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4 何芩 The Translation of Cultural-loaded Words in Jiu Zhang in Chu Ci Translated by Xu Yuanchong

He Qin, 202120081489, Hunan Normal University, China

Abstract

Chu Ci is of great literary and historical value as one of the origins of Chinese poetry. One of the dominant features is that Chu Ci is of much regional color of the Chu State, where the Hu Xiang culture originated. The author tries to analyze the culture-loaded words in Jiu Zhang, nine elegies in Chu Ci, to find out what strategies and techniques Xu Yuanchong has adopted in translating different kinds of culture-loaded words. In this paper, we try to find out the Xu's preference on the translation strategies for culture-loaded words and the degree of manifestation of Hu Xiang culture in his translation. The analysis shows that Xu tends to adopt various translation methods on culture-loaded words, and dilutes the Hu Xiang cultural characteristics, in order to adapt to the form of poetry, thus failing to fully achieve the dissemination of Hu Xiang culture.

Key Words

Translation; Culture-loaded words;Chinese Classics; Hu Xiang Culture; Cultural Image

题目

《九章》许渊冲译本文化负载词的翻译

摘要

《楚辞》作为中国诗歌源头之一，具有十分重要的文学价值与历史价值，其主要特征表现在浓重的楚地色彩，作为湖湘文化的源头之一。作者尝试分析《楚辞》中《九章》内的文化负载词，分析许渊冲在各类文化负载词英译中采取的翻译技巧与翻译策略。本文试探寻许译本对于文化负载词翻译规律及湖湘文化在其翻译中的传播效果，分析表明许译本中文化负载词采用了多种翻译方法，为适应诗歌形式稀释了湖湘文化特质，未能很好实现湖湘文化传播。

关键词

翻译；文化负载词；中国典籍；湖湘文化;文化意象

1.Introduction

1.1 Research Background

In today's cultural globalization, the English translation of Chu Ci has a far-reaching impact on the intercultural communication of Chinese traditional culture, the spread of Chinese culture abroad and global cultural exchanges.

Due to the different cultural backgrounds, the translation of mythological images has become a difficult task in the cross-cultural communication and dissemination of the Chu Ci. The large number of culturally loaded words of mythological imagery is a great challenge for translation, as they contain rich cultural connotations and reflect specific linguistic and cultural characteristics.

1.2 Research Questions

What are the classification of culture-loaded words in Jiu Zhang？

What are the translation methods Xu Yuanchong adopted on different classes of culture-loaded words？

1.3 Structure of the Research

Chapter 1 gives a brief introduction on the research background and lists the research questions. Chapter 2 introduces Chu Ci and its author Qu Yuan, the translator Xu Yuanchong, the specific research material Jiu Zhang and the previous research on the translation of Chu Ci. Chapter 3 gives a definition of culture-loaded words and classification of cuture-loaded words in Jiu Zhang. Chapter 4 analyzes the translation methods Xu adopted on each class of culture-loaded words. Chapter 5 offers conclusions and reflections.

2.Literature Review

2.1 Qu Yuan and Chu Ci

Qu Yuan (340 BC-278 BC) was a poet and statesman of the Chu State during the Warring States period (403-221 B.C.). His surname was Mi (芈姓), Qu (屈氏), his name was Ping (平), and his "zi" was Yuan (原). He was born in Danyang, Chu (now Zigui, Hubei) in about 340 B.C. He was a descendant of Qu Xia, son of King Xiong Tong of Chu.

Qu Yuan was the first great patriotic poet in Chinese history, the founder of Chinese romantic literature, and is known as "the progenitor of Chinese poetry" and "the progenitor of rhetoric". He is the founder and representative of the "Chu Ci" and started the tradition of "herb and beauty".

Qu Yuan is the first great patriotic poet in Chinese history, the founder of Chinese romantic literature, and is known as "the progenitor of Chinese poetry" and "the progenitor of rhetoric". He is the founder and representative of the "Chu Ci" and starts the tradition of "herb and beauty".--Sun Yashi (talk) 07:25, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

In his early years, Qu Yuan was trusted by King Huai of Chu and served as a "Zuotu" and a great official of Sanlu, who was also in charge of domestic and foreign affairs. Qu Yuan was ambitious of politics and an advocate of "beautiful government". He welcomed intellects and appealed for revision of laws domestically, and sought for alliance with Qi against Qin externally. However, he was exiled to the north of Han and the Yuan-Xiang River because he was ostracized and slandered by the nobles.

