Culture loaded words

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1 羊叶 The Analysis of Culture-loaded Words of English Subtitle Translation in Chinese Movies-Taking Farewell to My Concubine as an Example 电影中英译字幕文化负载词的翻译分析——以《霸王别姬》为例

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Abstract

Nowadays, popular films are increasingly active on the Internet. Confronting such a mass need for film translation, subtitle translation is winning more favor compared with traditional dubbing translation. This paper, taking Farewell My Concubine as an example, analyzes the strategies and methods of translating culture-loaded words. The conclusions are as follows: In terms of translator, translator needs to be super proficient in Chinese and English. In terms of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization are unity of opposites and complement each other, so there is no absolute and pure domestication and foreignization. In terms of translation methods, when translating the culture-loaded words, Linda Jaivin mainly adopted literal translation, free translation, specification, generalization and omission to nearly successfully preserve and convey the essence in Beijing dialect and Beijing Opera in China.

Key Words

Subtitle Translation; Farewell My Concubine; foreignizing method; domesticating method

Introduction

1.1Research Background

Innovation of information technology brings energy for the advancement of broadcasting ways of film and television programs. More and more foreign popular films are increasingly active on the Internet; more and more local films with Chinese elements are also introduced abroad. Researchers on subtitling translation are becoming more and more important. China's Opening-up and Reform facilitates the cultural communication between China and the outer world. In the introduction of foreign films and TV plays, language understanding becomes an obvious barrier for audiences. Two major solutions to solve such a barrier are dubbing and subtitle translation. "Subtitles sometimes referred to as captions are transcriptions of film or TV dialogue presented simultaneously on the screen." Relatively, the latter one is more favorable than the traditional dubbing way because of its cost-effectiveness, short producing cycle and audience-acceptability. With higher educational background and foreign language level, many Chinese audiences expect that films can be displayed with “a natural and original flavor” nowadays. Under such circumstances, subtitle translation seems to be more acceptable to get access to foreign audience. Among so many elements involved in the subtitle translation process, the translator plays the most significant part, thus becoming a key and central element in the subtitle translation system. Therefore, a good subtitle translation with “a natural and original flavor” sets high and strict requirements for the translator.

1.2 Brief Introduction to Farewell My Concubine

Farewell My Concubine, the film version adopted in this thesis is the 1993 one whose heroes and heroines are Duan Xiaolou (acted by Zhang Fengyi), Cheng Dieyi (acted by Zhang Guorong) and Ju Xian (acted by Gong Li) respectively. In the film, Xiaolou and Dieyi are fellow apprentices learning Beijing opera performance together from childhood. Later on, their cooperation in the opera Farewell My Concubine makes them famous overnight throughout Beijing city. Thereafter, they make a promise to each other that they will perform Farewell My Concubine together as long as they are alive. However, their different understandings of the relationship between the opera and life finally lead to their different choices: Until mid-age, Xiaolou deeply knows that the opera isn't his whole life, so he gets married with a famous whore called Juxian; Dieyi, however, becomes totally immersed in the complicated plots and role relationships of the operas, especially Farewell my Concubine. Around such a classic and famous opera, the love and betrayal among them become escalating with the changes of times and eventually develops into a tragedy. It is the first film that won the Golden Palm Prize in mainland China. It has been keeping the highest-grossing record of Chinese melodrama movies in America which also marks the climax of Chinese films in America. Meanwhile, it also got great box-office successes in such countries as Japan, Germany, Korean, France and so on. It should be concluded that Farewell My Concubine has achieved great success both in the art and business. In Farewell My Concubine, Beijing Opera art is the central cultural element. It is a typical representative of classical Chinese literature art. Taking it as a case study, general and concrete subtitle translation strategies can be concluded to improve translation quality of similar subtitle translation works.

1.3 Brief Introduction to translator Linda Javin

Linda Javin, the subtitle translator of Farewell My Concubine, is a suitable and qualified person for both the director and the audiences. Since 1976, Linda has been playing an important and active role in broadcasting, studying and exploring Chinese culture. As an internationally renowned sinologist, translator and writer, Linda Javin has made great efforts in learning, feeling and appreciating Chinese culture. It is really a tough time full of difficulties and hardships under the specific social conditions then. After years of efforts to learn Chinese language, history, literature and many visits to China, Linda has begun to embark on her Chinese literary writing career recently. All these can prove that she is really a competent and qualified subtitle translator of Farewell My Concubine. Her wonderful bi-lingual and bi-cultural competence does give her favorable advantages in translating.

Analysis the Translation of Culture-loaded Words

2.1 Introduction to Culture-loaded Words

Gonzalez Davies and Scott-Tennent (2008, p.783) put forward a definition of cultural references in detail, which is "expressions (audiovisual, verbal, textual, non-verbal) that are concerned with ecological, material, religious, social, emotional, and linguistic manifestation. In addition, these expressions are specific to a particular community, and they are recognized as a particular feature of that community. Such expressions, however, may lead to difficulties in comprehending these words or translating these words." And in China, a scholar defines it as "the words, phrases and idioms that mark the unique things in a culture." These words reflect the unique way of activities gradually accumulated by a specific nation in the long historical process, which is different from other nations.（Liao Qiyi, 2000: 232）

It is more diverse to classify Culture-loaded words because China is an ancient national with a history of more than 5,000 years. In this course, many Culture-loaded words have accumulated continuously. Among all the materials, some scholars divide Culture-loaded words based on specific elements such as language and culture. Since different scholars hold different views on the classification of Culture-loaded words, and hence the fist can go on and on. Here is a well-accepted way by Nida. Nida (1945, p.196) divided language and cultural characteristics into five categories:(1)Ecological culture; (2)Material culture; (3)Social Culture; (4)Religious Culture; (5)Linguistic Culture.

2.2 The Features of Subtitles in Farewell My Concubine

Through comparison and analysis, the main language features of the Chinese lines of Farewell My Concubine are concluded as below: concise but emotional dialogue; strong Beijing Opera and Beijing dialect flavor; sharp but implicative expressions; rich of slang and idioms. All the features are drawn from the corresponding lines in the film and all these analysis in the language following features will be illustrated combining with the specific case interpretation. Thus, different translation strategies at different levels can be generalized and concluded to cater for the different language features.

The film takes place in Beijing and is thus featured with rich local color. The most obvious feature is the use of Beijing dialect. Beijing dialect is the basis of standard Mandarin, but there are some differences that make it easy for Chinese people to recognize which is which. Most prominent difference in phonology is the proliferation of rhotic vowels which results from the non suffix “儿” in vocabulary, Beijing dialect has a lot of words that are considered slangy and therefore occur much less or not at all in standard Mandarin. Some non-Beijing natives find it hard to understand what most of them mean, let alone foreigners. A dialect tells about the user's social class, status, profession, and many more. That is why so many translators are taking pains.

Beijing Opera is exactly a colorful part of the film has depicted. Beijing Opera was formed during the period of Daoguang(1821-1850). At the beginning, actors from Chu Opera such as Wang Honggui and Li Liu came to Beijing to perform in the Drama of Hui School. Later, combined with Erhuang melodies and Xipi melodies, in the same time, actors also absorbed the advantages of Kun, Beijing and Qin tunes from their respective schools. Beijing dialects were adapted to adapt to Beijing customs. Thus, it took shape initially. Gradually Beijing Opera developed into the most influential opera in the country. The characters in the whole film have a strong Beijing accent, and many opera excerpts in the film such as Farewell My Concubine, Peony Pavilion and Drunken Imperial Concubine are presented for many times. So it is inevitable to translate many professional terms.

2.3 Cases for Analysis

2.3.1 Brief Introduction to Translation Strategies

Before the specific analysis, let's have a understanding of two basic concepts of domestication and foreignization, which are important strategies in translating culture-loaded words.

The translation theory of domestication and foreignization was first put forward by Schleier Macher, a famous German translation theorist. In his book published in 1813, he put forward that there are only two ways of Translation: one is to guide the readers to get to know the author as much as possible; the other is to guide the author to get to know the readers as much as possible. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, an American Italian translator, wrote in his important work The Translator's Invisibility, the first method described by Schleier Macher is called "foreignizing method" and the second method is called "domesticating method". That is to say, domestication is oriented by target language, while foreignization is oriented by source language.

As for Linda Javin, she once mentioned in an interview that in the face of the cultural essences in the lines, she adhered to the strategy of domestication in her translation and did not deliberately maintain the oriental flavor contained in the dialogue. Frankly speaking, she doesn't appreciate the way of retaining Pinyin combinations and then adding a lot of notes to make foreigners understood. If Chinese is pleasant to the ear, don't let the expression heard awkwardly in English. So the simplicity and directness are put above everything else to make it easy for the audience to understand.

2.3.2 Cases of Translation Methods

2.3.2.1 Literal Translation

As one of the common methods of translating culture loaded words, literal translation is to translate the source text according to the literal order or meaning, which can retain the original characteristics of Chinese language and culture.

E.g.1世卿世受国恩

岂敢昧法？

更不敢当众违背天理良心。

The government has always been good to me,

I wouldn't dare deceive the court.

Nor would I betray the laws of Heaven or my own conscience.

“天理”“良心” are terms that are quite commonly-used words in China. From literal works to daily talks, from traditional plays to modern films, such kind of expressions are useful guidelines to arouse Chinese People's self-reflection. They are invisible ethical rules guiding people's behaviors. Since they are so local and traditional, it's not surprising that it is a little complicated for foreign audiences to figure them out. Based on the "literal translation" principle, Linda brings "Heaven" into her translation. In Christian culture, "Heaven" serves as the source of various moral concepts and systems. "Heaven" and "God" are existed to guide and restrict people's behaviors. Linda's translation has wonderfully adapted to the target eco-environment and is really worthy of referencing of the subtitling workers and learners.

E.g.2磨剪子来，镪菜刀

Bring your knives for sharpening? Sharpen your knives.

Sharpening knives is a traditional craftsmanship that is disappearing in China. Their dreich yo-heave-ho can evoke many people's memories of childhood. Such lively lines full of traditional Chinese cultural elements, on the one hand, are not so easy to translate; on the other hand, deserve more efforts for the foreign audiences to figure out. Considering all these factors, Linda pays attention to the retaining of its central meaning. Actually, a more literal translation method "Sharpen your scissors, sharpen your knives" may achieve more active functions here. It's the easiest to understand, and it can save viewing and thinking time as well. As for some complicated cultural terms, the best way, the easiest as well, maybe literal translation, which can avoid misunderstanding and superfluous deducing. Finally, they benefit a lot to saving viewing time.

E.g.3什么时候洞房花烛夜啊？

What’s the time of Candle-lit-night in the Bridal Chamber?

“洞房花烛夜” is a typical expression in ancient times of China, which means the golden night of the new husband and new wife on the day they get married. The night usually is beautiful and memorable and it is the first night the new couple. As for this line, Linda did not specifically explain what is the “洞房花烛夜” , instead she use the literal meaning to depict a picture of the special night, translating “花烛夜” to “Candle-lit-night”, which is so warm and beautiful.

E.g.4横扫一切牛鬼蛇神！

Sweep away all Cow Demons and Snake Spirits!

There is an article titled “Sweep away all Cow Demons and Snake Spirits!” published on the People's Daily on June 1, 1966, which marked the climax of the Proletarian Cultural Revolution. The "Cow Demons and Snake Spirits" represents the old ideas, cultures, customs and habits that have poisoned Chinese people for thousands of years. Under the call of the Party Central Committee and Chairman Mao Zedong, hundreds of millions of workers, peasants and soldiers, revolutionary cadres and intellectuals, swept away a large number old things entrenched in the ideological and cultural position. Its momentum is like a storm, with extraordinary rapidity, breaking the spiritual shackles imposed on them by the exploiting class. Using “Cow Demons” to express “牛鬼”, “Snake Spirits” to express “蛇神” is direct, clear and distinct.

2.3.2.2 Free Translation

Free translation is the translation by meanings. That is to say, the translation is done according to the real meanings of a sentence or even a paragraph, instead of completely word to word.

E.g.1他祖师爷不肯赏饭吃，谁也没辙。

But I have no place for him. What can I do?

“祖师爷” is similar to "forefathers" to some extent in China's history. Without knowledge of the specific historical period, foreign audiences won't understand its exact meaning. Perhaps we can understand it as "destiny" "fate" or "god" of western culture, there are still cultural differences between them. From the plots in the film, we know that Mater does not want to accept Little Bean as his disciple, so he explains that Little Bean is not destined to be an actor. From this perspective, "destiny" is the most ideal choice to express the original meaning. Considering all these factors, Linda uses the strategy of "free translation" to put it as "I have no place for him" to refuse Little Bean's mother. Thus, she makes the lines easier to understand, and meanwhile, to avoid leading to a cultural misunderstanding.

E.g.2今儿个是破题儿，文章还在后头哪！

This is just the beginning. Wait till you see what's in store.

“破题” once appeared in "Romance of the Western Chamber” by Wang Shipu, a playwright of Yuan Dynasty. Since then, it has been widely used in various circumstances to refer to "the first time". From the translated version, it's clear that the translation of “破题” as "beginning" exhibits that the subtitle translator, Linda Javin, is quite familiar with the usage of the old Chinese words.

