20230630 final exam 05

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202270081692 梁昕璐 Liang Xinlu 英语口译(English interpreting)

A Literature Review of Traditional Chinese Medicine Translation

Abstract

Abstract: This article provides a comprehensive review of the translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) literature, focusing on the key themes of TCM, terminology, cross-cultural communication, metaphor, functional theory, and globalization. TCM is a holistic medical system with a rich cultural and historical background, and its accurate translation is crucial for promoting cross-cultural understanding and global dissemination. The review examines the challenges faced in translating TCM terminology, explores the role of metaphor in TCM discourse, discusses the application of functional theory in TCM translation, and highlights the importance of globalization in the context of TCM. By analyzing existing research and literature, this review aims to contribute to the advancement of TCM translation studies and facilitate effective communication and exchange between TCM practitioners, researchers, and international audiences.

Key Words

TCM, Terminology, cross-cultural communication, metaphor, functional theory, globalization

题目

中医翻译文献综述

摘要

本文对中医翻译的文献进行了综述，重点关注中医、术语、跨文化交流、隐喻、功能理论和全球化等关键主题。中医是一个具有丰富文化和历史背景的整体医学系统，其准确的翻译对于促进跨文化理解和全球传播至关重要。本综述探讨了中医术语翻译所面临的挑战，探索了隐喻在中医语境中的作用，讨论了功能理论在中医翻译中的应用，并强调了全球化在中医背景下的重要性。通过分析现有的研究和文献，本综述旨在推动中医翻译研究的进展，促进中医从业者、研究人员和国际受众之间的有效沟通和交流

关键词

中医、术语、跨文化交际、功能理论、全球化

Introduction

In recent years, TCM has gained increasing international recognition and influence. As TCM continues to expand its reach, the importance of translation in the field has become paramount. Translating TCM texts accurately and effectively is essential for promoting cross-cultural understanding and facilitating global communication in this domain. This article explores the theoretical research in TCM translation, specifically focusing on the functional translation theory and metaphorical cognitive approaches applied to terminology translation. The renowned TCM classic, "Huangdi Neijing" (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon), serves as a prominent example of the texts addressed in this discussion. Furthermore, the article raises questions regarding how to approach terminology translation and enhance the cross-cultural communicative function of TCM. As TCM gains prominence on the international stage, the demand for reliable and precise translations has surged. It is imperative to explore theoretical frameworks and methodologies that can ensure accurate and culturally sensitive translations. The functional translation theory, which emphasizes the communicative function of translated texts, offers valuable insights into the translation of TCM materials. Additionally, applying metaphorical cognitive approaches in translating TCM terminology helps to capture the nuanced meanings and concepts embedded within TCM texts. The translation of "Huangdi Neijing," a cornerstone of TCM literature, presents unique challenges and opportunities. Exploring effective strategies to translate its rich terminology, metaphors, and cultural references can contribute to a better understanding and appreciation of TCM worldwide. This article poses questions such as: How can we approach the translation of TCM terminologies while preserving their essence and functionality? How can we enhance the cross-cultural communicative impact of TCM translations, promoting effective dialogue and exchange of knowledge? By delving into the theories and practices of TCM translation, this article aims to shed light on the crucial role translation plays in the growing international influence of TCM. Furthermore, it strives to stimulate further research and discussion on terminology translation and the enhancement of cross-cultural communication in the field of TCM.

A Brief Introduction to the History of TCM Translation

1.Significance of TCM translation Traditional Chinese medical literature bears witness to the remarkable skills of TCM experts and their research achievements in prescriptions, showcasing the splendid accomplishments and significant contributions to the prosperity of the Chinese nation. These ancient texts serve as the original sources of TCM theories and methods, preserving thousands of years of medical thoughts and treatment experiences that continue to hold a crucial position in clinical practice. Moreover, TCM classics are a treasure trove of ancient Chinese encyclopedic knowledge, reflecting an essential component of Chinese culture. Translating and studying these ancient texts not only plays a positive role in the international dissemination of TCM and the collective progress of global medicine but also helps bridge the cultural gap and showcase the splendid and enduring cultural traditions of China to the world.

2.Development stages

The English translation of TCM classics has gone through four significant historical stages.

The first stage took place from the mid-18th century to the late 19th century when Western knowledge gradually reached the East and Chinese knowledge spread to the West. During this period, foreign missionaries and sinologists translated some TCM classics, introducing TCM materia medica, pulse diagnosis, and organ systems. However, the translation results were to some extent constrained by the translators' understanding of TCM theories and influenced by Western culture.

The second stage occurred from 1900 to 1950, during a period marked by the impact of Western medicine on TCM and the prevailing trend of TCM modernization. In this era, the English translation of TCM classics was mainly undertaken by Western medical researchers and Chinese scholars. The translation work primarily focused on TCM materia medica and foundational theoretical works. However, due to the introduction of Western pharmaceutical methods, the translation results did not fully reflect the original form, medical and cultural connotations of the ancient texts.

The third stage spanned from 1951 to 1991, the period of the establishment of the People's Republic of China and the opening-up and reform era. During this stage, there was initial development in the English translation of TCM classics, with the emergence of translated versions of foundational TCM theoretical works and clinical treatises. Translators began to pay attention to the medical theories, clinical value, historical context, and cultural significance of the ancient texts. They also incorporated the methods of medical history and textual studies to improve the accuracy of translation.

The fourth stage, from 1992 to the present, is characterized by the internationalization and global dissemination of TCM. This stage witnessed a significant increase in the English translations of TCM classics, employing diverse translation methods and yielding more precise and comprehensive results. Translators have experimented with various interdisciplinary research approaches, including history, medicine, linguistics, and others, to better restore and interpret the knowledge and ideas contained in TCM classics.

These developmental stages demonstrate that TCM translation is not only essential for the inheritance and development of TCM culture but also serves as a vital bridge for the exchange and integration between TCM and global medicine. Through translation and study of TCM classics, we can gain a better understanding of the theoretical framework and clinical applications of TCM, promoting its dissemination and recognition on the international stage.

