Difference between revisions of "History of Translation Theories"

From China Studies Wiki
Jump to navigation Jump to search
 
(95 intermediate revisions by 11 users not shown)
Line 11: Line 11:
 
[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do List]]
 
[[DCG-To-Do|To the To Do List]]
  
−
=1 李瑞洋 Translation Theories of Contemporary China--from 1949 to Present=
+
=1 李瑞洋 A Brief Introduction of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theories--from 1949 to Present=
−
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]]
 
−
===Abstract===
 
  
−
===Key words===
+
'''当代中国翻译理论简史（1949至今）'''
  
−
===Introduction===
+
李瑞洋 Li Ruiyang, Hunan Normal University, China
−
===1.Development of translation criterion===
 
−
  Translation criterion is of great significance to Chinese translation theory. Since Yan Fu’s idea, namely “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance”, came into being, there has been years of discussion about it. With the development of translation study, more and more critics of Yan Fu's idea have been raised. People have gradually come to realize that the translation criterion of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” is not perfect enough, especially the idea of elegance, which is doubted by many translators. In ''Translation As a Communication'' (2001), Cheng Yongsheng points out that there are three types of criticism on Yan Fu’ s translation criterion. The first type is pure critique; the second type is improvement; and the third type is a partial or full reinterpretation.
 
−
====1.1 Pure critique====
 
−
  Wang Zuoliang (1916-1995), a professor at Beijing Foreign Studies University, was a representative of pure critique on Yan Fu’s translation criterion., and he clearly opposed Yan Fu's "elegance" idea. Since from the point of view of "elegance", Yan Fu advocated the use of quaint language for translation. He thought it was inappropriate to use vulgar words in any translation. However, Wang Zuoliang believed that Yan Fu's "elegance" was unreasonable. “If the original is not elegant, there is no need for elegance in the translation(Wang, 462).”He took Gold Vase Plum as an example, which was a famous vernacular novel, he pointed out that “If you put these coarse social figures into graceful style of Zhou and Qin Dynasties and use refined words from Six Dynasties to convey the dialogue of them, the translation must be very ridiculous, causing a great loss of the meaning of the original text(Chen, 135).” Wang Zuoliang did not think that "elegance" is equivalent to beautification. He opposed Yan Fu's quaint translation of any text, but insisted on that the style of the translation depended on the original text.
 
−
====1.2 Improvements====
 
−
  Unlike pure critique, many translators have put forward their own criteria while criticizing "faithfulness, expressiveness, elegance". Like Xv Yuanchong, Liu Chongde and Chang Xiefeng, they made improvements on the basis of Yan Fu's idea.
 
−
  Xv Yuanchong (1921-2021), who was a professor at Peking University, regarded “faithfulness and smoothness” as necessary conditions for translation, but “elegance” as a sufficient condition. In other words, "faithfulness” and “expressiveness" are criteria that must be followed in translation, but the implementation of "elegance" depends on the specific text. In contemporary China where writings are in the vernacular instead of in classical Chinese, the idea of “elegance” can no longer be limited to the original meaning of quaint, but should turn to rhetoric. He refuted the idea that the relationship between translation form and the original content was dialectical unity. In his opinion, regardless of literal translation or free translation, faithfulness to the original content is the first priority. If only faithful to the form, ignoring the content, it was not a qualified translation. He considered that different literary genres shared different translation criteria. The prose translation criterion was concerned with “the faithful content of the original text, the smooth translation form, and the promotion of the advantages of the target text.” As for poetry translation criterion, he emphasized the beauty of meaning, sound and form.
 
−
  Liu Chongde (1914-2008), who was the vice president of Translators Association of China, presented his own translation criterion as “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness (in style)”. He agreed on Yan Fu’s first two criteria-- “faithfulness” and “expressiveness”, but changed “elegance” into “closeness”. From his perspective, the unity of a literary work was composed of ideological content, language expression and style characteristics, and literary translation must also be a true representation of the original complete unity. He bored down on the importance of “closeness in style”, which meant that the translation style was determined by the athor’s own writing style. The translator must know very well about the writing style employed by the author, and carefully select wording and phrasing to fit the original style while translating. In order to fulfill the criterion of "closeness", Liu Chongde clearly defined what kind of language ability a translator needed. He must be proficient in the native language and the language that needed to be translated. For one thing, he should translate the accurate thought content of the original text easily and smoothly and cause no rigidity to the readers. For another, he should notice every subtle difference in the author’s words, even a tiny particle, and find an appropriate form in the native language.
 
−
====1.3 Reinterpretation====
 
−
  Ma Zuyi (1925-), the author of ''A Brief History of Chinese Translation'', reinterpreted the concept of "elegance" as translating in a standard language used throughout the country. He found the source of Yan Fu’s “elegance” in The Analects of Confucius. Confucius used the dialect of Lu state in his usual conversations, but when reciting The Book of Songs and The Four Books, he used the official language of the Zhou Dynasty, namely "Ya Yan"/elegant language. Yan Fu lived in the late Qing Dynasty, when the articles should written in classical Chinese, so he advocated the quint language. However, after the New Culture Movement in 1919, writings in the vernacular occupied the main historical stage, the criterion of “elegance” changed into using vernacular language while translating. 
 
−
Shen Suru (1919-2009) , who was a honorary member of Translators Association of China, held a view that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” formed a theoretical system of translation criterion. He defined translation as follows: "Translation is a cross-language and cross-cultural communication, which is to convey an original content of certain language expressed by the sender to the recipient with different cultural background as fully as possible.” He emphasized that translation was communication, so translation research could not be confined to the study of two language conversions, but should highlight how to achieve the purpose of conveying information through interlingual conversion. Therefore, he believed that “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” could not be considered in isolation. In order to achieve effective communication, all these three criteria must be met, and failure of any of it could lead to unqualified translations. For example, if the translated text was consistent with the original content, but difficult to articulate, then this kind of "faithfulness" was unqualified.
 
−
 
−
  To sum up, it is difficult to decide which of the criticisms on "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" is the most reasonable, but these pure criticisms, improvements and reinterpretations have reached three points of consensus: translation must have one criterion; Yan Fu's  translation criterion has not reach the acme of perfection; "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" are the most important in translation. However, there is still no exact conclusion as to what the ultimate criterion of translation should be. Meanwhile, it seems that detailed questions have not been thoroughly discussed. For example, to what extent is a translation considered "faithful"? Is there a completely "faithful" translation?
 
−
  Before Yan Fu, there was basically no such systematic translation criterion in China, his idea has filled a gap in Chinese translation theories. The idea of "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" was concise and systematic, and thus it was taken by the community as the translation criterion. On the one hand, the theories of literary translation in China are deeply influenced by "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". On the other hand, those who are engaged in literary translation work also feel that these golden words cannot solve the practical problems in translation practice, so they further elaborate them. As a result, some theories of literary translation come into being, such as Fu Lei’ s “spirit likeness”, Qian Zhongshu’ s “sublimation” and Xv Yuanchong’ s aesthetics of translation. 
 
−
===2.General theories of literary translation===
 
−
  By critically inheriting Yan Fu's translation criterion, Chen Xiying put forward a literary translation theory of "three similarities”--”similarity in form; similarity in meaning; similarity in spirit”, which had a profound influence on contemporary translation theory in China.
 
−
  In 1929, Chen Xiying published “On Translation" in New Moon, an influential literary journal sponsored by the New Moon School in the 1920s. The essay criticized the view that a good prose translation just needed to be up to the "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". Many novel ideas were presented in this essay. Firstly, he introduced the concept of literature and non-literature. Quoting the English critic De Quincey, who divided literature into two categories: literature of wisdom and literature of force. According to his point of view, the former was didactic and the later was touching. Chen Xiying concluded that whether it was didactic or touching was the key to distinguish literature from non-literature. Secondly, he condensed "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance" into one concept--”faithfulness”, and seriously questioned the necessity of being elegant in literary translation; Thirdly, he divided "faithfulness" into three levels: similarity in form; similarity in meaning; similarity in spirit. “Similarity in form” means that the ideological content of the original work should be accurately conveyed; “similarity in meaning” means that the stylistic features of the original work should be fully presented; “similarity on spirit” means that the charm of the original work should be precisely expressed.
 
−
  Chen Xiying has set a precedent for the theoretical discussion of literary translation in contemporary China. His theory originated from the consideration of applying Yan Fu's translation criterion to literary translation. His theory was complementary to "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance". The "three similarities" were held in high esteem in literature translation theory, and they were elaborated by many other translation theorist. Fu Lei summarized it as "two similarities", while Xu Yuanchong developed the "three similarities" into “three beauties” from the practice of poetry translation. Therefore, Chen Xiying's theory of "three similarities" served as a prelude of literature translation theory in contemporary China.
 
−
====2.1 Spirit likeness by Fulei====
 
−
====2.2 Sublimation by Qian Zhongshu====
 
−
====2.2 Translation aesthetics by Xv Yuanchong====
 
−
 
 
−
===Conclusion===
 
−
 
 
−
===References===
 
  
 +
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1]]
  
 
=2 陈心怡 History of Translation Theories of Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union =
 
=2 陈心怡 History of Translation Theories of Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union =
−
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]]
 
  
−
=3 张扬 An Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop=
+
'''苏联解体后的俄罗斯翻译理论史'''
−
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]]
 
−
===Abstract===
 
  
−
===Key words===
+
陈心怡 Chen Xinyi, Hunan Normal University, China
−
American Translation Theory, American Translation Workshop, Ezra Pound
 
  
−
===Introduction===
+
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2]]
  
−
===1 Development of the American Translation Workshop in American Universities===
+
=An Overview of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop=
−
From the study of the history of western translation and its theory in the United States, translation theory can be said to be an ancient discipline. However, in the modern sense of the word "theory", translation theory can also be described as a brand new discipline. As for "ancient", it can be traced back to Cicero (106-43,B.C.) in ancient Rome; As for "brand new", it was not until 1983 that "translation theory" was listed separately as a branch discipline in the bibliography of the international modern language society. In fact, prior to this, modern translation theory can be traced back to the publication of ''The Summary of Translation Theory'' by A.V. Fedorov from former Soviet Union.
+
'''当代美国翻译理论概述——美国翻译研讨班流派'''
  
−
Since the 1960s, literary translation has attracted more and more public and academic attention in the United States. A large number of foreign literary works had been translated into English, which has promoted the development of translation theory in the United States. The development is marked by the rise of translation workshops in American universities.
+
Zhang Yang, 张扬，Hunan Normal University, China
  
−
====1.1 New Criticism and The Establishment of the Translation Workshop====
+
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3]]
−
In the early 1960s, there was no translation workshop in American universities. In the American university system, translation is not listed as a subject. The United States also has no Literary Translators Association and no special translation publications. In 1964, the director of the Writing Workshop from the University of Iowa Paul Engle initiated the translation workshop. He expanded his writing workshop and invited writers from other countries to participate. He also believes that creative activities have no national boundaries. This year, Engle hired a full-time director for the translation workshop and awarded credits for literary translation. The following year, the Ford Foundation funded the University of Texas at Austin to establish the American Translation Research Center. In the same year, the publication of poetry translation ''Modern Poetry in Translation'' was published around the United States. In 1968, the American Center for Translation Studies published the first issue of its official journal ''Delos'', which aims to study the history of translation and translation aesthetics. From then on, literary translation began to occupy a small place in American culture.
 
−
 
 
−
In the 1970s, literary translation continued to be developed and recognized. Soon, famous institutions of higher education such as Yale, Princeton, Columbia, Texas and the State University of New York set up translation workshops and courses at various levels, and awarded high-level degrees to students engaged in literary translation, translation history and translation theory. The development of literary translation and research has promoted the establishment of professional organizations for translators. In the late 1970s, the American Literary Translators Association was established and published the academic magazine ''Translation''. A school of thought surrounding the translation workshop came into being. In practice, the school does not talk about theory, but in fact, it consciously or unconsciously used Ivor Armstrong Richards'(1893-1979) reading workshop methods. In order to understand the theoretical guiding ideology followed by the American Translation Workshop, we have to talk about the new criticism, especially the literary theory of I.A. Richards, who is one of its representatives.
 
−
 
 
−
The term "New Criticism" usually refers to a literary theory and critical trend of thought, or a method of understanding and interpreting literature. Marked by the works of I.A. Richards and Thomas Stearns Eliot(1888-1965), it began in Britain before the Second World War and later developed in the United States from the 1940s to the 1960s. In 1941, John Crowe Ransom(1888-1974) published the book ''New Criticism''. This monograph summarizes the "new" literary theory and critical thought since the 1920s, from which the term "New Criticism" was established and became popular. The new criticism school is not strictly a school. The writers and theorists known as the new criticism school have many differences in theory, but their common feature is that they oppose the traditional positivist historical and biographical criticism methods and "transfer their interest from poets to poetry". In other words, the new critics advocate paying attention to the text and texture of the works, that is, the words and various rhetorical devices, and making detailed analysis and annotation of literary works through close reading. New criticism has had a great impact on British and American literary criticism. Some people believe that the important contribution of the English world to literary theory almost depends on the new critical theory. Until recently, the new critical theory was still in the field of university teaching in the United States. It also has a great impact on the field of British literature teaching.
 
  
−
One of the founders of the new criticism is I.A. Richards. He is an English literary critic, linguist and poet who tudied at Cambridge University. After that, he successively taught at Cambridge University (1922-1929), Tsinghua University in China (1929-1930) and Harvard University in the United States (1931-1960). He has long been devoted to the study of the relationship between psychology, literature and semantics. His study of literary theory occupies an important position in the history of literary theory in Britain and the United States. His main works include ''Principles of Literary Criticism'' (1924) and ''Science and Poetry'' (1925), which are representative works of new critical theory. In the 1920s, Richards did a famous experiment at Cambridge University. He chose 13 poems without indicating the title and author, and asked the students to express their understanding and experience after reading them. In his book ''Practical Criticism'' (1929), he analyzes the students' errors in understanding and commenting, and tries to find out the causes of the errors. He believes that some errors come from the text itself, while others lie in the readers themselves. Richards' starting point is to separate poetry from the author, readers and society, and students should not have any transcendental influence before reading. He separated the students and the text from the society in order to confirm his view that the text has a "unified" meaning, which can be recognized, and there is also a unified evaluation system. With this system, readers can judge the value of "meaning". This method allows students to read and understand the poem itself.
+
=An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
 +
'''西方翻译理论发展概述'''
  
−
Richards did this for three purposes. 1) In order to provide a new way to collect materials. 2) Provide a new reading method for those who want to experience poetry. 3) Provide a new educational method to analyze and judge what we hear and witness and develop our understanding ability. The analysis and interpretation methods of the new criticism to the works develop along the direction provided by Richards.
+
Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China
  
−
====1.2 Relationships Between the Translation Workshop and the Writing Workshop====
 
−
To find more thoughts about the translation workshop ,we need to find the relationships between the translation workshop and the writing workshop.
 
−
 
−
1)Both workshops provide a new way to collect materials for western culture. Later translation workshops followed the principles of Richards' reading workshop. For example, Jonas Zdanys, director of the translation workshop at the University of Iowa, claims that, like Richards's experiment, he is proud that he does not let students have any method or theoretical guidance in advance. This approach seems to try to get rid of any constraints in order to investigate the translation process "more genuinly". In this way, Richards tries to find some rules and principles of reading comprehension, so as to make communication more accurate and subtle. The only difference between the translation workshop and Richards' reading workshop is that the translation workshop should find not only the law of reading, but also the law of writing. But in fact, in colleges and universities, whether Richards' writing workshop or later translation workshop, students are allowed to form views consistent with the existing aesthetics and form those prejudices that control the literary mechanism.
 
−
 
−
2)The purpose of the two workshops is the same, which is to teach students how to appreciate, understand and interpret literary works. Richards emphasized that one should let himself discover the meaning of poetry. This seems to be quite tolerant and democratic. But there is a humanistic thought hidden in it. On the surface, Richards' method seems to allow multiple interpretations of the text. The processing method of reading is also open, personal, and potential anti existing system factors, but it can also strengthen the traditional interpretation. His purpose is to establish a new educational method so that students can "perfectly" understand the text and achieve a unified and correct response. In his workshop, Richards does not pursue different responses, but strives to obtain unified solutions to communication problems, summarizes some laws and principles, and follows them to enable students to form their own understanding and judgment. The starting point of this mode is that the experience of poetry, which can be conveyed accurately and completely to another person, provided that the person is properly educated. Similarly, you can judge poetry, but only if you are trained. After his training, students can appreciate, understand and judge poetry like him.
 
−
 
−
Jonas Zdanys, head of the Yale translation workshop, also emphasized his appreciation of poetry and student translation. He believes that translation can enable students to further understand poetry, language, aesthetics and interpretation. On the one hand, he hopes that this course can make students interested in theoretical issues in order to explore all aspects of poetry translation theory and practice. On the other hand, he also claimed that in his concluding article on ''The Curriculum Structure of Translation Teaching''(1987), he pointed out that at the end of learning, students have a fuller understanding of the complexity of literature. This shows that he regards translation as a subjective activity and translation as a part of literary understanding and interpretation. This reflects his humanistic view on translation. Zdanys' views on teaching appreciation poetry are quite in tune with the views of the new critics.
 
−
 
−
Frederic Will is the director of the first translation workshop at the University of Iowa. He regards translation as a form of naming, novel creation and cognition. Although he believes that there is no same objective fact, it is possible to understand the essence, because, according to him, there is a "central common core" in human experience and feelings, which can overcome the fuzziness of language and expose the "external reality". He also believes that a literary work has its internal unified meaning, so it is possible to achieve a common understanding. This is entirely the discipline of the new critics.
 
−
 
−
Rainer Schulte is a member of the translation workshop at the University of Texas at Dallas. His view further affirmed the purpose of the translation workshop. In his article ''The Misery and the Splendor of Teaching Translation''(1994), he believes that the main purpose of the translation workshop is not to train translators, but to read and understand literary works. He complained that in the past few decades, in the English Department, students did not read works, but read articles and books commenting on works. In this way, students cannot have direct contact with the literary works themselves. On the contrary, the practice of the translation workshop is to enable students to get back to the work itself through the discussion of the work. "Therefore, the translation workshop reactivated the art of interpretation... and reaffirmed the art of reading." He also said that if readers read from the perspective of the translator, they can put themselves in the works and interpret the works in their own mother tongue through the exploration of language. The translator is to transform the act of reading into the act of writing. Therefore, the translation workshop is a means for students to read literary works and find their meaning.
 
−
 
−
The basic point of understanding and interpreting literature is the exploration of meaning and the view of the essence of language and literature. In this regard, the guiding ideology of the American translation workshop is deeply influenced by the new critics. It can be seen that the purpose of the two workshops is the same, that is, to obtain the author's experience and re-express this experience, that is, to appreciate, understand and interpret poetry. The only difference is that the means of expressing this experience are different. The members of the translation workshop should express themselves in another language. Moreover, literary translation is often regarded as a form of "close reading" in the United States, while some people think it is the most detailed form of "close reading". The purpose of the formal translation workshop and Richards' writing workshop is to perfectly express the experience of this kind of poetry with perfect interpretation or translation. From the perspective of curriculum structure, the teaching method of translation workshop also adopts the method of Richards writing workshop in some aspects.
 
−
 
−
3）The impact of the translation workshop is consistent with that of the new critical trend of thought. New criticism is an anti-traditional method of interpreting literature. In the United States, translation is also regarded as an aspect of the anti existing system and anti-traditional cultural movement at that time. Many contemporary American poets actively translate foreign works as a means to oppose traditional literary norms, domestic and foreign policies against politics, and even against the whole western society. For a time, translation became popular in the United States, with a large number of people and great influence, forming a climax in the history of American translation.
 
−
 
−
=4 曾俊霖 An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories =
 
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]]
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4]]
  
−
===Introduction===
+
=History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union=
  
−
From the overall historical development process, Chinese and western translation theories have an indissoluble bond with aesthetics from the beginning.
+
'''从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史'''
−
However, the development of translation theory in the west is different from that in China. Western translation theory and Chinese translation theory are in very different historical and social conditions, in very different national cultural soil and social ecological environment. They have very different philosophical and aesthetic origins, and provide them with theoretical ideas as the driving force of evolution and development. Therefore, western translation theory and Chinese translation theory must move forward along their respective development tracks. No matter from the diachronic vertical or synchronic section, the dependence between western translation theory and philosophy aesthetics is far less than that of Chinese traditional translation theory.
 
