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Final Exam Paper

The Mosuo People

Around Lugu Lake at the junction of Yunnan and Sichuan in southwest China, a group with a total population of only 50,000 has lived for generations - the Mosuo people, who primarily lived in Ninglang, Yunnan, and Yanyuan, Sichuan. The Mosuo people refer to themselves as “Na” “Nari” or “Naru”, where “Na” means “big” or “powerful”, and “ri” or “ru” signifies “person”. While often classified academically as a branch of the Naxi and Mongolian ethnic group (Yang 65), their unique language, customs, and social structure make them a culturally distinct community.

Matrilineal Social Structure

The most prominent cultural characteristic of the Mosuo people lies in their preservation of a complete matrilineal social structure. In this structure, women hold the central position, with family property and authority inherited and maintained through the matrilineal lineage.

The core unit of Mosuo households is the “Mother House” (i.e. grandmother’s house, where the eldest and most respected matriarch of the family resides), typically constructed of timber beams. At its center lies a huotang (a kind of Chinese hearth) tended by the elder female, known as the “Dabu”, who ensures the fire never being extinguished, symbolizing the continuity and prosperity of the family (Zhao, Yuan 93,102). However, with rising living standards, traditional timber-frame structures have largely been replaced by cement-brick houses. Their layout and many functional spaces have also been innovated or redistributed alongside shifts in lifestyle and values.

Within the family, women hold a revered status, forming a living community bound by matrilineal kinship. Children belong to the mother’s family, with lineage and property passed down through daughters from generation to generation. The stewardship of family assets, arrangements for production and daily life, and the reception of guests are overseen by the mother or by the most intelligent, capable, and respected woman in the household. The central role of men in the family is the “uncle” (mother’s brother). He is responsible for raising his sisters’ children, teaching them productive skills and community ethics, and holds significant influence in matters such as his nephews’ and nieces’ coming-of-age ceremonies and marriages. In the Matrilineal family of Mosuo, male and female members are equal, reflecting the reasonable division of labor among family members.

The “Walking Marriage” System

The Mosuo people practice a unique form of marriage known as the “walking marriage” (locally called “Axia marriage”). “Axia” means “intimate companion”. This marital model is based solely on affection, free from legal or societal constraints. Its essence is “men do not marry, women do not wed”, with both parties always belonging to their respective matrilineal households (Sichuan Provincial Local Records Compilation Committee 203). When a man and woman are mutually attracted, they may establish an “Axia” relationship by exchanging tokens such as silver ornaments or embroidered handkerchiefs.

The walking marriage follows a pattern of “night union and morning departure”: the man enters the woman’s house through a side door of the Mother House (commonly called “Mo ru”) at night and must return to his own matrilineal home before dawn (commonly called “Suo chu”); the woman indicates whether she will receive him by the light in her window. Both parties have equal status in the relationship and can freely decide whether to maintain or terminate it. At the end of the relationship, children are raised by the woman’s family, and the man only bears the responsibility of assistance.

However, walking marriage does not imply casual partner selection. Most Mosuo people maintain a long-term, stable relationship with one “Axia”, and especially place greater emphasis on emotional fidelity after having children. When choosing a mate, character, diligence, and sense of family responsibility are key considerations. One of the important reasons why the Mosuo people’s marriage system can continue from generation to generation is that they can adhere to the unwritten but customary rules of marriage for a long time, especially the strict prohibition against blood-related marriages (Zhao 23). If the relevant rules are violated, either man or woman will be condemned and despised by society and family, and their survival in the local area will face great pressure.

The Mosuo Coming-of-Age Ceremony

When a Mosuo child turns 13 years old, the family will hold a grand coming-of-age ceremony: for girls, it is the “Skirt-Wearing Ceremony”, and for boys, the “Trouser-Wearing Ceremony”. The ritual takes place at dawn on the first day of the Lunar New Year. The boy stands under the left pillar of the Mother House, the girl under the right pillar, each foot resting on a piece of cured pork and a bag of grain, symbolizing a life free from want of food and clothing.