An Overview of Metaphor and TCM

1.The introduction to metaphor

When reviewing the research on the translation of TCM terminology, it is evident that the mainstream theories guiding TCM translation have deviated from the actual language and cognitive characteristics of TCM. This deviation hinders the cognitive construction and acceptance of TCM in other cultural and linguistic contexts. The language and cognitive reality of TCM are rooted in metaphor and expressed through the formation and cognition of analogical terms. Therefore, it is necessary to establish an evaluation model for the translation of TCM terminology based on the mechanisms of metaphorical semantic generation and comprehension. This model aims to provide quantifiable indicators for the construction and evaluation of TCM terminology translation, with the goal of offering reference points for further exploration of strategies, principles, and methods in TCM terminology translation.

To promote a better understanding and acceptance of TCM among a wider audience, it is necessary to align the mindset of the audience with the inherent cognitive approach of TCM itself. Due to its long-standing immersion in Chinese culture, TCM possesses a unique way of cognition, which often manifests in its language expression, particularly in the formation of terminology. It can be said that understanding TCM terminology serves as a gateway to comprehending the cognitive system of TCM. TCM employs analogical thinking as a cognitive method, and its terminology exhibits distinct metaphorical characteristics. The translation of TCM terminology, especially the translation of metaphorical expressions, directly affects the cognitive construction of TCM within another linguistic and cultural context, serving as an important condition for the acceptance of TCM principles in a different cultural framework.

2.Research on the theory of TCM translation

Research on the theory of TCM translation is urgently needed, not only because of the limited amount of theoretical research but also due to the inherent flaws in the existing theories being applied. Currently, the most commonly used theories in domestic TCM translation research include the theories of foreignization and domestication, linguistic-cultural theory, and the theory of multiple systems (Wang Yinquan, et al., 2014). The Chinese language tends to use concrete imagery to express abstract concepts, and this is particularly evident in the language of TCM. The thinking embedded in TCM has its philosophical foundations, manifested in the process of observation, analogy, comparison, and understanding influenced by ancient geographical environment, production methods, social systems, and other factors. This analogical mapping relationship aligns with the metaphorical path of thinking in Western cognitive linguistics. This thinking can be traced back to the "gua" (hexagrams) in the Book of Changes (Yi Jing). In the Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon), the idea of "analogy and comparison" is explicitly expressed, such as in the chapter "Wu Yun Xing Da Lun" which states, "The Yin and Yang of heaven and earth cannot be determined by numbers but by their images," and in the chapter "Shi Cong Rong Lun" which says, "Regarding analogy and comparison, it encompasses the principles of harmony and conformity." It is evident that this concept has always been inherent in the terminology of TCM word formation.

The construction of an evaluation model for the translation of TCM terminology based on the metaphorical cognitive perspective and the complete process of medical interpretation is an important methodology in TCM. TCM utilizes various "images" to explain and construct its most important theories, including the patterns of Yin and Yang, the Five Elements, and the interaction between Heaven and Human.

From the publication status of relevant papers in journals, although research in this field has made some progress, the inclusion of this topic in core journals is relatively limited. Chen Yi et al. (2020) pointed out that the study of metaphorical translation of TCM terminology is still in its preliminary stage, indicating that this research direction has yet to be further explored. Overall, the current research still faces three main issues: 1) the lack of a systematic evaluation framework for metaphorical translation of TCM terminology, with a focus on descriptive evaluation methods and limited and fragmented evaluation criteria; 2) incomplete discussion on the selection of translation theories and translation principles based on achieving the optimal effect of metaphorical terms, resulting in some studies showing low evaluation of translation based on metaphorical considerations; and 3) research on the metaphorical translation of TCM terminology mostly concentrates on the discussion of specific translation techniques, while related theoretical research remains underdeveloped.

To address these deficiencies, it is necessary to construct an evaluation model for the translation of TCM terminology based on the mechanisms of metaphor generation and understanding. This model should investigate the entire process from the generation of metaphorical meaning to the emergence of meaning after translation, covering various stages from reader recognition to comprehension and cognitive application.

3 Metaphor and TCM works

Metaphor is not exclusive to literary works; it also exists in the fields of science, everyday language, thought patterns, and behavior. In addition to its medical nature, TCM encompasses elements of astronomy, geography, humanities, and philosophy. TCM language is rich in metaphors. In ancient times, people's cognitive abilities were limited, so they often used the method of "taking similarities and making connections" to establish relationships based on the similarity between things. This cognitive method involves understanding unfamiliar and abstract concepts by relating them to familiar and concrete things. This cognitive method was widely used in TCM and TCM classics. In the "Huangdi Neijing," whether describing disease symptoms, elucidating medical principles, explaining TCM concepts, discussing TCM theories, or interpreting treatment methods and principles, the "Chinese-style metaphor" of "taking similarities and making connections" is consistently present.

The metaphors in the language of TCM can be categorized into three main types: natural, political, and philosophical. The ancient people's understanding of the world was derived from nature, and the construction of TCM theories was also influenced by the limitations of their cognitive sources. The relationship between the human body's structure and the universe is described in the "Ling Shu: Xie Ke" (Li Zhaoguo, 2008:822) as follows: "The heavens are round and the earth is square, and so the human head is round and the feet are square to correspond with them. Just as the heavens have the sun and moon, the human body has two eyes; just as the earth has nine provinces, the human body has nine orifices..." In this statement, the human body is metaphorically compared to a small universe. The descriptions of human body structure and its relationships in the "Huangdi Neijing" fully illustrate the abundance of metaphorical relationships between the human body and the natural world. Ancient TCM practitioners used metaphoric mappings from the natural world to the human body to construct mechanisms for physiological and pathological diagnosis and treatment.