E.g.3真他妈想当太太奶奶啦你！

做你娘的玻璃梦去吧。

你当出了这门，把脸一抹擦，你还真成了良人了？

So you want to become a rich man's wife!

Go live out this goddamn fantasy' then

Don't think that when you walk out this door, you'll become a lady of virtue.

“太太奶奶” has different meanings in China in different social contexts. Without thinking or checking it, it's easy to translate it as "grandmother" "lady" or something like these. Besides, “良” means "good, kind", but here, “良人” doesn't mean "a good, kind or nice-hearted person", instead, it refers to the woman who has abandoned prostitution and become a traditional honest and good woman. Linda's translation of "a lady of virtue" is quite authentic and loyal to the original text.

E.g.4那么日后踏雪访梅，再谈不迟。

Ah, then we shall exchange poetic thoughts some other day.

“踏雪访梅” extracted from Night Vessel, written by Zhang Dai of Ming Dynasty. Originally, it's used to refer to describe the enjoyment with the beautiful scenery and the pursuit for wonderful poems of the ancient poets. In Farewell My Concubine, Mr Yuan invites Xiaolou and Dieyi to his house to have some wine and chat about certain details of the opera. The latter example is also full of cultural terms, which is said by Nakun when he tries to encourage Dieyi to talk with Xiaolou hurriedly and actively. In both examples, Linda deals with the cultural elements skillfully and flexibly.

E.g.4这武二郎碰上西门庆，不打，不打能成吗？

You know the old story about Pan Jinlian's husband meeting the man who screwed her? Did he have any choice but to fight?

It's an old story about Pan Jinlian and his husband in ancient China. When performing translation, a translator needs to place the specific written text under some relative social and cultural backgrounds. This is useful and meaningful for a better and comprehensive expression of the original meaning. The story of “武二郎”“西门庆” is typically traditional Chinese cultural element, the translated text can't be formed without relative culture knowledge. For some literary allusion, stating its general meaning to offer a general idea is very helpful for the audience to grasp the central meaning.

E.g.5这妞够厉害的呀！

What a dragon lady!

Different cultures have different cultural prototypes. Dragon is a propitious symbol in China. As a Chinese totem, all Chinese people see themselves as the grandsons of the dragons. It's a positive and lucky symbol for Chinese people. However, because of the cultural differences, the "dragon" in Western countries means more evil than good. Its fierceness and grisly outlooks make people feel uncomfortable. Thus, "a dragon lady" here, on the one hand, can show Ju Xian's courage for true love; on the other hand, the image of "dragon" can clearly show to the foreign audiences that Ju Xian is at the bottom of the society and she is despised by the social group. Linda's choice of "dragon" clearly shows her comprehensive consideration for the complicated circumstance then.

E.g.6关师父：各位爷，多捧场了啊!

Master Guan: Ladies and gentlemen, enjoy the show!

“各位爷” is a conventional Chinese way to address the male spectators with respect. However, in English, there is no such a counterpart. Therefore, the translator substitutes it with "Ladies and gentlemen", a conventional way to address the audience of a performance in English. “多捧场了啊” is also conventional in indicating the beginning of a show and literally means "support our show". However, the English convention has it as "enjoy the show." The translator thus conforms to target conventions to avoid deviation from audience's "expectancy norms" which are established by the native text in the receiver target of the translation, by their expectations of what a target language should be like.

E.g.7小石头：嗬，够横的你。

Shitou: You are really something.

“横” in Beijing dialect means harsh and unreasonable, "Be (quite or really) something" is an informal expression referring to a person or a thing is of consequence. In the above example, the replacement of “横” by "be really something" shows that Shitou is impressed by Douzi's arrogance and reveals Shitou's generous nature. Although his kindness to offer a sleep place to Douzi is unappreciated, Shitou does not say something harsh. If it is translated into "You're unreasonable", it would be too straightforward.

2.3.2.3 Generalization

Generalization is defined as the type of modulation in which the dissimilarity between source text and target text transemes is characterized by a shift towards greater generality in target text; as such it contrasts with the opposite phenomenon of specification. Generalization is acceptable if target text has no suitable alternative, or if the omited detail may be gleaned from the target text context or is just not important.

E.g.1不罚，不罚你永远是下三滥。

还想成角？做梦。

And if I don't punish you, you'll always be third-rate.

You want to be a great actor? Dream on!

“下三滥” is a traditional Chinese expression that describes some impuissant and footling people in the lower class status in China. To avoid misunderstanding of it, Linda just translates it as "the third rate", simply and concisely. As for “角”, it's a technical term specially used in dramatic performance referring to leading roles in dramas. But “成角” here means becoming a famous actor or actress. Linda's translation retains the most important and essential meaning.

E.g.2依我看，只要是唱西皮二黄，它就是京戏。

I say if it uses the traditional forms, then it’s the Beijing Opera.

"Xipi Erhuang" is a professional term in drama. "Xipi" and "Erhuang" refer to two different vocal cavities respectively. Xipi originated from Qin opera. Its singing is lively and high pitched, generally being used to express cheerful and excited feelings. Erhuang comes from Anhui. The tone of Erhuang is more stable and serious. In the development of drama, Xipi and Erhuang went through a process of slow integration. If the translator transliterates the tones of "Xipi" and "Erhuang" respectively in the subtitles, on the one hand, the audience without the knowledge of Peking Opera can not understand it completely; on the other hand, the subtitles have space limitations, and the letter translation should not be too long. Here, Linda generally translates it as "the traditional forms" to give the audience an abstract understanding.

E.g.3反正这两杯子也沾上了四旧了

Anyway, jade cups were part of the old society

With abundant political background, on August 8th, 1966, as the film mentioned “in the era of Communist revolution, the on-going Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution will be a revolution that reconstructs people’s mind”. "四旧" as a derogatory word, refers to the collective name and general designation of old ideas, including old culture, old customs and old habits. For a time, streets, factories, communes, time-honored stores and schools were changed into revolutionary names such as "Anti-road Construction", "Dongfeng Store" and "Red Guard War School" , destroying the authority of "bourgeois reactionary academic authorities" such as scholars, writers, artists and scientists. Violence became commonly seen in the streets. Instead of illustrating what is “四旧”, Linda chose “old society” to generally express the real social situation at that time, almost everything should be put out the label of “old, bad” to be accused and criticized.

E.g.4尘世中，男子阳污，女子阴秽

There is foulness in both men and women.

This sentence comes from the mouth of Mr Yuan, a drama addict. The word "尘世" is unique to Chinese. It is used by Buddhists or Taoists to refer to the world, with a deep religious color. However, the main religious belief in western countries is Christianity, and "尘世" has no corresponding word in English. In this sentence, Linda translated the sentence into existential sentence, which is a good way to generalize the meaning of the word. In fact, this sentence means that in the eyes of people who believe in Buddhism or Taoism, men and women on earth are all dirty. If the translator rigidly corresponds "阳污" to "man" and "阴秽" to "woman", the translation will only overlap meaning, resulting the translation not authentic.

E.g.5来给师哥勾勾脸

Will you give me a hand with my make up?

The facial makeup in Peking Opera is a special makeup method. The traditional facial makeup mainly refers to clean facial painting. "勾脸" is one of its painting techniques. In order to let the audience clearly understand the meaning of dialogue, it is literally and generally translated as "make up".

2.3.2.4 Specification

Specification is distinguished from the other type, generalization, in that here the shift which occurs between source text and target text in the direction of a higher level of explicitness. In other words, a shift towards greater specification will produce a transeme the meaning of which is made more precisely, by either the addition of extra words or the use of words with a less general meaning.

E.g.1别介，都是下九流谁嫌弃谁啊

Don’t be foolish. Prostitutes and actors are equally despised by society.

The mother (prostitute) of the little boy (Cheng Dieyi) took him to the troupe and hoped that the master would accept him. After seeing the little boy's sixth finger, the master said he had no gift to sing. So the mother knelt down (sexually) and hinted that the master would benefit as long as he accepted the disciple. So the master said this sentence. There is a saying of "三教九流" in ancient China. The three religions here refer to Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The nine religions are divided into upper, middle and lower levels. The translator does not directly translate the "inferior" but translates the contents of the reference, which not only makes the meaning more thorough, but also does not increase the viewing obstacles of the audience.

E.g.2小爷我今儿练的是九转金炉的火丹功。

I have been practicing Kungfu to keep myself warm.

When dealing with those terms with strong cultural meanings, it's proper and wise to conclude some specific tiny terms into a general broader concept. As a result, the translator can save efforts; the audiences can get the general meaning without being entangled in those unimportant tiny details. Kungfu in the translated text, though fails to express the original Taoist cultural meanings, it really saves much screen space and viewing time, thus, it's easier for foreign audiences to understand.

2.3.2.5 Omission

Being opposed to "addition", omission means that some words in the original text do not need to be translated, because although there are no specific words in the translation, potential meaning has been shown. In other words, omission is to delete some unnecessary words, or words that are cumbersome or contrary to the language habits of the translation. But omission does not delete any ideological content of the original text.

E.g.1各位爷都站好甭动。真钱买真货。我小石头今儿个玩儿真的,让爷儿们都开开眼。

I'll give you something to look at.

This scene describes Little Stone and his partners was performing in the street to earn money, but no one gives a reward. In order to attract the audience, Little Stone decided to perform a wonderful show. He decided to hit his head with a brick, so he said the above lines. Because the morpheme of the actor is fast, the picture switches to that he hits his head with a brick as soon as the voice falls, so the translator uses a short sentence to express it. This not only does not affect the audience's viewing of the wonderful picture, but also completely expresses the semantics.

E.g.2他这一亮相,那台底下听戏的人不都吓跑了。

He would scare off the audience

This line is what Master Guan said to Little Bean's mother when he found an extra finger on Little Bean's right hand. While speaking this line, Master Guan stretched out his right hand and made an appearance of being on the stage. Therefore, if the translation of "his appearance" is omitted, this meaningless information vocabulary can be deleted naturally, which does not affect the audience's understanding of the plot at that time, also does not deviate from the meaning of the original lines, and will not cause the audience's confusion. It is a good way to accurately convey the information and let the audience understand the content of the film.

E.g.3陈:唉，袁四爷今儿个来看戏

段:没见我盖着唢呐唱吗？把血都挣出来了

Chen: So, Master Yuan has come to see us tonight.

Duan: I know. I sang so loudly I drowned out the horns.

“今儿个” is a typical time indicator in Beijing dialect. It usually refers to "today". In view of the context, it can also be translated as "tonight". In translating Duan's response, the translator tries to relay its meaning than to represent its form. She omits “把血都挣出来了”，also a typical dialectal expression, which literally means "drive the blood out" and "do very hard" in the real sense. "I sang so loudly" is added to facilitate understanding. The translator also makes efforts to find the most understandable way from the target culture.

Conclusion

3.1 The Conclusion

In terms of translator, translator needs to be super proficient in Chinese and English. In terms of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization are unity of opposites and complement each other, so there is no absolute and pure domestication and foreignization. The translator, the recreator of dialogues in the process of translation, should choose the most appropriate translation strategy to reconstruct the meaning of the original text. In terms of translation methods, when translating the culture-loaded words, Linda Jaivin mainly adopted literal translation, free translation, specification, generalization and omission to nearly successfully preserve and convey the essence in Beijing dialect and Beijing Opera in China.

3.2 Advice

Due to the cultural differences behind translation, some films cannot achieve the same effect abroad as at home. It is true that the two important purposes of subtitle translation are to provide the audience with plot information and to convey the cultural connotation contained in the film. Plot information is the premise of cultural connotation. If the audience of target language cannot understand the plot, it is difficult to achieve cultural communication. Therefore, in the face of handling with culture-loaded words in subtitles, the translator should focus on the purpose of information, put letting the audience understand the film content above everything else, and then give consideration to the cultural purpose.

The subtitle translation in Farewell my concubine mainly adopts the domestication strategy rather than foreignization. Truly speaking, foreignization can retain the cultural characteristics of the original language in translation, making the readers of the target language feel the exotic customs and the unique charm of the source culture. Foreignization could be taken as a means of resistance to the cultural colonial policy of the strong culture, break its "domestication" and strive for winning a place for the weak culture in the forest of global culture. Therefore, there is still a long way for Chinese translators to spread Chinese culture to the countries abroad.

References

[1]Xiao Xiang. The Transmission of Peking Opera Culture in the English Subtitle Translation of Farewell, My Concubine[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3.0(13.0)

[2]Nan Wan. Subtitling and its Acceptability in the Film Farewell, My Concubine: A Multimodal Approach[J]. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 2019, 10(6) : 94.

[3]张凯娟. 电影字幕翻译中的语域对等研究[D].西南大学,2019.

[4]徐敏. 电影《霸王别姬》的汉英影视字幕翻译评析[D].浙江工商大学,2014.

[5]金海娜.从《霸王别姬》到《一代宗师》———电影译者Linda Jaivin访谈录［J］.中国翻译，2013，34（04）.

[6]杜阿晴.目的论视角下电影字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以电影《霸王别姬》《风月》为例[J].福建教育学院学报,2013,14(04):94-97.