During the dressing segment, the girl's mother helps her remove the old linen gown and attire her in a gold-rimmed jacket, pleated skirt, and embroidered belt, arranging her hair and adorning her with necklaces, earrings, and other ornaments. The boy's uncle assists him in changing out of his old gown into new jacket and trousers, fastening his belt and adorning him with a waist knife. During the ceremony, the child must call a dog into the house and feed it rice and pork.

This custom originates from a Mosuo myth: In ancient times, humans and animals had no fixed lifespans. The deity governing destinies decided to allot lifespans to all beings at midnight on Lunar New Year’s Eve, granting the stated age to whoever responded. The deity called out 1000 years old, 100 years old, and 60 years old, which were claimed by the responses of the white crane, the teal, and the dog, respectively. When 13 years old was called out, humans finally awoke and answered. Humans felt that their lifespans were too short, so they begged the god to exchange ages with the dog and they were granted. Since then, humans prepare three meals a day for dogs, and the feeding of the dog during the coming-of-age ceremony serves to express gratitude for this exchange of longevity.

After the ceremony, the elders will take the child to parade around the village to receive blessings and congratulatory gifts from the villagers. This formally announces that the child, having completed one cycle of the twelve zodiac animals, is now an adult and may participate in various social activities. Mosuo ancestors believed that children under 12 lacked a soul, did not enjoy clan rights or bear obligations, could not participate in formal social activities, and could not be buried in the clan's communal cemetery. Only after reaching the age of 12 and undergoing the coming-of-age ceremony to “bind the soul” do they become formal members of the clan.

Traditional Cultural Customs

Mosuo cultural customs are deeply rooted in the matrilineal society and the lake-mountain environment, carrying the historical memory and wisdom of the community.

The diet centers on plateau products. Among the fish from Lugu Lake, “sour fish”, made through salting and fermentation, is a delicacy for guests. Zhubiao Rou (Whole Cure Pork), also known as Pipa Rou (Lute-Shaped Pork) due to its resemblance to the Chinese lute (pipa), is made through salting and air-drying and is an essential dish for festivals. Staples include corn, potatoes, and highland barley, often accompanied by buckwheat pancakes and tsampa.

Among numerous festivals, the Mosuo Mountain Pilgrimage Festival is the most grand, held annually on the 25th day of the seventh lunar month. It honors the supreme guardian deity, Goddess Gemu, to pray for favorable weather, the well-being of people and livestock, and the prosperity of families. Legend holds that Goddess Gemu incarnated as the mountain range to protect this land and safeguard all beings. Main customs include mountain-front rituals, communal pilgrimages around the mountain for blessings, traditional competitions like horse racing and wrestling, and all-night feasting, drinking, and dancing the Jiacuo dance. These practices collectively embody the Mosuo people’s cultural core of reverence for nature and veneration of ancestors.

Singing and dancing are indispensable parts of the life of the Mosuo people, of which the “Jiacuo Dance” is the most representative, serving as a vivid imprint of the ethnic culture. In the Mosuo language, “Jia” means “beautiful” or “fine”, and “cuo” means “to dance”. Thus, Jiacuo Dance is a dance form embodying the good wishes of the Mosuo people (Lu, Chen 225).

According to legend, in ancient times, whenever foreign enemies invaded, the tribal leader would gather the community to light a great fire at the village entrance. Everyone would circle the fire, stomping and shouting to boost morale and encourage the warriors. After defeating the invaders, people would gather around the fire again, celebrating victory throughout the night. This highly contagious custom was passed down through generations, gradually shedding its military function and evolving into a folk collective dance that is both ritualistic and entertaining — the Jiacuo Dance.

Accompanied by dance, Mosuo music is centered on folk songs. The tune is melodious and gentle, mostly sung a cappella, occasionally accompanied by flutes or cucurbit flutes. Among these, “Axia Love Song” is a classic piece conveying the sincere emotions of the Mosuo people (Lu, Chen 225).