When interpreting TCM, the ancient people were not only influenced by the natural world but also by the political hierarchy of their time. In ancient society, with "ritual" as its core, a strict political hierarchy was established, and a series of metaphors related to politics emerged in TCM. For example, mappings were made between official positions (yuan yu) and the study of TCM. The "Huangdi Neijing" states, "The main disease is called 'jun' (ruler), and assisting the 'jun' is called 'chen' (minister), and corresponding to the 'chen' is called 'shi' (envoy), not referring to the three classes of garments for upper, middle, and lower ranks" (Li Zhaoguo, 2008:1228). In this sentence, "the main disease is called 'jun'" refers to the "jun" in herbal formulations, which represents the main medicinal ingredient used to treat the disease. "Zuo" refers to assistance. "Assisting the 'jun' is called 'chen'" refers to the "chen" in herbal formulations, which represents the medicinal ingredients that assist the main ingredient in exerting its effects. "Ying chen" refers to the response or interaction with the "chen" ingredients. "Corresponding to the 'chen' is called 'shi'" refers to the "shi" in herbal formulations, which represents the medicinal ingredients that assist the "chen" ingredients in exerting their effects. TCM uses the hierarchical relationship of rulers and ministers to metaphorically represent the importance of medicinal substances in treating diseases.

3.Meaning of exploring metaphor

Every aspect of human life is influenced and shaped by culture. Culture determines people's ways of existence, self-expression, behavior, and thinking. Analogical thinking is a unique cognitive method deeply rooted in Chinese culture. The strong metaphorical nature of TCM requires the translation of TCM terminology from a metaphorical perspective. In general, human language and thinking are inherently metaphorical, which is a shared experience among all human beings. This provides the possibility for readers of other languages to understand foreign metaphors and embrace new thought patterns. Therefore, in the long run, if target language readers can comprehend the metaphors in TCM, they will be better able to embrace TCM thinking. This will serve as a more effective approach to promote the acceptance and dissemination of TCM.

Review of functionalist and TCM

The introduction of German functionalist translation theory into China has had a profound impact on the translation community, bringing forth new research topics and influences. As an integral part of traditional Chinese culture, the question of how to globalize TCM has been extensively discussed by experts and scholars in the fields of translation and TCM. The functionalist translation theory offers a fresh perspective and theoretical foundation for the translation of TCM culture. It provides valuable insights and methods to bridge cultural and linguistic barriers, facilitating the dissemination and understanding of TCM principles on an international scale.

1.The introduction to Functional theory

Functional Translation Theory has its origins in Germany in the 1970s. It was first introduced by Katharina Reiss in her book "Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism," where she emphasized the importance of text function as a criterion for evaluating translations. Reiss established a framework for assessing translations based on the relationship between the functions of the source text and the target text. Building on Reiss's work, her student Vermeer further developed the main theories of the functionalist approach and introduced the concept of skopostheory, which is considered the cornerstone of Functional Translation Theory. According to skopostheory, the guiding principle in translation is the "skopos rule," which states that the purpose to be achieved by a translation determines the entire translation process.

Mantyäri expanded the scope of Functional Translation Theory by incorporating action theory and addressing various forms of intercultural transformations, including text transformations. Her focus encompassed the behavior of the translation process, the roles of the participants, and the environmental factors in which translation takes place. Christiane Nord, in her further refinement of Functional Translation Theory, introduced the principle of "loyalty with addition of function," which emphasizes the interpersonal relationships among the translator, the author of the source text, the recipient of the translated text, and the initiator of the translation. Nord's influential work, "Translating as a Purposeful Activity: Functional Approaches Explained," published in 1997, provided a comprehensive overview of German functionalist theories, clarifying ambiguities and terminologies. She introduced the notion of loyalty as a crucial element in the functionalist model, emphasizing the importance of maintaining relationships while considering the function of the translated text. Nord argued that Functional Translation Theory can be applied to various types of translation.

In summary, Functional Translation Theory offers a comprehensive framework for understanding and evaluating translation by considering the functions and purposes involved in the translation process. It acknowledges the dynamic nature of translation within specific communicative contexts and emphasizes the significance of the target text's function in relation to the source text.

2. Current Research Status in China

From the perspective of c, the journal articles in CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) primarily focus on the following five areas: analysis of translation of specific aspects of TCM terminology or culturally loaded terms based on Functional Translation Theory, research on translation of TCM works and their versions from a functional translation theory perspective, translation studies on other aspects of TCM and TCM applications based on Functional Translation Theory, research on issues and strategies in the translation and dissemination of TCM, and research on the translation of TCM instructions based on Functional Translation Theory.

From the perspective of research content and subjects, the study of TCM translation in China goes beyond the translation of TCM terminology and the dissemination of TCM knowledge. It also involves the translation of highly specialized TCM classics, such as the "Huangdi Neijing," "Shanghan Lun," "Jin Kui Yao Lue," and others. The authors conducting this research come from diverse backgrounds, including not only linguistics or translation theory and practice but also TCM foundational theory, TCM medical history literature, and even interdisciplinary backgrounds like TCM foreign languages.

In terms of publication outlets, research articles can be found in both foreign language journals and TCM-related journals. Examples of TCM-related journals include "Global Traditional Chinese Medicine," "Shizhen Guoyi Guoyao" (Chinese Journal of Traditional Medical Science and Technology), "Chinese Journal of Basic Medicine in Traditional Chinese Medicine," "Chinese Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine," "Hunan Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine," and "Western Journal of Traditional Chinese Medicine."

Internationalization and Translation of TCM Classics

1.Significance

The translation of TCM classics carries great significance as TCM moves towards internationalization and globalization. The challenge lies in accurately translating the essence of Chinese traditional medicine to Western audiences. Translation involves the transformation of symbols between two different languages to facilitate cross-cultural communication and dissemination of information. As translators of TCM, our responsibility extends beyond conveying the source language information accurately; we must consciously introduce the literary atmosphere, cultural spirit, and philosophical understanding of traditional medicine and culture. It is undeniable that the translation of TCM classics from the source language (Chinese) to the target language (English, for example) falls within the realm of literary translation. As Professor Li Yuchun stated, literature is a symbol or coding system that constructs a national image and discourse system in various forms of discourse or symbols. Based on this understanding, it is essential for modern TCM translators to incorporate the concepts of modernization and national identity into the translation of TCM classics.

