to parade through the town. Yet his father was still determined to keep all imperfections out his sights, and so Suddhodana invited all the young and healthy to line the parade route and he commanded all the sick and elderly to stay away until the parade was over. As I rode in my carriage through the town, I happened to see an old man through the gap of people on the road. Being shielded from such things, I was surprised. I told my carriage driver (Channa) to leave the parade and follow that old man so I could get a closer look. As we chased after the old man, I came across people who were ill, and aging, and I even passed by a funeral and saw death. Channa explained to me, that all people get sick, grow old, and eventually die; it was a fact of life. Last of all, he encountered an ascetic monk, meditating peacefully about the meaning of life. These four sightings confused me and caused me to question everything about life and how to end suffering. I eventually decided that I would not get any answers by staying inside the palace. So I kissed my sleeping wife and baby boy goodbye, cut my hair, changed my clothes, and I ran away with my servant Channa and my horse Kanthaka. After a while, I gave my horse to Channa and told him to go back to the palace, while I continued on (Boeree 2011).

First, I went to the streets and became a beggar. When my father found out what I was doing, he offered me his throne. This offer, however, was rejected. Next, I wandered into a group of ascetics and began to study under two hermit teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta. Under their guidance, I learned how to achieve high levels of meditation. The idea behind this was that the more you meditated the more in-tune you will become with Brahman (the source of all things) and obtain wisdom and knowledge. I was so dedicated to this practice that I began to have many admirers in the group. They even asked me to succeed my teachers, but I still had not received the answers I was looking for, and so I moved on. Next, five ascetic companions and I took our austerities even further.

Siddhartha near death with his five ascetic companions and a God providing spiritual protection. A painting in the Laotian Temple. Photo by Sacca. Click [7] for original source.

In order to find enlightenment, we deprived ourselves of all worldly goods, including food and water, and practiced self-mortification. It is said that at this point, we were surviving off of a leaf and nut per day. Then one day I collapsed from exhaustion while bathing in a river and nearly drowned. This caused me to reconsider this extreme path and I rejected ascetics altogether. Yet a royal life of luxury did not get me anywhere either. So I set off in search of a path between both extremes. With this in mind, I entered into a new meditative state that was blissful and refreshing (Mitchell 2002).

Siddhartha being sheltered by a snake from a storm. A painting in the Laotian Temple. Photo by Sacca. Click [8] for original source.

After realizing that this meditative state was the right path, I concluded that the correct path was one of moderation. In order to achieve this blissful-state one must avoid the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, and live what is known as the Middle Way. A girl named Sujata fed me milk and helped me regain my strength. It was after this that I went and sat under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree, and vowed to never rise again until I found the truth. My companions left me, thinking I had strayed away from my search. After meditating for 49 days I finally achieved Enlightenment and became forever known as, the Buddha (the enlightened one). I continued to meditate some time after my enlightenment, during which time a great storm arose and a giant snake came out of the woods, lifted me up, and covered me from the rain with its head (Boeree 2011).

I had come to understand all things and the relations they have with one another. I realized what caused suffering and the steps to eliminating it. People suffer because of their desires and attachments, which inevitably fill people’s lives with disappointments and anxieties. To stop this process, one must live an ethical life and engage in spiritual practices that enhance concentration and insight. If one progresses along this path, they can eventually escape the infinite cycle of rebirth and enter nirvana. I called the steps to escape the infinite cycle the Four Noble Truths (Leidy 2008).

After achieving enlightenment and finding the middle path in the Four Noble Truths, I began to share this wisdom with others throughout the northern regions of India. This mission of sharing my knowledge lasted for about 40 years and I gathered a considerable following. I died peacefully at the age of 80 (around 480 B.C.E.) and I entered Nirvana, which is ultimate bliss and liberation from the cycle of rebirth (White 2013).

Doctrines

The Four Noble Truths:

• Life is difficult or life is full of suffering. From birth to death, suffering is unavoidable. Even pleasure and happiness is suffering because it will inevitably end eventually and the end of which will cause suffering.