−
We can first analyze it from the historical development. Western translation theory can be roughly divided into four periods: classical translation theory period, ancient translation theory period, modern translation theory period and modern translation theory period.
 
  
−
=== Period of classical translation theory ===
+
张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China
−
This is the initial period of western translation theory. According to the textual research of Rosetta Stone (discovered in 1799) by Western Egyptologists, western translation activities may have started in 2000 BC. Due to the long history and lack of historical evidence, it is impossible to test whether there were translation theories in 1900 before Cicero. There are four main translation theorists in the period of classical translation theory. The first three are Cicero, Horace and Jerome, who is the source of the development history of western translation theory for 2000 years. The western translation theory in the classical period is mainly based on the ancient Greek philosophers, especially the rhetoric and poetics written by Aristotle. These are two classic works that have a deep impact on Western literary aesthetics. Rhetoric expounds oratory by using the methodology of ancient psychology. Its main purpose is to emphasize the power of language infection and the means to achieve the effect of language infection - language style, and points out that only a beautiful article style can have the power of sensing and imparting. Therefore, speakers must abide by the principle that the use of language should strive to be clear and appropriate, and should not be artificial, so as not to damage the momentum of language due to affectation, and the conditions to ensure the momentum of language are accurate and relevant. In addition, Aristotle believes that the momentum of the article is also closely related to the form of writing. Speakers should adopt prose form. They should neither rhyme, nor ignore the rhythm, nor ignore the vividness of the words. No matter what style is adopted, or slow or high, the writing is naturally the first important meaning. Aristotle is the first classical aesthetic master in the west to affirm "the perceptual reality of beauty".
 
  
−
Under the influence of ancient Greek philosophers such as Thales, Plato and Aristotle, Cicero put forward the naturalism and momentum theory of translation, opposed the translation of "word for word" and advocated the translation of "sense for sense". This argument has a profound impact on western translation studies. In philosophy, Cicero was influenced by Plato to maintain "reason", but in translation theory, he opposed to damaging the natural beauty and momentum beauty of the translation with "rigid application of reason". Horace agrees with Cicero's proposition, opposes the standard of "rigid notes of" fidelity "as the translation, opposes the translator becoming a slave translator who only follows the mandate of the original text, and advocates the use of" aesthetic criteria "in translation. It can be seen that what is valuable is the methodological dialectical view of Xi and Huo. Jerome was the first translator to translate the Hebrew Bible into Latin, the translator of the Vulgate, and the successor of Cicero's translation style. Jerome advocates the natural theory of translation and maintains Cicero's legacy. He believes that the translator has the right to break through the formal constraints of the original syntax, but must abide by the correspondence of words at the morpheme level and be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Jerome was a popular translation theorist in the 5th century. Augustine, the fourth representative figure in the classical period, plays a connecting role, that is, from Cicero, Horace and Jerome to Thomas Aquinas (c1225 – 1274ad), the most important scholastic philosopher in the middle ages. As a classical ancient translation theorist, Augustine's first achievement is to inherit and develop Aristotle's semiotic theory. When discussing "symbols", Aristotle aims to develop its rhetorical function. For "free word order languages" such as Latin, the beauty of symbolic form obviously has rhetorical visual value. Augustine expanded Aristotle's symbolic formal framework from the signifier function of the symbol to the signified layer, and pointed out that the "signifier", the human psychological structure, is derived from human's "perception of reality", and the "signifier" is a "sound set" associated with it (the group of vocal sounds); as far as words are concerned, it only represents the sign of the reference, which is arbitrary. It can be seen that Austen's views on symbols pointed out the direction for the modern semiotic theory in the early 20th century. Unfortunately, Austen's research was not valued by the translation theorists until the second half of the middle ages. Augustine's second achievement is that he put forward aesthetic propositions such as "beauty is suitability", "order", "harmony" and "unity". Based on his aesthetics, he advocates the advantages of translation. He pays more attention to the problem of form than Jerome. At the same time, he is persistent in the correspondence of semantics at the level of semantic morpheme or sememe. Augustine is a transitional figure entering the Middle Ages in the history of European aesthetics, as well as in translation theory.
+
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]]
  
−
The period of classical translation theory is a very important period in the history of western translation studies. At that time, the focus of translation circles was to introduce the culture of ancient Greece, which is called "Hellenization" in history. Classical "Greek culture" is as bright as stars, which makes translators and translation theorists energetic and aspire to it. This is different from Chinese classical translation theory (Buddhist Scripture Translation in China). The introduction of Greek culture by the ancient Romans has nothing to do with religion, but involves epic, lyric poetry, philosophy aesthetics, architecture, rhetoric, literature and art (Poetics), drama, history, war history and so on. Its similarity with Chinese classical translation theory is that they all turn to aesthetic ideas and principles. As far as aesthetic ontology is concerned, Western classical aesthetics involves a wide range of categories, and there are a large number of talents. Thales is the first Western philosopher to replace mythological thinking (ignorant thinking) with rational thinking. He advocates the theory that "the most beautiful is the universe" and advocates nature. Pythagoras (c580 – c500bc) is regarded as the discoverer of the golden section and advocates the "beauty of harmony". Herakleitus (c540 – 470bc) put forward the subjective aesthetic view of "looking for oneself", holding that "harmony comes from opposition", which is the germination of Classical Dialectics. Hester also raised the issue of the relativity of beauty, advocated rationality, and advocated thinking, understanding and the control of the mind. Demokritus (C460 – 370bc) is the first natural science philosopher in the West and the first aesthetician to demonstrate sensory experience and image. These four people are the so-called "pre Socrates" in ancient Greece. Together with Socrates, Plato and Aristotle, they form the origin of western academic thought. Of course, it is natural that the sprouting of translation studies is attached to the theory of sages.
+
=A Brief Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——Examplified mainly by Nida=
 +
'''简析当代美国翻译理论——以奈达为例'''
  
 +
尹媛 Yin Yuan, Hunan Normal University, China
  
−
=== Period of ancient translation theory ===
+
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]]
−
The second period of western translation theory, the ancient period, lasted a long time, from the "post Augustine" period at the end of the 5th century to the eve of the European industrial revolution, that is, the late 18th century, covering the whole Middle Ages and about 300 years later (500-1795). Translation theory in this period was accompanied by two great historical achievements: the Renaissance and the religious reform. Therefore, the translation theory in this period is characterized by cultural literary translation and religious (Scripture) translation.
 
−
The prelude to the European Renaissance (which began in the 14th century, peaked in the 15th and 16th centuries and ended in the mid-17th century) is the flourishing of Christian civilization, marked by the so-called "edict of Milan" issued by Constantine I (C280 – 337ad). The imperial edict authorized Christianity to obtain legal status in the Roman Empire. Since then, Christianity has become more and more popular through the influence of the Holy See. The Scriptures have been proofread and translated by Jerome and Augustine. Christian civilization has flourished all over Europe in the early Middle Ages.
 
  
−
At the same time, European social economy also appeared commercialization and handicrafts under the framework of medieval Christian civilization, leading to the emergence of city-state politics and urban landscape, which was the initial light of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, there were many European literary and artistic masters, including Dante (1265 – 1321, the author of Divine Comedy), Boccaccio (1313 – 1375, the author of Decameron), Leonardo da Vinci (1452 – 1519) and raffaelo Sanzio rapheal (1483 – 1520), who awakened European national consciousness and the so-called "all talent ideal"（ The worship and pursuit of "the well-sound personality" had a profound impact. What went hand in hand with the prosperity of literature and art and the development of city-state politics was the popularity of social and political theories and new social trends of thought at that time. Europeans scrambled to study the famous works discoveries on Levy (1531) by Nicolo Machiavelli (1569 – 1527). All this made The "translation industry" has developed unprecedentedly. Translation practice has promoted translation research. At this time, there are different translation theories, and the scope of discussion has gone beyond the vision of classical translation theorists, with a strong color of verification. One of the best, which can be said to be the first Western philosopher to comprehensively attack translation, is Roger Bacon (C1214 – 1292) Bacon was a pioneer in the field of Natural Science in the 13th century. He condemned the translation between Greek, Hebrew and Latin as full of semantic distortion "with the philosophical insight of natural scientists", which reduced the translation to a "hodgepodge of errors and misunderstandings". It was driven by Bacon's call to put things right that the Bible appeared John Wycliffe (c1330 – 1384), a religious reformer, translated the first English translation of the Bible of Wycliffe. His influential translation of the Bible of Wycliffe reflects the spirit of verification of Bacon's later progressive translation theory, which was invaluable in the ignorant middle ages. Wycliffe believed that Christ was the master of mankind and opposed the church's "orthodox doctrine" (the orthodox church doctrine) arbitrarily interpreted the meaning of the Bible, denounced the "papal infallibility", refused to accept the Vatican's arbitrary interpretation of the Scriptures and adhered to the semantics of the original language, thus posing strong doubts and challenges to the translation. In fact, this is a religious reform movement advocated by Martin Luther on the European continent (the reform, C1520 – c1525) has a far-reaching impact on the history of translation in Britain and even Europe. Social criticism and scholars' verification have greatly improved the level of translation. This period is a productive period in the history of European translation.
+
=History of translation theory of France from 20th century to the present=
 +
'''20世纪至今的法国翻译理论史'''
  
−
=== Period of Pre-Modern translation theory  ===
+
李双 Li Shuang, Hunan Normal University, China
−
This is the third period of western translation theory, or "pre modern period", that is, from the religious reform (1517-1648) of wilcliff and Martin Luther in the mid-17th century to the end of the 19th century, the argument began to gradually turn to classical philology and language philosophy. The major historical events during this period were the European Industrial Revolution (1750's – 1830's) and the French Revolution (1788-1799), as well as the germination and evolution of European middle-class economy and its ideology before and after this period. The most important phenomenon affecting translation theory in culture is the development of ancient philology and Hermeneutics in the enlightenment. After the Renaissance, the focus of European language research was still Latin and Greek, which had been in a secondary position. The social and economic development since the enlightenment and the industrial revolution obviously put forward many problems for multilingual communication. The first ones are etymology, semantics and historical comparative linguistics. Especially after wilcliff and Martin Luther, translators increasingly doubt the interpretation of language by the Holy See, the church and scholastic philosophy in the long middle ages, and doubt the "Deviation", misunderstanding and even intentional distortion of "translation" to the "signified". Rousseau's democratic thought had a strong and profound impact on European conservatism.
 
  
−
Understanding this historical background, we can clearly understand why when Taylor put forward the famous "three principles of translation" at the end of the 18th century (1791), he first pointed out that "translation should completely convey the idea of the original text, supplemented by the natural fluency of the expression and style of the translation". Almost at the same time, tattler and George Campbell, who proposed that "the beauty of the translation can be discussed only if we are loyal to the original meaning", marked the end of the era when the western traditional translation theory mainly relied on classical aesthetics and literature and art. On the other hand, although the Chinese School represented by Goethe is fully mature, it can not solve many major problems raised by the spread of Christian civilization and the unprecedented development of translation practice in breadth and depth since the Renaissance and the industrial revolution. Among these problems, the first and most important is the problem of meaning, that is, the so-called "transfer of the truth value of meaning" in translation.
 
−
 
−
Exploring "semantic truth" is the basic proposition of the hermeneutic school. The representative of the hermeneutic school in modern translation theory is Friedrich D. E. Schleiermacher (1768 – 1845). Ancient hermeneutics believed that the task of interpretation was to interpret the "oracle", which originated in ancient Greece and was derived from the name of "Hermes", the messenger who conveyed the gods. Before Schleiermacher, hermeneutics was full of religious mysticism in the middle ages, which believed that people's "understanding" or "not understanding" of text (at that time mainly refers to holy scripts, i.e. the Bible) was "all based on divine will", and both of them were "theological subjective phenomena". Schleiermacher's merit lies in pointing out that the so-called "incomprehension" is actually a "misinterpretation", and "the true meaning of the text lies entirely in what it 'seems' to say. If we want to rediscover the true meaning of the text, we must carefully reconstruct the life reality generated by the historical background or meaning at that time."  Schleiermacher also further put forward the means to obtain the true meaning ("original meaning", i.e. philosophical "Sein"), that is, the so-called "theory of hermeneutic circle" and more than 40 norms of "grammatical interpretation" and "psychological interpretation" (1). There is no doubt about the significance of this to the development of European translation practice. It was driven by the school of hermeneutics that Friedrich Schlegel (1772 – 1879), Samuel T. Coleridge (1772 – 1834), William Morries (1834 – 1896), Thomas Carlyle (1795 – 1881), Matthew Arnold and Dante D. Rossetti (1828 – 1882) were formed European Romanticism (mainly in Germany) and the corresponding wave of critical realism (mainly in Britain) as a response to the French Revolution. During this period, the mainstream of the translation theory forum was the Chinese school with literary masters as the backbone and the hermeneutic school that later kept pace with it. There is no doubt that this is one of the important development periods in the history of European translation.
 
−
 
−
=== Period of Modern translation theory ===
 
−
The fourth period is The Modern Period. This period can actually be divided into two stages. The first stage is from the end of the 19th century to the 1950s. It can also be called the "Pre-Modern Linguistic Period". Parallel to it is The Pre-Modern Linguistic Period. The Swiss linguist Saussure The study of modern linguistics was the starting point (1891), which marked the publication of the first scientific linguistics book "Cours de Linguistique Generale" (Cours de Linguistique Generale, 1916). The second stage started from the 1960s to the present, which can also be said to be the period of contemporary translation theory. During this period, modern science and technology developed rapidly. Natural sciences and social sciences were directly or indirectly driven by The Systems Theory, Control Theory or Cybernetics, and Information Theory. Advance. Modern linguistics has developed from structuralism as the mainstream to a situation where there are many new disciplines and schools. Among them, the French functional linguistics, the London school, the transformational generative grammar, sociolinguistics, and modern stylistics ( Functional stylistics), pragmatics, psycholinguistics and other emerging disciplines and schools of applied linguistics.
 
−
 
−
In the period of modern translation theory, the development of language science is very closely related to Western translation theory. Roman Jacobson (Roman Jacobson, 1896–1982), a translation theorist at the early stage of modern translation theory, is one of the founders of the Prague School and a well-known phonetician. Obviously, Jacobson's discourse on translated poems is based on phoneme analysis. Two prominent translation theorists in the 1950s, Jean Paul Vinay and Jean Darbenet, mainly relied on scientific linguistics to discuss translation rhetoric from the perspectives of functional stylistics and contrastive linguistics. After entering the 1960s, JC Catford clearly quoted the founder of the London School Firth (JR Firth, 1890–1960) and Firth's successor MAK Halliday's basic linguistic theories to solve the bilingual conversion. problem. E. Nida and G. Mounin mainly analyze the translation process from the perspective of structural linguistics. Among them, Nida's research results are the most eye-catching. During the 1970s and 1980s, Nida began to notice the weakness of linguistics that emphasized formal transformation and insufficient semantic research. Around the issue of "meaning" and cultural issues, many more books came out, and proposed "dynamic equivalence" (dynamic equivalence). , 1984), emphasizing the meaning view of social semiotics. In the second half of the 20th century, Western postmodern thoughts spread throughout Europe and the United States. Deconstructionism, in particular, has the deepest influence on cultural thoughts and academic thoughts. Western translation theories have also turned to "postmodernism" (especially comparative literary theory) to absorb theoretical ideas, and the great limitations of "postmodernism" have also emerged. Contemporary Western translation theory can be said to have entered a comprehensive use of various disciplines of linguistics, postmodern literary theory, semiotics, rhetoric, philosophy of language (including semantics), logic, aesthetics and other social sciences, as well as information theory, computer science, etc. The "comprehensive development period of translation theories" is a period of full bloom to solve translation problems. It seems that this is also the general trend of Western translation theory in the 21st century.
 
−
 
−
=5 张怡然 History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union=
 
−
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5]]
 
−
 
−
=6 殷美达=
 
−
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6]]
 
−
 
−
=7 尹媛 A Brief Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——Examplified mainly by Nida=
 
−
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8]]
 
−
 
−
=9 李双 History of translation theory of France from 20th century to the present=
 
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]]
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9]]
  
−
===Abstract===
+
=French Translation Theories from 16th Century to 18th Century =
−
Translation activities have a long history in France and its theories occupy an important position in the West. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the emancipation of the mind, the progress of science and technology and the transformation of society have reinvigorated the study of French translation theory and entered its heyday. This paper first summarizes the development of French translation studies from the 20th century to the present, then discusses the main translation theories of this period from the perspectives of translation and interpretation, and analyzes the influence of the society and other disciplines on the formation of the theories. Finally, it aims to have a clearer and comprehensive understanding of the development of contemporary French translation theories.
 
  
−
===Key word===
+
'''十六世纪至十八世纪法国翻译理论'''
−
history of translation theories, France, contemporary
 
−
===Introduction===
 
−
Language is one of the symbols of human civilization and an important feature of every nation. Language exchange is accompanied by the beginning of translation activities, which has a long history. Translation theory that comes from practices guides and refines translation activities in turn. As a big western country, France has made a mark in its history both in terms of politics and economy and in terms of culture and ideology. Its translation activities were initially concentrated in the Latin works at the end of the Middle Age, but there were no articles or works devoted to translation theory at this time. With the rise, development and gradual maturity of translation, more and more experts and scholars began to study systematically the translation and put forward their own theoretical propositions. The 20th century has been the heyday of French translation theory. The characteristics of French translation in this period are as follows: the practice of translation was unprecedented prosperous, covering politics, economy, military affairs, culture, literature and other aspects. The study of translation theory was unprecedented, and theorists who had great influence on the history of translation in the world have emerged. It was in the 1970s that ‘translatology’ began to formally exist as an independent discipline. In addition to the traditional study of theories focusing on traslation, France has made great achievements in the field of interpretation theory. The International Association of Interpreters is based in Paris.
 
−
The main achievement of Chinese researches on French translation theory is ''The Contemporary French Translation Theory'' compiled by Xu Jun and Yuan Xiaoyi, which systematically reviews the theories of translators in the second half of the 20th century, led by Georges Mounin, and makes important comments on various translation schools. Yang Jiangang from Wuhan University also sorts out the three stages of French translation studies in the 20th century and briefly introduces several major translators and their theories in the article ''French Translation Theory''.
 
−
===1.Development of Translation studies in France from the 20th century to the present===
 
  
−
===2.Principle theories of written translation===
+
杨堃 Yang Kun,Hunan Normal University,China.
−
====2.1Philological school====
 
−
====2.2Linguistic school====
 
−
====2.3Poetic theory====
 
−
====2.4Cultural school====
 
−
===3.Principle theory of interpretation===
 
−
===Conlusion===
 
−
===References===
 
  
−
=10 杨堃 French Translation Theories From 16th Century to 18th Century =
 
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]]
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10]]
  
−
=== Abstract ===
+
=A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories of Ancient Rome=
−
French translation theory plays an important role in western translation theory.However, due to various reasons, compared with translation theories in the United States and The United Kingdom, there are very few studies on French translation theories in China, and the only studies are mainly limited to some famous French translators.This paper gives a brief overview of the development of French translation theory from three aspects: French Renaissance translation theory and Modern French translation theory, combining with some famous French translators and their theories.
 
−
 
 
−
=== Key words ===
 
−
French Translation Theory;The Renaissance;Modern French Translation Theory
 
−
 
 
−
=== Introduction ===
 
−
The history of western translation originated in the third century BC. The earliest translation is the Seventy Greek texts of the Old Testament, the Bible, translated by seventy-two Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt.But strictly speaking, the first translation in the West was a Latin translation of The Greek Homer's epic Odyssey.Therefore, western translation activities have been going on for more than two thousand years.Since the reform and opening up, China has made great achievements in the study of western translation theories, but the main achievements are English and American translation theories, and there is not much research on the translation theories of France, Germany and other "small language" countries.As Professor Xu Jun said, "Due to various reasons, we have not made a systematic introduction to the translation studies of many countries, let alone an in-depth study. For example, we have little understanding of the translation studies of France."However, it is undeniable that these countries have also made great achievements in translation studies, such as Etienne Dore, Charles Barth, George Munan and the Interpretive School.Therefore, a brief introduction to French translation theory will help us better understand the history of French translation and the history of western translation theory, and also contribute to the in-depth and development of translation theory research in China.The following will be discussed from the Renaissance and modern periods.
 