2.Challenges

In terms of historical perspective, the exchange and dissemination of TCM have been taking place since the Qin and Han dynasties. Early dissemination primarily focused on the Han cultural sphere influenced by Confucianism, culture, and language. From the Ming and Qing dynasties onwards, the translation, publication, and introduction of TCM literature and clinical works by Western missionaries and scholars in China formed part of the "Westernization of Chinese Studies," greatly promoting the overseas dissemination of TCM and the cultural exchange between Chinese and Western medicine. After more than 300 years of accumulated experience and practice, TCM translation has finally established a unique and distinctive development path. However, the difficulty lies in conveying the Chinese language, medicine, and culture to the West. To date, the translation and dissemination of TCM classics, which are indispensable for introducing TCM theories, practices, and culture, remain the weakest link in the translation and dissemination of traditional Chinese culture abroad. Overall, there is still a lack of a systematic and characteristic chain and system for introducing TCM to foreign readers in a planned and comprehensive manner, particularly in terms of content that enters the field of TCM understanding and becomes an important object of Western medical cognition. These challenges highlight the importance and urgency of research on the translation and dissemination of TCM classics. It is crucial to accurately grasp its historical origins, clarify its connotations, and approach its development from different levels, including theoretical concepts, basic paths, and objectives.

3.Approaches

Internationalization Path: The translation and dissemination of TCM classics should not only uphold national values and highlight the core ideas of traditional culture but also consider both Chinese and Western perspectives and promote mutual understanding. From a translation perspective, internationalized classic translation should not only construct linguistic forms but also ensure the transmission of meaning, capturing the essence effectively. Textual meaning construction includes the construction of textual meaning that facilitates information transmission and cultural interaction, as well as the scientific meaning construction. From a communication perspective, it is crucial to develop reasonable macro strategies that are widely accepted internationally, expand diverse forms of international communication channels, and seek collaborative efforts from multiple parties. For example, constructing medical or cultural products with aesthetic and cultural attributes that facilitate the internationalization of TCM, such as releasing translated texts or creating popular educational materials and brochures, can establish convenient interpretation and dissemination pathways. Moreover, the cultivation of translation and dissemination professionals with an international background in TCM classics is urgently needed. Confronting the issues and challenges of international dissemination of TCM under the globalization trend, establishing long-term goals for translation talent development based on industry and cultural strategies is vital to effectively promote the dissemination and diversified development of TCM. Currently, the cultivation of internationalized translation professionals in TCM is key

Evaluation

1 Conclusion of recent research

This literature review provides an analysis of the research on the translation history of TCM, emphasizing the significance of translation theory and metaphorical perspectives in effective cross-cultural dissemination. The synthesis of the reviewed literature highlights that TCM, with its medical essence and profound cultural connotations, holds great importance in international communication and collaboration. Translation theory, specifically functional translation theory, offers valuable guidance for TCM translation. According to functional translation theory, translation serves specific functions beyond mere language conversion. In the context of TCM translation, these functions encompass accurate conveyance of medical knowledge, cultural exchange, and academic cooperation. Translators, therefore, need to comprehend the needs and backgrounds of the target readership, employing flexible translation strategies to ensure the fulfillment of these functional aspects in the translated texts.

Metaphorical perspectives play a crucial role in TCM translation. Metaphors are widely employed in the language of TCM, spanning the realms of nature, politics, and philosophy. Through the use of metaphors, TCM theories and concepts are communicated in a vivid and evocative manner to the target audience. Metaphors act as bridges in cross-cultural communication, facilitating the understanding and acceptance of TCM knowledge while fostering the development of new patterns of thinking and concepts.

The significance of studying the translation history of TCM lies in gaining a deeper understanding of its dissemination and drawing valuable lessons from it. By examining the historical processes of TCM translation, we can explore the strategies and modes of dissemination employed in different periods, identifying successful experiences and lessons learned. This research serves as a valuable reference and guide for current and future TCM translation endeavors, facilitating the international dissemination and promotion of TCM.

In conclusion, translation theory and metaphorical perspectives are instrumental in effectively disseminating TCM internationally. The exploration of TCM translation history offers valuable insights and lessons. Further research and practice in TCM translation are essential to promote the global outreach of TCM, ensuring the inheritance and development of TCM culture on the international stage.

2. Future Research Outlook

In the field of Chinese medicine translation, there are challenges and opportunities for improvement. Understanding the current state of Chinese medicine translation and proposing effective strategies for improvement is crucial for advancing the field. Future research can focus on the following areas:

Quality and Accuracy: Chinese medicine translation requires a high level of accuracy and fidelity to ensure the correct understanding and application of Chinese medicine theory and practice. Future research should emphasize the development of standard guidelines and criteria for Chinese medicine translation, including terminology consistency, cultural relevance, and maintaining the integrity of Chinese medicine concepts. Implementing quality control measures and promoting collaboration between Chinese medicine experts and translators can enhance the accuracy and reliability of Chinese medicine translation.

Bridging Language and Culture: Chinese medical texts often contain complex concepts and cultural nuances that can pose challenges in accurate communication across different languages. Future research should explore effective strategies for bridging the language and cultural gaps in Chinese medicine translation. This can include the development of vocabulary lists, reference materials, and translation resources to assist translators in capturing the essence of Chinese medicine concepts and ensuring their proper interpretation in different cultural contexts.

Collaboration and Knowledge Exchange: Collaboration between Chinese medicine practitioners, translators, researchers, and language professionals is crucial for driving the development of Chinese medicine translation. Future research should encourage interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge exchange platforms to promote a deeper understanding of Chinese medicine theory, terminology, and cultural significance. This collaboration can help establish shared knowledge repositories and facilitate ongoing improvements in Chinese medicine translation practices.

Integration of Technology: The integration of technology such as machine translation, computer-assisted translation tools, and Chinese medicine databases can greatly enhance the efficiency and accuracy of Chinese medicine translation. Future research should explore the potential of these technologies in supporting the Chinese medicine translation process while addressing the unique challenges posed by Chinese medicine terminology and cultural nuances. Developing specialized tools and resources that harness these technologies can assist translators in making informed decisions and innovations when dealing with Chinese medicine translation.