Though suffered from exile and exclusion, Qu's writing is beautiful and imaginative. In the form of language, Qu Yuan's works break through the pattern of the four-character stanzas of the Book of Songs, with 5-9 characters per stanza, as well as three-character and ten-character stanzas, with a varied and flexible sentence structure; the word "兮" is used at the end of the stanzas, as well as "之", "于", "乎", "夫", and "而" and other empty words to harmonize the syllables and create a rhythm of ups and downs and three sighs. In short, his works have great creativity from content to form. As for the content, he used a lot of myths and legends, and brought the sun, moon, wind and clouds into the poems, making the rhetoric very splendid. He is good at using beauty and herbs as a metaphor for a gentleman, and evil wood and filthy grass as a metaphor for a villain. Through the technique of simile, he writes to the fullest extent the scene where the king believes in slander, treacherous people are in power, and patriotic people have no way to serve the country.

Chu Ci is the earliest collection of romantic poetry and the source of romantic literature. The name "Chu Ci" was first introduced in The Records of the Grand Historian - Cool Officials. It is evident that this name existed at least in the early Han Dynasty. Its original meaning was a general reference to the songs and rhetoric of the State of Chu, but later it became a specific term for the new poetic style represented by the compositions of Qu Yuan of the State of Chu during the Warring States period.

At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, Liu Xiang compiled the works of Qu Yuan and Song Yu, as well as those of Huainan Xiaoshan, Dongfang Shuo, Wang Bao and Liu Xiang in the Han Dynasty, into a collection of 16 chapters, which was named "Chu Ci". Later, Wang Yi added his own work "Jiu Si", which became the 17th chapters. The 17 chapters are: "Li Sao", "Jiu Ge", "Tian Wen", "Jiu Zhang", "Yuan You", "Bu Jv", "Yu Fu", "Jiu Bian", "Zhao Hun", "Da Zhao", "Xi Shi", "Zhao Yinshi", "Qi Jian", "Ai Shi Ming", "Jiu Huai", "Jiu Tan" and "Jiu Si". The structure of these seventeen chapters became the common text in later times.

Chu Ci uses the dialects and rhythms of the Chu region to describe the mountains, rivers, people and history of the Chu, and has a strong regional cultural color. The entire book is based on the works of Qu Yuan, and the rest of the poems also inherits the form of Qu Fu, with powerful feelings and flowing imagination. During the Warring States period, the custom of the Chu state was to believe in ghosts and gods, and religious rituals and prayers were popular among the people.Qu Yuan was in the Chu state where witchcraft was prevalent, and the rich myths and legends and primitive pantheism gave him ample nourishment for his literary creation.

2.2 Xu Yuanchong

Xu Yuanchong (1921-2021) was born in Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. He graduated from the Department of Foreign Languages of the Southwest United University in 1944 and entered the Institute of Foreign Literature of the Graduate School of Tsinghua University in 1944, and has been a professor at Peking University since 1983. He has been engaged in literary translation for more than sixty years, and his translations cover Chinese, English and French languages, concentrating on the English translation of ancient Chinese poetry, and developing the methods and theories of rhyming poetry. He has translated and published sixty books in Chinese, English and French, including The Book of Poetry, The Book of Chu, Selected Poems of Li Bai and so on. (https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/許淵冲)

In 2010, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award for Chinese Translation Culture, and on 2 August 2014, Xu Yuanchong was awarded the Aurora Borealis Prize for Outstanding Translation of Fiction Literature, one of the highest awards in the international translation field, and he is the first Asian translator to receive this award.(https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/許淵冲)

2.3 Jiu Zhang

Jiu Zhang, as its name suggests, has nine pieces of poems with various topics and content because they were composed in different stages and places. The nine pieces are Xi Song (I Make My Plaint), She Jiang (Crossing the River), Ai Ying (Lament for the Chu Capital), Chou Si (Sad Thoughts Outpoured), Huai Sha (Longing for Changsha), Si Mei Ren (Thinking of the Fair One), Xi Wang Ri (The Bygone Days Regretted), Jv Song(Hymn to the Orange Tree), and Bei Hui Feng (Grieving at the Whirlwind).