−
 
 
−
=== 1.Translation theories of the Renaissance ===
 
−
The Renaissance movement in Europe from the 14th century to the 16th century was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation as well as a great development in the history of western translation.Especially in the 16th century and the following century when the Renaissance movement was widely carried out in Western Europe, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak.Translation activities went deep into the fields of ideology, politics, philosophy, literature and other fields, involving the major works of classicism, and produced a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent works in translation.The translation of this period has three characteristics: first, the focus of translation from religious works to classical literature works;Second, the national consciousness of translators of various countries has been strengthened, and they have shifted from mechanically imitating Latin to attaching importance to the unique style of national languages.Third, the translation of national languages in Western Europe has developed in parallel and independently.During this period, French translators are most famous for Etienne Dolet and Jacques Amyot.
 
−
 
 
−
====（1）Etienne Dolet====
 
−
Etienne Dolet (1509-1546) established himself as a translator, humanist and linguist in the history of French translation.He was born in 1509 in Orleans, France, studied in Paris, travelled to Italy and returned home at the age of 21.In the field of French translation, he is honored as "the father of French translation theory" and "the first one who put forward translation theory systematically in the modern History of Europe".Dolet returned to France at a time when the Renaissance was sweeping Western Europe and he actively participated in the humanist movement.During this period, the study of Greek and Latin flourished in the country, and ancient Greek and Latin writers were respected and valued.Translation activities became more frequent and the focus of translation shifted from religious works to classical literature works. Erasmus,a contemporary Dutch translator, exerted a certain influence on the formation of Dolet's translation thoughts, such as his emphasis on language and style.At the same time, Dolet was also deeply influenced by his contemporary German translator Martin Luther, who stressed that the translation should use the language with its own characteristics so that the general public can accept it.When it comes to specific translation skills, they all agree that the desired effect can be achieved by adjusting the word order.
 
−
Dolet's translation principles were his translation thoughts which were put forward in his article How to Translate Well from One Language to Another in 1540. He listed the following basic principles of translation:
 
−
a.The translator must understand perfectly the content and intention of the author whom he is translating;
 
−
b.The translator should have a perfect knowledge of the language from which he is translating and equally excellent knowledge of the language into which he is translating;
 
−
c.The translator should avoid the tendency to translate word for word, for to do so is to destroy the meaning of the original and to ruin the beauty of the expression;
 
−
d.The translator should employ the  forms of speech in common sense;
 
−
e.Through his choice and order of words the translator should produce a total overall effect with appropriate “tone”.
 
−
The first principle is aimed at the meaning of faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental principle that can not be ignored in translation.The second principle is the language requirement for the translator. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both languages. In principle, there is no primary or secondary distinction between the two languages, and the translator should be a language expert who is good at reading and writing in the target language.The third principle shows that Dolet did not advocate literal translation or word-by-word dead translation, but advocated free translation and live translation.In the fourth principle, Dolet, like all humanists, stressed the importance of using national languages and idioms to serve the general audience so that the translation can be understood by the common people.The last principle refers to the style, which requires the translation to be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. The translation itself must be natural, smooth and harmonious, so as to give readers "aesthetic enjoyment".
 
−
Dolet's translation theory is quite modern in its principles.It involves the basic principles and problems of translation put forward by the later theorists.Gallix, a famous contemporary French translator, believes that Dolet's principle is "concise and clear, he was the first person who really put forward the theory of translation art in Europe" (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71).Ballard, another famous French translation theorist, believes that Dolet's translation propositions constitute the embryonic form of French translation theories, and his principles are of universal significance (Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi, 1998:228).
 
−
However, due to the brevity of Dolet's articles, he did not elaborate on the principles after they were put forward, and he did not write or have time to write more similar works or papers to reiterate his views, so he did not form a school of theory, and did not have a great influence at that time.
 
−
 
 
−
====（2）Jacques Amyot====
 
−
Jacques Amyot (1513-1593) was another outstanding French translator of the Renaissance.Born into a small merchant family, Amyot studied ancient Greek and Latin languages and literature at the French School.He was appointed professor at Bourges University on the royal recommendation and served as tutor to two princes.His later years were bleak because of the religious wars.Amyot's achievements are mainly the translation of several ancient Greek and Roman literary classics, but because of the great influence of the translation and the pursuit of "trying to be comparable with the original work" in the translation of the lofty ambition, he is generally regarded as a writer in the history of literature.
 
−
Amyot's first translation, Heliodorus's novel, ''Theagnes and Calicerea (Aethiopica)'', was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus's seven-volume ''History Series (Bibliotheca Historica)'', Longos's pastoral novel ''Daphnis and Heloa'' in 1559, Plutarch's ''Moral Treatises (Moralia)'' in 1572,Before that, he also translated Plutarch's ''The Lines of The Noble Grecians and Romans (Vies des hommes illustrus )'' in 1559, which is Amyot's most famous work.
 
−
In the process of translating ''The Lines of The Noble Grecians and Romans'', Amyot was always supported by the king and had favorable conditions.In 1542, When Francois I assigned him the task of translation, he chose to translate ''The Noble''. Undoubtedly, this choice played an important role in the success of the subsequent translation.In order to ensure the accuracy of the content and clarify the ambiguous areas in the translation, he went to Venice and Rome to collect and study the manuscripts of ancient books, and compared various versions.It is not a very long book, but it took 17 years to translate from the time it was commissioned in 1542 to its publication in 1559. His translation was a success, providing material for contemporary and later writers in France and other western European countries, such as Racine and Shakespeare.Montaigne, a famous contemporary French writer, once spoke highly of Amyot's achievements, believing that without his translation, no French would have known how to write. He said, "If this book had not pulled us out of the mire, we ignorant people would have been over."
 
−
Amyot's principles in translation are :
 
−
a.The translator must understand the original text thoroughly and work hard on the transfer of the content;
 
−
b.The translation must be simple and natural, without embellishment.
 
−
In his opinion, "the task of a competent translator is not only to faithfully restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect to some extent the mood of his style."It can be seen that he emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation.Under the guidance of this principle, he fused the language of the people and the language of scholars into one furnace, and paid attention to the simple beauty of the text, so that the style of the translation is independent.As a result, some people commented that Amyot adopted creative free translation, and ''The Noble'' became Amyot's ''The Noble'', rather than someone else's ''The Noble''.In his translation, he borrowed from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on, thus greatly enriching the French vocabulary.At that time, the French language was still in a state of confusion, the country has not a unified French language.The famous Seven-Star Poetry Society (La Pléiade) and other humanists made great efforts to unify the French national language. But there is no doubt that Amyot also made an indelible contribution to the purity and standardization of French through his translation.The unique literary style of the translation later became the object of imitation by Montaigne and other writers at the end of the 16th century. It also played a great role in the form of classical French prose and in improving the literary literacy of readers.
 
−
 
 
−
=== 2.Translation theories during 17th and 18th century ===
 
−
In the 17th century, classicism occupied the mainstream position of French literature, and writers took ancient Greece and Rome as models in their writing practice and theory.This trend of thought not only swept the field of literary creation, but also swept the field of translation.Influenced by it, translators engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale.However, compared with the Renaissance period, the background of translation at this time has changed significantly.
 
−
At that time, France was under the rule of Louis XIV, with strong national strength, development of production and economic prosperity. The number of educated people kept increasing, and more and more people had the requirement of reading, writing and translation, which created favorable conditions for the development of translation activities.At the same time, France became the ideological center of Europe, and The status of French as a national language continued to rise, even on a par with Latin, a religious and cultural language, and its influence radiated throughout Europe.The strong cultural confidence of the French made the French literary creation model gradually replace the ancient Greek and Roman model.In addition, the famous "struggle between ancient and modern" in the history of literature divided the French translation circle into two schools: presentism who admires free translation;and historicism who advocates accurate translation, but free translation dominates.In the 18th century, Charles Batteux made the greatest contribution to the study of translation theory.
 
−
 
 
−
====（1）Perrot d'Ablancourt====
 
−
In the 17th and 18th centuries, France was in vogue for "rewriting the original work according to the aesthetic requirements of that period and the standards of classicism", even at the expense of "damaging the characteristics of the original work" (Andrei Fedorov,1968:48), which was called "les belles infideles" by the translation critic Gilles Ménage at that time.He used this metaphor when he was commenting on the translator Perrot d'Ablancourt. He said that when d'Ablancourt's translation was published, "many people complained that it was unfaithful," and that "it reminded me of a woman whom I had been very fond of in Tours, who was beautiful but unfaithful" and "whom I called 'la belle infidele'" (Gilles Ménage,1715:186).Since then, "les belles infideles" has become a synonym for "beautiful and unfaithful translation", and has become a weapon used by translators and critics who advocate literal translation to attack free translation.
 
−
Perrot d'Ablancourt was a famous French translator of the 17th century. He was famous for his erudition, his knowledge of Latin, and his succinct and vigorous translation, which was neither crude nor difficult to understand.In terms of methodology, he was the general representative of liberal translation, and the debate between free translation and accurate translation in France in the 17th century was mainly based on his translation principles and methods.
 
−
D'Ablancourt was born in 1606.After he finished school, he became a lawyer.Instead, he traveled to Holland (1634-1635) and England (1636).After returning to France, he established close contacts with French scholars such as The first permanent secretary general of the French Academy.In 1637, on the recommendation of Valentin Conrart, he translated Felix Marcus Minucius' Octavius, and was elected a member of the Academy of France that year.From then on, d’Abelancourt devoted himself to translation and became "the translator most admired by the French" for the next thirty years.
 
−
D 'Abelancourt's career as a translator can be roughly divided into three stages: the first stage (1636-1638), mainly translated some speeches, for example, in addition to Felix Marcus Minucius' Octavius, he also translated Cicero's Eight Speeches.In the second stage (1639-1651), he spent thirteen years working on the translation of historical works, including Publius Cornelius Tacitus' "Collected Works", Xenophon's "Long March", Gaius Julius Caesar's "Gaul Wars", etc.The third stage (1652-1664) mainly translated books on ethics, such as The Collected Works of Lucian and Thucydides.In addition to the authors mentioned above, d’Abelancourt translated a number of ancient Greek and Roman writers, including Arrian, Frontinus, Homer, Plutarch, Polyaenus, etc., during a career of nearly thirty years.
 
−
D’Abelancourt wrote a total of eight prefaces to his translated works, explaining and defending the principles and methods of translation, from which we can see his thoughts on translation.
 
−
In his preface to the translation of Tacitus's The Annals (1640), he expressed three views: first, differences between the original language and the target language lead to differences between the original and the translation;Secondly, The Annals is vague in expression, loose in structure, lacking in order and inconsistent, which reflects the author's poor writing style.Thirdly, in order to maintain the overall style and effect of the work, the translator has the right to make free treatment of the original work: "What I translate is not a text, but a work, and each part of the work must constitute a whole."
 
−
In 1654, d’Abelancourt translated Lucian's True History.It was this translation that gave rise to Ménage's comment about the "les belles infideles" and gave the prevailing liberal translation method its permanent name. D’Abelancourt's introduction to the translation clearly answers two criticisms: the author's unrestrained style and the translator's own translation methods.In response to the first criticism, d’Ablancourt points out that translators should delete the original text if necessary because of the original text.He defended himself by saying, "I am not to blame, and it is the dirtiest sentences that I cut out, the overly indulgent passages that soften ..."(see preface to the book).For a second attack, d’Ablancourt spent a lot of ink, and expounds the translator can't according to the original, or at least need to change the original several circumstances, namely: when the content of language form in category (e.g., word games), when the original content against time code of ethics, when author use outdated or reference trite text rhetoric means.
 
−
D’Ablancourt translation thoughts, therefore, - the core is the core of "les belles infideles " - is to please readers: "take an original, seize the effect, regardless of the original style, as long as the translation be literature and readability, make contemporary readers love, popular, is desperate to add or delete any content, can modify the modification, can play to play,Without any regard for the accuracy of the translation." He had done to the original all cuts, change, the objective is to make it more beautiful and elegant, clear and easy to read, more in line with the taste of the age: "I don't always focus on the author's expression and ideological content, but according to the author wants to achieve, to deal with the original, and the way to make the translation conform to our age.Different periods require not only different expressions of language, but also different ideas [...] (preface to True History).
 
−
D’Abelancourt's beautiful and unfaithful translation was praised by many.The famous orator and translator Patru said: "D’Abelancourt initiated the translation method which is admired by all the masters of our time, he proposed the true goal of a good translator....""His French style is more elegant than the Latin style."Likewise, d’Ablancourt's translation principles have attracted many followers.Under his influence, many translators blindly pursued the beauty of the translation, made arbitrary changes to the original work, and covered the plain and simple classical works with elegant and gorgeous coat.In the 17th century, "Les belles infideles" became the mainstream concept of French translation, and its influence even crossed the border and spread to other European countries.
 
  
−
====（2）Charles Batteuxt====
+
'''古罗马翻译理论
−
Charles Batteux (1713-1780) made the greatest contribution to the study of translation theory in France in the 18th century.He was a professor of philosophy at the Royal Academy of France and one of the most influential figures in literary theory and translation theory in France and throughout Europe in the 18th century.He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated Aristotle, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de litterature and Cours de belles-lettres,etc.Among them, Cours de belles-lettres was translated into English less than 10 years after its publication in 1750, and Principes de litterature is a work of great influence in the field of translation.Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in this book. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of western translation theories in the 18th century.
+
'''
−
Principes de littérature has six parts and the fifth part deals with translation problems.Batteux's theory obviously has the characteristics of philosopher, linguist and translation.In other words, Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation.For example, one of the main points of his discussion is the treatment of word order in translation.He believed that there is a natural word order prevailing in language, and the "natural word order" depends on "human characteristics".The universal element of language is not grammar, but word order, and grammatical structure is dominated by sentence order.Therefore, if there is a contradiction, grammatical structure should give way to sentence order.He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation:
 
−
a.The order in which we place the things stated in the original, whether in fact or inference, cannot be altered; for the order of things is the same in all languages, and depends not on the personalities of different nations but on the generalities of men.
 
−
b.The sequence of ideas in the original text should also be preserved.There must be a reason why the original author uses one way of expression rather than another, so the translator should not easily destroy it.
 
−
c.No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, because a sentence is a thought, and the different elements in the sentence are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony.If we mix up the phrases in a sentence, or break them up, we may get the idea of the original, but not the coherence of the original ideas.
 
−
d.All junctions in the original text should be retained.It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together.The translator shall not change their meaning or their position, and shall delete conjunctions only when they may affect the understanding or hinder the sorting out of the phrase relationship in the sentence.
 
−
e.All adverbs should be placed next to the verb, either before or after it, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence.
 
−
f.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences.The symmetry of the expression form can be expressed as the symmetry of sound, the symmetry of the number of syllables, the symmetry of the boundary or length of words, the symmetry of the arrangement of sentence elements, etc., and the symmetry of the original text must be maintained, which is what the translation must strive to achieve.
 
−
g.Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance.Shorter pages may make the translation difficult to understand, while longer pages may dull its luster.
 
−
h.The figures of speech and the forms of speech by which thoughts are expressed must be preserved in translation, for thoughts are the same in all human brains: they can carry everywhere in the same order, in the same arrangement, in the same posture.Because of this, we can translate questioning, duality and so on.As for rhetorical devices and forms of expression, such as metaphor, repetition, and cadence of nouns and verbs, it must be noted that different languages differ: in general, equivalents can be used to express them.If the figurative usage in the original text cannot be translatable, or cannot be replaced by an equivalent, then we must turn to the natural form of expression and convert the original figurative into other forms with similar meanings, so that the translated sentences will not lose the charm of the original text on the whole.
 
−
i.We must use proverbs to translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs.Proverbs are translatable in almost all cases because they involve things that people use repeatedly in communication occasions, and many proverbs are common among different nations, even if they are not the same in the form of language expression, at least in terms of meaning.
 
−
j.Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a comment.However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation.For this deficiency, the problem lies either in the original language or in the target language.
 
−
k.For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to speak intelligibly;Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation;Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation.
 
−
l.Under the condition that the essence of the original text remains unchanged, it can be expressed in different forms, can be combined or decomposed by the words used to express it, can be expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs.We should let the translator use the scales, let him put the form of expression on either side of the scale and balance the scales in every way.The translator can make changes, but only if he keeps the original thought the same essence, the same life.The translator is only a traveler, sometimes exchanging a piece of gold for a few pieces of silver, sometimes exchanging a few pieces of silver for a piece of gold.
 
−
To sum up, Batteux' basic idea of translation is: translation is a process of expressing things, ideas, words and styles in one language in another;In this process, the translator shall not add or subtract anything from the original text or change the meaning of the original text.Ideologically, the translation should keep the color, degree and nuance of the original.In style, the translation should keep the passion, humor and anger of the original;In terms of diction, the translation should be natural, vivid and persuasive, and rich, beautiful and elegant words and phrases should be selected.The original author is the absolute master of thoughts and words, and is free to write according to his own talents and the materials he has gathered.Material gave him a basis for his imagination, which he could accept or reject at will;If one idea or expression does not suit him, he can find another.But the translator is not the master but the "servant" of the original author, who must follow the original author everywhere and reflect the original author's thoughts and style faithfully.Otherwise, the translator ceases to be a translator and becomes an author.Obviously, this view is consistent with the thought of Tande in the 17th century, which can be regarded as the inheritance and development of Batteux' previous thoughts.
 
−
Batteux not only put forward the theory, but also put it into practice, which is fully reflected in his translation of Aristotle's Poetics.The translation has always retained the original word order, and the sentence length is close to the original, achieving formal equivalence.Batteux's theory of valuing form over content is biased, but its grammatical principles have exerted a certain influence on the translation circles of not only France but also other western European countries.
 
  
−
=== Conclusion ===
+
Liu Yunxin,刘运心, Hunan Normal University, China
  
−
=== References ===
 
−
 
−
=11 刘运心= History of Translation Theories in Ancient Rome=
 
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]]
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11]]
−
===11.1 Abstract===
 
−
===11.2 Introduction===
 
−
George Steiner, in After Babel, divides the history of translation practices and theories into four periods. The first starts from the statements of Cicero and Horace on translation up to the publication of Alexander Fraser Tytler’s Essay on the Principles of Translation in 1791. The translation activities of this period can be further divided into three stages: the translation of ancient Greek classics into Roman; Translation of the Bible in the Middle Ages and inter-translation of Arabic and Greco-Roman works; translation of the Bible and translation of secular literature into ethic languages. Those translation activities correspond with the philosophical trends successively emerged in the timeline, including the natural culture of ancient Greece and Rome, medieval Christian culture, humanism of Renaissance and the Enlightenment. (Meng, )
 
  
−
The translation theories produced in the first stage are called classical theories of translation which are closely related to the translation practices of translating Greek classics into Roman. From Steiner’s point of view, the translation in Ancient Rome marked the beginning of translation practices and theories and exerted considerable impact on the successive generations of translators. And Steiner was not the only one who recognized the important role that translation in Ancient Rome has taken in history of translation theories. Eric Jacobsen claims rather that translation is a Roman invention.
+
=The Humanistic Trend in Western Translation Theory from the 14th to the 19th Century=
 +
14世纪至19世纪西方翻译理论中的人文主义思潮'''
  
−
The translation practice reached its very first climax in translation history during the end of 4th Century B.C. when the Roman Empire replace the Greece as the country with the most powerful economic and military force in the Mediterranean region. However, the Greek culture with abundant legacy of predecessors still exerts great attraction to the Romans. Many roman writers flung themselves into the translation of Greek literature and inherit the great transition of Greek culture. The translation theories of this time, which all stemmed directly from practical work of translating mainly discuss the standard and techniques of translation in order to provide better guidance to the translation practice in return. The very first translation theory formulated by Cicero stemmed from his translation practices of Greek classics.
+
Wei Zhaoyan 魏兆妍 Hunan Normal University, China 202120081528
  
−
In the late period of Ancient Rome (around 3rd to 4th century A.C.), with the decline of literature creation in Rome, literary translation gradually retrogressed. In the aim of winning over the people and save the country from collapse, the ruling class resorted to the Christianity. Under such circumstances, religious translation especially translation of Bible gained great importance during this period. This is said to be the second translation climax in western translation history. (Tan 24) The prosperous religious translation practices gave rise to the translation theories. The most influential figure of this time is St. Jerome. Both as a translator and translation theorist, he proposed feasible translation principles and strategies and applied when translating.
 