By incorporating both metaphor translation and functional theory into future research, Chinese medicine translation can be further improved in terms of accuracy, cultural adaptation, and effective communication of the intended functions. These advancements will contribute to the wider dissemination and understanding of Chinese medicine theories and practices beyond national boundaries.

My view on TCM translation is that it should embrace a holistic approach that combines metaphor translation, functional theory, and localization. Building upon the previous research findings, I believe that effective TCM translation goes beyond linguistic accuracy and involves cultural adaptation to ensure the proper understanding and acceptance of TCM theories and practices in the target language and culture. Firstly, metaphor translation plays a crucial role in capturing the essence of TCM concepts and conveying them in a culturally meaningful way. TCM language is rich in metaphors that reflect the interconnectedness of the human body, nature, and the universe. Translators should strive to identify and preserve these metaphors while ensuring their intelligibility and relevance in the target culture. This requires a deep understanding of both TCM theory and the target language's cultural context. Secondly, functional theory provides a valuable framework for guiding TCM translation practices. Translators should consider the purpose and intended functions of the translated text, taking into account the needs and expectations of the target audience. Adhering to the principles of functional equivalence and communicative effectiveness, TCM translation should aim to convey the intended effects and benefits of TCM practices in a way that resonates with the target audience. This may involve adapting terminology, adjusting rhetorical styles, and selecting appropriate cultural references. Furthermore, localization is essential in TCM translation to ensure the seamless integration of TCM concepts and practices into the target culture. This involves adapting not only the language but also the cultural and social aspects of TCM to make it relevant and accessible to the target audience. Localization may include adapting TCM diagnostic methods and treatment approaches to align with the target culture's healthcare system, incorporating local case studies and testimonials, and considering the preferences and beliefs of the target audience.

In the era of globalization, TCM translation should prioritize global reach. It is crucial to accurately convey the essence of TCM to a worldwide audience. This requires overcoming the challenge of translating TCM's rich cultural and medical knowledge into different languages. TCM translation must go beyond linguistic conversion and focus on cultural adaptation and sensitivity. By embracing modern translation theories and methodologies, TCM can be effectively communicated to a global audience while maintaining its authenticity. Additionally, leveraging technology and digital platforms can enhance the accessibility and dissemination of TCM worldwide. Training talented translators with an international background is essential for promoting TCM's internationalization. In summary, TCM translation needs to adapt to globalization, ensuring accurate communication and promoting the global integration of TCM.

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202270081680 张文琦 Zhang Wenqi 英语笔译(English translation)

The Translation and Dissenmination of Shi Jing in the English World

Abstract

More than two centuries has witnessed the translation and spreading of Shi Jing in the English world. Various translations have emerged, providing a feasible way for the spreading and research of its English translation. In this paper, the author adpots the method of historical analysis to investigate and examine the English translation history of Shi Jing, and tries to depict the historial evolution of its English translation, which is divided into three periods: the indirect translation and slective translation period, the full translation period and the new period. Each period has the representative translators at home or abroad. Furthermore, the author summerizes the characteristics of each period in general. Based on meticulous investigations, this paper shows how Shi Jing has influenced the world and how it does a great deal for the Chinese literature coming towards the world.

Key Words

Shijing; English translation; three periods

诗经在英语世界的翻译与传播

摘要

两个多世纪以来，《诗经》英译本不断涌现，在英语世界广泛传播。繁多的译本为《诗经》的英译传播和研究提供了可行的途径。本文运用历史分析方法梳理、考辩《诗经》的英译历史，尝试描绘出《诗经》英译的历史演进并将其分为转译及摘译期、全译期和新时期，每一时期均简要评述了代表性翻译家及译作。最后，作者分别总结了上述三个阶段英译活动的特征。通过详实考察，本文展现了《诗经》对世界的影响，以及对中国文学走向世界的巨大推动作用。

关键词

诗经;英译;三个时期

Introduction

Shi Jing, also named Book of Poetry or Book of Songs, is the first collection of poems in China. It consists of 305 poems that vividly show ancient Chinese people’s life from the early Western Zhou Dynasty (the 11th century BC) to the middle of the Spring and Autumn period (the 6th century BC). There are three parts in the book: Feng (160 poems), Ya (74 poems in Xiao Ya and 31 poems in Da Ya), and Song (40 poems). Poems in Feng are mainly folk poems about people’s stories or emotions. Xiao Ya contains some folk poems and nobles’ works, and its most notable works are about fcasts and wars. Most of the poems in Da Ya are produced by imperial nobles. Poems in Song are mainly the song and poetry about the imperial family’s sacrifice to ancestors.

The language of Shi Jing conveys the beauty of music, with a sentence structure mainly composed of four words, but also flexible and varied. The four sentences independently form a poetic chapter, occasionally mixed with sentence structures of two, three, five, seven, or eight words. Reduplicated chapters, sentences, and characters are common expressive techniques in Shi Jing, and rhythm between spaced sentences, between neighbouring sentences, cross rhyming, and rhyming through the same initial consonants and Chinese vowels are the basic methods in Shi Jing for metric. Shi Jing has unique characteristics in terms of meaning and rhetoric. Commonly used rhetorical devices such as exaggeration, contrast, and duality can be found in this classic. Its creative techniques have had a huge impact on the genre structure, language art, and other aspects of Chinese literature.

The translation and dissenmination of Shi Jing to foreign countries can be said to have a long history. The work has attracted many readers and scholars and conscquently been translated into many different languages. According to research, Shi Jing was first passed down through the Silk Road and initially spread to China’s neighboring countries such as today’s Korea, Vietnam, Japan, and so on. In the 16th century, Shi Jing began its journey in Europe. The earliest English translation can be traced back to the 18th century. So far, Shi Jing has been translated into dozens of languages and widely disseminated worldwide. Throughout the research on the English translation of Shi Jing both domestically and internationally, it generally includes two aspects: the English translation of Shi Jing and the research of it. In order to comprehensively understand the research on the English translation of Shi Jing, the author consulted a large number of literature, adopted historical analysis methods to examine the history of the English translation of Shi Jing, and then summarized the characteristics of English translation activities in different periods. The author hopes that this article can not only help us understand the dissemination of Shi Jing in the English speaking world, but also provide some reference for future research on related translation.