2 谢庆琳 The Analysis of the Chinese Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Russian

Cult_Load_Words_EN_2

Abstract

Language is a product of culture, an integral part of it and a condition of its existence, and an important factor in the formation of cultural codes. Since the 21st century, linguistics has actively studied a direction that sees language as a code for understanding the culture of a nation, not just as a tool for communication and cognition. As we all know, there are certain cultural differences among various ethnic groups influenced by factors such as geographical environment, political system, religious beliefs, living habits, moral values and aesthetic interests. These factors together contribute to the creation of culture-loaded words. The translation of culture-loaded words requires the translator to accurately and appropriately understand the beliefs, customs, aesthetics and values of the foreign culture while faithfully conveying the essence and soul of the translated culture to the readers of the translated language to truly communicate with different cultures. The translation of culture-loaded words directly affects the understanding of readers of the translated work, and also influences the readability and literary quality of the work. The study of Chinese translation of Russian culture-loaded words from the perspective of cultural load words not only promotes the communication between Chinese and Russian languages, but also deepens the cultural understanding between Chinese and Russian people.

Key Words

Russian Culture-loaded Words; Translation Principles; Translation Strategies

摘要

语言是文化的产物，是文化的组成部分和存在条件，也是文化密码形成的一个重要因素。 21世纪以来，语言学积极研究一个方向，即把语言看作是了解一个民族文化的密码，而不仅仅是一个交流和认知的工具。众所周知，各民族受地理环境、政治制度、宗教信仰、生活习惯、道德价值、审美情趣等因素影响，其间存在一定的文化差异。这些因素共同促使了文化负载词的产生。文化负载词的翻译要求译者准确恰当地理解异国文化中的信仰、习俗、审美及价值观等的同时，忠实地将译语文化的精髓与灵魂传递到译语读者面前，真正做到不同文化的交流。对文化负载词的翻译会直接影响译文读者对作品的理解，也影响着作品的可读性及文学性。从文化负载词的角度来研究俄语文化负载词的中译不仅推动中俄两国语言的沟通，同时对加深中俄人民之间的文化理解也具有重要意义。

关键词

俄语文化负载词；翻译原则；翻译策略

Introduction

After the 1970s, cultural factors were gradually incorporated into the scope of linguists' studies, and cultural studies became a topic of common concern for linguists and translators. Susan Bassnett (1990), the core representative of the cultural translation concept, believes that translation is an exchange between cultures, and the reciprocity of translation should not only realize the reciprocity of language forms, but also pursue the reciprocity of cultural functions between the original text and the translated text. Therefore, translation is not only an act of purely linguistic conversion, but also a reflection of the cultural meaning of language. Language is a means of communication of human thoughts and feelings, and it is both a carrier and an important part of culture. In the process of historical development, countries around the world have formed large or small cultural differences due to different geographical environments, political rule, religious beliefs, traditional customs, lifestyles, value orientations and aesthetic interests. These factors have together contributed to the creation of a large number of cultural-loaded words. Each language has its own cultural vocabulary with cultural color and connotation, and these words reflect the cultural values of each nation. Because they are loaded with special national cultural connotations, cultural-loaded words often constitute the focus and difficulty of translation as an act of intercultural communication, and even become a barrier to the transmission of information.

Guided by American translator and translation theorist Eugene Nida's theory of functional equivalence, this paper takes the Russian as an example to explore the cultural information carried by the cultural-loaded words in its subtitles and summarize its translation method. The translation of cultural-loaded words requires the translator to accurately and appropriately understand the beliefs, customs, aesthetics and values of the foreign culture, while faithfully transmitting the essence and soul of the translated culture to the readers of the translated language, so as to truly communicate with different cultures. The study of Chinese subtitles of Russian TV series from the perspective of cultural-load words not only promotes the communication between Chinese and Russian languages, but also has great significance in deepening the cultural understanding between Chinese and Russian people.

The paper consists of an introduction, three chapters and concluding remarks. The introductory part firstly describes the feasibility, theoretical significance and practical significance of this research, and then clarifies the novelty of this research. The first chapter briefly outlines the concept of cultural-loaded words, and classifies cultural-loaded words according to Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, laying the foundation for the translation study of cultural-loaded words later on. Chapter 2 analyzes in detail the cultural-loaded words appearing in “Intern”, and discusses the translation principles and translation strategies of cultural-loaded words. The third chapter analyzes the causes of mistranslation and difficult-to-understand cultural-loaded words in “Intern”. The concluding remarks summarize the content of the whole text.

Culture-loaded Words

Definition of Culture-loaded Words

Culture-loaded words are also called culturally connotative words. In the language system, culture-loaded words are the vocabulary which can best embody the cultural information that a language carries and they also reflect the social life.

Behind each vocabulary are deeply imprinted the cultural, geographical and historical characteristics of a society. Vocabulary is the basic element of language,and the formation of each vocabulary is inseparable from culture. It carries a largeamount of "national cultural accumulation", that is, cultural connotation. This article is an analysis of Russian cultural-loaded words, reflecting mostly about the Russian national culture.

Language is the carrier of culture, so cultural differences must also be reflected in language. Translation means the spread of culture, and words that carry culture are words that express culture. Therefore, the translator focuses on the cultural-loaded words that appear in the source text, and on this basis. The words containing language and culture reflect the development, progress and change of the language of a country's dynasties, as well as the accumulation of various activities that are completely different from other countries (Liao, 2002). Translating social cultural terms and ecological cultural terms can truly understand the living conditions and social conditions of a country in a specific period.

Classification of Culture-loaded Words

According to Naida's classification of cultural factors, cultural load words are divided into five categories: the first category is ecological cultural load words, which usually refer to words related to plants, animals, climate, etc. of a specific region, for example, a small twisting path is not used in the Russian language environment, such as “羊肠小径”. The second category is material cultural load words. For example, “轿子” refers to a human-powered means of transportation in feudal China, which does not exist in Western countries. The third category is the social cultural load words, which usually involve words of social etiquette, social identity and leisure, such as kneel three times and kowtow nine, the dragon boat festiva, which are unique to Chinese culture and tradition. The fourth category is religious cultural load words, which are generally words reflecting the cultural beliefs of a certain nationality, such as “八字”(horoscopes), “算命先生”(fortune-teller), and so on. The fifth category is language-based cultural load words, which reflect the different ways of speaking and habits of different ethnic groups in terms of phonetics, vocabulary, syntax and so on. For example, the name of a person, the use of idioms, and so on.

Translation Principles and Strategies of Russian Culture-loaded Words

Translation Principles of Russian Culture-loaded Words

The Principle of Faithfulness to the Original Text

Fidelity to the original text is one of the most basic principles and standards of translation. When translating cultural-loaded words, two points should be clear: on the one hand, we can not add some cultural meanings in the translation process based on our own conjecture. On the one hand, it is not possible to attach some cultural meanings to the translation process that are not intended by the author of the original text. For example, the Russian word for rabbit (заяц) has a negative cultural symbolism and is considered to be a symbol of evil and cowardice, while In the passage of «Судьба Человека»: "… а я уже на ничьей земле между воронками петляю не хуже зайца" (李世俊，张永全等: 1999), a soldier tells how he bravely and wisely crossed the German lines. The rabbit is used here only to borrow the positive image of its quick and dexterous movements, not the cultural symbolism described above. If we do not take into account the author's real intention and turn it into "no less than a timid rabbit", we are not being faithful to the original text, but rather making a faux pas. Therefore, this sentence should be translated as "I have reached the middle of the field, and I am not less dexterous than a rabbit in going around in the middle of the crater."

On the other hand, it is important to translate the cultural meaning of the culturally loaded words that are crucial or important to the understanding of the text, as it is easy to misunderstand if only the surface meaning is translated. For example, “сушить сухарь” literally means toast a thousand, but in fact it means to prepare dry food for exile on the road, and now it often refers to eating lawsuits. If there is a scene in Chinese literature where the crane is used to celebrate a long life, it must be translated into Russian with the meaning of longevity in Chinese culture, otherwise the Russians will find it inexplicable.

Contextual Principal

The meaning of words is often multi-layered and multi-faceted, and translators should judge the meaning of specific words according to the context. Therefore, context is the key to determining the true meaning of a word in a specific context and to help the translator correctly translate the original text.

The following are three situations to determine the specific meaning: (1) Words that often have cultural meaning and represent cultural images may not have culturally loaded meaning in a certain context. (2) The same culturally loaded word may have a different cultural meaning in a specific context. For example, the Russian word “ медведь” sometimes means "powerful" and sometimes means "heavy". Sometimes it refers to the strength of the bear, sometimes it refers to the stupidity of the bear, and sometimes it also refers to the maidenhead. Therefore, it is more important to determine the exact meaning according to the context when translating. (3) Common words may become cultural-loaded in specific contexts. (3) Common words may become cultural-loaded words in specific contexts.

Principle of Appropriateness of Explicit and Implicit

The cultural-loaded word serves the text with its cultural meaning, so the translation should be either explicit or implicit according to the needs of the text, to keep the text simple and fluent. For example, due to the limitation of space or style For example, in Russian,“кричать во всю Ивановскую” literally means "shouting at Ivan Square" because in the Tsarist era, decrees and orders were issued on Ivan Square, and people often had to shout to hear them. Therefore, it is not necessary to turn out the meaning of the cultural load when translating into foreign languages, and it can be directly translated as shouting. However, if the translator intends to introduce this historical and cultural phenomenon, it is a different story. In short, the translation of cultural-loaded words should serve the whole text, and be consistent with the context and the author's style, and the translator's purpose.

Translation Strategies of Russian Culture-loaded Words

Translation principles are macro requirements for the translation process, while in the actual translation process, in order to achieve good translation, in addition to following these principles, we must also adopt necessary translation strategies according to the specific characteristics of the vocabulary. The complexity and specificity of cultural factors determine the variability of the meaning and form of culturally loaded terms, as well as the flexibility and adaptability of their translation means. Generally speaking, in order to achieve good translation effect, translators often use such translation strategies as "direct translation (phonetic translation) plus annotation", "direct translation with free translation" and "free translation" for cultural-loaded words and so on.

Direct Translation (Phonetic Translation) plus Annotation

The direct translation mainly refers to the translation that retains the original language form completely, so that it is similar to the original text. The method of translation is similar to the original text and has the same structure. Since this method mainly focuses on the linguistic form of the original text, sometimes the translation cannot fully and accurately express the original text.Sometimes the translation cannot fully express the original language accurately, then the translator can adopt the method of adding. In this case, the translator can adopt the method of adding notes to offset the loss of meaning brought by this translation strategy. Cultural-loaded words contain a large number of national-specific words, such as various proper nouns, historical allusions and these words have no direct counterparts in the translated language. Therefore, it is often necessary to translate them by the strategy of phonetic translation with annotation. For example, many literary works use phonetic translation of the Russian national costume “сарафан”, which is translated as "Sarah A" with a note stating that the sarafan is a traditional Russian folk dress without sleeves.

Direct Translation with Free Translation

Direct translation with paraphrase is a translation method that combines direct translation and translation with meaning, which not only translates the surface meaning of the original text word by word, but also translates the potential meaning beyond the surface meaning of the original text. The direct translation is a method of translating not only the surface meaning of the original text word by word, but also the potential meaning beyond the surface meaning. For the translation of cultural-loaded words, the combination of direct translation and literal translation can better reveal their true meanings in terms of both form and content. The Russian word "колосс на глиняных ногах" from the «Old Testament»It is about the dream of Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, who saw a giant statue of a terrible shape, whose feet were half clay and half iron, and the whole statue collapsed due to a stone that happened to hit his feet from the mountain. This dream symbolized the doomed kingdom of Nebuchadnezzar. Thus, the cultural meaning of "giant with feet of clay" refers to a country that is outwardly strong but actually weak and destined to perish. Thus, Lenin said in his speech on November 7, 1919, at the conference commemorating the second anniversary of the October Revolution: "Мы видим, что империализм, который казался таким непреодолимым колосом, казался на глазах у всех колоссом на глиняных ногах." (刘永红：2002) The whole sentence should be translated as "We see that imperialism, which looks like a giant that cannot be served, is actually a giant in the mud with a strong exterior in the eyes of everyone.

Free Translation

The free translation strategy emphasizes the meaning conveyed to the original language words in specific contexts. The first thing is to translate the meaning of the original, not necessarily to preserve the original form, not to achieve the same literal and structural translation as the original. The translation is suitable for the translation of the cultural load words whose cultural meaning does not play a major role in the original text, or the cultural load words whose cultural image is too remote, sometimes also subject to the limitations of the manuscript and style and use this method, a cultural load words, such as culturally significant sayings, proverbs, because for a long time Ba Jing has a conventional translation of foreign, so in the translation can also be used when the original translation method. For example, "китайская грамота" literally means "Chinese word", "Chinese character", but because of the big difference between Russian and Chinese, it is very difficult for Russians to understand Chinese characters, so here it is translated as "heavenly book, incomprehensible, inexplicable thing". “Для него это китайская грамота” translates as "He doesn't know anything about it".