Religious Beliefs

The Daba religion is the indigenous faith of the Mosuo people, with “Daba” denoting its priests. The Mosuo possess no written language, and the sacred tenets of the Daba religion are transmitted solely through oral tradition and memorization, giving rise to the recited Daba scriptures (Chen 157).

Daba religion is a typical animistic belief. Its core is the concept of the soul and the derived division of the three realms of humans, deities, and ghosts. Daba believes that after death, the soul does not perish, and returns to the place of residence of ancestors to gain eternity; All calamities and misfortunes encountered by human beings are all caused by ghosts; Out of reverence for nature, most of the deities who can turn to are personified nature deities. Daba is a messenger between humans, deities, and ghosts, and can pray for people to eliminate disasters and achieve a peaceful and happy life according to the scriptures and rituals of Daba religion (Chen 156).

The traditional culture of the Mosuo people carries the genes and blood of the Chinese nation, and is a non-renewable and irreplaceable resource of China’s excellent civilization. In the new era, this culture not only requires protection and transmission from generation to generation but also needs to be appropriately promoted on the basis of preservation, allowing it to become a precious cultural symbol connecting tradition and modernity and showcasing ethnic diversity.

References

[1]陈柳 (Chen Liu). 摩梭人达巴经及其文化内涵[J]. 民族文学研究,2011,(02):156-163.

[2]卢国文 (Lu Guowen)、陈思思 (Chen Sisi). 论摩梭人“打跳”音乐中的交融性——以云南摩梭人“打跳”音乐为例[J]. 中国音乐,2012,(03):225-229.

[3]四川省地方志编纂委员会. 四川省志·民族志[M]. 成都：四川民族出版，2000.

[4]杨福泉 (Yang Fuquan). 多元因素影响下的纳族群称谓与认同[J]. 民族研究,2013,(05):65-74+125.

[5]赵经纬 (Zhao Jingwei)、袁同凯 (Yuan Tongkai). 泸沽湖摩梭人家屋空间重构及其文化逻辑[J]. 民族研究,2025,(02):88-105+149.

[6]赵心愚 (Zhao Xinyu). 中国西南扎巴人、摩梭人“走婚”的范围与界限——兼论其对母系家庭形态存续的影响[J]. 民族学刊,2018,9(01):19-24+102-106.

[7]摩梭人_百度百科

[8]摩梭族成年礼_百度百科

Terms

摩梭人 the Mosuo People

泸沽湖 Lugu Lake

母系社会结构 matrilineal social structure

母屋 the Mother House

走婚制度 the walking marriage system

成年礼 a coming-of-age ceremony

穿裙礼 the Skirt-Wearing Ceremony

穿裤礼 the Trouser-Wearing Ceremony

猪膘肉 Zhubiao Rou (Whole Cure Pork)

琵琶肉 Pipa Rou (Lute-Shaped Pork)

高原产物 plateau products

青稞 highland barley

荞麦饼 buckwheat pancake

糌粑 tsampa

转山节 the Mosuo Mountain Pilgrimage Festival

甲搓舞 Jiacuo Dance

《阿夏情歌》 Axia Love Song

达巴教 Daba religion

泛灵信仰 animistic belief

Questions

1. Where are the Mosuo people primarily distributed?

2. What is the most distinctive cultural feature of the Mosuo people? What is the core unit of a Mosuo family?

3. What type of marriage system does the Mosuo people practice?

4. At what age do the Mosuo people come of age?

5. What is the most important festivals of the Mosuo people? What is their most representative dance?

6. What religion do the Mosuo people believe in?

Answers

1. They are mainly concentrated in Ninglang, Yunnan Province, and Yanyuan, Sichuan Province.

2. The most distinctive cultural feature is the matrilineal social structure, and the core unit of the family is the Mother House.