• Life is difficult because of attachments or suffering originates in desire and hatred. Our suffering is caused by our wants, needs, and desires for permanence and an ideal world when reality is ever changing and full of corruption. In other words, our desires are set on ideals of ignorance.

• There is a possibility of liberation. Our suffering can be overcome. Ignorance is at the root of desire and hatred. By getting rid of ignorance, we can ultimately get rid of suffering.

• The way to liberation (Nirvana) and attaining enlightenment is achieved through the Eight-fold path (White 2013).

The Eight-Fold Path:

From the Dhammapada of the Pāli tradition, the Eight-fold path is summed up as:

"Avoidance of all evil,

Cultivation of the wholesome,

Purification of one’s mind,

This is the teaching of the Buddhas"

(Quoted by White 2013).

• Right View or Understanding. This includes an acceptance of the Four Noble Truths.

• Right Intention or Thought. This includes renunciation (giving up ties with the world), benevolence (compassion for self and others), and non-violence.

• Right Speech. This includes speaking kindly, truthfully, and harmoniously, and avoiding profanity, gossip, and any vain communication.

• Right Action. This includes acting morally and in ways that doesn't bring harm or disrespect to others and one's self.

• Right Livelihood. This includes choosing an occupation that will not cause us to forfeit any of the eight folds.

• Right Effort. This includes a passion for enlightenment, as well as, cultivating good thoughts and pushing the bad ones out. Laziness is not allowed.

• Right Mindfulness. This includes being aware of our environment and other’s needs.

• Right Concentration or Meditation. This includes mental discipline, the silencing of the mind, bliss, and the ability to attain “one-pointedness” (Mitchell 2002).

Figurines depicting a variety of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Photographed at Musee Guimet by PHGCOM. Click [9] for original source.

Buddhas and Bodhisattvas:

• Buddha - the enlightened one. Once you have gained enlightenment, you become a Buddha and you have the chance to enter into nirvana when you die. This means that you will not be reincarnated into another life and become apart of the "Ultimate Reality."

• Bodhisattva - enlightened ones mostly from the Mahayana group that refuse to enter into Nirvana and choose to stay behind to help others reach enlightenment. They also enter into a vow to to show their commitment. The Four Great Bodhisattva Vows compiled by the Chinese founder of the Tendai School states,

"Beings are infinite in number, I vow to save them all;

The obstructive passions are endless in number, I vow to end them all;

The teachings for saving others are countless, I vow to learn them all;

Buddhahood is the supreme achievement, I vow to attain it"

(Quoted in Fisher 2003)

• Everyone who follows the Eight-Fold Path has the capability to become a Buddha (become enlightened) and reach nirvana or become a Bodhisattva (Mitchell 2002).

• Although Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are technically not Gods, some Buddhists worship them as if they were Gods (White 2013).

The Spread of Buddhism

An example of Chinese Sutras. Unknown Author. Click [10] for original source.

After my death, my followers passed down my teachings orally, not having anything written down. Also, because I taught according to each groups understanding, many of my followers began to argue concerning what it was that I taught. Around the 1st century B.C.E. four councils had already taken place where my followers discussed and decided on the doctrine I taught (White). It was not until then that my sermons were written down into a huge body of scripture called Sutras (Fisher 1993).

The two main branches of Buddhism (Mahayana and Theravada) spreading throughout Asia. By Zen. Click [11] for original source.

However, not everyone came to agree completely on one set of doctrine. Eventually my followers split into different groups and began to spread throughout Asia. The main three branches, over time, became known as the Mahayana, Theravada, and Tantric groups. These three groups are fundamentally the same, but have slight differences in their practices and rituals (White 2013).

Tantric Buddhism, also known as Vajrayana Buddhism, wandered up into the Tibetan plateau and established itself there. Their Buddhist texts are called Tantras, and were supposedly to have been the words spoken by me and written or compiled around the 6th or 7th centuries. The Tantric group focused a lot on elaborate rituals and mantras spoken to Buddha statues in order to obtain buddhahood (White 2013).