The Translation Difficulties of Russian Culture-loaded Words

Translatability of Culture-loaded Words in Russian

Language is the most important tool for human communication and one of the important carriers of information. The cultural characteristics of a nation's way of thinking, concepts, and systems are bound to leave their mark on language. Vocabulary is one of the most active dimensions of language. Changes in social life, the development of national culture and other changes can be recorded through vocabulary. Culture-loaded words are those words, phrases and idioms that mark things specific to a certain culture, and these words reflect the unique way of activity of a particular people that has gradually accumulated over a long historical process and is distinct from other peoples. Although translation is a transformation of symbols in its manifestation, in its essence it is a cultural exchange activity. The difficulty of translation is not the language itself, but how to convey the cultural content of the original language. The Russian cultural load is an important external expression of Russian culture, which is difficult to find in other national languages, but this does not mean that the cultural load is untranslatable. Firstly, although the differences between languages of different nationalities are determined by their respective nationalities, the similarity of human living conditions and physiological structure determines the similarity of human thinking patterns, therefore, different nationalities have similarities in understanding and understanding things; secondly, translation activities have a long history, and there are numerous cases of translators overcoming cultural gaps and achieving successful translations in the rich translation practice, therefore, the translatability of culture- loaded words is proven by a large number of translation practices. Thus, translators can still use their dynamism in a limited space to preserve and convey the cultural elements contained in the culture-loaded words in Russian.

Factors Affecting the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Russian

The first is the internal factor, i.e., the internal factor of language. In his book «Language and Translation», Balhudarov divides the translation unit into six levels: phonemic level, grapheme level, word level, phrase level, sentence level, and discourse level, in an effort to make the original text and the translated text equivalent. After the 1980s, translation research has taken a new direction - the cultural theory of translation, and Susan Basnett, as one of the representatives of this school, believes that translation should take culture as the basic unit of translation, instead of resting on the previous parts of speech. The original text is the most real and objective existence in translation, and the characteristics of the translation object itself will also affect the translation, and the culture-loaded words have the characteristics of ethnicity, implication and unaccustomedness. When translating culture-loaded words, translators often encounter two bottlenecks: first, the lack of corresponding vocabulary; second, the lack of equivalent cultural meaning, that is, the same word in different cultural contexts expresses different connotations. In ancient Chinese philosophy, it is important to "look at things and take images", and under the influence of traditional Chinese thinking, Chinese tends to use concrete words to express imaginary concepts. The abstract content is expressed by the concrete image. Take the word "jianghu" as an example. "Jianghu" is another new word with changed connotation and extension, which is composed of the concepts of "river" and "lake". The word "jianghu" lacks its semantic and formal equivalents in Russian, so translators need to adopt a flexible translation approach to interpret the semantic and cultural connotations of the word "jianghu".

Second, external factors, including the translator's own body and the purpose of translation, etc. The translator is the most active factor in the translation activity, and is the doer of the whole translation activity, which must be completed by the translator. There is no shortage of excellent translators in China, most of them are concentrated in the field of English studies. Unlike the English translations of Chinese literary and artistic works, the translators of both film and television dramas and Chinese literary and theoretical works are mostly Russians. Unlike the Chinese translators' approach to Chinese culture, foreign translators, when translating, unlike the Chinese translators' approach to Chinese culture, foreign translators may have less sense of mission and enthusiasm for spreading Chinese culture when they translate from Chinese to foreign languages, and they pay more attention to the reading norms and market acceptance of contemporary readers, so they tend to adopt translation strategies such as paraphrasing and naturalizing to facilitate the understanding of readers of the translated language.

Conclusion

There is a growing awareness that language is just an international communication tool and is not restricted to a particular country or nation but as a neutral information medium. This paper analyzed the definition and claasification of culture-loaded words. Then we disscussed the translation principles and strategies of Russian culture-loaded words. Last it discussed the difficulties in the translation of these words, and makes a conclusion that we should use the combination of literal translation and free translation in the translation according to different circumstances.

Translation is a language communicative activity; there are a lot of words with Russian cultural features, so we cannot find the equivalent words to express the same cultural information in the target language. When translating these cultural-loaded words, it needs the help of alienation principles, achieving the conversion between language and cultural information. However, after all, the reader's understanding of Russian culture is limited, so the translator must follow the rules of Russian language and expression, taking the text type, translation factors such as purpose and audience into consideration to acquire the best translation.

To sum up, language, culture and translation are inseparable. Language is also a cultural phenomenon, while culture shapes language. Translation is a tool for exchanging different cultures and human civilizations, and therefore they are closely related. In the process of intercultural communication and translation, culturally loaded words are the main obstacle, but they reveal the cultural characteristics and social customs of a people. Accurate and faithful translation of culture-loaded words plays a crucial role in facilitating cultural exchange. Direct translation and paraphrasing are effective translation strategies to solve the problem of culture-loaded words. Direct translation can help the target language readers understand the translation more easily. It aims to make the target language readers and the source language readers empathize. However, free translation is intended to preserve the cultural style of the source language for the readers. These two approaches may seem to be opposing, but they actually complement each other. It is impossible for a translator to use one translation strategy to complete the translation task, so in translation practice as a translator, he or she should try to make a comprehensive use of the two translation methods to make the translation more relevant and evocative.

References

[1] 从业平. 俄语中反映民族文化特点的词汇. 中国俄语教学. 1988年.

[2] 杜文杰. 俄语的民族文化特征. 对外经济贸易大学学报. 2000年.

[3] 何东燕. 文化负载词与文化差异意识. 西南民族学院学报. 2002年.

[4] 刘重德. 文化语言翻译. 文化与语言. 1992年.

[5] 吴国华. 俄汉文化伴随意义词汇对比研究. 中国俄语教学. 1989年.

3 罗曦 Gary Snyder’s Translation of the Culture-loaded Words in Han Shan’s Poems from the Perspective of the Functionalist Skopos Theory

Cult_Load_Words_EN_3

=Key Words

the Functionalist Skopos Theory； Gary Snyder； Culture-loaded Words；Han Shan

关键词

文化负载词；功能对等理论；华夏集；庞德

Abstract

Since the 1970s, the German functionalist school, represented by Rice, Vermeer, Mantali and Nord school has provided a fresh perspective for translation studies. According to this school of thought, the translation process is governed by various factors. The purpose of the act of translation determines the whole process of the act of translation, and the intended purpose of the translation determines the translator's role in the process of translation. Taking German Functionalist Skopos Theory as the theoretical framework, this paper selects Gary Snyder's translation of Han Shan's poems as the object of study. The study is based on Nida's classification of the cultural factors involved in the translation, namely ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. In this study, a comparative analysis of the cultural factors in the Chinese and English versions of Han Shan's poems is conducted, and the following conclusions are drawn in the translation process. The translators have adopted different strategies and methods of translation for different cultural factors according to different translation purposes. The translation has achieved its intended purpose, for Gary Snyder initiated American people's passion for Han Shan through his translation of Han Shan's works, thus disseminating Han Shan's thinking of the indifference to fame and wealth and persuading American to protect the environment.However, Snyder also partly distorted the image of Han Shan, changing Han Shan's image from a Chinese monk to a representative of hipster.Though it is based on the target of progressing the process of American's acceptance of Han Shan, it has also caused some misunderstanding about Han Shan's culture. The English translation of Han Shan's poems is a successful translation, which proves that the Functionalist Skopos Theory has a practical guiding role in literary translation, and has certain inspirational effects on the "going abroad" of Chinese literature. However, from the distortion of Han Shan's image,we can also find some shortcomings of the Functionalist Skopos Theory.

Introduction

Gary Snyder (1930-) is a contemporary American poet as well as an environmentalist. There are profound ecological awareness and themes in his poems, and he is also well-known as one of the member in “beat generation”，which is a group of people who take an arm against the corrupted and hypocritical American society. In order to save people’s hollow spirit at that time, Gary Snyder resort to other culture. For example, he absorbed the thinking of Zen in Japan, and tried to disseminate the essence of it among American, so he translated Han Shan’s poems, who is a Chinese monk and poet in Tang dynasty showing Zen spirit in his poems. Culture-loaded words can express different ideologies in different countries, and the analysis on Gary Snyder’s translation of the culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems has found that Snyder’s translation is consistent with the idea of Functionalist Skopos Theory. This theory proposes that all the methods and strategies of translating depend on the purpose of the translation，and Gary Snyder didn’t translate the culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems faithfully to meet his own need, which is consistent with the Functionalist Skopos Theory. Through analyzing different strategies used by Gary Snyder in his translation, this paper aims to probe the pros and cons of Functionalist Skopos Theory and the significance of Gary Snyder’s translation in transcultural communication.

Culture-loaded Words

Definition of Culture-loaded Words

Different culture has different histories, and during its historical changes, each country will have its own culture, unique and distinctive. As a result, each country has many unique things, including but not limited to habits, language and rhetoric, religious beliefs, authorities and so on. To a certain extent, the words that describe these things can only be understood by the people who live in that country. The denotations and connotations of these words have been endowed by the indigenous people of different countries，and these words are culture-loaded words. "culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify something specific to a culture" (Liao Qiyi, 2000).The birth of these words inevitably comes from the unique habits of different people in different countries" (Liao Qiyi, 2000: 232). For instance, '鱼服', which appears in a famous Chinese poem '采薇', refers to a kind of bag made from fish skin, and this was a tool used in warfare in ancient China to hold arrows. The tool is unique to China and was created through the experience and simple wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. It is unique to China, and such a tool, obviously,is culture-loaded, which people of other nations do not possess and cannot understand. This is a culture-loaded term that needs explanation in order to be understood by other peoples.

Classification of Culture-loaded Words

A number of scholars, both nationally and internationally, have classified culture-loaded words. Given that Eugene A. Nida’s classification of culture- loaded words has been influential, who is a distinguished American linguist and translator，and his five categories of texts are relatively parallel. This paper classifies the culture-loaded words in Gary Snyder's translation of Han Shan's poems according to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words. According to Naida's classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into five categories: ecocultural-loaded words,physical material culture-loaded words, sociocultural-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, and linguistic culture-loaded words(Nida,1993)

The Translation methods of culture-loaded words

By its very nature, translation is an intercultural activity, and as such the aim of translation is to transmit what is expressed in the culture of the original language to the culture of the target language. In fact, there is no strictly fixed formula for this process of cultural transmission. However, after many years of translation activity, there are broad categories of translation methods that people use. These classifications can help translators to clarify their thinking and to translate better. Therefore, some of the translation methods used by Gary Snyder are listed here as follows. Firstly, A direct translation, as the name suggests, is a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence translation. The direct translation method is a way that can best preserve the meaning of the original text among all translation methods, and it is also the method that is most frequently used in translation. Due to differences in culture, lifestyle and other aspects, there may not be many identical correspondences between Chinese and English, but if possible, using a direct translation is literally the best strategy. For instance, the Chinese phrase "大锅飯" can be translated directly as "big pot system"; Chinese readers also mostly understand the English phrase "black horse "in English.Secondly,Substitution,the replacement of culture-loaded words in the original language with words from the target language, is a method with mixed advantages and disadvantages The advantage of the substitution method is that it makes it easier for readers of the target language to understand the meaning of the original text by using words that are familiar to them.However, the disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult to find a proper relevant cultural expressions in the culture of the target language, making it difficult to disseminate the culture of the original country, and even causing the readers of the target language to misunderstand the culture of the original country and believe that the cultural habits of the two countries are the same.Thirdly,Phonetic translation means using words with a similar or identical pronunciation to the original language instead of the words used in the original language in order to achieve the translation effect desired by the translator. The use of phonetic translations can actually help a country's culture to reach out, but they are not easily understood by readers in the target language. This is why transliteration is often used in conjunction with an annotation, while it is not always necessary. For example, '沙发' in Chinese is a phonetic translation of the English word,and the Chinese word '粽子‘ can also be directly translated as “zongzi” in English. Fourthly，Paraphrasing refers to the use of the target language to explain the original text. Paraphrasing can, to the greatest extent， possible preserve the meaning of the original language. The paraphrase, however, has its disadvantage that it is difficult to preserve the structure of the poem in its lucidity and elegance. This includes the difficulty of preserving some of the rhythmic and prosodic forms, so sometimes lucidity and elegance need to be sacrificed to preserve expressiveness. For example, the Chinese phrase "八寶粽子", when translated into English, is translated as "Glutinous Rice Dumpling with Eight-Treasure".Fifth,Creative rebellion refers to the process of translation in which the translator consciously 'distorts' the meaning of the original language so the translation can become more understandable to the reader or can be more easily expressed by the translator himself. For example, Zhai Lisi（Herbert Allen Giles）In his translation of Early Spring in the East of the City, he translates the word '新春' as 'early May'.This seems to be a 'mistranslation' of the original text, but the fact that the chronology is different in Central Europe makes this translation more helpful to Western readers. Thus, although such a translation "distorts" the apparent meaning of the original, it is a better way of conveying the true meaning of the text.Sixth, In literary translation, 'annotation' is a common method of translation because it is difficult to translate the 'quotations' of Chinese and Western cultures in just a few words. The translator will therefore often add annotations in their translations. For example, in the beginning, when Chinese readers were not aware of cloning technology,the term clone was translated as "cloning (a method of asexual reproduction)" ,which is a combination of "phonetic" and "apostrophe". Seventh, Generalisation refers to a method of translation in which a more refined range of things is translated to encompass a wider range of meanings. Generally speaking, such translations lose the nuance and precision of the original. However, it can be used when necessary. For example, the translator translates "lily" as "flower",which is a kind of "generalisation".Eighth,Omission is not a very common translation technique,However, when translating from Chinese to English, in order to make the translation more concise and easier for Western readers to read, translators will choose to use omission.

the Functionalist Skopos Theory

Definition

the Functionalist Skopos Theory is the founding theory and mainstream of German functionalism. It was proposed by the famous German translation theorist Hans Vermeer in the 1970s on the basis of behavioural theory. the Functionalist Skopos Theory holds that the act of translation and the nature of translation is a purposeful intercultural communication with its purposive, communicative and intercultural nature.