3. They practice a unique form of marriage known as the “walking marriage” or “Axia marriage”.

4. At the age of 13.

5. The most significant festival is the Mosuo Mountain Pilgrimage Festival, and the most representative dance is the Jiacuo Dance.

6.The Mosuo primarily follow the Daba religion.

期末论文

摩梭人

在中国西南滇川交界的泸沽湖周边，世代居住着一个总人口仅五万左右的族群——摩梭人，他们主要聚居在云南宁蒗(níng làng)、四川盐源两地。摩梭人自称“纳”“纳日”或“纳汝”，“纳”为“大”“强大”之意，“日”和“汝”皆为“人”的意思。学界多将其归为纳西族和蒙古族分支（杨 65），但独特的语言、习俗与社会结构，使其成为极具文化个性的群体。

母系社会结构

摩梭人最鲜明的文化特征在于其保留了完整的母系社会结构。在这一结构中，女性居于核心地位，家庭财产与权力皆依母系血缘传承与维系。

摩梭家庭的核心单位为“母屋”（即祖母屋，由家族中最年长、地位最高的祖母居住），一般为木楞结构，屋内中央设火塘，由年长女性“达布”常年照料，确保火种永不熄灭，象征家庭延续兴旺（赵，袁 93,102）。但随着人们生活水平的提高，传统的木楞结构大多被水泥砖瓦房取代，其布局和许多功能性空间也伴随着人们生活方式和观念的转变被革新或重新分配。

在家庭中，女性有着崇高的地位，以母系血缘为纽带构成生活共同体。子女归属母亲家庭，世系与财产均由女儿代代继承；家庭财产的保管使用、生产生活安排及接待宾客由母亲或家庭中聪明能干有威望的妇女做主。男性在家庭中的核心角色是“舅舅”，负责抚养姐妹的子女、传授生产技艺与族群伦理，并在外甥成年礼、婚嫁等事务中拥有重要话语权。在摩梭母系大家庭中男女成员是平等的，体现了家庭成员的合理分工。

“走婚”制度

摩梭人实行独特的“走婚”制度（当地称“阿夏婚”）,“阿夏”意为“亲密伴侣”。这种婚姻模式以情感为唯一基础，不受法律或世俗约束，其核心是“男不娶、女不嫁”，男女双方始终归属各自母系家庭(四川省地方志编纂委员会，2000：203)。男女若情投意合，可通过互赠银饰、刺绣手帕等信物确立“阿夏”关系。

走婚遵循“夜合晨离”模式：男性需从母屋侧门进入女方家（俗称“摩入”），并于清晨前返回自己的母系家庭（俗称“梭出”）；女性则以窗口灯光示意是否接待。双方在关系中地位平等，可自由决定关系的维系或终止。关系结束时，子女由女方家庭抚养，男方仅承担协助责任。

但走婚并非随意择偶，多数摩梭人会与一位“阿夏”保持长期稳定关系，尤其在生育子女后，更注重情感的专一。择偶时，人品、勤劳程度与家庭责任感是重要考量因素。摩梭人“走婚”制度能世代延续的重要原因之一变是能够长期坚持虽不成文但约定俗成的“走婚”规矩，尤其是严禁血缘婚姻这一规定（赵 23）。若违反相关规矩，男女任何一方都将受到社会、家人的谴责和鄙视，其在当地生存将会面临巨大的压力。

摩梭人成年礼

摩梭孩子年满13岁时，家人会为其举行隆重的成年礼：女孩称“穿裙礼”，男孩称“穿裤礼”。仪式于农历正月初一清晨举行，男孩站在正房左柱下，女孩站在右柱下，双脚分别踩着猪膘肉与粮食口袋，象征终生衣食无忧。

更衣环节，女孩由母亲脱去旧麻布长衫，换上金边衣、百褶裙，系绣花腰带，盘发并佩戴项链、耳环等饰物；男孩则由舅舅为其脱去旧长衫，换上新衣长裤，扎腰带、佩腰刀。仪式中，孩子需唤狗进屋，喂食饭团与猪肉。