1. Three Periods of the English Translation of Shi Jing

1.1 The Indirect Translation and Slective Translation Period (1735-1829)

According to the available materials, the English translation of Shi Jing began with the indirect translation of Description Géographique, Historique, Chronologique, Politique et Physique de L’Empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie Chinoise written in French. It was edited by the French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Du Halde and it has four volumes. In the second volume, he introduced and examined the literariness of Shi Jing, with a collection of eight poems translated by the France Jesuit Joseph Henry de Prémare. The publication of the book in France immediately attracted the attention of the UK publishers. In 1736 and 1738, the Britain Richard Brooks, the London publisher Edward Cave and the translators he organized translated and published the English version of the book the respectively. It was the first time that some of poems of Shi Jing was translated into English.

In 1761, several excerpts from Shi Jing were contained in the final appendix of the novel Hau Kiou Choaan or The Pleasing History compiled by Thomas Percy. Knowing little about Chinese, Percy translated all those poems indirectly based on the reference to others’ translations. According to Yang Zhiyi (2005, 33), there are seven excerpts respectively translated indirectly from the version in Latin translation of Confucius Sinarum philosophus by Philippe Couplet and others, and cited from the version in the Latin work Musaem Sinicum by German Bayer and the Description Géographique, Historique, Chronologique, Politique et Physique de L’Empire de la Chine et de la Tartarie Chinoise by Du Halde.

The earliest translation of Shi Jing with the original poems in Chinese as a reference was William Jones’s version. He initially translated the Qi Ao in Wei Feng in Latin and included the translation in the Poeseos Asiaticæ Commentatorium. In 1785, Jones took most of pages to discuss Shi Jing in his paper “On the Second Classical Book of the Chinese”, where he also translated each section of poems Qi Ao, Tao Yao, and Jie’nan Shan with methods of both literal translation and free translation in poetic style. His literal translation in prose style is generally faithful to original poems in terms of meaning and numbers of sentences, while his free translation in poetic translation, on the other hand, is considered as “imitation” (Fan Cunzhong 1991, 79), a recreation inspired by the original text. Jones not only added poetic lines in his transaltion, but also generalized the rich cultural imagery of China, adopting the rhyme style of British folk songs.

In 1829, the famous British sinologist Sir John F. Davis published the second complete English translation of The Fortunate Union, which embraces some poems extracted from Shi Jing. He also included these selectiive translations in his article “On the Poetry of the Chinese”, which takes examples of Shi Jing and folk songs from Pre Qin Dynasty to Six Dynasties to elaborate on the rhythmic characteristics of Chinese classical poetry. He referred to the Chinese original text when translating the poems in The Fortune Union, and also introduced them in a Chinese English comparison in “On the Poetry of the Chinese”. In this way, he pioneered the English translation of Shi Jing by comparing with Chinese original poems.

1.2 The Full Translation Period (1871-1976)

In the 1870s, the English translation of Shi Jing entered a prosperous stage, which was characterized by the emergence of a large number of full versions. The most influential ones are the translations of James Legge, William Waley, Bernhard Karlgren and others.

James Legge has translated Shi Jing three times in his life. With the help of Wang Tao, Legge completed the first complete English translation The She King or The Book of Poetry, which was published in Hong Kong in 1871 as the fourth volume of The Chinese Classic. This translation became a milestone in the dissemination of Shi Jing in the Western world. In the preface, the author expressed his expectation that "the Work which he now offers will be deemed by competent scholars a reliable translation of the original poems". The translation was written in a non-rhymed prose style and reflects Legge’s pursuit of reproducing the literal meaning of the original poem, with “significant academic research characteristics”(Li Yuliang 2007, 43). In 1876, Legge retranslated and published the rhymed version The She King or The Book of Ancient Poetry. This is the second complete English translation of Shi Jing. Compared to the 1871 version, this version emphasizes rhythm, strives for accuracy, and pays more attention to aesthetic appeal. The portrayal of characters in the poem is more vivid with smoother expressions. He deleted the original Chinese poems, reduced annotations, and only retained the theme without Chinese characters in the annotations. In addition, the style and arrangement of the translation also undergone significant changes. In 1879, Legge compiled more than 100 ritualistic verses from Shi Jing into a single volume, which was included in the third volume of The Sacred Books of China: Texts of Confucianism, edited by Max Müller. In this translation, the translator placed more emphasis on interpretation. The main feature of this selective translation is to highlight religious connotations, and the content unrelated to religion was removed out of the original preface to be independently composed as the preface to Song. Each poem in this translation is annotated to elucidate its religious significance. Among the above three translations, the first version, which is considered as academic translation, has the profounded influence and a certain impact on many subsequent English translations.

In 1891, the complete rhymed translation The Shi King by British sinologist William Jennings was published in London, marking the advent of the third complete English translation of Shi Jing. Jennings mainly referred to the annotations of Legge's translation published in 1871. Jennings’s translation includes a lengthy preface, and there are annotations on the theme and some word explanations after each translated poems. Jennings advocated for translating poetry in a poetic way and for the translation being as close to the original text in both content and form as possible. When translating, he strived to maintain the external form of the Chinese original poems, adopting a folk style form with interlaced rhymes.

In the same year, the fourth complete English translation of Shi Jing, The Book of Chinese Poetry: The Shi Ching or Classic of Poetry wasbrought to the world by Clement F. R. Allen, who took the appreciation of the British into consideration. The most significant feature of this translation is that the translator greatly rewrote the poetry to live up with Western poetic concepts and acceptance habits of British readers. He adopted rhyme style when translating and employed extreme domestication translation techniques, attempting to achieve a transformation from Chinese poetry to English poetry from content to form.