−
 
−
In conclusion, the translation theories first appeared in ancient Rome all shared an empirical focus and primarily unsystematic. Those theories of early theorist exerted considerable impact on the successive generations of translators.
 
−
 
−
===11.3 Cultural and Historical Background===
 
−
The 5th century BC, the Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, As a result of great growth in productivity and the need for better development, the Roman Republic began to expand outward. After many wars, Rome conquered much of the Mediterranean and the Balkans areas and thus established its political, economic, and military dominance. The definitive Roman occupation of the Greek world was established after the Battle of Actium (31 BC), and afterwards conquered Alexandria (30 BC), the last great city of Hellenistic Greece.  The Roman era of Greek history continued with Emperor Constantine the Great's adoption of Byzantium as Nova Roma, the capital city of the Roman Empire.
 
−
 
−
From 1400 BC to 1200 BC, Greek culture had reached its peak especially in literature, philosophy, architecture, aesthetics, science and art. By the 4th century BC, Greece was still the center of culture and philosophy. Although after the conquest on Greece Rome served as the political and economic center in Mediterranean, the splendid heritage of Greek culture outshone those of Rome. Since the 3rd century BC, namely the heyday of the republic, the Romans began to absorb nutrition from the Greek culture through translating and imitating Greek classics.Romans’ attitudes towards Greek culture witnessed great changes as a result of its military conquest
 
−
(to be continued...）
 
−
 
−
===11.4 Translation theories===
 
−
====11.4.1 Translation Theories Stemmed from Translation Practices of Greek Classics====
 
−
=====11.4.1.1 Marcus Tullius Cicero=====
 
−
=====11.4.1.2 Quintus Horatius Flaccus=====
 
−
 
−
====11.4.2 Translation Theories Originated from Practices of Bible Translation====
 
−
=====11.4.2.1 St. Jerome=====
 
−
===11.5 Influences on Later Translation Theories===
 
−
===11.6 Conclusion===
 
−
===11.7 References===
 
−
 
−
=12 魏兆妍 The Humanistic Trend in Western Translation Theory from the 14th to the 19th Century=
 
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]]
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12]]
  
−
===Abstract===
+
=History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
−
From the 14th century, Europe began to enter the Renaissance, and the Christian world view gradually degenerated with the emergence of individual centered humanism. People who submitted to God were regarded as rational and unique individuals, emphasizing their creative potential and giving full play to their talents. With the invention of printing in the 15th century, education and schools began to be open to the public. Reading translated works from different countries was no longer a noble enjoyment. Words and information were transmitted in all directions and more quickly through translation. Translation was called the forerunner of the Renaissance. It can be said that without translation, there would be no European Renaissance and humanistic thought. In Europe, the writers, thinkers and scholars in this period were also translators who knew several languages, translation and creation were closely linked. This paper will focus on the development of humanism in western translation theory from the 14th to the 19th century, and discuss the representative figures and their translation ideas in this period.
+
苏联时期翻译理论史
−
 
 
−
===Key words===
 
−
Western translation theory, Humanism trend, Poetics of translation
 
−
 
 
−
===1. Introduction===
 
−
From the 14th century, Europe began to enter the Renaissance. Dante, the last poet in the middle ages, completed ''The Divine Comedy'' in 1321. In Dante's mind, all human life experience, including life and death, must be explained by Christian faith in order to show its meaning and significance. This Christian worldview gradually degenerated with the emergence of individualism-centered humanism. All beings who submit to God are regarded as rational, unique and creative individuals. In the past years, translators were servants attached to God. Now they have shifted from God to focusing on the translator. Personal development has become the goal and value of life. Although humanist thinkers, writers and translators still maintain the Christian faith, they put more emphasis on personal creative potential and give full play to people's strengths. The focus of translation activities in this period also shifted from the classics of the Christian Church to the translation of more secular humanistic works.
 
−
   
 
−
With the invention of printing in the 15th century, education and schools began to be open to the public. Reading translated works from different countries is no longer a noble enjoyment. Through the wings of translation, words and information are transmitted in all directions and more quickly. For example, Marco Polo (1254-1324) told the story of his travels in China, which spread all over the European continent through printed words. The invention of printing not only brought about a cultural revolution, but also a sharp increase in the number of translations. With the emergence of new disciplines, great changes have taken place in the function of translation. Translation is known as the forerunner of the Renaissance. It can be said that without translation, there would be no European Renaissance and humanistic thought. Take the role of translation in English literature for example: "Translation played a great role in the British Renaissance: first, as a pioneer, it was countless translated works that first caused the mental climate of humanism. Second, translation was still active in the era of the restoration of the king's government, but attention has turned to French works. In the intervening years, that is, in the half century from 1558 to 1603 when Queen Elizabeth was in office, translation activities were more frequent, and famous translations also appeared the most frequently, which constituted a translation climax in the whole history of English literature. " （王佐良、何其莘。英国文艺复兴时期文学史。北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1996年，第72页）In the Queen Elizabeth era, translation reached an unprecedented prosperity, and good translations of famous works continued to emerge. In the following 17th to 18th centuries, neoclassical literary translation surpassed the previous stage. Translation is particularly important to the development of modern English language, literature and culture.
 
−
 
 
−
In Europe, the writers, thinkers and scholars in this period were translators who knew several languages, translation and creation were closely linked. A large number of scholars and poets have expressed their opinions on translation. From the 14th to the 16th century, the most representative was Dante's "untranslatability of literature" in Italy (1265-1321); Erasmus of the Netherlands (1466 - 1536) relied on the translator's language knowledge in the translation of ''The Bible''; The translation of German Luther (1482 - 1546) must adopt the language of the people; The translators in Dore’s mind (1509-1546) in France must understand the original content, be proficient in two languages, avoid word for word translation, adopt popular form and pay attention to the "five translation principles" of beautiful style; Poetry translation in English Chapman's(1559-1634)  mind can not be stiff translation, and the poetry translation method of "rebuilding a new image" can be used.
 
−
   
 
−
From the 17th to the 19th century, the representative figures were as follows. Abranco of France: the translation method of “the beautiful unfaithful ones” which emphasized literariness and readability; Bartow (1731-1780) : accurate translation view of "the author is the master and the translator is the servant"; Dryden (1747-1841) of England: three translation principles of "literal translation, free translation and imitation translation"; Tytler (1747-1814): three translation principles of "the translation must completely reproduce the thought of the original work: the style and tone of the translation must be consistent with the characteristics of the original; the translation must be as smooth as the original." ; Humanistic thinker Herder (1744-1830) of German Romanticism: made a pioneering thinking on the language, nationality and the characteristics of relativism in translation. Goethe (1749-1832) of German: called the translator as "the prophet of the people"; Humboldt (1767-1835): expressed the views on translatability and untranslatability which had a great impact on the 20th century. The foreignization translation method of Schleiermacher (1768-1834) in the later stage has influenced the deconstructive translation theory of the 20th century. For the above representative figures and different translation views, due to the limitation of the length of the article, this paper will discuss some of the representatives according to the development sequence of the history of translation theory.
 
−
 
 
−
===2. The "Rebels" Who Change the Traditional Concept of Translation===
 
−
Since Jerome, the debate between literal translation and free translation has begun in western translation. The dispute between literal translation and free translation actually involves the question of whether translation should be equivalent to the original text, that is, faithfulness, which is also a main line running through western translation theory for more than 2000 years. Since the Renaissance, people have become more and more aware of their own subjectivity, but religious influence is everywhere all the time. As a translator, if he has any unconventional translation behavior, he may be persecuted by spirit and body, even lead to death. A history of western translation can be said to be written in the life and blood of translators to a certain extent.
 
−
 
 
−
Between 1536 and 1546, three translators died. Two of them were caused by translation work. They were French translation theorist Dolet, British translator Wycliffe as well as religious reformer and translator Martin Luther.
 
−
====2.1 Etiene Dolet and Five Principles of Translation====
 
−
In the history of western translation theory, the first humanist to systematically expound translation theory was Etiene Dolet(1509-1546). Dolet is a translator, printer and scholar. He is the first translator suffering from translation since the Renaissance. He is a learned, versatile and liberated translator. His interpretation of classics was regarded as walking between orthodoxy and paganism. The European Church has advocated for a long time that the translation of the ''Bible'' should be literal translation, especially the Roman Catholic Church supported the "correct" and conventional translation of the ''Bible'' . Any interpretation and translation that deviated from the classics may be regarded as heresy, criticized and prohibited, and some adventurous interpreters and translators suffered a horrible fate. In 1546, the Theological Seminary of Sorbonne University in France identified that Dolet added the phrase "whereas you will no longer be anything at all" without foundation in the translation of a paragraph about "existence after human death" in Plato's dialogue ''Axiochus'', then he  was burned alive at the stake. This paragraph is as follows:
 
−
 
 
−
The original text in Greek: Hoti peri men tous zôntas ouk estin, hoi de apothanontes ouk eisin. hôste oute peri se nun estin, ou gar tethnêkas oute ei ti pathois, estai peri se su gar ouk esei.
 
−
 
 
−
The French translation by Dolet:Pour ce qu'il est certain que la mort n'est point aux vivants: et quant aux defuncs, ilz ne sont plus: donques la mort les atouches encore moins. Parquoy elle ne peult rien sur toy, car tu n'est pas encores prest à deceder; et quand tu seras décédé, elle n'y pourra rien aussi，attendu que tu ne seras plus ''rien du tou''. (Sixteenth Century text as cited by Ballard and Copley-Christie)
 
−
 
 
−
The translation in English:Since it is certain death is not at all among the living: and as for the dead, they no longer are: therefore, death touches them even less. And hence death can do nothing to you, for you are not yet ready to die, and when you have died, death will also not be able to do anything, since you will no longer be '' anything at all''.
 
−
 
 
−
The translation in Chinese:因为可以确信，死亡根本不存在活着的人中间。对于死者来说，死者已矣，因此死神根本也不会再着顾他。死亡对死者来说也无可奈何，对不知死的生者亦然。等到你随风而去，坠入尘土，死神也奈何你不得，因为人死之后根本不知道存在谓何物。(translated by LIu Junping)
 
−
 
 
−
This paragraph by Plato is an obvious atheist view. It is close to the meaning of "how can you know death when you don't know life" (the ''Analects of Confucius''). The original Greek version is abstruse and difficult to understand, and there are omissions in many places. It can't be translated without adding cohesive devices. The three words added in italic French and English in the text only play a role in connecting and do not change the meaning of the original text. Dolet's addition was accused of "blasphemy", because such translation was accused of "denying the eternity of the soul", and it was precisely because he "made" this fatal translation "mistake" that he was burned at the age of 37. This accusation was a typical "unnecessary" accusation. As a translator, Dolet only translated the meaning of the original text and did not understand it improperly. The key was that Plato described Aristotle's conversation, Sorbonne's clergy could not blame Plato, so they had to blame Dolet for adding the three French words rien Du tout (nothing at all) , because these three words could not be found in Greek or Latin, the church accused him of misunderstanding Plato's intention, blaspheming the gods and not believing in eternity. We don't know whether Plato misunderstood Aristotle or Dolet betrayed Plato. Maybe the former, but the risk of translation arises. Although he is translating with a tight hoop, the translator always yearn for freedom like the monkey king.
 
−
 
 
−
Because Dolet was persecuted by the clergy to death, his "five principles on translation" was cherished by the western translation field. Dolet's "five principles on translation" came from ''The Way of Translating Well from One Language into Another'' (1540) The excerpts of the original text are as follows:
 
−
 
 
−
To translate well from one language into another requires in the main five things:
 
−
 
 
−
(1)In the first place, the translator must understand perfectly the sense and matter of the author he is translating, although he should feel free to clarifty obscurities.
 
−
 
 
−
(2)The translator should have a perfect knowldgwe of boh SL and IL, so as not to lessen the majesty of the language.
 
−
 
 
−
(3) The translator should avoid word for word renderings.
 
−
 
 
−
(4)The translator should avoid Latinate and unusual forms.
 
−
 
 
−
(5)The translator should assemble and liaise words eloquently to avoid clumsiness.(Robinson, Douglas. ''Western Translation Theory: form Herodotus to Nietzche''. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing, pp. 95~96.)
 
−
 
 
−
From the five translation principles put forward by Dolet, he advocated free translation, especially he didn't advocate rigid literal translation and paid attention to the beauty of the translation. Articles 1 and 2 can be regarded as the necessary conditions for translators. The latter three advocate that translators should use fresh language expressions, avoid using rare Greek or Latin words, but use natural and fluent forms in the target language in order to improve the social status and influence of French, Italian, German and Spanish after the disintegration of Latin.
 
−
 
 
−
Dolet's five principles of translation were summarized on the basis of fully absorbing the discussion of translation by Leonardo Bruni and King Duarte. These five principles emphasized that the translator cannot follow the master like a slave, being obedient and using word for word translation method which show that the translator is poor in skills and lacks rich lexical expression. In Dolet's view, translation is the translation of meaning, not words. In order to express the author's intention, the translator has the right to adjust and reverse the sentence pattern of the translation. Compared with Tytler's three translation principles, Dolet pays more attention to the target language readers, but Tytler pays more attention to how to keep consistent with the original text. Dolet's translation theory is of great attainments, which can only be compared with Cicero in Roman times and Martin Luther at the same time. Dolet's views on translation are very similar to those of Cicero and Martin Luther.
 
−
 
 
−
====2.2 Martin Luther and the Tongue of the Common Man====
 
−
 
 
−
Martin Luther (1483-1546) was a German religious reformer and translator in the 16th century. As a translator of the German version of the ''Bible'', he is known as the father of German language and literature. His discussion on translation is mainly recorded in the ''Circular Letter'' (1530).
 
−
 
 
−
For hundreds of years, people have been used to going to church to listen to the ''Bible'', because under the control of Catholicism, ordinary people have no right to read the ''Bible'' by themselves. Luther's translation of the obscure Latin ''Bible'' into contemporary popular German is a great revolution, which is as valuable as his religious revolution. When Martin translated the language of God into contemporary German, he hoped that the German version of the book would be converted into different dialects, put in people's hands and enter everyone's heart. The ''Bible'' without annotation and without red tape is like the sun passing through layers of clouds and directly illuminating saints, which is an important mission of his religious reform movement. Once the ''Bible'' translated by Luther was published, ordinary people directly heard the call of God. Luther believed that the German he translated must be clear, clear and easy to understand. Therefore, he systematically formulated the translation principles. This popular and fluent translation method aims to be free from the influence of previous established translations, because free translation is also a weapon for Luther to resist the church. His main translation principles are:
 
−
 
 
−
(1) The purpose and the original text that the reader cannot understand should be translated freely.
 
−
 
 
−
(2) When translating, we should give priority to the meaning and subject content of the text, and don't stick to the grammar of the original text.
 
−
 
 
−
(3) Try to use a language that is easy to understand by ordinary people.
 
−
 
 
−
(4) Metaphors and idioms in rhetoric can be translated into non figurative language.
 
−
 
 
−
(5) Adhere to the reader centered orientation.
 
−
 
 
−
In the use of the target language, Luther did not sanctify the target language, but broke the symbol system of the target language. Sometimes, in order to inject vitality, Luther used the people's oral language to break the coherence of the target language and pay attention to people's personal understanding and personality, which undoubtedly strengthened the social communication of the translation. However, the fluency of the translation is not at the expense of the accuracy of the translation. Luther's Bible is also very accurate in information transmission. Because the language used by Luther in translating the Bible is a vivid language loved by the people, its translation is welcomed by the people, has vitality and has been spread for a long time. Luther's basic translation principle is “You must ask the mother at home，the children in the street, the ordinary man in the market and look at their mouth, how they speak,and translate that way; then they'll understand and see that you’re speaking to them in German.“ Easy to understand is the most fundamental purpose of Luther's translation.
 
−
 
 
−
====2.3 Men Who Have Dedicated  His Life to Translation====
 
−
 
 
−
During the Renaissance, the Englishman who died for translation was William Tyndale (1494 - 1536). He is the most influential Bible translator in the English language. The three most famous Bibles ——''Geneva Bible'', ''The Douay-Rheims Bible'' and ''The King James' Bible'' in the 16th and 17th centuries were all influenced by the translation of Tyndale Bible, especially ''The King James' Bible''.
 
−
 
 
−
Tyndale was born in Gloucestershire, England. He studied at Oxford University in his early years and taught at Cambridge University after graduation. Cambridge's humanistic thought shaped his religious thought. He believes that since religious teachings and practices come from the Bible, it is necessary for British people to read the Bible in their own mother tongue. Inspired by Martin Luther's experience in translating the German version of the Bible, Tyndale was determined to translate an English Bible. At that time, the British Conservatives led by Moore insisted that the law stipulated that the unauthorized translation of the Bible was punishable by death. Because Tyndale was persecuted by the British church, he had to flee to Germany, where religion was relatively free, to work as a translator. As a humanist, Tyndale exposed the hypocrisy of European religion. The church accused him of "weaving love and vain history and fables to poison young people". In 1536, Tyndale was arrested and burned in andewerp, Netherlands.
 
−
 
 
−
Tyndale's translated works are concise and simple, using popular English words and expressions, which pioneered the generation of English translation of the Bible. Tyndale and the contemporary English writer Moore had fierce debates because of their different religious views. These debates were recorded in Moore's dialogue against cults (1529). At that time, British law stipulated that no one could translate or read the Bible without the permission of the church. Next, Moore wrote two volumes of the rebuttal against Tyndale to defend his implementation of the "anti cult" law in Britain. Moore is known for writing Utopia, but in order to refute Tyndale's translation of the Bible, he spent a lot of words on the translation and understanding of the Bible. However, it was very unfortunate that Moore was plotted by the king of England because he refused to swear to recognize the supreme position of King Henry VIII in the English Church. The latter falsely accused him of contempt for kingship. Based on this reason, the court fabricated the crime of "unnecessary", beheaded him, and composed a sad song of "better faith than head".
 
−
 
 
−
What the above translators have in common is that in order to spread knowledge and distinguish truth, they bravely explore the road that predecessors have not gone through, and can devote their whole life energy to the sacred cause of translation. At the same time, it can also be said that their translation experience and principles are written with blood and life.
 
−
 
 
−
===3. The Incarnation of Muse: Poetics of Translation===
 
−
Muse (Μουσαι in Greek, muses in Latin) is the general name of the goddess of science and art in ancient Greek mythology. It was born of the god Zeus and Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory. The number of Muses is uncertain, some people say there are three goddesses and others nine goddesses. Since the Renaissance, European poets, like stars, have lit the sky over Europe. These poets not only make poetry, but also translate classical poetry, seek inspiration from traditional literature and summarize poetry translation theory. This spectacle is unprecedented.
 
−
 
 
−
Western classical translation focuses on the works of ancient Greek and Roman poets Homer, Virgil and Ovid. These translations have greatly improved the form and content of European countries, especially British poetry art, and brought new creative techniques and skills. For example, the introduction of English poetry should first be attributed to the translation of sonnets. The original form of fourteen line lyric poem originated from Italy is abbaabba, cdecde (the last six lines can also be cdcdcd). This poetic style has been translated and introduced by Surrey, and then improved by Spencer and Shakespeare to become the English sonnet (abab eded efef gg).
 
−
 
 
−
Muse, the goddess of literature and art in the west, is fond of  English poets. The translation works of Chapman, Dryden, Pope, Shelley and other poets fully reflect the principle of "translating poetry in the poetic way". Their poetry translation practice and theory have been perfectly combined to form a unique literary translation theory.
 
−
 
 
−
====3.1 George Chapman: Decorate the Translation with Beautiful Words====
 
−
George Chapman (1559-1634) is an English poet, dramatist and translator. Chapman is famous for translating Homer's ''Iliad'' and ''Odyssey''. His translated Homer works inspired the British poet John Keats more than a century later (1815), so he wrote ''On First looking into Chapman's Homer'', which became a masterpiece through the ages.
 