Three Principles of the Functionalist Skopos Theory

the Functionalist Skopos Theory consists of three principles: the principle of purpose, the law of coherence and the law of fidelity. The principle of purpose means that the translation should work in the context and culture of the language into which it is translated The purpose principle means that the translation should function in the way that the recipient of the translation expects it to function. The principle of coherence means that the translation must be internally coherent, so that the translation is readable, meaningful and relevant in the culture and communication of the target language. The principle of fidelity means that the translation must be faithful to the original, that it must be interlingually consistent with the original, and that the translation must be faithful to the extent and in the way that the recipient understands it. The degree of fidelity and the form of fidelity are determined by the purpose of the translation. The principle of purpose is the primary principle of all translations.

Gary Snyder’s Translation of the Culture-loaded Words in Han Shan’s Poems

ecocultural-loaded words

According to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, ecocultural- loaded words include words related to plants, animals, monsoons, hills, and so on. Through analyzing the translation methods adopted by Gary Snyder in his translation of the ecocultural- loaded words in Han Shan’s poems, this paper found that he mostly used the way of direct translation when he translated the natural sceneries. For instance，he translated“溪长石磊磊，涧阔草蒙蒙” into “The longgorge choked with scree and boulders, The widecreek, the mist blurred grass.”Snyder used“choked”to express the original meaning expressed by“石磊磊”，which means “so many rocks”. Moreover，Snyder didn’t stiffly directly translated “石” into rocks，instead，he creatively divide the types of the rocks by the stream into scree and boulders, thus making more vivid image. And he adds mist in the second sentence, which has explained the reason for why the grass is blurred. There are many other translations where direct translations also appear. Such as he translated “沓嶂恒凝雪，幽林每吐烟” into “Jaggedscarps forever snowed in. Woods in the dark ravines spitting mist.” He reserved the personification in his translations, and the words he used are also adequate enough to restore the calm and quiet context in the original text. There are also some direct translations that have changed the original meanings, such as in the first poem titled《可笑寒山道》，Snyder wrongly interpretated “寒山道” into “the path to Han Shan’s place”, while “寒山”is a name of Chinese mountain in Chinese Zhe Jiang province, and the path is the mountain’s path. And in the poem titled《重岩我卜居》，Snyder directly translated “幽石”into “vague stone”. According to Chinese culture, “幽石“ means funeral stones. And in the original poem，Han Shan used the image of the funeral stones to show the quietness of the mountain. Snyder’s translation can’t totally express the quiteness，so it need to be improved. Also, in the poem titled《我家本住在寒山》，Snyder directly translated “寒山” into “Cold Mountain”. This translation is not good for Chinese cultural dissemination，because American readers can‘t know the real name of the mountain. Apart from direct translation，which is mostly used by Snyder in his ecoculture-loaded words’ translation，Snyder also used the way of generalizations. For instance, he generalized “畅岩” appeared in《一自遁寒山》to “cliffs ”，making “畅岩” lost its Chinese geographical background information. All in all, direct translation is the mostly-used way adopted by Snyder in ecoculture-loaded words’ translation. Though there are some inconsistencies caused by direct translation, to a great extent, Snyder still reserved most original meanings. According to the Functionalist Skopos Theory, the act of translation and the nature of translation is based on the target of the author. On the one hand, considering the identity of Gary Snyder as a nature protector and the beautiful and tranquil nature images showed in Han Shan’s poems, we can find that Snyder choose direct translation to restore the original artistic conception so as to persuade American people to protect the environment, because direct translation is the best way to achieve the goal of expressiveness. On the other hand, according to three principles in the Functionalist Skopos Theory, the law of purpose is superior to fidelity and coherence, and the law of coherence is superior to fidelity. We can see that in order to accelerate American’s understating and acceptance process, Snyder deliberately sacrificed fidelity in some cases mentioned above so as to achieve his translation target, that is to save American’s environment by directly presenting the beautiful landscapes in Han Shan’s poem, and he didn’t translate some names of the Chinese landscapes is because that it’s unnecessary.

physical material culture-loaded words

According to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words include words related to clothing, food, housing and transport. There are many material culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems, and Snyder used different kinds of ways of translation to achieve his different goals. On the one hand, in order to make American easier to understand the original meanings, Snyder used a way of domestication. For instance, in the following sentence of the second translated poem, the original writer has showed that he himself is a man who stays away from the fame and wealth, which is literally the value emphasized by Snyder: 寄语钟鼎家，虚名定无益。 Go tellfamilies with silverware and cars

"What'sthe use of all that noise and money?" In this poem，“钟鼎” originally comes from the ancient rich Chinese families，and “钟鼎家”thus means those Chinese rich people. Gary Snyder used the way of substitution, that is to replace “钟鼎” with “silverware and cars”, which is closer to the modern society. Snyder changed the image to let American better understand the meanings of the poem, thus achieving his target, which is to extricate people from the money-grubbing society. In the following poem, Snyder also showed his will of domestication: 手把两卷书，一道将一德。 住不安釜灶，行不赍衣裓。 His handholds two book scrolls, One the Wayand one its Power. His shack'sgot no pots or oven, He goes fora long walk with his shirt and pants askew. “一道将一德” alludes to the classical book Tao Te Ching. Here Snyder didn’t use phonetic translation or annotation to reserve its exotic meaning, instead, he substitutes it with the American translated version the Way and one its Power published in 1934. Gary Snyder did this based on his culture confidence. Moreover, he substitute “釜灶” with “pots or oven”. “釜” is ancient cooking utensils, equivalent to today's pots and pans，and the character of “灶”is first found in the Golden Texts of the Spring and Autumn Period, and is explained in Shuowen Jiezi as "from cave and drab (cù, meaning toad) to save the sound." Later on, the word "zao" (灶) was coined as a common character, which is a synonym for "fire". The original meaning of zao is a device for cooking food over a fire. The derivation is that of a device for burning or forging. Here，in order to let people quickly know the meaning，Snyder used common materials in American society to replace the ancient Chinese materials. With a modernized tone, Snyder further changed the meaning of the sentence “行不赍衣裓”,which originally means without bringing any clothes when travelling into “with his shirt and pants askew”, forming an image of hippies. Here, Snyder adopted the way of creative rebellion to popularize his translation in American society, for there is a popular stream of “hippies culture” in American society against the dominating American social value at that time. In general, we can infer that Gary Snyder mostly used substitution so as to meet his own target of getting his translations easier accepted.

sociocultural-loaded words

According to Nida's classification, socio-cultural load words refer to the socio-cultural aspects of socio-cultural load words. The socio-cultural load words include titles, social rules, social customs, etc. In Han Shan’s poems, there are many culture-loaded words expressing Chinese social customs, while Snyder changed some terms to meet his own needs. For instance, the following translated poem has shown Snyder’s translation skills: 不学田舍翁，广置牛庄宅。 I've got nouse for the kulak With hisbig barn and pasture – “田舍翁”is a traditional Chinese title, which refers to old farmers, usually signifies aged farmers with a collection of fortune when appearing in traditional Chinese culture. And the whole sentence listed above can be understood as follows: I don’t want to learn from those rich farmers, who ambitiously collect cattle, lands and houses. Gary Snyder replaced this Chinese ancient term with kulak, which is a term borrowed from Russian language. And it has been widely used by American referring to those rich farmers. Gary Snyder domesticated the term so as to express his ideas of staying away from those greedy men more accurately. And he replaced “牛庄宅“ with barn and pasture. Here we can see Snyder merged his own childhood experience to his translation, because he used to stay in the farm in Oregon when he was a child. In his translated poem《山中何太冷》，Snyder also comply with domestication to let target text better accepted by target text reader: 草生芒种后，叶落立秋前 Grass isstill sprouting at the end of June, Leavesbegin to fall in early August. In this translation，“芒种”，the ninth of the twenty-four solar terms is translated into “the end of June”，while in China，the time referred by “芒种” is the early June in Gregorian calendar. Gary Snyder adopted the method of creative rebellion to let the term “芒种” fit for the chronology in America，which is different from Chinese chronology. In the following poem，in order to create a kind of hippies image，Snyder also creatively changed the original meaning of the text： 炼药空求仙，读书兼咏史。 Trieddrugs, but couldn't make Immortal; Read booksand wrote poems on history. In the original text，“炼药“ is a professional term in Chinese Buddhism, which means spoiling some selected materials in a big pot to purify the substance inside them thus creating a kind of medicine for special usage. For example, the immortal pill is to extend one’s life expense. If it is taken, one can shun death and acquire immortality. In Snyder’s translation, which has totally changed the original meaning, he substituted it with “tried drugs”，which can be usually seen in the group of hippies. They tried drugs to extricated themselves from the secular pain, similar to the deed “炼药“. Gary Snyder’s rebellious translation has created a kind of cynical hippies image, quite different from the original monk image of Han Shan. Though it to some extent, had distorted Han Shan’s image, he successfully won the popularity for his translation among American society. Some people even called Gary Snyder “American Han Shan”.

4 何芩 The Translation of Cultural-loaded words in Jiu Zhang in Chu Ci Translated by Xu Yuanchong 《九章》许渊冲译本文化负载词的翻译

Cult_Load_Words_EN_4

5 孙雅诗 Study on the translation of culture loaded words under the ecological translation theory——Take the English translation of Dou E Yuan as an example

Cult_Load_Words_EN_5

Abstract

Based on the ecological translation theory, this article takes Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie’s translation of cultured loaded words in Dou E Yuan, a drama in Yuan Dynasty, as the research object, and analyze how the translators deliver the culture information to the foreign readers in terms of language dimension, culture dimension and communication dimension to promote the valid dissemination of drama culture in English-speaking countries. Also this article hopes to provide an effective reference for the current drama translation by analyzing the merits and deficiencies of Yang and Dai’s Translation.

Key Words

Culture loaded words; Ecological translation theory; Drama

摘要

本文基于生态翻译学理论，以元代戏剧、杨宪益和戴乃迭译本《窦娥冤》中的文化负载词为研究对象，探究译者如何从语言维、文化维和交际维对戏剧中文化负载词进行翻译，并把这些词所承载的文化信息有效地传递给目标受众，以促进元代杂剧文化在英语国家的有效传播。本文也同时希望通过分析杨戴译本的优缺点给当前的戏剧翻译提供有效的参考。

关键词

文化负载词；生态翻译学理论；戏剧

Introduction

Background

Chinese drama is the artistic treasure of Chinese classical culture and an important part of Chinese culture. In order to make the Chinese drama culture go out and let more foreign readers appreciate it, translation plays a very key role as a communicating bridge. However, due to the complexity of drama language and its historical culture, drama translation is difficult. To convey its original culture connotations as much as possible, an appropriate translation strategy is required. At present, there are many translation theories. This article chooses to study Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie’s translation of Dou E Yuan based on the ecological translation theory for two reasons. First, Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie are excellent translators and they are good at translating traditional Chinese works. Doing research on their translations can make us learn a lot from them. Second, drama translation readers are not only the text readers, but also the directors, actors and audiences, so the translator needs to consider how to properly deal with the drama translation elements in the ecological environment. In this way, the ecological translation is necessary when we are translating dramas.

Relevant basic concepts

1. Culture loaded word

Culture loaded words, also known as unique culture words and culture connotation words, are the words or phrases that indicate things and concepts which belong to a certain culture. They only exist in a certain culture and can’t be found in another culture. According to the classification of Eugene A. Nida, culture loaded words can be roughly divided into five types, which are the ecological words, material words, social words, religious words and linguistic culture words.

2. Dou E Yuan

Dou E Yuan is a representative Yuan miscellaneous drama written by Guan Hanqing, and it’s also a model of Yuan miscellaneous drama tragedies. It is based on the folk story of Filial Women in the East China Sea in the Eastern Han Dynasty. And it is very popular with people of that time and has high value in the culture aspect. About 86 dramas have adapted from it. In the aspect of art, it reflects the integration of realism and romantic style. With rich imagination, bold exaggeration and the design of the surreal plot, it shows the huge power of justice, embodies the author's distinct love and hate, and reflects the people’s desire to punish the evildoers and fulfill the justice.

3. Structure of the study

This study is comprised of five parts, which are the introduction, literature review, theoretical basis, body and conclusions. In the introduction part, the background and the relevant basic concepts are introduced to help readers understand this article better. In the literature review part, this article will review the domestic research on the translations of Chinese dramas. In the theoretical basis part, I will introduce the ecological translation theory, including its definition and its three dimensions——language dimension, the culture dimension and the communication dimension. In the body part, the English translation of Dou E Yuan is analyzed in terms of those three dimensions. This study will choose some typical examples to analyze, which comes from the translation of Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie. In the end, the conclusions and suggestions will be proposed based on the analysis in the Part four.