After the 20th century, the English translation of Shi Jing reached its peak, with various complete and selective translations emerging one after another. In 1905, British sinologist Launcelot Granmer-Byng published the selective translation The Classics of Confucius: Book of Odes. The translation was written rhymed, emphasizing the poetic appeal. In 1913, Helen Waddell, an Irish poet and translator, published the selective translation Lyrics from the Chinese. She knew little about Chinese, so she abridged a lot in her translation, and added plenty of personal creations. But her translation was quite popular at that time. In 1915, Ezra Pound, the leader of the American New Poetry Movement, an image originator and an outstanding translator, published Cathay, a collection of Chinese poems translated from Japanese annotations by Ernest Fenollosa, an American orientalist at the end of the 19th century, including Cai Wei of Xiao Ya. This translation is not faithful to the original text, and the translator recreated to a great extent.

In 1937, the complete translation The Book of Songs, translated from the Chinese by Arthur Waley was published in the UK. Waley made a bold attempt in terms of translation methods. He believed that the use of rhyme would resulted in the loss of meaning due to sounds, therefore Waley adopted free form in poem translation rather than rhymed form, without strict restrictions on the number of words per line. He was skilled in employing appropriate word selection, ventral rhyme, alliteration, repetition, and stressed syllables to reproduce the rhythm and artistry of the original poem. He also broke the order in the original work and rearranged it according to his own understanding of the content. There are many annotations in his translation, and there are also appendices at the end of the translation. Waley’s translation is known for its fluency and the pursuit of the reflection of the original poetic characteristics in form.

In 1950, Swedish sinologist and linguist Bernhard Karlgren published another complete English translation, The Book of Odes. He conducted systematic research on the pronunciation, exegesis, and rhyme of Shi Jing. From 1942 to 1948, he published specialized research annotations on difficult words and phrases in Shi Jing in the Swedish Far East Museum, totaling over 1300 articles. His translation has four main characteristics: (1) Citation of the original text of the Psalm; (2) Annotation to the original pinyin; (3) No lining up, no end rhyme between lines, and no neat foot or obvious rhythm within the line; (4) Annotations between most of lines (Li Yuliang, Sun Lixin, 2011:98). Generally speaking, his translation is a poetry translation aimed at comparing the sound and writing of English and Chinese languages.

In the second half of the 20th century, the center of the translation of Shi Jing shifted from Europe to the United States. In 1954, Pound’s full translation Shih-Ching: The Classic Anthology Defined by Confucius was published. Compared with the poetry translation in Cathay, the translated poems in this version features higher concise, more strict rhythm, and stronger poetic meanings, but they still retain the consistent style as before. Pound’s translation mainly has the following characteristics: (1) There are very few annotations in the translation; no Chinese original poems, only the main text of the translated poems; (2) Many translated poems are rhymed, some of which are relatively neat, while others not. And the rhymes vary from one poem to another on account of different contents; (3) There are significant changes in the theme and meaning of the translated poem. Thus it is difficult to identify the source of the translation without comparing with the original one; (4) In terms of structural form, the translator deleted lots of lines, and there are also a few examples of amplification; (5) Almost all poems were summarized when being translated, based on which the translator rewrote them into new poems according to his own understanding. Pound’s English translation of Shi Jing has gotten a mixed review in the academic community, both criticized for dramatic changes to the original text and hailed as a model of creative translation.

In 1971, William McNaughton’s work The Book of Songs which focuses on the studies of Shi Jing was published in New York. This book is a collection of McNaughton’s research findings on Shi Jing. The book consists of two parts: “Theme” and “Style”, up to sixteen special topics. The book lists many poems from Shi Jing to support his pertinent research. Most of poems were translated by Pound and only a few by McNaughton himself. McNaughton mainly translated his poetry into rhymed verse, with lines corresPounding to the original poem, highlighting overlapping sounds and ending rhymes. The translation has no original reference or annotations.

The British sinologist John Turner extracted and translated several poems from Shi Jing in his collection of ancient Chinese poetry published in 1976: A Golden Treasury of Chinese Poetry. In order to preserve the musicality of Chinese poetry, he translated in the traditional form of English poetry, and translated Chinese poems into rhymed verses. In the same year, the English translation of the collection of ancient Chinese poetry, Chinese Poetry: An Anthology of Major Modes and Genres written by the famous Chinese-American poet and translator Wai-lim Yip’s, was published by the University of California Press. The book has a contrastive layout between English and Chinese, first to present translation word by word, with each Chinese character corresponding to an English word and corresponding part of speech; then, a full translation to be attached line by line. Wai-lim Yip regarded poetry translation as the practical basis for comparative poetics research, highlighting the differences in language between Chinese and English poetry.

Compared with the prosperity of the English translation of Shi Jing in European countries and America, there were relatively few local translations in China during this period. During late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of China, poet Su Manshu translated 61 pieces extracted from Shi Jing. The content was arranged in the form of Chinese-English comparison. Su valued the metric, rhythm, and artistic conception of poetry. In 1954, Hong Kong Construction Press published Poems from China written by Huang Wen. This book is a selective version with English-Chinese comparison of six poems from Shi Jing. However, few publishers have stored it and it’s not highly praised.

1.3 The New Period (1983- )

After the 1980s, a number of Chinese translators also joined the ranks of translating Shi Jing, making foreign translation of Shi Jing unprecedented active in China. The most outstanding contributions are made by Xu Yuanchong and Wang Rongpei.

In 1983, the selective version Selections from the “Book of Songs”, jointly translated by renowned Chinese translator Yang Xianyi and his British wife Gladys Yang, was published by Foreign Language Publishing House. The couple translated 45 poems. The translated poems in this selective translation are blank verses for reason that the translator adopted the strategy of foreignization to achieve the goal of spreading classical Chinese culture and faithfully conveying the historical content and culture of the poems. However, due to the excessive pursuit of “faithfulness to the original text”, the meaning and aesthetics contained in the poem itself cannot be effectively conveyed to the target language readers, resulting in a vast reduction in the readability of the translated poems. This is also one of the reasons why this version is very popular in China but has little influence abroad.