Xi Song (I Make My Plaint) expresses Qu's depressed and discontented mood after being attacked politically. She Jiang (Crossing the River) seems a depiction of Qu's exile footprints and the contradiction between Qu's virtue and dark reality. Ai Ying (Lament for the Chu Capital) expresses Qu's concern and compassion for the destroyed nation and suffering people. Chou Si (Sad Thoughts Outpoured) expresses depression after his political suggestions was rejected. Huai Sha (Longing for Changsha) was composed not long before Qu drowned himself; Some believe Huai Sha means holding a stone and drowned in the river, but some others including Xu Yuanchong interpreted it as longing for Changsha. It shows Qu's determination to rather die as a martyr for his ideals than to follow the evil. Si Mei Ren (Thinking of the Fair One) reflects Qu's longing for his majesty and his reluctance to bend himself to the dark reality.Xi Wang Ri (The Bygone Days Regretted) is considered by some to be Qu Yuan's last words. It recounts Qu’s political experiences throughout his life, and expresses his deep regret that his ideals could not be realised due to the slanderers and the king’s mediocrity, and his determination to die. Jv Song (Hymn to the Orange Tree) is generally regarded as an early work by Qu Yuan, and is an anthropomorphic description of the orange’s image and characteristics, which can be seen as a microcosm of the author's personality and character. Bei Hui Feng (Grieving at the Whirlwind) reveals a sense of melancholy and anguish.

2.4 Pervious Research

Comparing the Two English Translations of Chu Ci from the Perspective of Translation Ethics, the author takes the four ethical models proposed by Dutch translation theorist Andrew Cheesman --the ethics of reproduction, the ethics of service, the ethics of communication, and the ethics of regulation - as a guide from the perspective of translation ethics, and analyzes the two English translations of Chu Ci (Xu Yuanchong's and Sun Dayu's translations respectively). He dissects the two translations of the Chu Ci in terms of artistic images, poetic musical effects and poetic morphology. (Miao Jing, 2011, master thesis no page number)

In A Study of the English Translation of the Book of Chu from the Perspective of Conceptual Integration Theory, the author analyses the same or different approaches to the same imagery and allusions by different translators through the study of several versions of the English translation of Italic text, and explains the process of integration of thinking behind such differences and similarities from the perspective of conceptual integration. The results of the study also show that the theory of conceptual integration has certain guiding and explanatory power for the English translation of the Chu Ci, and has implications for the results of the study also show that the theory of conceptual integration has some guiding and explanatory power for the English translation of the Chu Writings, and has an enlightening effect on the English translation of Chinese classics. (Xu Jing, 2010,master thesis no page number)

From a Philosophical HermeneuticThe translator's subjectivity in the English translation of Li Sao from the perspective of philosophical hermeneutics takes philosophical hermeneutics as the theoretical basis. Theoretically based on philosophical hermeneutics, four English translations of Li Sao (by David Hawks, by Xu Yuanchong, by Yang Xianyi, and by Sun Dayu) are selected. to examine the subjectivity of the translators. The study of the subjectivity of the translators is based on the theoretical basis of hermeneutics. It is argued that the theories of “prejudice”, “historical nature of understanding” and the study of the subjectivity of the translator can help to expand the thinking of translation studies by applying them to the study of the subjectivity of the translator.(Wang Yuhan, 2009,master thesis no page number)

Analysis of Arthur Wiley's Translation from the Perspective of Translator Subjectivity ‘The Nine Songs: A Study of Witch Culture in Ancient China’ is a descriptive study of Arthur Wylie's translation of The Nine Songs from the perspective of the translator's subjectivity. The study examines the manifestation of the translator's subjectivity in the process of translation, and analyses the influence of the translator's cultural position, translation motives, aesthetic views and other factors on the translator's choice of text, translation methods and strategies. It also analyses the influence of factors such as the translator's cultural stance, translation motivation and aesthetic perspective on the translator's text selection, translation methods and strategies.(Yu Yesheng, 2011,master thesis no page number)

3.Classification of Culture-loaded words in Jiu Zhang

The culture-loaded words in Jiu Zhang are usually related to mythology and the State of Chu and generally fall into 4 categories—persons, plants and animals, places, and objects.

3.1 Persons

Persons include those from mythology and from historical records. Names from the mythology are usually gods’ name, while for historical figures, there are usually stories and allusions behind the names. For instance, in the sentence “驾青虬兮骖白螭，吾与重华游兮瑶之圃。” selected from She Jiang (Crossing the River), “重华” (Chong Hua) is the name of a emperor in an ancient legend. While in “晋申生之孝子兮，父信谗而不好。” selected from Xi Song (I make My Plaint), “申生” (Shen Sheng) was the son of Emperor Xian in Jin dynasty and here Qu alluded the story of Shen Sheng being set up and forced to suicide.