4. Significance of the study

This study has significance both in theory and practice. In the theory aspects, this study will fill the blank of the research on English translation of Dou E Yuan in terms of ecological translation theory. In the practice aspect, this study may promote the application of ecological transition theory in more translations. I also hope it can delight translators in translating dramas.

Literature review

In terms of the domestic researches, I find that domestic researches mainly concentrate on three aspects: 1) Analyze translations based on some theories, such as functional translation theory, ecological translation theory, rewriting theory, teleology and correlation theory（林阿立 2021；王醒醒 2014；黄志芳 2014；褚雪琪 2020）. 2) Analyze the current problems in translations（孟伟根 2009；吕世生等2015）. 3) Study some famous translators’ styles of translating, such as Ying Ruocheng, Yu Guangzhong, Wang Zuoliang（程瑞勇 2007；黎昌抱 2008；陈瑶瑶 2019）. From the researches above, we can see there are lots of scholars doing studies on translations based on various theories, including the ecological translation theory. So I search “Dou E Yuan” on CNKI to see if there are scholars have done studies on the translation of Dou E Yuan based on ecological translation theory. However, there is only one paper related to the ecological translation theory. And it just does the research in terms of culture dimension and doesn’t fully apply the theory. In this way, this article may have a value of reference in some degree by make a complete analysis of Dou E Yuan based on ecological theory and help us learn from Yang and Dai’s translation strategies.

Theoretical basis

Ecological translation was put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen of Tsinghua University. He combined Darwin's basic principles of "natural selection" with the translation research work, and creatively put forward the view that "translators should adapt to the translation ecological environment and accept the control of the translation ecological environment". He believes that "translation is an activity in which translators should adapt to and select the translation ecological environment". This definition of the translation makes the translators be in the center during the translating process. He also advocates that translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and focus on the three dimensions, which are language, culture and communication. Here are the detailed introductions of these three important dimensions in ecological translation.

1. Language adaptability

The language dimension translation of culture loaded words requires the real translation environment to be included into the target translation text. Translators should make effective conversions between the word pronunciation and semantic, word collocation, grammar structure and discourse layout to ensure that the translation can accurately convey the real meaning of the culture loaded words from the source language, and make them adapt to the expression habits of the target language utmost。

2. Culture adaptability

The culture dimension translation of culture loaded words requires the translator to compare and analyze the culture backgrounds and connotations of the source language and target language to realize the effective conversions between culture connotations which are from different culture backgrounds and to prevent the occurrence of culture misunderstanding or culture ambiguity phenomenon.

3. Communication adaptability

The communication dimension translation of culture loaded words requires the translator to translate in terms of objective, true and accurate translation principles and effectively convey what the original author or discourse speaker intends to express emotional attitude and communication information to achieve the real communication utility.

From the introduction above, we can see that ecological translation requires the translator, also the center, to make a comprehensive analysis of translation adaptation conditions and conduct valid conversions between the three dimensions to achieve a good effect in translations, which is challenging for translator but meaningful for translation.

Multi-dimensional analysis of English translation of Dou E Yuan

Ecological translation theory requires translators to have a good comprehension of those three dimensions and make proper conversions between them. Yang and Dai are famous translators in the world. They have translated many ancient Chinese literary works, including novels, proses, dramas and so on, which are widely and highly praised. Dou E Yuan is one of them. Below, we will use the ecological translation theory to analyze it. Hope that we can learn from them, but also can make some advice about the deficiencies meanwhile.

Adaptive selection of language dimension

Adaptive selection of language dimension requires translators to make adaptive conversions in language level when translating. The most basic part of the adaptive selection is the word meaning conversion. However, the word meaning conversion is not a "word to word conversion" in the traditional sense, but needs the translator to adapt to the language characteristics of the source works when translating, and then selectively reflect them in the translation. Let's take a look at Yang and Dai's handling of Dou E Yuan text based on the language dimension.

Example1: 莫不是八字儿该载着一世忧？ Is it my fate to be wretched all my life?

“八字”is an eight-word method of traditional numerology in ancient China. From the perspective of traditional numerology, it can deduce the development direction of people's life, which is unchangeable. Yang and Dai translates “八字”into “fate”, which means “the power that is believed to control everything that happens and that cannot be stopped or changed”. We can see these two meanings are similar. In this way, foreign readers can understand the translation text better.

Example2: 我当初将你嫁与他家呵，要你三从四德。三从者：在家从父，出嫁从天，夫死从子；四德者：事翁姑，敬夫主，和妯娌，睦街坊，此乃为之四德。今乃三从四德全无，刬地犯了十恶大罪。常言道，事要前思，免劳后悔。我窦家三辈无犯法之男，五世无再婚之女。 When I married you to the widow’s son, I expected you to observe the Three Duties and Four Virtues. The Three Duties are obedience to your father before marriage, obedience to your husband after marriage, and obedience to your son after your husband’s death. The Four Virtues are to serve your parents-in-law, to show respect to your husband, to remain on good terms with your sisters in-law, and to live in peace with your neighbors. But regardless of your duties, you have committed the gravest crime of all! The proverb says: Look before you leap, or you may be sorry too late. For the generations no son of our clan has broken the law; for five generations no daughter has married again.

In China, “三从四德” refers to the moral standards that restrict women by feudal ethics. Yang and Dai translates “三从四德” to "Three Duties and Four Virtues" and “从” to "duties", which realizes a very appropriate conversion in language dimension. According to the Oxford dictionary, the "duty" means “something that you feel you have to do because it is your moral or legal responsibility”, which is similar to the meaning of “从”——women have to comply with their father, husband and son based on moral standards. So Yang and Dai make a good conversion between these two words and make it easier for readers to grasp the meaning of “三从四德”.

Example3: 道可道，非常道。名可名，非常名。 The law that can be told is not the invariable law; the names that can be named are not invariable names.

In my opinion, translating “道”into “law” is not appropriate. “道”in China refers to “the essence of the universe”, which reflects Chinese traditional Taoism. However, law in English means “the whole system of rules that everyone in a country or society must obey”. They don’t have the same meaning and the latter doesn’t have any religious meaning. So it’s difficult for foreign readers to understand this word. I suggest that maybe we can just translate “道”into “Dao” and add some explanations to it. In this way, it’s not only easy for foreign readers to understand the text but also make them know some knowledge about Taoism.

Adaptive selection of culture dimension

The adaptive selection of culture dimension requires translators to be of a high translation level. Translators should not only have a good understanding of the local culture, but also be familiar with the language and culture of the translation. Then, they should fully understand the culture differences between the two. In this way can the original culture connotation of the text be conveyed to foreign readers as much as possible. Let's look into Yang and Dai's translation of Dou E Yuan text based on the culture dimension.

Example4: 窦娥冤 Snow in midsummer

Instead of translating the title “窦娥冤” into Dou E Yuan directly, Yang and Dai use words with Chinese culture connotation to express it. "Snow in midsummer" in traditional Chinese culture means that there are mistrials, which is also one of the plots of Dou E Yuan. If they adopt the direct translation method and translate “冤”into “injustice”, the title may lose the culture connotation and can’t relate to the plot closely. Therefore, the translator adopts this translation method is to try his best to convey the culture connotation, so that readers can have more understanding of Chinese traditional culture.

Example5: 那一个似孟光般举案齐眉？Or like Meng Guang，who showed such respect to her husband?

“举案齐眉”is a four-character idiom in Chinese that describes husband and wife who respect and love each other. Yang and Dai adding "showed such respect to her husband" in the translation can help readers understand the meaning of this idiom easier and more clearly.

Example6: 你去那受刑法尸骸上列些纸钱，看你那化去孩儿面。Burn some paper coins to my headless corpse, For the sake of your dead son.

“纸钱”is a product of Buddhism after it was brought into China. It refers to a kind of ghost coins which is used in folk to worship ghosts, gods and the dead. This custom of burning paper money originated in the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties, flourished in the Tang and Song dynasties, and passed down to today. The translation "paper coins" appears to be the same with the meaning of original text, but it does not reflect the Buddhist ideas. So foreign readers may not get the culture connotations of “纸钱”. So translators should make some explanatory notes about it to convey the precise meaning of “纸钱”。

Example7: 那里有走边廷哭倒长城？那里有浣纱时甘投大水？那里有上山来便化顽石？ Where is the woman whose tears for her husband Caused the Great Wall to crumble? Where is she who left her washing And drowned herself in the stream? Where is she who is changed into stone Through longing for her husband?

Example8: 这婆娘心似风刮絮，那里肯身化作望夫石，旧恩情倒不比新佳配。他则百年为婚眷，那里肯千里送寒衣? Now her heart is like a willow seed in the breeze, Not steadfast as a rock. Old love is nothing to new love: She wants to live with this new man for ever, Without a thought for the other man far away.

The two examples include four allusions, one is Meng Jiangnv crying on the Great Wall; the other is in the Spring and Autumn Period, Wu Zixu fled out of the Zhaoguan and felt very hungry. Then a woman who was washing her clothes gave him a bun. Wu told the woman his real name, but after a while, he was also afraid that the woman would tell others. Seeing Wu’s suspicion, the woman threw herself into the river to commit suicide. The third is a legend, which is about a faithful woman whose husband left to join the army, then she went to the northern mountain of Wuchang with her weak son, looking over for her husband and turning into a stone. The last allusion is Meng Jiangnv walked for thousands of miles to send her husband winter clothes. The four allusions with abundant culture connotations reflect the profound Chinese culture and history. It can be seen from the translation, Yang and Dai have made great efforts and attempts to try to restore the story behind the allusion. However, in order to meet foreign readers’ needs to have a deep understanding of Chinese culture, it is recommended to provide a more detailed explanation.

Example9: 枉着你烦恼没理会，人生死是轮回。 It’s no use grieving for him; all mortal men must die when their time is up.

Example10: 莫不是前世里烧香不到头，这前程事一笔勾。劝今世早将来世修。Did I burn too little incense in my last life, that my marriage was unlucky? We should all do good betimes.

Example11: 我才看头一宗文卷，就与老夫同姓；这药死公公的罪名，犯在十恶不赦。Curious that the first culprit’s surname should be the same as mine! To murder one’s father-in-law is one of the unpardonable crimes.

The three examples above reflect Buddhist thought. In the example 9, “轮回”also known as “流转” and “轮转”, means that human live and then die, die and then live, all life and death are not the end. It is just like the wheel rotation which never stops cycling. The concepts of “前世” and “今生” are derived from this. However, Yang and Dai don’t express this meaning in the translation. In the example10, “烧香” is a ritual in Buddhism. People ignite the incense and insert it in the incense burner to express their sincere respect to Buddha when they are in worship. Yang and Dai don’t explain the meaning of “烧香”to the readers, which may make the readers feel confused of it. In example 11, “十恶”, a term in Buddhism, refers to ten evil behaviors that would be punished by the hell, hungry ghosts and beasts. Similarly, Yang and Dai don’t make a detailed explanation about it. It will be difficult for foreign readers to understand these words with profound culture connotations. So I think translators should pay more attention to the culture words when translating and try to make good conversions.

Example12: 门神户尉不放我进去。我是廉访使窦天章女孩儿。因我屈死，父亲不知，特来托一梦与他咱。Now the door-gods will not let me pass. I am the daughter of Inspector Dou. Though I died unjustly, my father does not know it; so I have to come to visit in his dreams.

Example13: 若说的有半厘差错，牒发你城隍祠内，我着你永世不得人身，我把你罚在阴山永做饿鬼。 If you utter one false world, I shall send you to the tutelary god; then your spirit will never re-enter human form, but remain a hungry ghost forever in the shades.

The two examples above all reflect the Taoist thought. In example12, “门神护尉” is the official of the hell.“托梦”, in Taoist and folk beliefs, means that if ghosts and gods want to express something, they can appear in people's dreams and tell them, or tell them in the form of various scenes and predict good or bad fortune.“阴山” and “城隍寺” are the names of the locations in the hell. In the above translation, Yang and Dai follow the communicative ethics, but the "tutelary god" does not seem to correspond in the original text, and the connotation of "god" is far from the concept of Chinese Taoist "emperor". So I think Yang and Dai should not only make conversions between words, but also add some background knowledge about those words for a better understanding for readers.

Example14: 自家赛卢医I am Doctor Lu

“卢医” represents Bian Que here, a famous doctor in ancient China.“赛卢医” means that he is boasting his medical skill which even can be comparable to Bian Que. However, foreign readers do not know the story of Bian Que. So if it is translated literally, it will not be understood by readers. Yang and Dai omit the “赛” and only translated it as "Dr. Lu", which would inevitably destroy the aesthetic connotation and artistic tension of the original work. Maybe Yang and Dai can introduce Bian Que appropriately so that readers are able to know exactly what “赛卢医” means.