这一习俗源自摩梭神话：远古时期，人与动物无固定寿命，司命神拟在大年三十午夜为万物定寿，谁应答便得对应岁数。天神依次喊出1000岁、100岁、60岁，分别被白鹤、水鸭、狗应答领受；喊到13岁时，人类才惊醒应答。人类因觉得寿命太短，恳求天神与狗交换岁数，并获得准许。此后，人类每日为狗备三餐，成年礼中喂狗便是为感念这份换岁之恩。

仪式结束后，长辈会带孩子在村中巡游，接受村民的祝福与贺礼，正式宣告其历经一轮十二生肖，已长大成人，可参与各类社交活动。摩梭先民认为，未满12岁的孩子尚无灵魂，不享有氏族权利、不承担义务，不能参与正式社交，死后也不能葬入氏族公共墓地；年满12岁经成年礼“拴系灵魂”后，成为氏族正式成员。

传统文化习俗

摩梭人文化习俗植根于母系社会与湖山环境，承载着族群的历史记忆与生活智慧。

饮食以高原物产为主。泸沽湖鱼类中经腌制发酵制成的“酸鱼”是待客佳品；“猪膘肉”，因其形似琵琶，又称琵琶肉，通过盐腌风干制作而成，是节庆必备。主食则以玉米、土豆、青稞为主，常搭配荞麦饼、糌粑食用。

众多节庆中，每年农历七月二十五日举行的转山节最为隆重，旨在祭祀其最高保护神——格姆女神，以祈求风调雨顺、人畜安康与家族繁盛。相传格姆女神化身山脉守护此地，护佑众生。主要习俗包括山前祭祀、绕山巡礼祈福、举行赛马摔跤等传统竞赛，以及全族聚餐饮酒、欢跳甲搓舞，集中体现了摩梭人敬畏自然、敬奉祖先的文化内核。

歌舞是摩梭人生活中不可或缺的部分，其中“甲搓舞”最具代表性，是族群文化的鲜明印记。“甲”在摩梭语中意为“美好”，“搓”即“跳舞”，“甲搓舞”便是承载着摩梭人美好祈愿的舞蹈形式（卢，陈 225）。

相传远古时期，每当有外敌入侵，部落首领会组织族人在村口燃起熊熊大火，众人围火踩脚呐喊，以壮军威、鼓舞士气；待入侵者被击败后，大家又围聚火堆通宵欢庆胜利。这一极具感染力的习俗代代相传，逐渐褪去军事属性，演变为兼具仪式感与娱乐性的民间集体歌舞，即甲搓舞。

与之相伴的摩梭音乐以民歌为核心，曲调悠扬婉转，多为清唱，偶尔搭配笛子、葫芦丝伴奏，其中《阿夏情歌》是传递摩梭人真挚情感的经典曲目（卢，陈 225）。

宗教信仰

达巴教是摩梭人的原始宗教，达巴是对达巴教祭司的称谓。摩梭人没有自己的文字，达巴教的经典教义全凭口授心记，形成了口诵的达巴经（陈 157）。

达巴教是一种典型的泛灵信仰。它的核心是灵魂观念及衍生出的对人、神、鬼的三界划分。达巴教认为，人死后，灵魂不灭，回到祖先的居住地获得永恒；人类的生存所遭遇的灾难祸事都源于鬼魂作祟；出于对自然的敬畏，可以求助的神大多是人格化的自然神。而达巴是人、神、鬼三者之间的使者，可以依据达巴教的经典和仪式，为人们祈福消灾以获得平安幸福的生活（陈 156）。

摩梭人的传统文化承载着中华民族的基因和血脉，是不可再生、不可替代的中华优秀文明资源。进入新时代，这份文化不仅需要代代守护传承，更需在保护的基础上发扬，成为连接传统与现代、彰显民族多样性的珍贵文化符号。

参考文献