−
 
 
−
Chapman dropped out of Oxford University in his 20s and later engaged in drama creation. He joined the army in his 30s. He worshipped the warrior hero of the Agamemnon family in Greek mythology all his life, which can be seen in his works. This is one of the reasons why he chose to translate Homer's works. In 1611, he completed the translation of the ''Iliad'' in sonnets. In 1616, he finished translating the ''Odyssey'' in the poetic style of heroic antithesis. His translation has become one of the most popular works in the history of English literature and plays a connecting role in the history of literature. For 200 years after its publication, its translation has been the standard English translation of Homer's works. Chapman's theory of translation criticism can be seen from his translation of the preface written in the ''Iliad'':
 
−
 
 
−
That those translators stick in, that affect
 
−
Their word-for word traditions( where they lost )
 
−
The free grace of their natural dialect,
 
−
And shame their authors with a forced gloss)
 
−
More license from the words than may express
 
−
Their full compression, and make clear the author;
 
−
From whose truth, if you think my feet digress,
 
−
Because I use needful paraphrases...
 
−
( Extract from the Preface to the Reader of the Translation of ''Iliad'')
 
−
 
 
−
From Chapman's translation practice and theory, there are several principles worth summarizing: (1) adhere to translating poetry in poetic way. (2) We oppose word for word translation and focus on free translation. (3) Adopting the "interpretation" method, it advocates that the translation should be decorated. (4) The translator should try to show the author's intention. Chapman pays equal attention to translation practice and theory. On the one hand, he pays attention to summarizing translation experience, on the other hand, he has clear principles as translation guidance. At the same time, the deep study of Homer's works and the poetic flavor of poetry are also the reasons for his success. Now let's take a look at a passage in his translation of the ''Iliad'':
 
−
 
 
−
All grave old man, and soldiers they had been, but for age
 
−
Now left the wars; yet Counselors they were exceeding sage
 
−
And as in well grown woods, on trees, cold spinier grasshoppers
 
−
Sit chirping and send voices out that scarce can piece our ears
 
−
For softness and their weaker faint sounds; so( talking on the tower )
 
−
These Seniors of the people sat, who, when they saw the power
 
−
Of beauty in the Queen ascend, even those cold-spirited peers,
 
−
Those wise and almost withered men, found this heat in their years
 
−
That they were forced( though whispering )to say: what men can blame.
 
−
The Greeks and Trojans to endure, for so admired a Dame,
 
−
So many miseries, and so long? (''Iliad'', iii, 159-169)
 
−
 
 
−
We can compare the translation of Pope, an English poet and translator in the late 18th century:
 
−
 
 
−
Chiefs, who no more in bloody Fights engage,
 
−
But Wise thro' Time, and Narratives with Age
 
−
In Summer-Days like Grasshoppers rejoice,
 
−
A bloodless Race, that sena a feeble Voice
 
−
These, when the Spartan Queen approached the Tower,
 
−
In secret own'd resistless Beauty’s Power.
 
−
They cried, No wonder such Celestial charms
 
−
For nine long years have set the Word in Arms;
 
−
 
 
−
Through comparison, it can be found that Chapman's translation has 11 lines, which is longer than Pope's. What is mainly added is "Those wise and almost withered men, found this heat in their years"; Although the previous line “those cold-spirited peers " has already explained, Chapman still emphasized the old and frail philosopher's blood surging like fire at that moment. Chapman was translated concretely and vividly, with abundant emotion; by contrast, Pope was translated cleanly, even playfully, but the rhyme was too delicate. Chapman's rhythm was infectious. Chapman was slightly better in the translation of the last sentence. (王佐良，何其莘主编. 英国文艺复兴时期的文学史. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1994年, 第85页。) However, the addition method of Chapman wass often criticized. For example, Homer asked Hector to say, "For well I know this in my mind and in my heart, the day will be, when scaled Troy shall perish." Chapman's poem is:
 
−
 
 
−
And such a stormy day shall come，in mind and soul I know，
 
−
When scared Troy shall shed her towers, for tears of overthrow.
 
−
 
 
−
The translation rhymes, matches and is neat, but "mind and soul", "storm", "towers" and "teams" are added. Optimistically,the translator has rich imagination.Negatively, the translator's fantasy destroys faithfulness. In any case, Chapman's translation style is magnificent and beautiful, reflecting the gorgeous rhetoric of the Renaissance translation and the translator's deep literary foundation. No wonder Keats felt like "seeing a new star surge into the horizon" . After reading his translated poems Inspired by Chapman's translation of Homer, Keats wrote his handed down work ''The First Reading of Chapman's Translation of Homer's Epic'' (of course, there are also famous works such as ''Nightingale,'' ''The Ancient Greek Urn'') This poem has become the essence of Keats's poetry. It is also an immortal work in English poetry. It also has the merit of Chapman's translation. Homer's style is fresh, simple, clear, direct, vivid and powerful. Chapman strives to reproduce Homer's epic features in diction, sentence making and style. He has practiced poetry translation and summed up translation theory. This was rare in England from the 16th to 17th centuries: "the task of a competent and valuable translator is to abide by the sentences, rhetoric and language forms used by his original author, abide by his true meaning and depth, and then decorate them with rhetoric and language forms suitable for the language of the translation itself." (王佐良，何其莘主编. 英国文艺复兴时期的文学史. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1994年, 第82页。)
 
−
 
 
−
Nevertheless, because Chapman translated Homer's epic with the theme of sonnets and tried to create something in phonology, the sonnets still did not conform to the style of Homer's epic, but they made some progress compared with Milton's translation with blank poems. Chapman also translated Ovid's ''Feast of Sound and Color'' . His free translation method can fully reflect the deep meaning of the original work and is the best way to translate Homer's poetry. Chapman regards the translation of Homer's epic as a major event in his life and believes that he was born to translate Homer's epic. His poetry translation theory fills the gap of translation theory in the late 16th century and has been inherited and developed by poetry translators from the 17th to 18th centuries.
 
−
 
 
−
====3.2 John Denham: Fluent Poetry Translation====
 
−
 
 
−
John Denham (1615 - 1669) is the most famous poet and translator in England in the mid-17th century. When he was young, he went to Oxford to study law, but he never practised. He became famous because he translated the epic Aeneas written by Virgil, an ancient Greek tragedy. Later, his poetry also made him famous in the literary world.
 
−
 
 
−
Dunham's translation theory is mainly reflected in his two articles on translation. One is to Sir Richard Fanshawe upon his translation of pastor Fido (1648), and the other is the preface of his translation of Aeneas, "the destruction of Troy" (1656) He believes that art expresses nature in a harmonious and elegant way, so the translator should go beyond the constraints of form and create a novel translation. The translation of literary works is different from the translation of religious and disciplinary works, the former can be less faithful, and the translation of Aeneas adopts the method of translating poetry into poetry, pays attention to the legal effect of poetry, and has achieved good results.
 
−
 
 
−
Specifically, Dunham's translation theories include:
 
−
 
 
−
(1) Dunham followed a "neoclassicism" path "The road of translation method pursues a new translation method, that is, the translator should innovate, especially in the charm of poetry. Translation should give full play to the advantages of the target language. This process of using the target language to accultrate the original text is also the domestication translation method. This innovative translation method is deeply influenced by the free translation method advocated by France in the 17th century, that is, the translation should be beautiful and beautiful. Although Dunham pursues the elegance and beauty of his translation, his translation is basically faithful. His free translation mainly focuses on the artistic conception or "poetry for poetry", rather than the translated vocabulary.
 
−
 
 
−
(2) Dunham believes that the translator and the author enjoy the same status. As a poet and translator, he believes that the translator has the right to extract the core part from the original text and re create it in the target language. If there is a key word in Dunham's translation theory, it is "fluency", as if the translation is not like the translation, but more like creation.
 
−
In this way, the sentence pattern of the original text can be rewritten, the unclear meaning can be clarified, the smooth poetic rhythm and form can be used, the irregular structure can be avoided, and the pause can be used to strengthen the coherence of poetic sentence patterns. Deng Hanhao's fluent translation makes people feel that reading his translation is not reading the translation, but reading the original English work. Therefore, he is known as "Virgil" in Britain.
 
−
 
 
−
(3) The translator has his own choice and motivation. Dunham chooses the free translation method and the translation of Aeneas It has its own purpose: the relationship between the king and his descendants in the Trojan story will remind the reader of Britain at that time. He hopes to give cultural support to the English monarch through the translation of such a work. There is an imaginary connection between Troy's pedigree and the defeated Caroline government at that time. This kind of ideological manipulation and rewriting confirms his translation It serves the royalists. Therefore, his translation is very flexible and has more freedom than other translators.
 
−
 
 
−
====3.3 John Dryden's Three Principles of Translation====
 
−
 
 
−
John Dryden (1631 - 1700), an English poet, translator and dramatist, was the most influential critic in Britain in the 17th century. His literary criticism has influenced the following two centuries. As a translation theorist, his discourse on translation is considered to be the most systematic in western translation theory before the 17th century.
 
−
 
 
−
The three translation types (1680) divided by Dryden and the three translation principles (1797) of tattler all advocate to talk about translation in civilian rather than pretentious academic language, which is why their translation theory is still used today. As the "the first translation theorist" so far, Dryden's translation views are mainly reflected in the translation of the preface to Ovid's epistles. Dryden classifies three types of translation as follows:
 
−
 
 
−
All translations,I suppose, may be reduced to these three heads.
 
−
(1)Fist, that of metaphrase，or turning an author word by word, and line by line，from one language into another. Thus, or near this manner, was Horace his Art of Poetry translated by Ben Jonson.
 
−
 
 
−
(2)The second way is that of paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Such is Mr. Walter' s translation of Virgil's fourth Aeneid.
 
−
 
 
−
(3)The third way is that of imitation, where the translator( if now he has not lost that name) assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense, but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking some hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. Such is Mr. Cowley' s practice in turning two Odes of Pindar, and one of Horace, into English.
 
−
 
 
−
Among the three translation methods, Dryden is most opposed to Ben Jonson's word for word translation, that is, literal translation. It is considered that this translation method is like "tis much like dancing on ropes with fed legs", which mechanically imitates the original text, but can not be separated from the constraints of its grammar, sentence pattern and poetic rhythm, so that its semantics is obscure. As for the great freedom of imitation translation, the purpose of the translator is to imitate the previous works in subject content and literary form, neither translated words nor translated meaning. Therefore, literal translation and imitation translation are the two most extreme forms of translation, and translators should take warning. Free translation takes the golden mean, which is the translation method advocated by Dryden. The so-called free translation means that the translator must have a limit of freedom. He should always see the author and not lose his way. From this point of view, Dryden insists that translation imitate the original work like a painter, pay attention to the original text, pay attention to the details of style, and reproduce the vitality of poetry and songs. Finally, poetry translation must "translate poetry with poetry", that is, the person who translates poetry must be a poet, so that he can understand the charm of the original and better express it in the target language and aesthetic language.
 
−
 
 
−
The three classifications of Dryden's translation have a great influence on the western translation theory in the 20th century. They are an indispensable part of western translation theory. His translation theory represents the peak of the development of English and criticism theory in the 17th century. Dryden's view of free translation was inherited by Pope.
 
−
 
 
−
====3.4 Alexander Pope's Translation of Homer Epic====
 
−
 
 
−
Alexander Pope (1688-1744) is an important poet and translator in the Enlightenment period of the i8th century. His an essay on Criticism (744 lines) is written in antithetical verses, expounds the aesthetic principles of classical literature and art, and establishes Pope's position in the history of English literature. Pope became famous for translating Homer's epics and won a reward of 10000 pounds and a great reputation.
 
−
 
 
−
Pope's translation of Homer's epic is accused by translation critics of not rhyming and reading like an 18th century Englishman. In other words, Pope's translation of Homer's epic is not so much a reflection of Homer's style as Pope's own style. His translation is full of personal characteristics and idioms. But when discussing translation, Pope said that his translation is better than those full of translation cavity. His main translation views are recorded in the translation preface of the Iliad, translation points. Pope's translation theory is very similar to Dryden's: (1) he advocates free translation and maintains the beauty of poetry translation. (2) It is the sacred mission of the translator not to add or delete arbitrarily in translation. (3) The relationship between literal translation and free translation is dialectical. Literal translation can not reproduce the beautiful meaning of the original text, but it is very wrong to make up for it by hasty free translation. (4) Servile loyalty to the literal meaning will only damage the poetic style of the original text. (5) The plain and clear style of Homer's epic in modern language is not a lesson. Translation should reflect the main characteristics of the original: when talking about the beauty and defects of the original, we should talk about the translation, which is the embodiment of the main characteristics of translation. As long as the main parts of the original poem show the contents such as fables, etiquette and emotion, no translator will save and compress them out of his own prejudice. The same is true for the translation of every image, description and simile. If we save too much translation, it will weaken the main characteristics of the original poem.
 
−
 
 
−
In Pope's view, the translator should not only grasp the characteristics of the original text, but also deal with the idioms and metaphors in Homer's epic, strive to reproduce the image of the original text, and can not be arbitrarily deleted due to personal prejudice. The beautiful and noble poetic features of the original text should also be reproduced in the translation. Pope is often criticized for some affectation and arbitrary play. The accusation of the former may be related to Pope's neoclassicism. Arbitrary play is a major feature of some humanist translators.
 
−
 
 
−
Generally speaking, Pope adopts the domestication translation method to explain, understand and translate the original work with the poetic concepts of the Enlightenment period, in order to maintain a smooth and natural poetic flavor in the target language. Compared with the other two translators of Homer's epics Chapman and r. lattinmore, Pope's translation is generally very neat and elegant, reproducing the style of neoclassicism. Chapman's translation is beautiful, while the translation of R. lattinmore, a translator in the 20th century, is fresh and casual. In general, Pope's translation of Homer's epic is neat and neat, and reproduces Homer's poetic flavor and charm to a certain extent.
 
−
 
 
−
===4. The National and World Visions of Translation===
 
−
 
 
−
The 17th century to the 19th century is the climax of the development of modern western translation theory. A large number of writers and translators with world reputation have sprung up in Britain, France and Germany. Generally speaking, the free translation school originated in France in the 17th century and had a great influence on Britain. There were many innovations in translation theory in Britain from the 17th to the 18th century. The discussion at this stage mainly focused on the translation of classical poetry. In Germany, with the emergence of stum und Drang, storm and stress and Romanticism in the 18th and 19th centuries, German Conservatism began.
 
−
 
 
−
The 19th century, represented by the "rapid advance", is a period of great development of German Conservatism, represented by the "German Romanticism", which is also a stage of the transition of literary and artistic forms from classicism to Romanticism, which can also be said to be the romanticism in the naive period. The central representatives of this movement are the famous writers Goethe and Schiller. Goethe's the troubles of young Witt It is the representative work of this period, expressing the conflict of human inner feelings and the spirit of striving. This movement lasted for nearly 30 years, from 1765 to 1795, and then was replaced by the mature romantic movement. A large number of linguists, writers and translation theorists such as Hurd, Goethe, Humboldt, schneiermacher, Holderlin, Schleger and worth came on stage one after another Translated a considerable number of classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, and also translated and introduced a large number of works of other European countries (such as the translation of Shakespeare's plays) German literature in this period has won a great reputation all over the world. Due to the participation of the above-mentioned language and literature, German translation activities and translation research have also reached an unprecedented climax, which has laid a solid foundation for western translation theory in the 20th century.
 
−
 
 
−
====4.1 Language Shapes the National Identity: Johann Gottfried Herder and Wilhelm von Humboldt====
 
−
 
 
−
The humanistic thoughts sweeping the whole Europe, such as humanism, classicism, enlightenment, rapid advance and romanticism, make the relationship between European countries closer and closer. These movements provide important conditions and environment for the birth of translation theory. Hurd and Humboldt demonstrated the relationship between language, translation and national identity from the perspective of language.
 
−
 
 
−
Johann Gottfried Herder (1744 - 1803) was a pioneer of the German rapid movement. As a forerunner of the enlightenment movement, Herder always focused on how to use translation to transform German literature. In his opinion, the growth of German national literature is inseparable from translation. His discussions on translation are scattered in on the origin of language, on be more recent German literature and other works. These views on language and translation have a great impact on language education and translation circles. From the perspective of language, he believes that speech was invented by man, and language represents Rationality: "Without language, man has no reason and without reason no language." (without language, man has no reason and without reason no language.) Hurd's view of language nature opposes taking language as a simple tool and medium. He believes that language is a national organism, which can best reflect the national spirit and national soul (Volksgeist) , is the bond that forms the nation-state. Whoever loses his own language loses his identity and patriotism. Germans should be proud of their language and nation. Herder and Humboldt put forward that language determines thinking, which not only provides a basis for the self hypothesis theory two centuries later, but also gives a view of the uncertainty and Untranslatability of translation Buried the foreshadowing.
 
−
 
 
−
Herder opposes the deification of language and insists on explaining the generation of language from the perspective of naturalism. He believes that rationality is the key to the origin of language. He tries to provide a natural rather than reductionist explanation for human characteristics and creativity, and seeks the origin of language in human natural characteristics. Hurd's natural reductionism is not only used to explain the origin of language, but also The power of natural interpretation is extended to all fields of culture to reflect the characteristics of human creation, such as art, religion, law, etc. through the power of natural interpretation, they are included in a scientific world outlook. This language turn is a fundamental turn. Its significance is that people begin to pay real attention to the problems of language itself, such as the production of language Life, the essence of language, the relationship between language and rationality, how language can be expressed, etc. Then Humboldt inherited and developed Hurd's view. Language blindness is no longer just a vassal of rationality, a simple tool. From then on, it began to get out of the influence of Theology and gradually formed an independent philosophy of language.
 
−
 
 
−
Herder's views had a great impact on Humboldt.
 
−
 
 
−
Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835) is the most influential linguist, philosopher and educational reformer in the West.
 
−
 
 
−
Humboldt's main translation views are:
 
−
 
 
−
(1) Language determines thought and culture. A language is the reflection of real life. Language has unique national characteristics, and the languages of different nationalities reflect their cultural characteristics. Different languages reflect the world outlook of different nationalities. It emphasizes the reaction of language to thinking: language determines thought and mode of thinking, and different languages have different schemata to understand the world. Translation consists of different languages and forms different language schemata. Therefore, equivalence in translation is impossible.
 
−
 
 
−
(2) The more you know a language, the greater the distance between nations. This is because different nations have different world views and different language habits. From this point of view, because we are aware of the great differences between different languages, we believe that it is impossible to achieve complete equivalence. Therefore, mutual translation between languages is impossible.
 
−
 
 
−
(3) Translation should deeply understand the era, atmosphere and character of the original author, and strive to avoid the obscure side of the translation and ensure the readability of the translation.
 
−
 
 
−
(4) The phonological beauty of poetry and drama translation must be maintained. Step is the key to all beauty.
 
−
 
 
−
Humboldt's contribution to translation theory is that he is aware of the tension and contradiction of translation. He does not recognize the existence of a universal conceptual system beyond language boundaries. Therefore, his view of translation was interpreted as the representative of untranslatability in the 20th century. Because there are two meanings of "ubersetzen" and "dolmesschen" in German translation, "understanding" always carries "pre understanding", that is, with personal subjective vision or prejudice, it is impossible to completely reach a consensus between different individuals. "Interpretation" Let us have the opportunity to enter the commonness of language, which enables translation to cross specific social and cultural factors, and it is possible to understand each other between languages, so there is a reason to seek equivalence in translation. This is Humboldt's dualism of language and translation.
 
−
 
 
−
====4.2 The Soaring Literary Translation: Johann Wolfgang Goethe and Friedrich Holdern====
 
−
 
 
−
Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1749-1832) is the greatest poet, translator and outstanding representative of Romanticism in Germany.
 
−
 
 
−
To sum up, Goethe believes that translation can be divided into three types.
 
−
 
 
−
(1) Facing different types of readers, we need different types of translation. In poetry and truth, he said, "if you want to influence the masses, a simple translation is always the best. Critical translations vying with the original really are of use only for conversations the learned conduct among themselves."
 
−
 
 
−
(2) Adaptation or imitation translation. "The second stage is that the translator translates contentedly according to his own wishes. Even if the translator tries to integrate himself into foreign situations, I would rather call this stage imitation stage."
 