Adaptive selection of communication dimension

In the actual translation process, except to considering about the transmission of culture connotation and the transformation of language information, translators should also focus on the adaptive selection of communication dimension. And they should pay attention to whether the communicative intention in the original text is reflected in the translation. Language is an important tool to realize the communicative intentions of both sides, and translation is an important means to achieve "cross-language, culture and temporal communication". In translating dramatic culture load words, translators should not only realize the culture value and meaning of such words, but also realize their communicative intentions.

Example14: 相公，他是告状的，怎生跪着他。Your honor, this is a citizen who’s come to ask for justice. Why should you kneel to him? Example15: 小人是原告张驴儿便是，告媳妇儿合毒药药死俺老子，望大人与孩儿做主。 I am the plaintiff. I accuse the young woman, Dou E, of poisoning my father with soup. Let justice be done. Your honor!

There is a difference between Chinese and western officialdom culture. In China, there are many names for different officials, while in western countries, they can only use the words "Your Honor" or "His or Her Excellency". So translating“相公”and “大人”as “Your honor” is very proper here, which is easy for English readers to understand. It’s no need to convey the connotation of the official names, which would make the translation more complex.

Example16: 既将你出嫁从夫，便学习廉耻仁义。全不思九烈三贞，到犯了十恶大罪。As a married woman, you should have studied the propriety and morality, but instead you penetrated the most terrible crime.

“九烈三贞” is an idiom, and is also the moral standard that restricts women in ancient China. The feudal society used it to praise women of the chastity. Yang and Dai translate it as "the propriety and morality", and do not translate the numbers “九” and “三”, which is a good translation. Because “九” and “三”here are not actual numbers, but represent a broad concept. So there is no need to translate it into "nine kinds of proprieties" and "three kinds of" moralities ".Translating in this way not only makes the text more concise, but also facilitates the readers to understand it.

Conclusions

Based on the ecological translation theory, I analyze Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie's translation of Dou E Yuan from the three basic principles of ecological translation theory —— language, culture and communication dimension to learn Yang and Dai’s skills for translating culture loaded words. I also boldly point out the inappropriate translation and put forward suggestions based on my own limited knowledge. As we can see from the above analysis, a good translation must comprehensively consider the three dimensions of language, culture and communication and make adaptive selections between them. In terms of language dimension, translators should find the corresponding words in the translation culture to replace the words in the original text without destroying the original meaning. In culture dimension, translators can introduce the background of culture loaded words by adding annotations, tail notes or in other ways to make readers understand the culture connotations behind the words, and then understand the connotation of the whole discourse better. In communication dimension, translators are required to pay attention to the communicative function of the words and convey the communicative intention of the original text. They should not blindly pay attention to the meanings, which will make the text more complicated and make readers confused. The three dimensions are interrelated and also indispensable. Based on these three dimensions, translators should actively adapt to the different ecological environments of translation, and flexibly choose the translation methods, so as to effectively convey the traditional Chinese drama culture to foreign readers and promote the effective dissemination of Chinese drama culture.

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YangXianyi, Dai Naidie杨宪益,戴乃迭.(2001).关汉卿杂剧选(一) ［Guan Hanqing miscellaneous drama selection(1)］.Beijing: Foreign language Press外文出版社.

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6 杜莉娜 On the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Tourism Texts from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication—Exemplified by Zhangjiajie

Cult_Load_Words_EN_6

Abstract

Culture-loaded words are special in vocabulary for all kinds of language. Being different from general words, the strong local traits of these words are concealed behind the language form, which leads to the untranslatability and difficulties of translating. The translation of culture-loaded words is a big challenge for a translator since he/she needs to master both the source language and the target language as well as be familiar with the local culture. The translator needs to keep the translation accurate and advoids to lose cultural identities of a term. A study of translating culture-loaded from an international communication perspective is practical for that taking communication as purpose it focuses on culture behind a language and tries to find an alternative expression, which makes the recievers fully understand the target language and its culture. In the light of intercultural communication, this paper takes tourism texts published in the official site of Zhangjiajie as example to analyze the translation principles and strategies of culture-loaded in tourism texts, deeply discussing some problems in the translation of tourism texts and providing some practical solutions for it.

Key Words

Intercultural Communication; Tourism;Culture-loaded words;Translation

摘要

对于任何一种语言来说，文化负载词都是词汇中一种特殊存在形式。与普通词汇不同，它借用语言外形将自己浓厚的当地色彩包裹起来，使其不可译或难以翻译。文化负载词的翻译是对译者对源语和译入语精通度和当地文化熟悉度的一种高挑战，这不仅需要译者考虑翻译的准确性，还不能丧失词汇本身的文化烙印。从跨文化交际的角度来翻译文化负载词不失为一种可行的办法，跨文化交际以交际为目的，注重保留语言的文化性，试图找到一种合适的替代性表达让语言接受者完全理解源语言以及其背后的文化因素。本文从跨文化交际角度出发，以张家界旅游官网公布的旅游文本为例，分析其中文化负载词的翻译原则和翻译策略，进而分析旅游文本翻译存在的某些问题，并提供一些较为可行的解决办法。

关键词

跨文化交际，旅游，文化负载词，翻译

Introduction

中华上下五千年，文化源远流长。随着中国综合国力不断提高，中国在世界上的地位举足轻重，从一带一路、和平共处五项原则到中国特色社会主义无一不体现着儒家、道家哲学思想，因此，在当今的文化交流中，保留中华火种、弘扬中国文化是非常必要的。文化负载词翻译研究便是一种重要的本土文化保护方式。文化负载词指那些富有一定文化背景或者深刻文化意蕴的词语，在一定的历史阶段沉淀后，产生的带有文化性质的词语、谚语、典故、特殊的人物名称的表达，除此之外，它还包括现行的熟语和习语（方梦之，2011）。

New Mark（2001）将文化负载词分为生态学、物质文化、社会文化、社会、政治、经济、行政机构以及声势语言学这几类。由此可见，文化负载词涉及范围广泛，且随着时间的推移层出不穷，语言交流中这类词语也是最能体现某一社会文化信息、社会价值以及反映本土生活的表达。旅游文本涉及的文化词语范围广泛，从山川河流、博物馆、建筑、特色美食到动植物应有尽有，为文化负载词的研究提供了丰富且合适的资源。他国人了解本国文化时采用的最直接的方式便是旅游，我国山川壮阔、风景秀丽、美食众多，各国游客慕名前来。在中国，基本上各大景点都设有英文翻译，目前，多数景点也已设日文、韩文等翻译。它不仅是文化负载词研究的重点语料，也是跨文化交际的重要途径，因为它塑造了他国对我国文化的第一印象，在弘扬我国文化方面发挥着重要作用。因此，旅游文本的重要性可见一斑。本文选用跨文化交际为视角来分析旅游文本中文化负载词的翻译原则和翻译策略，以此来看语言、文化和翻译之间的相互关系。

Chinese culture runs a long history about 5,000 years. With the overall national strength is improving, China plays an important role in the whole world. Confucianism and Taoism is embodied in such political ideas as Belt and Road Initiative, Five Principles of Peaceful Coeixstence, socialism with Chinese characteristics and so on. Therefore, it is quite necessary to preserve Chinese culture heritage and carry forward Chinese culture in the current culture communication. Research on translation of culture-loaded words is such a important way culture topromote the indigenous cultrue. Culture-loaded words refers to some items that implies cultural background and connotations, and passing through the long-term historical precipitation these expression with culture character like words, proverbs, allusions and name of special figures have been produced. And the existing common phrases and idioms are part of culture-loaded words( Fang Mengzhi,2011).

New Mark (2001)classified culture-loaded words as all kinds of types in ecology, material culture, social culture, society, politics, economy, administrative institutions and gesture. It is therefore of wide range of cultural expression, and these items have emerged endlessly with the changes of the times.In the communication, these words can best embody cultural information and social values and reflect the social life of human.Tourism texts relate to a variety of areas among mountains and rivers, museums, architecture,delicious food, animals and plants, which provide abundant and propor data for reaserch on culture-loaded words. The most direct way to realize domestic culture is travel for foreigners. Especially, there are magnificent mountains and rivers, splendid scenery and numerous delicious food, attracting many travelers around the whole world. In China, scenic spots essentially provide English translation, and now many of them also have Japanese, Korean and others translation. Tourism is crucial in making the first Chinese impression to foreigners and carrying on Chinese culture. It is the key language data in studying culture-loaded words as well as the critical way in cross-communication.So the importance of tourism texts is obvious. This paper chooses the intercultural communication perspective to analyze the English translation principles and strategies in tourism texts, deeply discussing the interrelations among language, culture and translation.

Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words in Tourism texts

由于这类词背景的复杂性，此类翻译对译者来说也并非易事，这是对译者对两种语言精通程度的考验，同时也是对两种文化认识程度的考验，这两方面缺一便会误导读者对该文化的误解。一般在文化类词语的翻译上，主要采取的两种翻译策略是韦努蒂的异化译法和归化译法。异化翻译，又称 “小众化翻译”或 “少数化翻译”，指的生成目标文本时会通过保留原文中某些异国情调的东西来故意打破目的语惯例的翻译类型（方梦之2001），即 “译者尽量不惊动原作者，让读者向他靠近”。归化译法指的是译者采用透明、流畅的风格，以最大限度地淡化目的语读者对外来文本的陌生感（Venuti 1995）。

Given the complexity of backgrounds of these words, the translation of them is not easy for translators who probably face challenges of well mastering two languages as well as understanding two cultures. Readers may misunderstand the text without one of the two aspects. Generally, two main strategies are foreignization and domestication put forward by Lawrence Venuti(1995) are employed in the translation of words containing culture. Foreignization translation also called “minoritizing translation” refers to a translation type that in producing the target texts one keeps some exotic information of the original texts to deliberately break the conventions of the target language(Fang Mengzhi 2001), so that the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards them. Domesticating translation refers to the style of transparency and fluency, and the translator makes effort to reduce readers’ strange feeling to foreign texts（Venuti 1995）.

Foreignizatiom Strategy

对于文化负载词的异化译法，大体来说采取三种方式—直译、音译、引申义。源语中某些文化性词语在符合语言条件的基础上可以直接翻译；当目标语中缺少某一文化词语的对应项，且直译又难以充分揭示这类词包含的文化意义时，可以采取音译；如直译和音译都行不通，可以引申其意义。异化翻译是跨文化交际的主要手段之一，让读者接受外语文本的语言及文化差异，把读者带入外国情景，这对弘扬本国传统文化大有益处。

In the foreignization strategy, three ways of literal translation, transliteration, amplification are broadly used. Under the rules of language, some culture-loaded words in the source language can be translated literally; when no corresponding words existing in the target language, literal translation cannot fully reveal the information of culture that contained in the words of the source language, so transliteration might be taken; if both literal translation and transliteration does not work, amplifying the meaning of a culture-loaded word is also feasible. Foreignization is one of main methods of intercultural communication and makes people accept diverse language and culture and integrate into exotic situation, greatly contributing to carry forward Chinese traditional culture.

Literal Translation

文化负载词的直译并不是字对字的翻译，而是在符合目的语语言规则的情况下，保留源语的语言结构，表达目的语的文化信息，这种方法一方面可以创造出目的语读者读得懂的译文，另一方面又不至于失去源语的文化背景。

The literal translation of culture-loaded words is not word-for word translation, but keeping the language structure of the source language and expressing the cultural information under the language rules of the target language. It can not only create an understandable translation for reader of the target language but not lose the cultural background of the source language.

Example 1:

因“狮”和“石”在普通话中同音，故黄狮寨又叫黄石寨。相传这一名字因张良师傅黄石公曾到此炼丹而得名。

The Yellow Lion Village also called the Yellow Stone (Huangshi) Village since the two words pronounce the same in Mandarin. According to the legend, it was named after Huang Shigong, the teacher of Zhang Liang, who made alchemy here.

类似“黄狮寨”的地点名称一般有两种翻译，可以将其音译为“Huangshi Village”,也可以直译为“Yellow Lion Village”。虽然大多数情况下取第二种译法，但考虑到黄狮寨的特殊纪念意义，译为“Huangshi village”更好，如按照官网使人译为“Yellow Lion village”可能会误导游客，联想到此处有狮子存在等，这样一来便失去了黄狮寨特殊的文化背景。

In general, there are two types of method for the place name like “黄狮寨” ——transliterated as Huangshi Village or literally translated as Yellow Lion Village. Though the latter is common in most cases, given the special commemorative significance of it, “Huangshi village” is better than “Yellow Lion village” for that the latter could mislead tourists and make them imagine the existence of lions, which loses the cultural background.

Example 2:

敲敲酒，因其有趣的名字和特别的盛酒容器而出名，其色泽清亮微黄，保存在竹筒中，入口清新甘甜。

Qiaoqiao Wine, or knock wine, gains its popularity by its interesting name and its unique vessel. The yellowish wine, preserved in a bamboo tube, is lustrously clear, and tastes fresh and sweet.

张家界特产敲敲酒又叫竹筒酒，在喝之前，先要在竹筒顶端敲一个洞，是一种非常独特的启酒方式，因敲击次数的不同拥有不同的寓意。 因为其特别的饮法，“Qiaoqiao Wine”或者“knock wine”两种译法都是可取的,都会引起观者强烈的好奇心。此外，也可以将直译和音译相结合，互作解释。

Qiaoqiao Wine, also called bamboo tube wine, is a specialty in Zhangjiajie. This wine is known as its special drinking way of knocking a hole in the bamboo tube before drinking, and the knock times for it connote different implied meaning. Because its distinctive way of drinking, both Qiaoqiao Wine” and “knock wine” are reasonable and easily able to arouse people’s curiosity. And literal translation and transliteration can be combined and give explanation for each other.