The Theravada, sometimes called Hinayana or Nikaya, Buddhism eventually spread throughout south east Asia in countries such as Thailand, Cambodia, and Burma. This group has more austere practices for the few, meaning that mainly the monks are the ones practicing and striving to obtain Buddhahood which they call Arhathood. They also condemn the idea of people being able to become Bodhisattvas (White 2013).

The Mahayana group, or the ‘Great Vehicle’, would have closely followed the silk road into China. This is the body of Buddhism that has spread most widely, not just in China, but throughout Japan and Korea as well. The spread of the Mahayana group resulted from King Asoka (ca. 250 B.C.E.) in Northern India, who after feeling deep remorse for killing many enemies, discovered Buddhism to comfort his troubled soul. He became interested in Buddhism and made it the state religion. The group spread north and then east, around the Tibetan plateau and into China. Mahayana Buddhism has more far-reaching and profound doctrines, which were established not just for priests and monks, but for the people as well. Each group's doctrine gave people a new hope of intervention through supernatural saviors, called Bodhisattvas (White 2013).

Buddhism in China

Although China and India are relatively close, they are separated by the Himalayas. Buddhism may have entered China as early as the first century C.E. It wasn’t until the second, third, and fourth centuries, however, with the arrival of commercial goods along trade routes, that Buddhism really began to spread widely.

The White Horse Temple in Luoyang, China. Photo by Robert Schediwy. Click [12] for original source.

The religion followed the trade routes from Northern India through the Central Asian kingdoms Khotan and Kucha (Ebrey 2010).

There is a legend concerning the introduction of Buddhism during the Han Dynasty. Emperor Ming Ti, who ruled in Loyang from 58-75 C.E., had a dream in 64 C.E. In his dream he saw a golden man with a halo around his head. As the Emperor was about to ask the golden man who he was, the man turned and flew into the west. One of his ministers said this man matched the description of a deity from India called Buddha. Ming Ti then sent some envoys to India to learn of the Buddha, and they returned with 42 sections of the Sutra, carried on the backs of white horses. These were probably the first Sutras in China. Later Emperor Ming Ti established the first Buddhist temple in China, called the White Horse Temple. Although evidence indicated that Ming Ti did send for the Sutras, chances are that he would have known of Buddhism before his dream (Mitchell 2002).

At first, Buddhism was viewed by most Chinese as a foreign religion and did not attract many followers. However, around 316 C.E., Chinese people from the higher classes began to latch on to it's teachings, and it finally began to accumulate a following. During this time many Chinese began to take the journey to India to further discover Buddhism for themselves. One of these men, Faxian, was the first Chinese Buddhist pilgrim to leave China for India. He left for India (399 C.E.) going through Kucha and Khotan and returned (ca. 414 C.E.), by sea, going through Sri Lanka and Sumatra. Others followed suite (Ebrey 2010).

Depiction of Huiyuan found in the book which is called "Wan hsiao tang-Chu chuang -Hua chuan (晩笑堂竹荘畫傳)." Click [13] for original source.

Around 379, Kumarajiva (344-413), a Central Asian monk and child prodigy, was summoned by the Emperor to Chang’an to teach him about Buddhism. Along the way, however, he was taken captive and held for 17 years. While captive, he learned Chinese and several other dialects (Mitchell 2002). He then set up a translation bureau, which had hundreds maybe thousands of workers, including editors, sub-editors, proofreaders, and scribes. Most of the translations were from Sanskrit to Chinese (Ebrey 2010).

Painting of Xuanzang depicting his journey to India. Unknown Author. Click [14] for original source.

Huiyuan (334-417) was a great Chinese Buddhist teacher, and had a basic education of Confusious and Daoist texts. Upon hearing a sermon by a Kuchan missionary he decided to convert to Buddhism and founded a monastery on Mount Lu in the Jiangxi province. He corresponded with Kumarajiva, and founded Pure Land. In 404 he wrote "On Why Monks Do Not Bow Down Before Kings," and claimed political independence of the Buddhist church. He also tried to assure the rulers that Buddhists, “make good subjects because their belief in the retribution of karma and desire to be reborn in paradise make them act circumspectly.” He said, “Those who rejoice in the Way of the Buddha invariably first serve their parents and obey their lords,” (Ebrey 2010).