3.2 Plants and Animals

One of the typical imagine in Chu Ci is the herb, which conveys emotional meaning according to the context. There are also some imaginary animals in legends that help to reveal personal feelings. For example, in “鸾鸟凤皇，日以远兮。燕雀乌鹊，巢堂坛兮。露申辛夷，死林薄兮。” selected from She Jiang (Crossing the River), “鸾鸟凤皇” refers to the hallowed birds in mythology and “露申辛夷”, the herbs.

3.3 Places

Places mentioned in Chu Ci include real ones and fictional ones. For Example, “郢” was the name of Chu’s capital, and “湘” and “沅” are the names for two main rivers in the Chu State. “瑶之圃” is a fictional name, which refers to the palce where the gods live.

3.4 Objects

There are objects including tools that are specific to Chinese culture with metaphorical meaning.For example, in “章画志墨兮，前图未改。” selected from Huai Sha (Longing for Changsha), “墨” refers to a tool that carpenters use to draw straight lines, and its metaphorical meaning is that Qu is sticking to integrity and straightness.

4.Translation Methods for Each Class

4.1 Persons

4.1.1 Transliteration with Explanation/Footnote

 Example 1:伍子逢殃兮，比干菹醢。——《涉江》
 General Wu suffered his last defeat; ’oh!
 Lord Bi Gan was cut into minced meat. （Crossing the River）

“伍子” and “比干” are two allusions. In Xu’s translation “伍子” was translated as “General Wu” which explains his identity as a general, and “比干” was translated as “Lord Bi Gan” which explains his identity as a lord. However, readers might be confused with the allusions with only little explanation on their identity. It might be better to offer a brief summary of their stories in the footnote.

 Example 2: 令五帝使㭊中兮，戒六神与向服。——《惜诵》
 I bid the Five and Six Lords to, oh! （I Make My Plaint）
 (Footnote) Five: Lords of the North, South, East, West and Centre. 
 (Footnote) Six Lords: Lords of the wind, rain, stars, and etc.

“五帝” and “六神” are translated in to “the Five and Six Lords” with explanatory footnote that helps readers to understanding what they are and it makes the form clean and neat to match the flow of poem.

4.1.2 Free Translation

 Example 3: 桑扈臝行。——《涉江》
 The recluse ran about, unclad. （Crossing the River）

“桑扈” (Sang Hu) was translated as “the recluse” because he lived alone and deliberately avoided other people. However, Xu’s translation may bring about confusion because there were other recluses in Chinese history who didn’t run about unclad. Here, a specific person’s name was translated as a kind of people, which hinders readers’ understanding of Chinese historical figure.

4.1.3 Omission

 Example 4: 俾山川以备御兮，命咎繇使听直。——《惜诵》
 I call on streams and mountains here and there, oh!
 To be magistrates fair and square. （I Make My Plaint）

“山川” refers to the gods of mountains and “咎繇”(Gaoyao) was the name of “皋陶” who was said to be an official in charge of the laws during Emperor Yao’s reign. However, the two was omitted in the translation.

4.2 Plants and Animals

4.2.1 Literary Translation

 Example 5: 鸟飞反故乡兮，狐死必首丘。——《哀郢》
 A bird flies nowhere but home-bounded; oh!
 A dying fox turns its head to its mound. (Lament for the Chu Capital)

“鸟” and “狐” was translated as “bird” and “fox” followed by the explanation of the image. This stanza was a prevailing idiom at Qu’s period, which means that a bird would finally go back to its hometown no matter how far it had gone and the fox would turn its head to the hill where it was born. The idiom indicates a powerful passion and love for the hometown. And in the translation, the passion was expressed beautifully.

 Example 6: 擣木兰以矫蕙兮，糳申椒以为粮。——《惜诵》
 Magnolia and orchid I pound, oh!
 And pepper flowers for food are ground. (I Make My Plaint)

“木兰” and “申椒” were translated as “magnolia” and “pepper flowers”. These are literal translation according to the superficial meaning of the words, which can well reproduce the superficial meaning of herb beauty, but do not facilitate readers to understand its inner meaning, which results in readers not being able to directly understand the true feelings expressed by Qu Yuan. (Wan Li，2021,126-128)

4.2.2 Free Translation

 Example 7:故荼荠不同亩兮，兰茝幽而独芳。 ——《悲回风》
 Sweet herbs don’t share the same field with the dead, oh!
 When alone, orchids’ fragrance will spread. (Grieving at the Whirlwind)

“荼” was a kind of bitter plant but “荠” was a kind of sweet herb. In Xu’s translation the two herbs were translated flexibly for readers to understand the meaning, but their historical and cultural meaning were lost.