Xu Yuanchong, a translator known as the “the only expert in the world who can translate Chinese poetry into English and French”, finished his works The First Branch Blooming on Earth-The Book of Lyrics and The First Branch Blooming on Earth-The Book of Odes and Hymns in 1992. The uniqueness of these two translations lies in the fact that it contains the original poems, with Chinese pinyin annotated line by line. Some phrases or sentences difficult to understand are annotated to explain the meaning of the very poem. The book also includes a comparison table of initial consonants and Chinese vowels of Chinese pinyin, and the English International Phonetic Alphabet. In 1993, Hunan Publishing House published The Book of Poetry. This is the first complete English translation of Shi Jing completed by a Chinese translator, and also the seventh complete translation of it. In 1994, the Chinese Literature Publishing House published the translation An Unexpected Translation of Book of Songs. In his works, Xu Yuanchong followed the principle of “three beauties”, and his translation has unique features in terms of translation techniques and aesthetic communication.

In 1995, Wang Rongpei and Ren Xiuhua jointly translated The Book of Poetry, which was published by Liaoning Education Press. This is the second complete English translation of Shi Jing completed by Chinese translators. This translation takes a Chinese-English comparison form, and the original Chinese poetry is marked with modern Chinese pinyin. The translation emphasizes the ending rhyme, and each poem is accompanied by a brief explanation of the theme. In 2008, Wang Rongpei’s English translation The Book of Poetry was published by Hunan People’s Publishing House. On the basis of summarizing the gains and losses of previous translators, Wang Rongpei integrated his own understanding of the original work and its contemporary culture. His flexible and ingenious translation art reveals the translator’s unique artistic craftsmanship in the reconstruction of images, the transmission of the sense of beauty, and the elucidation of interest in the translated poetry.

Wang Fanglu published Exploration of Vernacular and English Translation of Ya and Song and Exploration of Vernacular and English Translation of Feng respectively in 2009 and 2013. The translation is arranged in order of the original poem, Chinese vernacular poem, English poem, annotations, and explanations. In 2010, Jia Fuxiang’s translation work “Airs of the States” from the Shi Jing: A New Trilingual Translation of the World’s Oldest Collection of Lyric Poetry was published, which is one of the few specialized English translations of the Book of Songs. In 2016, Professor Zhao Yanchun briefly introduced the basic situation, artistic value, analysis of other English translations of Shi Jing, and the translator’s translation perspectives in the English preface of his fully translated version She King. Zhao followed the principles of translating poetry in a poetic way and classics in a classical way. The translated text corresPounds to the original text line by line, with great emphasis on word count and rhyme.

2. The Characteristics of English Translation in Different Periods

From 1735 to 1829 underwent the indirect and selective translation period of the English translation of Shi Jing,whose the most conspicuous feature is that it mainly focused on the indirect translation. At this stage, most translators did not understand or were not proficient in Chinese. Hence they mainly relyed on the interlanguage translation, which will inevitably lead to the translations imprinted with the language and culture in interlanguage, as well as translator’s style. Also, in terms of language, culture, and style, they failed to be faithful to the original text, and problems such as mistranslation, addition, and omission would occur frequently. At this stage, there was no complete English translation yet, nor a specialized selective translation of Shi Jing. The number of excerpts is small, and most of them only selected a few poems or some chapters of the poems. Moreover, the selective translations of Shi Jing only served as auxiliary functions in the original book, rather than being used for specialized translation and introduction of Shi Jing. Small though the number of English translations of Shi Jing during this stage was small, they initiated the dissemination of English translations of Shi Jing, marking the embryonic stage of its English translation.

From the 1870s to the 1980s, the English translation of Shi Jing was in its heyday. In the past 100 years, there were not only several selected versions, most of which appeared in special collections of English translations of Chinese poetry, but also a number of full English versions of Shi Jing, such as James Legge’s porse version and rhymed version, Waley’s version, Pound’s version, etc. At this stage, the identities of translators are more diverse, including missionaries, diplomats, sinologists, poets, translators, etc. Most of them are proficient in Chinese and have in-depth research on Chinese language and Chinese culture. Therefore, there is a decrease in translation at this stage, and most of them translated directly. From the perspective of the ethnics of the translators, there are English and American translators, Swedish translators, Irish translators, Chinese American translators, and cooperative translation between English and American translators and Chinese scholars at this stage. In terms of translation style, there are translators for rhyme and against rhyme, and translators attempting to translate. At this stage, Western translators took the English translation and research of Shi Jing to a new platform, both in terms of breadth and depth, which greatly promotes its dissemination in the English world.

Since the 1980s, a group of excellent local Chinese translators have joined the English translation of Shi Jing, promoting the gradual expansion of the English translation of Shi Jing. Over the past twenty years, multiple complete translations came to the world. Most of these translators are both translators and translation theorists. The translation practice of Shi Jing and the formation of translation theory mutually reinforced. Translation strategies presented a coexistence of domestication and foreignization. Many Chinese translators have begun to continuously try to promote the internationalization of Chinese classical culture, forming a new era of English translation of Shi Jing.

Conclusion

This article is mainly based on the English translation practice of Shi Jing both domestically and internationally, attempting to outline the historical development trajectory of the English translation of Shi Jing. The turn of the 18th and 19th centuries was the indirect translation period of Shi Jing, and the 1870s to 1980s were the complete translation period of Shi Jing. The 1980s have been the new era of the English translation of Shi Jing. In addition, the author summarizes the characteristics of English translation of Shi Jing in different periods. In short, during the more than 200 year historical process of translating Shi Jing into English, with the tireless efforts of overseas sinologists and local Chinese scholars, there have been numerous English translations of Shi Jing, including excerpts, selective translations, and complete translations. These translations with different styles have laid the foundation for the study of the translation of Shi Jing, and have made great contributions to the exchange of Chinese and Western cultures, Chinese literature, and the internationalization of Chinese culture.

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