−
 
 
−
(3) Pay attention to rhythmic literal translation sentence by sentence. Homer's Odyssey and Iliad translated by German Translator J. h. Voss made him famous overnight. His translation has beautiful rhythm and intonation and accurate choice of words and sentences. Although the public could not accept the strict literal translation rhythm at first, it gradually recognized it later. Goethe emphasizes that public taste can be shaped through translation.
 
−
 
 
−
Among all these three types of translation, Goethe most appreciates the literal translation that pays attention to rhythm, because as a poet, he takes into account the poetic characteristics such as step and rhythm, which are the true qualities of the original author. Goethe mentioned two principles of Translation: first, foreign writers move closer to the target language, so that his works look the same as the target language writers; Second, readers cross the border to adapt to foreign customs and language characteristics.
 
−
 
 
−
Goethe's translation theory is based on his romantic aesthetics. He believes that literal translation can not only convey the information of the original text, but also express the beauty of the translation. From this point of view, his view is almost as close to untranslatability as Shelley.
 
−
 
 
−
Friedrich Holderlin (1770-1843) is the greatest lyric poet in the German Romantic period.
 
−
 
 
−
Holderlin advocated that every language of human beings is derived from the same basic language form, that is, what Benjamin called "pure language". Not only translation, but also creation should return to this ancient source. In translation practice, translators should adhere to literal translation, reflecting the heterogeneity of the original text. In modern poetics and translation studies, Holderlin's language ontology is mainly based on the view of looking for "words beyond speech". This literal translation brings, of course, lexical obscurity, and Holderlin believes that the more obscure the translation, the more enlightening the tension. This poetic dialectics undoubtedly has a mystical point of view. It is very interesting that in the 20th century, people talked most about the essence of translation. The main point of view related to the essence of translation comes from Holderlin, a "firm guardian of letters" of the literal translation school. He created endless topics for translation. To some extent, Holderlin is the prophet of contemporary translation theory.
 
−
 
 
−
===5. Conclusion===
 
−
 
 
−
===References===
 
−
 
 
−
[1] Bassett, Susan. Translation Studies. London and New York : Methuen, 1980.
 
−
 
 
−
[2] Cf. Nida, Eugene. Toward A Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.
 
−
 
 
−
[3] Lefevere, Andrew. eds. Translation/History/Culture: A Source Book. London : Routledge, 1992.
 
−
 
 
−
[4] Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies : Theories and Applications. London/New York : Routledge, 2001.
 
−
 
 
−
[5] Robinson, Douglas. Western Translation Theory : from Herodotus to Nietzsche. Manchester : St. Jerome Publishing, 1997.
 
  
−
[6] Rousseau, Jean Jacques and John Gottfried Herder. On the Oringin of Language. Chicago : The University of Chicago Press, 1986.
+
吴婧悦 WuJingyue, Hunan Normal University, China
  
−
[7] Steiner, George. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1975.
 
−
 
−
[8] Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility : A History of Translation. London/New York : Routledge, 1995.
 
−
 
−
[9] 赫尔德著. 论语言的起源. 姚小平，译. 北京：商务印书馆，1998年。
 
−
 
−
[10] 王佐良、何其莘. 英国文艺复兴时期文学史. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1996年。
 
−
 
−
[11] 王佐良，何其莘主编. 英国文艺复兴时期的文学史. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1994年。
 
−
 
−
=13 吴婧悦 History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union=
 
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]]
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13]]
  
−
===1. Abstract===
+
=14 杨爱江 History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1919 to 1949=
−
As is well know, the Soviet translation theory plays a prominent role in the world translation theory. Firstly, we discuss about the overall situation of the development of the Soviet period, the history of the Soviet period and discusses the characteristics of the Soviet translation theory. Finally, we introduce the famous translation theorist like: S. G. Barkhudarov (С. Г. Бархуда́ров) and I. A. Kashkin (И. А. Кашки́н) and so on.
 
−
 
 
−
===2. Key words===
 
−
Translation theories, Western translation theories, Soviet Translation theories
 
−
 
 
−
===3. Introduction===
 
−
The Soviet translation theory played a pivotal role in the world translation theory. This paper firstly introduces the historical evolution of the development of the Soviet translation theory, which divides the Soviet Union into two periods: the development history of translation theory before World War II and the development history of translation theory after World War II. In introducing the history of translation theory before World War II, the source of the history of Soviet translation theory, the development of Soviet translation theory, namely linguistics and the contribution of Kamisarov, Liubimov and others.Secondly, the representatives of the translation literature and art school and the translation language school are introduced specifically.When introducing the school of translation literature, the views of translator Kashkin and Gachzzeraz are introduced; in introducing the language school of translation, they are mainly introduced.
 
−
 
 
−
===4. The evolution of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union.===
 
−
===4.1 History of translation theory development before World War II===
 
−
The Soviet translation theory occupies a very prominent position in the world translation theory.The Soviet study of translation theory began shortly after the October Revolution, began with literary translation.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1918, Gorky (А.М.Горький) founded the World Literature Press (Издательство "Всемирная литература") in conjunction with the help of Lenin(В.И.Ленин).(Cai, Yi & Duan, Jinghua, 2000) The publisher's task is to introduce world classics, improve the translation art, and train translators.At this stage, nearly 100 professors and writers attended the work.In order to unify the thinking, discuss the theory of literary translation, and stipulate some clear rules, Gorky handed the burden to Chukowsky(К.И.Чуковский). Therefore, after a short effort, Chukowski wrote the book "The Principles of Literary Translation" ("Прицины художественного перевода") in 1919.He first proposed that the translator of the novel should be an artist and a master of language.Chukowski believed that a good translation can reproduce the artistic characteristics of the original text in vivid and rich Russian.But at that time, there was a very popular view in literary and theoretical criticism that translation was essentially impossible work.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1930, The Principles of Literary Translation was collected in Chukowski's "The Art of Translation" ("Искусство переводов").It suggests that translators must understand the social environment.In addition, the communication of the structural characteristics and rhetorical characteristics of the original text, as well as the principles of translation and expression, are also discussed.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1934 Translation theorist Smirnov (А.А.Смирнов) made the first proposal of the concept of "equivalent translation" in the term "Soviet Literature Encyclopedia", "translation" (Перевод).The "equivalent translation" here means "conveying the ideological content, feelings, and written structure of the original work", that is, "conveying the full creative intention of the original author". Smirnov suggested that not only can use the direct counterpart of the original in translation but also can use the functional approximation of the original in translation.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1936, Loginski (М.Л.Лозинский) reported at the first National Conference of Translators, "The Art of the Translation of Poetry" ("Искусство стихотворного перевода"), and pointed out that poetry translation should be the same in aesthetics as the original poetry works, highlighting the equivalent aesthetic function of literary and artistic translation. (Cai, Yi & Duan, Jinghua, 2000)
 
−
 
 
−
Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. ( Kashkin, 1977) He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. (Cai, Yi & Duan, Jinghua, 2000)  Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.
 
−
Also in 1936, Kashkin (И.А.Кашкин) proposed the theory and became the founder of the Soviet theory of realism. His translation method is: translators should try their best to reproduce the objective reality expressed in the original text, rather than words; they should see, experience, and perfectly reproduce the reality in the eyes of the author from behind the original text. He equated the realistic method of translation with the socialist realism in literary creation.In the Soviet Union, he was hailed as "a theorist representing a entire era in the history of Russian translation". He believes that translators should be loyal to the original, to their readers, to reality, and that the three are inseparable. Kashkin believes that without a theory, translators are just a craftsman, and can never become a translator or artist.
 
−
It is worth noting that by the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theories did not form systematic and complete theories, and they were all carried out from a literary point of view. Only translation of textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective.
 
−
 
 
−
===4.2 History of translation theory development after World War II===
 
−
Since the 1950s, a new period of studying translation theory from the perspective of linguistics began. Its main characteristic is to link translation theory with comparative linguistics, and on the basis of comparing the phenomenon of the two languages, to reveal the law of the two languages.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1950, "Theory and Methods of Translation Teaching" ("Вопросы теории и методики учебного перевода"), which played a considerable role in the development of translation theory. For example, in Gary Palin(И.Р. Гпльперии) 's article, "Translation and Rhetoric" ("Перевод и стилистика"), shares Shakespeare's original Othello with Morosov’s (М.М.Морозов) translation,  noting the similarities and differences between English and Russian in terms of meaning and aesthetic functions. Meanwhile, the book Lezkel(Я.И.Рецкер) ’s article, "On the regularity and correspondence in Russia" ("О закономерных соответствиях при переводе на роднои язык"), divides the language regularity correspondence into three categories: equivalent, approximation and equivalent substitution.These three methods are applied to scientific and technological translation, the translation of political articles, and literary translation.
 
−
 
 
−
1953 Feodorov (А.В.Фёдоров) 's book "An Introduction to the Translation Theory" ("Введение в теорию перевода") was published.The book discusses the translation theory from the perspective of the linguistics theory, and proposes that the translation theory is a branch of the linguistics, and the translation problem can only be solved in the field of linguistics. In addition, the book stipulates the content of the concept of "translation", the object of theoretical research, the content, etc., and discusses the vocabulary issues, grammar issues and stylistic issues of translation, respectively.The book made Feyodorov the founder of the language school of translation theory. ( Wu, Keli, 2006) In addition, the book received wide attention in the Soviet translation circle, especially the translation teaching circle, but it also caused a heated controversy in the literary and art school of translation theory.
 
−
 
 
−
However, translators from the school of literature and art believe that Feodorov studied translation problems almost completely from a linguistic perspective, while ignoring that the first thing of literary translation should be involved in the problem of literature and art.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1954, Kashkin put forward in "Methods and Genres of Soviet Literary Translation" ("О методе и школе советского художественного перевода") that the theory of literary translation should be a broad language discipline, that is to say, the study of translation and literary problems should be combined.
 
−
In 1955 the collection of "Literary Translation" ("Вопросы художественного перевода") questions Feydorov's views, believing that studying translation theory from a linguistic perspective may lead to formalism and word-by-word dead translation in translation practice.
 
−
 
 
−
Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the language school.The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published."Translation Skills" ("Мастерство перевода"), published by the Soviet Writers Publishing House, focuses on the views of the literary school. The language school is based on the "Translation Worker Notes" ("Тетрадь переводчика") edited by Balhudarov, making comments and summarizing the translation experience.Most belong to the literary school are writers; the language school are linguists and college teachers.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1958, Feodorov made some additions and modifications to the original book in the second edition of the Introduction to Translation Theory. Although he also admitted that the problems in the field of translation could not all be explained by linguistic methods, it was correct to study the translation problem from the perspective of linguistics, otherwise, there would be no real theory of translation art.He stressed that literary and artistic translation does have its own characteristics, and should highlight its aesthetic aspects, but literary images are created by language means, and must also be conveyed by another language means. Therefore, the study of translation and theory from the perspective of linguistics is the basis.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1962, the collection of "Translation Theory and Review" ("Теория и критика перевода"), including two groups of translation theorists.Linguist Larin (Б.А.Ларии) In the preface to the collection, "Our Mission" ("Наши задачи"), proposed that the theory of literary translation must be established on the basis of linguistics and literature.He believes that it is impossible not to  combine linguistics and literary methods organically, whether in linguistics, rhetoric, or translation theory. Any translation should begin with analysis, and finally finish with literary creation.
 
−
 
 
−
1963 Aitkin (Е.Т.Эткин) published the book "Poetry and Translation" ("Поэзии и перевод"), which analyzed and commented on a large number of foreign-language poems translated into Russian language in the early 19th century, concerning the translation of literary and artistic theory.He believes that the linguistic means of poetry translation are closely related to the reproduced artistic characteristics of the original poetry, and the two should not be opposed.In his opinion, translation is like rhetoric, which is both a problem of literature and art and linguistics, because rhetoric is a science of language synonymous, and it belongs to the two fields of linguistics. Ignoring the theory of the form of literary works will actually make the translator helpless.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1964, Gachzrazawa (Г.Р.Гачечиладзе) published the book "The Theory of Literary Translation" ("Вопросы теории художественного перевода"), in which he based on Lenin's reaction theory, proposing that the translator directly reflects the original text, namely the artistic reality of the original text, rather than the specific reality directly reflected by the original text.
 
−
 
 
−
That same year, Levzin (И.И.Ревзин) and Rosenzwig (В.Ю.Розенцвейг) has published "Principles of General Translation and Machine Translation" ("Основы общего и машинного перевода") to study translation issues from a structural linguistics perspective.It was the first work in the world to combine the concepts and principles of translational theory with the category of structural linguistics.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1968, Feodorov made a new revision and supplement to the new situation, publishing the third edition of the book and renamed "Basic Translation" ("Основы общеи тоерии перевода").The rationale is that this can highlight the basic principles of translation theory —— studies various translation phenomena and various kinds of translation, revealing their commonalities and respective characteristics, comparing from a linguistic perspective.In the book, Feodorov makes it clear that it should never be forgotten that the ultimate task is to establish a common theory of philology.It is now outdated to insist that literary translation is studied only through literature and art, or only through linguistics. Contemporary era is an era of close cooperation between different disciplines. In philology, the distance between the two branches of literature and linguistics is not very large, and its differences are inevitable, but can be overcome, that is to say, the two can be combined all together.
 
−
 
 
−
The 1970s were called the "harvest years" of Soviet translation theory, and the debate entered a new stage.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1972, Gabriel's book "Literary Translation and Literary Exchange" ("Художественныи перевод и литературные взаимосвязи") can be regarded as a representative work of the school of literature and art, which more comprehensively expounded the translation theory views of the Soviet school of literature and art.Once published, the book immediately aroused widespread response from the Soviet translation theory community.In the book, he pointed out that literary and artistic translation belongs to the category of artistic creation, and studying literary translation from the perspective of linguistics inevitably leads to the dead translation of auxiliary words. ( Wu, Keli, 2006) As a result, the translation is linguistically correct and low in art. Because from a linguistic point of view, the decisive factor is not the translator's creative attitude towards the original text, but the linguistic correspondence principle.Thus, translation becomes some technical process, not creation. Literary and artistic translation should reproduce the aesthetic value of the original text.
 
−
 
 
−
1963 Komizarov (В.Н.Комиссаров) presents its unique theory of "equivalent levels" in his book on translation ("Слово о переводе").According to this theory, the meaning structure of discourse is a complex that can be divided into content, namely the level of language symbols, discourse level, notification structure level, scenario description level and the level of communication purpose.The principle of translation equivalence to the original text should be based on these levels during translation.
 
−
 
 
−
The same year, Shvzel (В.Н.Комиссаров) published the book "Translation and Linguistics" ("Перевод и лингвистика"), suggesting that translation is not only the contact between two language systems, but also between two different cultures, and sometimes between two different civilizations.In addition, he raises questions about the invariant values of the translation function.Shvzel believes that translation functional invariant values include both semantic and grammatical aspects.
 
−
In 1974 Lezkel (Я.И.Рецкер) has published the book "Translation Theory and Translation Practice (An Introduction to the Theory of Linguistics of Translation)" ("Теория перевода и переводическая практика - Очерки лингвистическои теории перевода"), which discusses some key issues in the linguistics theory of translation, which are directly related to the translation practice.The book compares the lexical grammar and rhetorical characteristics of English with its functional counterpart in Russian, and reveals the logical semantic basis of using various translation techniques and methods in the translation process.
 
−
 
 
−
1975 Balhudarov (Л.С.Бархударов) published the book "Language and Translation" ("Язык и перевод"), which aroused widespread response in the Soviet translation community and was considered the representative work of the Soviet language school translation theory in the 1970s. The biggest characteristic of the book is to link the translation theory with the latest achievements in linguistics in the world, and put forward the linguistics theory of translation is comparing discourse linguistics, more specifically, is the semantic discourse in different languages, and the actual segmentation of the sentence is an essential condition of equivalent translation and a series of new arguments. Balhuduff makes it clear that translation changes the speech product of one language to another while keeping the content unchanged, that is, the translator does not deal with the language system, but with the language product.In addition, he discussed translationability, the nature of translation theory, semantics and translation, translation units, and translation methods.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1976, Chernhovskikaya (Л.А.Черняховская) published the book "Translation and the Semantic Structure" ("Перевод и смысловая структура"), the only Soviet work that conveys the logical focus and real semantic segmentation of sentences in translation.
 
−
 
 
−
That same year, Levitskaya (Т.Р.Леницкая) and Fejelman (А.М.Фетерман) published the book "translation problem" ("Проблемы перевода"), the book discusses English and Russian due to different vocabulary, grammar, rhetorical structure and the main translation problems, its focus is not the translation process itself and general translation methods and skills, but for the difficulty of English translation into Russian method.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1977 Lambimov (Н.М.Любимов) highlighted in "Translation is Art" ("Перевод - искусство") that literary translation is an art that pursues artistic accuracy rather than literal slave-style fidelity.At the same time, it is also proposed that words as language units can only be reflected in, or through words, so the objective reality of language existence is the overall —— discourse of the work. The basic category of translation is the discourse.
 
−
 
 
−
And 1978 Venogradov (В.С.Виноградов) pointed out in "The Lexical Problems of Literary Prose Translation" ("Лексические вопросы перевода художественнои прозы") that words are the basic unit of language, so, it is also the starting point of translation.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1978, Komisarov edited and published the collection of "Translation Theory Issues in Foreign Linguistics" ("Вопросы теории перевода в зарубежнои лингвистике"), It fairly fully introduces the state of Western linguists studying translation theory, The book is divided into four themes, Both: the general linguistics problem of translation, Translation equivalent, translation process, Translational linguistics and Translational rhetoric; Translating the relevant discourse of some famous western linguists, For example, Jacobson (R.Jackbcon), one of the founders of the Prague School, British linguist J.R.Firch (J.R.Firch) and others.The influence of this collection is evident from the later writings of translation theorists of the Soviet language school.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1980, Komisarov published the book "translation linguistics" ("Лингвистика перевода"), which pointed out that the perspective of linguistics is entering a new stage, turned out to regard the linguistics translation theory as a part of applied linguistics, for the translation practice of service, its focus is on the translation process, its task is to study the linguistics mode of translation and determine the principle of translation. The results of studying translation from the perspective of linguistics show that translation is an integral part of linguistics, and the theoretical analysis of interlanguage communication phenomenon is necessary for the development of linguistics itself. Therefore, translation should be regarded as a special form of language function, which is a special method of its speech practice, and our knowledge of the essence and function of language is incomplete. That is, linguistic analysis of translation can not only serve translation practice, but also promote development of linguistics itself. It is under the guidance of this idea that the book discusses the general linguistics theory of translation, translation semantics, translation linguistics, translation rhetoric, translation mode, translation standards. Therefore, it provides a new perspective for the study of translation theory.
 
−
 
 
−
In the same year, the Minyal. Bellolluchev (Р.К.Миньяр - Белоручев) published the book "Translation" ("Общая теория перевода и устныи перевод").The book regards translational science as an independent subject on the grounds that it has its own subjects, content and a complete set of terms; thinks that translation research is beyond the scope of linguistics, it is a subject of linguistics, psychology, semiotics, sociology intersection, mainly applicable to translation between any two languages; proposes the discourse information theory, the main method of translation and the classification of language means in translation and so on.The book first used the interpretation as a research subject.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1981, Ratshev (Л.К.Латышев) published the "Translation Tutorial —— Translation equivalent and achieve the equivalent Method" ("Курс перевода: Эквивалентность перевода и способы ее достижения"), which divided the translation equivalent into formal and functional equivalent two types, and proposed the specific methods to achieve the translation equivalent.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1983, Feodorov published the collection of "Translation Art and Literary Life" ("Искусство перевода и жизнь литературы."), indicating from the preface entitled "A Window to Another World" ("Окнов другои мир") that Feodorov partially accepted the other's views through disputes with the school of translation theory and literature.At the same time, he argued that Gaczrazzer greatly limited the role of language in translation, seeing language as mere technical means.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1985, Lvorskaya (З.Д.Львовская) published the book "Theoretical Issues of Translation"(Теоритическая проблема перевода”), which based on the theory of communicative function, believing that discourse meaning is divided into linguistic and verbal categories. The equivalent of translation is not the absolute invariance of the semantic, pragmatic, and environmental components in the meaning structure, but only the equivalence of pragmatic and environmental components.
 