Perhaps one of the most influential early Chinese Buddhist monks was Xuanzang (602-664), who was also a great translator, writer, and pilgrim. He left China for India in 629 CE, against the government's will, and returned in 645. He hauled back 657 items in 520 cases. Upon his return he was summoned to the royal court. Xuanzang expected to be chastised, but after seeing the quality and quantity of the items Xuanzang returned with, he was pardoned. He is credited for translating 73 items in 1,347 chuan, or scrolls. He also kept a detailed journal of his travels (Mitchell 2002).

The reason that Mahayana Buddhism did so well in China is because it was similar enough to Taoism and Confucianism to cause the Chinese to feel comfortable with it, but it also was different enough that it answered questions that Taoism and Confucianism did not. The main appeal of Buddhism was that it answered many questions about death and suffering. It taught that death was not the end, and that liberation from suffering could eventually be achieved by all living creatures. Chinese women and people of lower classes especially took a liking to Buddhism mainly because it put women and everyone (disregarding class or ethnicity) onto equal terms with everyone else. Even the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas were depicted as non-gendered individuals. Buddhism also reinforced many of the Taoist and Confucian virtues such as Filial Piety, Ren, harmony, balance, and moderation. Because of all this, Buddhism spread all over China, gaining more and more influence (Ebrey 2010).

Emperor Wendi of the Sui Dynasty. Painted by Yan Li-pen. Click [15] for original source.

However, even though Buddhism was a success, it had a fair share of opposition as well. Many Taoist and Confucianists thought Buddhism was an abomination. They despised the practices of cremation, and monk celibacy, shaved heads, and exemption from taxes, and claimed it was against Chinese tradition. Even the money spent on the construction of Buddhist temples, monasteries, and statues were seen as wasted government funds. A couple of times around 446 and 574, the anti-buddhist groups persuaded the government to close down the religion. During these times, monasteries were shut down and the monks and nuns were forced to work as a normal Chinese citizen. Yet, instances like these were short lived and completely amended as a new ruler rose to the throne (Ebrey 2010).

By 581, Emperor Wendi of the Sui Dynasty reunited China, making way for the Tang Dynasty. In Wendi's official imperial edict during the the inaugural year of his Dynasty, he based the foundation of his Empire on Buddhist principles, and thus opening the way for Buddhism to fully flourish in China (White 2013). The imperial edict states:

"With the armed might of a Cakravartin king [a model Indian Buddhist king],

We spread the ideals of the Ultimately Enlightened One.

With a hundred victories in a hundred battles,

We promote the practice of the ten Buddhist virtues.

Therefore We regard the weapons of war as having become

Like the offerings of incense and flowers presented to Buddha,

And the fields of this world as becoming forever identical with the Buddha-land. (CotCE, p. 82)"

(Quoted by White 2013)

References

Boeree, C. George. "The Life of Siddhartha Gautama." Dong Hung Temple: Buddhist Education Center. n.p. Jan. 2011. Web. Apr. 2013.

Ebrey, Patricia. The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. 2nd edition. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 86-178. Print.

Fisher, Mary P. Living Religions: Eastern Traditions. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 2003. 103-147. Print.

Fisher, Robert. Buddhist Art and Architecture. 1st edition. London: Thames & Hudson Inc., 1993. 7-10, 86-123. Print.

Leidy, Denice. The Art of Buddhism: An Introduction to its History and Meaning. 1st edition. Boston: Shambhala Publications, Inc., 2008. 1-5, 81-99. Print.

Mithchell, Donald. Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience. 1st edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. 9-213. Print.

White, Kenneth R. “Introduction to Eastern Religions.” Utah Valley University. Liberal Arts Building room 231, Orem, UT. Spring Semester, 2013. Lecture.

Powerpoint Presentations

• Buddhism_by_Loren_S.ppt (Media:BuddhismCTC.ppt)