4.2.3 Omission

 Example 8:擥大薄之芳茞兮，搴长洲之宿莽。 ——《思美人》
 I cull in woodland covers white, oh!
 And on isle herbs of the night.!  (Thinking of the Fair One)

“茞” means angelica and “宿莽” refers to a kind of herb that could live through the winter. The two words were omitted in Xu’s translation.

4.3 Places

4.3.1 Literary Translation with Explanation/Footnote

 Example 9:吾与重华游兮瑶之圃。 ——《涉江》
 I would tour with King Shun, oh! the Garden of Jade Trees. （Crossing the River）

“瑶之圃” was said to be where the gods live in the myth. The original meaning of “瑶” is jade, so it is a word-for-word translation but ignored its figurative meaning.

 Example 10:过夏首而西浮兮，顾龙门而不见。 ——《哀郢》
 Passing Summer Head, westward we float, oh!
 The Dragon Gate can’t be seen from my boat. (Lament for the Chu Capital)
 (Footnote) The poet sailed eastward, passed the Head of Summer River and turned westward to gaze on the Dragon Gate in the capital of Chu. 

“夏首” and “龙门” were translated word for word as “Summer Head” and “Dragon Gate”. With further explanation in the footnote, readers can become aware of the direction in which Qu was exiled.

4.3.2 Free Translation

 Example 11:朝发枉渚兮，夕宿辰阳。 ——《涉江》
 At dawn I leave for farther west; oh!
 At night in Southern Star I rest. （Crossing the River）

“枉渚” was a bay in the lower reach of Yuan River, located in the east of Chenyang. It is in the Changde city in Hunan province. “辰阳” was “Chenyang” county, which is now located in Chenxi, Hunan province. The translation “Southern Star” is very poetic but not very exact name for the place, though it indicates the direction.

4.4 Objects

4.4.1 Literary translation

 Example 12:思久故之亲身兮，因缟素而哭之。——《惜往日》
 The Duke thought of his old compeer, oh!
 Clad in white, he shed tear on tear. (The Bygone Days Regretted)

“缟素” in Chinese means the white mourning clothes. Xu did not reveal its functional meaning, and instead he used adjectives to indicate the color. One of the reason was that in Western culture, the mourning clothes are usually black. For example, the weeds refers to a black garment (dress) worn by a widow as a sign of mourning. To avoid contradictory misunderstandings, Xu chose to translate part of the original meaning of “缟素”.

4.4.2 Free Translation

 Example 13:带长铗之陆离兮，冠切云之崔嵬，被明月兮佩宝璐。——《涉江》
 My long sword dazzles far and high, oh!
 My cloud-cleaving crown towers high.
 My robe adorned with pearls moon-bright, oh! 
 My belt with gems shedding rare light. (Crossing the River)

In the original text, the stanza consist of only three sentence. However, to maintain the uniform, the last sentence “被明月兮佩宝璐” was divided into two. “切云” refers to a tall hat. The translation for its name was a word-for-word adjective—“cloud-cleaving”, which uses alliteration and impressively conveys the meaning of “tall”. “明月” refers to a pearl that can shines in the dark. It was translated as “pearls moon-bright”, which reveals its characteristic. “宝璐” refers to jade, and it was translated with additional description to illustrate its beauty.

4.4.3 Omission

 Example 14:章画志墨兮，前图未改。——《怀沙》
 Making with ink a picture clear, oh!
 From the former path I do not veer.  (Longing for Changsha)

“墨” in the text refers to “绳墨”, a tool that carpenters use to draw straight lines. However, the meaning of “绳” was omitted, and its metaphorical meaning of integrity and following the rules was not fully conveyed.

5. Conclusion and Reflection

Xu adopted various methods to deal with the culture-loaded words in Jiu Zhang. As for the person’s names, Xu mainly adopted transliteration with explanation/footnote, free translation and omission. For names of plants and animals, Xu mainly adopted literary translation, free translation and omission. As for place names, Xu mainly adopted literary translation with explanation/footnote and free translation. As for object names, Xu mainly adopted literary translation, free translation and omission.

Xu’s translation methods were very flexible in that he intended to keep the form unified and rhymed and the content neat and understandable. Constrained by the framework of poem, the cultural meaning of a few culture-loaded words was not fully conveyed, which offers the following translators to find optimized translation.

References

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https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/許淵冲