−
The 20th century school of literature in the translation theory of outstanding events is in the journal "literary review" ("Литературное обозрение") continuously on the discussion of translation problem, the content involves: the necessity of the translation theory, how to overcome the two extreme, how to treat the original aesthetics, time color, translation can really convey "the spirit of the original"  and the creation of the translator, etc.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1988, Shvzzer, a translation theorist of the language school, published the book "Translation Theory: Status, Problems and Face"(“Теория перевода : Статус, проблема, аспекты”). The author combines the latest achievements in linguistics in the field of speech linguistics, sentence semantics, communication linguistics and psychological linguistics, the status of translation theory, the essence of translation, equivalent, similarities, interpretability, translation semantic, language, discourse and translation and other six issues, the language school translation theory research mentioned a new stage.
 
−
 
 
−
In 1990, Komisarov's book "Translation Theory (Linguistics)" ("Теория перевода (линвистические вопросы") clearly stated in his preface that translation theory is an important part of the training of future translators. As a textbook, the book aims to introduce the basic principles of translational linguistics theory.
 
−
In the 1980s, the Soviet theory of scientific and technological translation developed rapidly, and published a lot of articles and monographs.
 
−
 
 
−
In all, the Soviet theory of translation has been developed from scratch, from sporadic to systematic, constantly enriched, and constantly deepening step by step.
 
−
 
 
−
===5. The Literary School of Translation===
 
−
===5.1 Realistic Translation pioneered by E.A.Kashkin===
 
−
 
 
−
Kashkin Ivan Alexandrovich - literary critic, translator and critic. He brought up a significant group of translators from the English language. He translated J. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales (1946, with O. Rumer). Promoter of the best achievements of modern English and American poetry (R. Frost, K. Sandberg) and prose (E. Hemingway, E. Caldwell, J. Wayne, etc.). Aslo, he is the author of historical and literary studies about J. Conrad, L. Stevenson, W. Faulkner, E. Hemingway and others.
 
−
 
 
−
Some translators believe that they must obey the "absolute authority" of the original text and pursue the following word by word. Other translators advocate for loyalty to the original text.  And Kashkin believes that realism in art is a complex and diverse phenomenon, which is restricted by history. Realism in art is real and poetic. Exactly, to feel and reflect world —— realism through inspiration is reflected in artistic life itself.
 
−
 
 
−
In order to accurately convey the ideological content of the original work, and creatively reproduce the artistic characteristics and national characteristics of the original work, it must adopt the realistic translation method. The translator must respect the reality of the text, but not simply copy the text symbols of the original text, but strive to reproduce the objective reality expressed by the text and give it life.
 
−
 
 
−
Translators should understand the author of the original text's direct feelings of reality through the barrier of the syntactic structure of a foreign language. Only in this way could he reproduce the original in the same powerful and clear language, as did the original author did. The translator should see the phenomena, thoughts, things, behaviors and conditions through the words of the original work, and specifically reproduce this reality in the eyes of the original author.
 
−
Reality in art is the image to reflect the essential characteristics in reality. (Kashkin, 1977)
 
−
 
 
−
The truth in literary translation is not a final pursuit that the surface is similar to the original text, nor does it simply copy all the unimportant details.The truth in literary translation is based on the internal logic of the image, and first, to faithfully translate the essence of the original text.The translator should faithfully understand the author's conception and creative intention, and retain the artistic characteristics of the original work, the historical reality and the atmosphere of The Times.
 
−
 
 
−
Otherwise, Kashkin believes that there must be a strict distinction between artistic images that should be conveyed and verbal images that occasionally occur in translation.Because language is the basic means of expressing all literature, but the basic task and main difficulty of literary and artistic translation is not to copy the language of the original text, including the language structure elements, but in the artistic reproduction of the original image, considering the differences of the language system.
 
−
 
 
−
===5.2 Gaczilaser’s realistic view of translations===
 
−
 
 
−
Professor Givi Razhdenovich Gaczilaser is one of the largest specialists in the field of literary translation theory, the author of the famous monograph "The Problem of Realistic Translation", a translator of Shakespeare, Byron, Shelley and other English poets into Georgian. In the book offered to the reader's attention, he continued to develop in depth the theory and practice of literary translation. Proceeding from Lenin's theory of reflection, G. Gachechiladze considers literary translation as a form of cognition, as a creative act that helps the reader approach not only a foreign language work, but also the living reality reflected in this work.
 
−
Gaczilaser believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes.One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice. Because different means of expressing ideas are very different languages, word-by-word translation and artistic quality are always contradictory.
 
−
 
 
−
If the translator is limited to the original and not to reproduce what the author sees in the imagination, he is not a creative person. The translator should take the author's thoughts as the starting point, the original text serve the deep understanding of artistic reality. The translator should see the real life reflected in the original work behind the artistic reality, and it is not to create his own work.Realistic translation method refers to realists following the law of realistic art, reflecting the artistic reality of the original, and consistent with the original, more specifically, rhetorical consistency, only help to achieve linguistic loyalty, but should not let this affect their own will. Loyal to the author's artistic truth is the goal of the realistic translator.The artistic reality of the original includes both content and form, and even the unity of form and content. ( Gaczilaser, 1964)
 
−
 
 
−
It is undoubtedly correct to compare the two language systems in the translation process.However, this contrast has certain limitations, as each language has its characteristic means of rhetoric.Just as there is no unified language, there is no unified rhetoric of all languages, nor the unified grammar of all languages. The application of rhetorical rules to any specific language would rise to a national, independent rhetorical system. Thus, the rhetorical rule can only be judged based on the character of some language.
 
−
 
 
−
===6. The Linguistic School Translation===
 
−
===6.1 Balhuadov’s Translation Concept===
 
−
 
 
−
Balhuarov was a famous translation theorist in the Soviet Union in the 20th century, one of the representatives of the language school and a doctor of Soviet philology, and has been engaged in translation teaching and translation theory research for many years. It is represented as the Language and Translation ("Язык и перевод").
 
−
 
 
−
From the perspective of the research subjects of the translation theory, Balhudav believes that the task of the linguistics theory of the translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process. In the view, on the one hand, translation theory, like any other theoretical model, reflects only some of the most important features of its subjects, rather than all features. (Balhudarov, 1975) Translation theory studies not all the relationship between the original language and the translation language, but the regular relationship between the two, that is, the typical and recurrent correspondence.On the other hand, translation theory, like any other discipline theory, stipulates not only a pattern, but many patterns that reflect the translation process in different ways as well as various characteristics.
 
−
 
 
−
From the essence of translation, Balhuudaf believes that translation is the process of converting a speech product into another language while keeping the content level (i. e., meaning) unchanged. Among them, the term “meaning” refers to the various relationships of language units. Translation is a process of changing one language discourse into another language discourse. The object of translation is not a language system, but a discourse.For translation, it is not the equivalent of the individual word, but the equivalent of the full text.Thus, the semantic differences between the two languages are not an insurmountable barrier in translation.
 
−
In addition, from the discussion of semantic problems of translation, Balhudv believes that the semantic problem of translation must be studied and conveyed from three aspects: meaning, pragmatic meaning and internal meaning.But on semantic issues, he presented no substantive content, with similar views mentioned by Jackson and Nida et al. in the late 1920s and early 1960s.But Balhudaf's interpretation is more detailed and fulfilling, and more generalized in some places.
 
−
 
 
−
Balhudaf also establishes equivalent translation from six levels: phonemic, phoneme, word, phrase, sentence, and discourse layer. The six levels are applied more systematically to translation theory. ( Balhudarov, 1975)
 
−
 
 
−
===7. Conclusion ===
 
−
 
 
−
To sum up, by introducing the historical evolution of the development of translation theory in the Soviet Union, we and the representatives of the school of translation literature and art and the translation language school can draw the following conclusions:
 
−
 
 
−
First of all, the developmental foundation of the Soviet translation theory was weak. By the beginning of World War II, the discussion of translation theory had formed no systematic and complete theories, and they were all carried out from the perspective of literature and art. Only translation textbooks and translation instructional references are exceptional and are conducted from a linguistic perspective .After World War II, the Soviet Union began a new period of studying the translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. Its main feature was to connect the translation theory with the comparative linguistics, and to reveal the correspondence of the two languages on the basis of comparing the two languages. In 1954, translator Kaskin proposed that translation should not be separated from literature and art. Since then, the Soviet theory of translation has gradually formed two major schools, namely, the school of literature and art and the linguistic school. The two factions had long debated, culminating after the late 1950s and 1960s, with numerous papers and monographs each published.
 
−
 
 
−
Secondly, from the perspective of the literary school of translation, Kashkin, the theorist of translation, founded the realistic concept of translation, believing that the translation should pay attention to understanding the feelings of the original author, and believing that we must strictly distinguish the artistic image that should be conveyed and the occasional language image in the translation. Translation theorist Gaczirze believes that the principles of literary translation have been swinging between the two extremes. One is word-by-word translation, and the other is artistically equivalent but written away from the original text. He thought it would be easy to combine the two principles, but it was impossible in practice.
 
−
 
 
−
Thirdly, from the perspective of the language school of translation, the translation theorist Balhudarov believes that the task of the linguistics theory of translation is to pattern the translation process and put forward some scientific diagram for the translation process, which can more accurately reflect the important aspects of this process.He made great contributions to the linguistic school of translation.
 
−
 
 
−
All in all, the translation theory of the Soviet period has its own unique development path. The Soviet translation theorists in this period made great contributions to the history of Soviet translation, also, the translation theory of the Soviet period became an indispensable part of the world translation theory map.
 
−
 
 
−
===8. References ===
 
−
 
 
−
1.Cai, Yi 蔡毅，Duan,Jinghua, 段京华. Translation Studies in USSR苏联翻译理论.湖北教育出版社，2000
 
−
 
 
−
2.Liu Miqing刘宓庆，Translation Basics 翻译基础.上海.华东师范大学出版社，2008
 
−
 
 
−
3.Wu, Keli 吴克礼.The Translation Methods and Studies in USSR 俄苏翻译理论流派综述. 上海外语教育出版社，2006
 
−
 
 
−
4.Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.Translation Studies 翻译学.复旦大学出版社，2017
 
  
−
5.Tan, Zaixi 谭载喜.History of Western Translation 西方翻译简史.北京.商务印书馆，1991
 
  
−
6.Xu, Jun 许均. Translation Theories 翻译论. 湖北教育出版社，2003
 
−
 
−
7.Kashkin Иван Кашкин. Статьи и исследования. Москва. Советский писатель, 1977
 
−
 
−
8.Gaczilaser Гиви Гачечиладзе. Вопросы теории художественного перевода. Тбилиси: Литература да хлебовнеба, 1964
 
−
 
−
Balhudarov Бархударов Л.С. Язык и перевод: Вопросы общей и частной теории перевода, Международные отношения, 1975
 
−
 
−
=14  杨爱江 History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1919 to 1949=
 
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]]
 
[[Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14]]
−
 
−
===Abstract===
 
−
Before and after the May Fourth Movement, there is an unprecedented cultural revolution in the field of ideology and culture, the New Culture Movement. The main purpose of this movement is to enlighten the public and spread advanced idea and culture. Many literary societies are created during this period. They translate many books which are written in foreign countries. The translation theories are developed gradually in this process. The aim of this paper is to give a systematic description and analysis about the translation theories raised by those famous writer, such as Lu Xun and Guo Moruo. Then we will have a comprehensive understanding about the translation theories from 1911 to 1949.
 
−
 
−
===Key words===
 
−
Translation theories, Translation standards, Translators, Literary societies
 
−
 
−
===1. Introduction===
 
−
 
−
The New Culture Movement is also an important milestone in the history of Chinese literature. The literature changes greatly from form to content in this period, surpassing the literary changes of any past era.With the vigorous development of the New Literature Movement, literary translation has also entered the most glorious period in the history of translation. The journal “New Youth” which was founded by Chen Duxiu translated and introduced many foreign literature works, so did other associations and journals.
 
−
 
−
During this period, literary translation had two significant characteristics: First, the May Fourth New Literature translation was another translation climax following the climax of translating Western works. In Comparison with the climax of translating Western works, fundamental changes have taken place in the number of translation works as well as the quality of these works. The important sign is that the leading forces of translation in this period are revolutionary writers such as Lu Xun and Guo Moruo, who are first-rate literary translators. Under the active advocacy and hard work of these people, Chinese literary translation has achieved extensive and in-depth development, forming a positive translation style. At the same time, a large number of outstanding professional translators emerged, such as Zhu Shenghao and Fu Lei. Second, in comparison with translation of other foreign countries’ literature works, Russian literature works’ translation dominates in the society. In addition, translating works about Marxism is another important aspect in that period.
 
−
 
−
===2. Some Debates in this Period===
 
−
 
−
The prosperity of translation in the New Culture Movement brought about the vitality of translation theory, which made new advances on the translation work. Different translation methods were raised by different scholars. During this period, the vigorous literary revolution and the development of the vernacular literature movement promoted a thorough transformation of the translation style, boosting the transition of the traditional translation theories.
 
−
 
−
===2.1 Literal Translation and Free Translation===
 
−
 
−
The language structure and stylistic structure of English and Chinese have the same side. When translating the source texts, we can translate it according to the structure of the original text, which is the so-called "literal translation". The content of the original text is put in the first place, faithful to the original text the second. The smoothness of the target text is of the least importance of all. It is not only faithful to the original content, but also in line with the language and stylistic structure of the original text. On the contrary, free translation emphasizes that the content of the source text should be in the first place. What matters most is to express the meaning of the source text faithfully. Besides, the translator can be free from restriction of the form of the source language. But the target translation is required to be natural and smooth.
 
−
 
−
The first problem encountered in the development of the translation theory is the relationship between vernacular, classical Chinese, literal translation and free translation. Some thinks that literal translation should be used in vernacular, while free translation should be in classical Chinese. Using classical Chinese in free translation can reveal the beauty of Chinese to the most. Others deem that literal translation and free translation should be in vernacular. While the third view is that literal translation or free translation has nothing to do with vernacular or classical Chinese.
 
−
 
−
The common method in the translation process is to combine literal translation with free translation. Any good translation work will not just use a single translation method throughout the whole passgae. And the two translation methods are used together in the same translation work to maintain the accuracy of the original content and avoid ambiguity.
 
−
 
−
===2.2 Faithfulness or Smoothness===
 
−
 
−
From the late 1920s to the early 1930s, there was a debate about translation standards in the translation field. Many famous scholars were involved in this debate, which lasted for eight years and shocked the entire literary field. In 1929, Liang Shiqiu criticized Lu Xun's translation method of “rigid translation”, saying that "it is better to be smooth than to be faithful." Zhao Jingshen also believed that translating books should satisfy the needs of the target readers; In other words, we should put the readers in the first place. Then we could consider whether the translation was correct or not. The most important thing is the smoothness of the translation. Therefore, Zhao Jingshen said that it should be expressiveness, faithfulness and elegance according to the importance of the three standards put forward by Yan Fu. The main leaders of this controversy, the representatives of “Faithfulness” are Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai. The representatives of“Smoothness” are Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen. The two parties discussed the following topics: the issue of faithfulness and smoothness, literal translation and free translation, Europeanization and domestication and the issue of retranslation. These are the four central points of this debate. Consensus was reached in many aspects through this debates. This debate acts as a catalyst for the development of the traditional Chinese translation theory.
 
−
 
−
[1]王秉钦(Wang Bingqin). 2004. 20世纪中国翻译思想史[M]. 天津.南开大学出版社
 
−
 
−
[2]刘虎 (Liu Hu). 2021. 中国翻译理论研究综述(2000～2019)——以《中国翻译》文献计量研究为例[J].外文研究, 9(02):80-88+109.
 
−
 
−
===3. The literary Societies in this Period===
 
−
 
−
During the May fourth movement, many famous literary societies which were specialized in the translation of foreign literary works emerged. More than one hundred literary societies and several hundred periodicals were founded between 1921 and 1925. Focusing on different aspects, they translated many famous works in other countries Some organizations specialized in the translation and translation of foreign literature appeared in China. For example, the Literature Research Academy was initiated by Shen Yanbing and Zheng Zhenduo, the Creation Society organized by Guo Moruo and the Crescent Society formed by Hu Shi, Liang Shiqiu and Xu Zhimo. These new literary societies shouldered the responsibility of translation and made great contributions to the development of translation. Their works offered a window on the advanced thoughts in the foreign countries at that time.
 
−
 
−
===3.1The Creation Society===
 
−
 
−
The Creation Society (Chuangzao She) is one of the most crucial literary
 
−
societies in the 1920s in China, which was formed in Tokyo, Japan in June 1921 and closed down in February 1929 thanks to the oppression from Kuo Min tang government. In the early stages, its members were Chinese students who studied in Japan, such as Guo Moruo, Yu Dafu, Cheng Fangwu, Zhang Ziping, Tian Han and Mu Mutian. Later new comers joined in this society, such as Hong Weifa, Deng Junwu, Wang Duqing, Teng Gu, Xu Zuzheng, Zhang Dinghuang Tao Jingsun, Jing Yinyu and He Wei. In 1924, it had about thirty members. The purpose of the Creation Society is to build new literature under the slogan of “Creation” and to eliminate some poorly produced translation works in the new literature school.
 
−
In addition, the creation Society also has its own important promotion tool, such as Creation Quarterly and Creation Weekly. And most of its translation activities were reflected in these periodicals. Creation Quarterly was the earliest journal of the Creation Society, which was edited by Guo Moruo, Cheng Fangwu and Yu Dafu. It started publication on March 15, 1922 and ended in the late February 1924, having totally published 2 volumes, the first volume with 4 issues and the second one with 2 issues. Creation Weekly, its second joumal, was also edited by Guo, Cheng and Yu. It began in May 1923 and came to its end in May 1924, with the total number of 52 issues. Both Creation Quarterly and Creation Weekly were published by Shanghai Taidong Publishing House. Creation Daily was the last publication of the early Creation Society, which was edited by Cheng Fangwu, Yu Dafu and Deng Junwu. It was the literary supplement of a newspaper called New China Daily. Its first publication was on July 21, 1923 and the last on November 2 of the same year, totally 101 issues. Apart from its outstanding writings, the translation works of its members played an important role in the translation history of China since their translation activities covered a wide range, including fiction, poetry and drama. Besides, the members of the Creation Society were concentrated on introducing persuasive literary schools in the western countries, such as Romanticism, Aestheticism and Symbolism. It was generally acknowledged that the Creation Society laid the foundation for the translation of romantic literary works. The source texts in these three periodicals mainly were written in England, France and Germany. The famous English writers or poets the early Creation Society introduced included Oscar Wilde, Shelley, Thomas Grey, Wordsworth, Dickens. Besides, they also translated some works written by French and German writers, such as Hugo and Heine.
 
−
As mentioned before, the Creation Society mainly focused on translating romantic works. Romanticism was a broad intellectual and artistic movement disposition that arose toward the end of the eighteenth century and reached its zenith during the early decades of the nineteenth century. The ideals of Romanticism included an intense focus on expressing human subjectivity, an exaltation of nature, human passion and emotion. Underlying nearly all Romantic views of literature was an intense individualism based on the authority of experience.
 
−
 
−
===3.1.1Reason from historical background===
 
−
 
−
During the May Fourth movement, the society in China needed urgently revolution to build a more prosperous future. Percy Bysshe Shelly who is a romanticist also creates many poems about revolution. He loved people and hated oppressors and exploiters. Shelly called on the people to overthrew the rule of tyranny and injustice and prophesied a happy and free future for mankind. He remained in this social and political ideal and fought for it all his life. We can have a look at his poems which can help us to understand the reason why Guo Moruo is so fond of Shelly’s poems. Shelly 's Political Poems “Queen Mab” is a long poem of great importance, which contains almost all Shelley’s major social and political ideas. It is written in the form of a fairy-tale dream. Through the mouth of the fairy queen the poet presents his own views on philosophy, religion, morality and social problems. Queen Mab is a revolutionary poem condemning tyranny and exploitation and the unjust war lunched by the rich to plunder wealth. The Revolt of Islam is another important poem of Shelley’s. The poem tells of a brother and a sister, Laon and Cythna, who are united in their common ideal of liberty, equality and fraternity. They arouse the spirit of revolt among their Is lm people against their tyrants. Heroic struggle for the liberation of mankind and union with a sister-comrade were inseparable elements of Shelley’s idea. Prometheus Unbound stated that the figure of Prometheus has been symbolic of those noble-hearted revolutionaries. In this poem Prometheus represents mankind itself and Zeus, a symbol of all reactionary institutions. Though chained to the rock, Prometheus has great allies in the work. He is supported by innumerable forces. Thus inspired with a firm confidence in the final triumph of his just cause. Prometheus is perfectly calm in his sufferings. Finally, in spite of desperate resistance, Zeus is overthrown by the huge spirit Demogorgon, the symbol of change and revolution. Prometheus is released by the hero of great strength. The image of Prometheus unites four noble qualities: mans shaping intellect, his heroic endurance, the defiance against tyranny and the love of mankind. Prometheus bound becomes Prometheus unbound This symbolizes the victory for man's struggle against tyranny and oppression. From the analysis above we can come to a conclusion that both Shelly and Guo Moruo live in the same of revolution. They have the same revolutionary thoughts and emotional background. Guo Moruo also was devoted to the cause of revolution and trying to build a bright future for the public. In this case, it is no wonder that Guo Moruo has a fancy for Shelley’s poem. Moreover, Guo Moruo is able to understand the inner meaning of Shelley’s poems well thanks to their similar aspiration. Guo Moruo thinks highly of Shelley and considers Shelly as a “true poet”.
 
−
 
−
===3.1.2Reason from personal background===
 
−
 
−
At the beginning of this paper, it is mentioned that the Creatioin Society is mainly created by Chinese students who studied in Japan where they were influenced greatly by romanticism. Zheng Boqi presented his view about the reason why the members  of the Creation society tend to be romantic. It is no wonder that the writers of the Creation Society tended to romanticism. First, they have lived abroad for a long time. As a result, they are familiar with the defects of the capitalist and the decaying and corruptions of those in power. They know the weakness of the domestic society clearly. The members of the Creation Society feel extremely disappointed and suffer a lot. The oppression imposed on them by domestic and foreign countries only strengthened their rebellious mood. Second, after returning to China, they, faced with the society where the public leads a difficult life, feel at a loss about what they should do so that they can save people from the abyss of suffering. In this case, they need to find a way to express their emotions. The most fundamental philosophical disposition of Romanticism has often been seen as irony, an ability to accommodate conflicting perspectives of the world. Therefore, romantic works are very suitable for them to air their unhappiness and their sorrows.
 
−
Third, the persausive ideas in Japan at that time would naturally affect them for they have lived in Japan for many years. Through the Japanese literatures, they read a large number of western literary works and theories. They have been involved in various western literary schools. The Japanese literature acts as an important guiding role. Some well-known writers are promoted through Japanese translators. The members of
 
−
the Creation Society fall under the spell of the thoughts of western writers, such as Shelley and Whitman. In the 10 years since the members of the Creation Club studied in Japan, the translation and introduction of works created by western romantic writers has not stopped in the Japanese literary world. Some scholars pointed out: "Most of the works translated and introduced in Japan at that time belonged to romantic works. Although the western critical realism and naturalist works played a dominant role in literature at the time. However, they were paid little attention." Besides, the Chinese students can learn a variety of foreign language courses in the universities in Japan. Generally, Japanese teachers often use literary works as teaching materials. This lays the foundation for the members in the Creation Society to understand western literature. All in all, Japanese literary world builds the bridge between Chinese students and western romantic works. Through contact with a large number of western literary works, the members of the Creation Society have a preference for romantic works, which is inseparable from the impact of the translation and introduction of Japanese literature.
 
−
 
−
 
−
[3]李涛 (Li Tao). 2019. “五四”时期文学翻译的题材选择研究——以文学研究会和创造社为例[J].长江丛刊, (15):47-48.
 
−
 
−
[4]熊辉(Xiong Hui). 2012. 从伦理学批评的角度重审创造社与文学研究会的翻译论争[J].上海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2012,41(02):92-98.
 
−
 
−
[5]王春雨 (Wang Chunyu). 2019. 日本浪漫主义文学对中国创造社的影响[D].辽宁大学
 
−
 
−
===3.2 The Literature Research Academy===
 
−
 
−
The Literature Research Academy was formally established in 1921. The initiators were Zheng Zhenduo, Shen Yanbing (Mao Dun), Ye Shaojun (Ye Shengtao), Zhou Zuoren and so on. With the development of this society, other famed writers joined the Literature Search Academy successively, including Xie Wanying (Bing Xin), Zhu Ziqing, Shu Qingchun (Lao She), Xu Zhimo etc, totaling more than 170 people. As a new literature society whose enormous contributions spans several areas, such as literature, politics and translation, during the May Fouth period, the power of the media significantly anticipates the development and success of the Literary Research Academy. First and foremost has been the impact of "Novel Monthly". From 1921 to 1922, Mao Dun served as the editor-in-chief of the "Novel Monthly". The "Novel Monthly" become a crucial tool for the Literature Research Academy to voice their thoughts and promote their translation texts. The members of this society translate and introduce a large number of foreign literary works, mainly focusing on realistic works in Russia, France and Northern Europe. Besides, they also introduce the trends of the literature around the world, literary theories and literary schools. At the same time, attention is paid on some famous foreign writers such as Andersen, Maupassant, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, and Roman Roland. According to statistics, from the first issue of Volume 12 published in January 1921 to Issue 12 of Volume 17, the translations of Russian literature and French literature occupied a dominant position.
 
−
 
−
 
−
[6]史濛 (Shi Meng). 2020. “人的文学”时期文学研究会对列夫·托尔斯泰的接受研究[D].河南大学
 
−
 
−
[7]倪平 (Ni Ping). 1985.《小说月报》和文学研究会[J].上海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (03):144-145.
 
−
 
−
===3.3 The Weiming Society===
 
−
 
−
Weiming Society was founded in Beijing in August 1925 and initiated by Lu Xun. Along with the movements in literature and translation, the Weiming Society were a group of writers who flourished during the period of the New Culture Movement. An important concern of the members of the Weiming society was to get the works and translations of young writers published. Short though the time of its existence may have been, it nonetheless exerted a powerful attraction through their introduction to the foreign literary works. Lu Xun thought that the Weiming society “work surefootedly and never brag about itself”. It is this kind of attitude that helps this society to build a good reputation among the readers. The Weiming Society is called that one of the only three literary groups whose influence on China's literature continues to the present day.
 
−
As mentioned above, what underlies the creation of the Weiming Society is an awareness that the writers should translate literary works in foreign countries as much as possible. Therefore, the translation of other foreign works played an important role in the activities of theWeiming Society. From 1925 to1930, the members of the Weiming Society at least would translate a book. In some years, they published three or four books. Among these books, some were translated completely. And they sometimes only chose a part of the book to translate. 
 
−
 
−
 
−
[8]张婷婷 (Zhang Tingting). 2013. 未名社的翻译活动研究（1925-1930）[D].华中师范大学.
 
−
 
−
===4. The Translators in these Literary Societies===
 
−
 
−
===4.1Guo Moruo from the Creation Society===
 
−
 
−
Guo Moruo is a well-known Chinese writer, poet, dramatist, historian as well as an outstanding translator. Like Lu Xun, he is a great pioneer in the history of modern Chinese thought and culture, and a master of Chinese new literature. The influence of his thought on many fundamental areas including literature, art, philosophy, Marxist theoretical works and foreign literature translation continues to the present day. He is worthy of the 20th century Chinese cultural giant and world cultural celebrity.
 
−
 
−
===4.1.1The Purpose and Significance of Translation===
 
−
 
−
In the 1920s, the two major literary societies of Chinese new literature, namely, the Literature Research Academy and the Creation Society, which hold two different literary schools of realism and romanticism respectively, had a debate on translation, especially on the purpose of translation. The Literature Research Academy advocated the translation of 19th century Russian literature, oppressed national literature, and critical realist works of other countries. They paid little attention to the famous western classics. Mao Dun who was the main figure of the "Literature Research Academy" said that the translation of Faust and other books was not the most important thing to do at that time. When introducing works to the public, one should evaluate the situation and get one’s priorities right. Earlier, he published a piece titled "Blind Translator", saying that translating western classics is uneconomical. Besides, Mao Dun also made a list of books that were not the first priority to translate, including Dante's "The Divine Comedy," Shakespeare's "Hamlet" and Geothe's "Faust." Guo Moruo's opinion about the motivation and effect of translation was put forward under such background. It was at that time that Guo Moruo was working on the translation of Faust. Guo Moruo raised the opposite opinion, claiming that as long as a the work was a good translation one, then it was necessary at any time and economical for any readers which also highlighted the difference between the Creative Society and Literary Research Academy in choosing works to translate. Guo Moruo decried those who had the mentality of speculation and wanted to make a living and catch fame by translating books, asserting that it was the irresponsible attitude of some translators at that time which led to the occurrence of abuse of translation and works of low quality. These irresponsible translators rushed to translate before thinking clearly about the necessity of translation.
 
−
Then what is the correct translation motivation? Guo Moruo said: “We need to awaken our intrinsic cultural spirit by taking the essence in the western culture."(Guo Moruo, 1990:157) It can be seen that Guo Moruo's original translation motivation was to awaken the people and the spirit of Chinese culture, to get rid of the inherent defects of being lazy and idle and to liberate people's minds. He stated the relationship between the motivation and the effect. He said:
 
−
“If, before translating, he invests the work with creation spirit, makes a thorough study of the translated work, obtains a correct understanding and feels the compulsion in the process of translation, the translations that he produces, of course, can be effective and arouse readers' interest. The translations of such translators are necessary at all times and economical for all readers.”
 
−
 
−
===4.1.2Graceful translation===
 
−
 
−
In nearly half a century of translation activities, he devoted a great deal of his own efforts and translated a large number of works. He called his method of translation "Graceful Translation". He thinks such a translation is an ideal one. He wrote:
 
−
“ We believe that the ideal translation must not deviate from the original words, the meaning of the original and especially must hold the spirit of the original.The words of the original text should be kept. But there should be no need to translate word for word. Either before or after, it can be freely transferred for the sake of “Gracefulness” to the extent that it does not damage the meaning,
 
−
In order to keep the words, meaning and gracefulness of the original text, it needs the following conditions:(1) the translator should be a master of using words. (2)understand the original book clearly, (3) to study the author, (4) have the ability to use the native language freely to express his ideas. Of course, these conditions are not easy to obtain, relying on years of study. Not only should we study language diligently, but we should be familiar with all the local customs of a country; We should dabble in the knowledge mentioned in the original book; It is necessary for us to know the life of the author.
 
−
 
−
[9]高洁(Gao Joe). 2017. 郭沫若诗歌翻译中的“移情”——以翻译雪莱诗歌为例[J].三峡大学学报(人文社会科学版), 39(S2):122-124.
 
−
 
−
[10]谭福民(Tan Fumin). 2012. 郭沫若翻译研究[D].湖南师范大学.
 
−
 
−
[11]杨君君(Yang Junjun)、李正栓(Li Zhengshuan). 2016. 郭沫若英诗翻译原则探析——以彭斯和雪莱诗歌为例[J].燕山大学学报(哲学社会科学版), 17(02):37-40.
 
−
 
−
[12]严晓英（Yan Xiaoying). 2007. 郭沫若翻译研究[D].华东师范大学.
 
−
 
−
[13]王秉钦（Wang Bingqin). 2004. 20世纪中国翻译思想史[M]. 天津.南开大学出版社
 
−
 
−
===4.2 Zheng Zhenduo from the Literature Research Academy===
 
−
 
−
Born in Wenzhou, Zhejiang province, Zheng Zhenduo studied in Beijing Railway Management School in 1917 when he read a lot of western social science works and Russian literature, which inspired him intellectually. He was the leader of the students in the school during the May Fourth Movement. In October 1920, he initiated the preparation for establishing the Literature Research Academy, and later served as the secretary of this society. Zheng Zhenduo has made great contributions in many fields, so does in translation theory. On March 20, 1920, he wrote the preface to the Famous Russian Short Novel Series translated by Geng Jizhi and others. In this preface, he introduces the great significance of introducing Russian critical realism literature, which, he thinks, is conducive to create Chinese new literature. At the same time, he also viewed the shortcomings of the previous translation as sporadic, messy and not systematic, advocating original and systematic translation. He supports that translating directly from the original text is more explicit than translating other intermediate works.
 
−
 
−
===4.2.1The translatability of literary works===
 
−
 
−
Zheng Zhenduo’s first formal monograph on translation, which was also the first monograph on translation published by the Literature Research Academy after its establishment, was an article called "The Three Problems in Translating Literary Books". The first question put forward by Zheng Zhenduo was: "Can literary books be translated?" This was really the problem that needed to be solved. Since the launch of the New Literature Movement, some people openly doubted whether the translated works could hold the thoughts and artistic beauty of the original works for people’s understanding about the nature of the literature was deepened considerably. What’s more, some people even insisted that literary works were absolutely untranslatable. Especially in the translation of poetry, this idea what the literary books were absolutely impossible to translate was more popular. Obviously, it was imperative to explain this problem clearly for the development of the translation. Zheng Zhenduo said that translating literary books was absolutely feasible. Not only could the thoughts expressed by the original literary book be completely transferred into the target text, but also the artistic beauty of the original text could be fully shown in the target text. A mere glance at the works of other translators could also tell us that literary books was translatable. “He emphasizes that the transfer of the thoughts could be“complete" and the transfer of artistic beauty could be“sufficient". He is very cautious about the choice of words in the target language text. Both the theory (the ideal) and the practice can illustrate this fact.” (Duan, 2008) The opinion that "literaturary books were untranslatable" was derived from the old narrow concept of literature. Zheng Zhenduo pointed out that if we deny the possibility of translation, we actually neglect the international communication of literature and the meaning of world literature. An overemphasis on the inseparability of "thought" and "words” means the negation of the vitality of literature itself.
 
−
 
−
===4.2.2 Translation and creation===
 
−
 
−
In 1920s, translation was considered to be of little importance, believing that creation should be put in the first place. The view that "translation is just a matchmaker and what we should make a lot of efforts is creation" once dominated the lierature circle at that time. Zheng Zhenduo thought totally different. He wrote an article to highlight the importance of translation. There is no denying that creation is very crucial. However, viewing translation as a matchmaker is to belittle the benefits of translation. From the perspective of literature, translation which introduces some renowned  foreign literary works is conducive to enrich our traditional literature. For people, it can enhance people's spiritual world. As mentioned above, Zheng Zhenduo further proposes that translating a literary work is like creating a literary work; Both of them should be put great value.
 
−
 
−
[14]刘国忠(Liu Guozhong). 2005. 译史探真——郑振铎:中国近代翻译理论的开拓者之一[J].外语教学,2005(05):73-75.
 
−
 
−
[15]杨祎(Yang Yi). 2014. 郑振铎翻译理论及实践研究[D].河北大学.
 
−
 
−
[16]张娟(Zhang Juan). 2014. 从《飞鸟集》看郑振铎的翻译理论与技巧[J].河南工程学院学报(社会科学版), 29(03):52-54.
 
−
 
−
===4.3  Lu Xun from the Weiming Society===
 
−
 
−
Lu Xun’s translation theory was formed on the basis of critically inheriting the translation theory of translating Buddhist scriptures as well as the theory formed in the process of translating social science and literary books in the late Qing Dynasty. Lu Xun is an outstanding translatior who puts forward many influential translation theories. In addition, he published a large number of articles concerning translation theories and translation thoughts to expound his views and fought relentlessly against various erroneous ideas and unhealthy trends and tendencies in the translation industry at that time, which developed traditional Chinese translation theories and thoughts significantly.
 
−
 
−
Lu Xun said that we must first settle a question before writing that we try to use domesdication or foreignization. A Japanese translator tends to support the former method. He believes that the translation of source text should first be easy to understand. The easier it is to understand, the more effective the translated work will be. Lu Xun holds the opposite opinion. There is no need for the writer to translate if they only pursue the lucidity of the text. Creating a work is much easier to understand. For translation, not only should we transfer the emotion hidden behind the words, but also the translated work should puzzle, at least letting the readers know the time and the place of a specific event, which is very similar to traveling abroad. The translated work should be exotic, which is the so-called foreignization. In fact, there will not be a completely domesticatedtranslation in the world. All translatiors must take into account both sides, one of course to make it easy to understand, the other meaning the preservation of the original charm. Lu Xun deemed that he would rather not translate smoothly in order to be faithful.
 
−
 
−
What should mention is that the standard of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" is different from Lu Xun's theory of "two sides" : "make every effort to be easy to understand" and "preserve the beauty of the original work", in other words, to be smooth as well as faithful. In essence, Lu Xun’s faithfulness requires the translated text to be faithful from content to form, including Yan Fu’s faithfulness and elegance. In other words, it is to be faithful to the content and form of the original work which is an inseparable unity in an original work, including linguistic elements, hyperlinguistic elements and artistic elements etc. This is the true meaning of Lu Xun's double standard of "easy to understand and faithful in form and content". Qu Qiubai also said: "Since it is called translation, it must be completely based on the original text, and the translator has no inherent ability to change the original text.
 
−
 
−
[17]陈红旗(Chen Hongqi). 2011. 论鲁迅与新月社的论争及其他[J].重庆师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版), (02):21-25.
 
−
 
−
[18]裴蕾(Pei Lei). 2009. 宁信不顺——管窥鲁迅翻译理论之“直译”法[J].湖南医科大学学报(社会科学版),11(01):156-157.
 
−
 
−
[19]崔峰(Cui Feng). 2006. 鲁迅翻译初探[D].上海外国语大学.
 
−
 
−
===5. Conclusion===
 
−
 
−
The early twentieth century brought a new awareness of promoting the foreign literary theories in China. Guo Moruo, Zheng Zhenduo and Luxun, the central figures in the creation of the literary societies! not only play an important role in introducing foreign literary theories and works, but also make great contribution to the development of translation. During the process of translating book, they gradually formed their own translation theories.
 

Latest revision as of 14:19, 22 December 2021

History of Translation Theories

Overview Page of History of Translation Theories

30 Chapters（0/30)

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_6 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_7 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_15 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_16 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_17 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_18 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_19 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_20 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_21 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_22 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_23 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_24 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_25 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_26 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_27 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_28 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_29 Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_30 ...

Back to translation project overview

To the To Do List

1 李瑞洋 A Brief Introduction of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theories--from 1949 to Present

当代中国翻译理论简史（1949至今）

李瑞洋 Li Ruiyang, Hunan Normal University, China

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_1

2 陈心怡 History of Translation Theories of Russia after the collapse of Soviet Union

苏联解体后的俄罗斯翻译理论史

陈心怡 Chen Xinyi, Hunan Normal University, China

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_2

An Overview of Contemporary American Translation Theory——The American Translation Workshop

当代美国翻译理论概述——美国翻译研讨班流派

Zhang Yang, 张扬，Hunan Normal University, China

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_3

An Overview of the Development of Western Translation Theories

西方翻译理论发展概述

Zeng Junlin，曾俊霖, Hunan Normal University, China

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_4

History of Translation Theories from early Russia to the Soviet Union

从古罗斯到苏联前的翻译理论史

张怡然 Zhang Yiran,Hunan Normal University,China

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_5

A Brief Introduction of Contemporary American Translation Theory——Examplified mainly by Nida

简析当代美国翻译理论——以奈达为例

尹媛 Yin Yuan, Hunan Normal University, China

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_8

History of translation theory of France from 20th century to the present

20世纪至今的法国翻译理论史

李双 Li Shuang, Hunan Normal University, China

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_9

French Translation Theories from 16th Century to 18th Century

十六世纪至十八世纪法国翻译理论

杨堃 Yang Kun,Hunan Normal University,China.

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_10

A Brief Introduction to Translation Theories of Ancient Rome

古罗马翻译理论

Liu Yunxin,刘运心, Hunan Normal University, China

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_11

The Humanistic Trend in Western Translation Theory from the 14th to the 19th Century

14世纪至19世纪西方翻译理论中的人文主义思潮

Wei Zhaoyan 魏兆妍 Hunan Normal University, China 202120081528

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_12

History of Translation Theories in the Soviet Union

苏联时期翻译理论史

吴婧悦 WuJingyue, Hunan Normal University, China

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_13

14 杨爱江 History of Chinese Translation Theories from 1919 to 1949

Hist_Trans_Theo_EN_14

Retrieved from "https://bou.de/u/index.php?title=History_of_Translation_Theories&oldid=134202"