Example 3:

往东，沿金鞭溪而下，可达索溪谷，往北可上天子山。 Strolling eastward down the Golden Whip Stream, sightseers can get to the Suo Stream Valley; and northward, the Son of Heaven Mountain.（Cao Bo,2016）

此处“金鞭溪”“索溪谷”和“天子山”都是直接翻译，“金鞭溪”因其流经“金鞭岩”而得名，“金鞭岩”因形状如浑然天成的长鞭而得名；“索溪谷”因溪水如绳索而得名；而“天子山”因史上有土家族领袖向王（名大坤）自称天子而得名。这三个词均蕴含特殊意义，直译比音译更能体现其意义，所以此处的“索溪谷”和其它两个词一样直译为“Rope Stream Valley”更好。

In this sentence, “索溪谷”和 “天子山” are translated literally. “金鞭溪”gains its name for that it passes through the Golden Whip Rock; “索溪谷”for its shape like a natural long whip; “天子山” for a leader of Tujia (whose name is Da Kun) called himself a Son of Heaven. All the three words imply special meaning and literal translation of them can be able to embody its meaning. So “索溪谷” should literally translate as“Rope Stream Valley”like the others.

Transliteration

音译, 也叫“转写”，即用一种文字符号（如拉丁字母）来表示另一种文字系统的文字符号（如汉字）的过程或结果。当源语和目的语之间差异很大、存在语义空白的情况下，翻译不可能直接从形式或语义入手，此时，音译时主要的翻译手段。(方梦之，2001)

Transliteration, also called “transcription”, refers to a process or result that use letter symbols of one language system (like Latin letter) to express those of another language system. When there is distinct difference and semantic gap between the original language and the target language, it is impossible to directly translate in form or meaning, then transliteration is the principal translation method.

Example 1:

（1）普光寺（普光禅寺）坐落在张家界永定区城东部，前有天门山、澧水河，后有福德山（即今子五台）。

Puguang Temple (Puguang Zen Temple) is located in the east of Yongding District behind Tianmen Mountain, and in front of Fude Mountain (present-day Ziwu Terrace).

（2）除了这些天然景区，张家界还有两处省级重点保护文物单位的人文旅游景观：玉皇洞和普光禅寺。

In addition to these scenic areas created by nature, Zhangjiajie is in possession of two artificial touris destinations: the Jade Emperor’s Grottoes and the Universal Light Zen Temple.（Cao Bo，2016）

对于“普光寺”的翻译，张家界旅游官网和曹波（2016）译文不同，前者是音译，后者是直译。光绪三十二年（公元1906年）侯昌铨编撰的《湖南永定县乡土志》记载：“迤东有普光寺，明永乐十一年(公元1413年，农历癸已年)指挥史雍简建，本朝(按：指清朝)雍正十一年（公元1733年，农历癸丑年）协镇史城重修。寺有白羊石，雍简建寺时，见白羊满山， 逐之入土，掘之见石，其下有窖金。遂发之，以金修寺，寺成入奏，赐名普光石。”《续修永定县》也有相似记载。由史料可知，普光寺历史深远，历经多代重修，其得名主要是因为寺中曾发现金子，但是光靠名字来展现其复杂的历史由来，或许有些困难。而且，当地人熟知且常用的还是“普光寺”，故使用音译更恰当。

In the translation of “普光寺”, there are different between the official webside of Zhangjiajie and Cao Bo（2016）, and former is transliteration and latter literal translation.According to the record of the thirty-second year of Guangxu Emperor(1906 AD) in Hunan Yong Ding County Annals edited by Hou Changquan, there is a temple called Puguang Temple in the east and was built by commander Yong Jain in the eleventh year of Yongle of Ming dynasty(1413 AD). Now(note: referring to Qing dynasty) the eleventh year of Yongzheng(1722 AD) sent Zhen Shicheng rebuild it. White sheep stone was discovered to have been standed in the temple. When Yongjian build the temple, he found flocks of white sheep was strolling all over the field. Then he gave orders to dig that field and found a cellar filling of gold behind some stone. So the temple was accomplished by using those gold, and stones were granted name of Puguang Stone after reporting to the emperor. Another record of Rebuilding Yongdin County Annals also descibes it similarly. Therefore, the temple has a long history and been rebuilt by many dybasties. The origin of its name is the discovery of gold in it, but it may be difficult to express its complex history only by a name. And the local people are more familiar with “Puguang Temple” than “General Light Zen Temple”, so the former is appropriate.

Example 2:

位于张家界市永定区罗塔坪乡的景点锅灶天坑气势磅礴、宏伟壮观。锅灶天坑从空中俯瞰是巨型天坑，形状宛如土家族的锅灶。地面上有一座天生桥，其形状宛若“灶门”。

There is a magnificent and spectacular tourist spot named Guozao Tiankeng in Luotaping Township, Yongding District, Zhangjiajie City. Viewed from above, it looks like a Tujia stove lying on the ground in a prone position. There is also a natural bridge on the ground assembling a stove door.

这里提到的“锅灶”是仅为中国文化所有的烹饪工具，这里采用音译法是完全可以的。“天坑”是一种地理现象，这里可以直接使用通常译法“Tiankeng”。

The mentioned cookstove is a unique cuisine tool for Chinese culture, so the transliteration of it is entirely appropriate. And “Tiankeng” is one of geographic phenomenon, here can be transliterated by the common translation “Tiankeng”.

Amplification

Amplification refers to the addition of some necessary information including words, phrases or sentences in target texts so as to supplement the connotations of source language. China is a great country with vast territory and splendid civilization. Sometimes, it is hard for western tourists to understand the applied cultural meanings in tourist attraction. For this reason, translators can add some words, phrased or sentences to make the English tourist texts more understandable and meet the reading habits of target language readers.（Dou Peixiang,2019）

Example 1:

茅岩藤茶又叫长寿茶、魔法茶，味道独特，入喉有甜味，其藤条表面富含丰富的蛋白霜。

Maoyan vine tea is also called longevity vine and magic tea. It has a unique taste and a sweet aftertaste. The vine is covered by a layer of natural “meringue”.

长寿藤茶的实际是张家界盛产的一种草本叫茅岩莓的藤叶，茅岩莓并非茶科，因表面有一层天然白霜俗称霉茶，因霉字不吉利故谐音莓茶。此处，如果直接按照当地叫法将其直接译为“longevity tea”也并非不可，但如果引申译为 “ Maoyan vine tea”并注解 “longevity tea”一方面可以凸显出当地特色植物茅岩莓，另一方面又可以用“长寿”来引起游客的兴趣。

The longevity tea is actually vine of a herb called congongrass cliff berry. Not belonging to the theaceae, it is known as “霉茶”(mildewed tea) and commonly use it homophone“莓茶” (berry tea) for the unlucky pronunciation of the former. The translation of “longevity tea” is acceptable, but if the tea is amplified as “Maoyan vine tea” with annotation “longevity tea”, it can able to highlight the local characteristic plant as well as attract tourists by the word “longevity”.

Example 2:

老院子引位于湖南张家界市城中心，鹭鸶湾大桥附近，展现了丰富的傩文化（一种驱瘟避疫、祭神跳鬼的祭祀活动）。

Tian’s Old Courtyard is located in the center of the city and close to Luyuwan Bridge, which is the witness of Nuo culture (a type of sacrificial and magical ritual held to expel evil spirits and pestilence).

所谓老院子是田氏族人的祖居，当地人通常称之为老院子，在翻译时，将这种隐藏信息展现出来有助于游客快速理解老院子的文化信息。

The so called Old Courtyard is ancestral home of Tians, and the local people call it the Old Courtyard. Expressing the implied meaning of Tians and Nuo Culture helps tourists quickly grasp the cultural information of it.

Domestication Strategy

文化负载词的归化译法主要采取意译和省略两种方法，这两种方法并不是绝对的将原词中每一项都包含在译文中，只是在整体理解词意的基础上，将整个词语的意思翻译出来，而对于一些对整体意思没有太大影响的部分可以选择删去。这种译法主要是站在读者的角度来考虑的，目的是使读者能清楚的理解原文的意思。这种方法在旅游翻译中常见，尤其中文中对一些景色的描述时会重复使用各种各样的成语和习语，在翻译时，应该综合考虑句意思，灵活运用意译和省略。

The domestication of the culture-loaded word mainly employed two types of method of free translation and omission. The two methods do not be used to rigidly translate every term of the source language into the target language, but to comprehensively understand the meaning of words and translate the basic meaning of them. Sometimes some parts that will not influence the whole meaning can be deleted. This strategy is in reader’s perspective and its aim to make them clearly know the meaning of original text. This is common to use in translation of tourism text especially in some Chinese text in which some repeated and diverse idioms and proverbs are used. Therefore, in translation the translator should entirely comprehend the meaning of the words or sentences and making flexible use of free translation and omission.

Free Translation

意译是与直译并列的主要译法之一。译文一致而形式不同谓之意译，即以原文形式为标准，译文表达形式上另辟蹊径。当译者需要改变形式才能忠实地再现原文内容时，就采用意译。(方梦之，2001)

As the main translation method paralleling with literal translation, free translation refers that the translation is consistent in meaning but different in form with original text, that is, taking the form of the original as standard the translator finds a new path in the expression of the translation. When he/she need to change form to truthfully reproduce the contents of the original text, the free translation is employed. (Fang Mengzhi,2001)

Example 1:

（张家界）这颗风景明珠“养在深闺人未识”，直到20世纪80年代才撩开神秘的面纱。

(Zhangjiajie)This jewel of scenery, “secluded in the innermost boudoir”,remained unknown until the 1980’s. (Cao Bo，2016)

此处，“养在深闺无人识”在英语中并没有可以直接翻译的对应项目，意译是最好的方法。这里主要想体现张家界虽风景优美但一直以来都没有得到广泛关注，“闺房”表示女子的卧室，在英文中有“boudoir”这一对应词，那么“深闺”便可以译为“innermost boudoir”，综合理解整个句子后，可以省去“人未识”，意译为 “secluded in the innermost boudoir”。

In this sentence, there is no correspondent term of “养在深闺人未识” in English, and considering its length, it is also not convenient to transliterate. So the best translation method is free translation The purpose here is to express that Zhangjiajie has not been widely concerned though its scenery is beautiful. “闺房” refers to the living room of a lady and has a correspondent term “boudoir” in English, so “深闺”can be translated as “innermost boudoir”. After entirely understand the whole sentence and leaving out the repeated meaning contained in the part “人未识别”, it can be free translated as “seclude in the innermost boudoir”.

Example 2:

顺流而下二三里，至台地深谷洞子坊，两岸路人交谈容易握手难。

The Cavernous Lane, a couple miles downstream, cuts deep into the upland and makes it impossible for social talkers on its banks to reach each other.(Cao Bo，2016)

Omission

省略法与增词法相对，指原文有些词语不必译出，因为译文中虽无其词已有其意；或者在译文中是不言而喻的。换言之，省略是省去删去一些可有可无的词，或者有了反嫌累赘或违背译文语言习惯的词，但省略并非把原文的思想内容删去。在旅游翻译中，省略也是一种常用的翻译策略，其主要目的是使游客更好地理解文本中蕴含的信息。

Omission, contrary with addition, refers that some words in original text is not necessary to translate because that the translation contains the meaning of it without its exact form or it is self-evident. In other words, the omission is a method of leaving out some dispensable and redundant terms or words that break the rules of target language. But it does not mean deleting some words that is related to the main meaning of the text. In tourism translation, it is also a usual translation strategy on purpose of helping people greatly understanding the information include in the text.

Example 1:

这里，山泉小溪蜿蜒曲折，流淌不息，以水显“幽”；这里，原始次生林郁郁葱葱，珍稀动物繁衍生息，形态天成，充满“野”趣。武陵源还是巨大的天然动植物园，栖息着许多古树、奇花、珍禽、异兽。

It is all the more tranquil with winding streams murmuring all year round. It is a wild land densely balnketed with primeval second growth. It has made a huge natural zoological and botanical garden sheltering numerous old trees, bizarre flowers, precious birds and rare animals.(Cao Bo，2016)

Example 2:

第三大景区天子山自然保护区为武陵山脉中心台地，居高临下，东西南北四面均可观景。这里视野开阔，奇峰耸立，云遮雾绕，气象万千。

The Son of Heaven Mountain Nature Reserve, the third section, is a tableland in the Wuling Mountains, high enough for tourists to watch scenes in all directions. It provides a broad view of the surrounding grotesque peaks veiled in lingering clouds and mists.(Cao Bo，2016)

Carrying forward Chinese Culture in Intercultural Communication

Language is a really special part of culture. Firstly, it provides basis to the culture and through it culture can be remained and pass to next generation. Then language directly truthfully reflexed culture. So as Wang Zuoliang said after realizing social culture in a language one can really grasp it.（Fang Mengzhi，2011）

In the process of analyzing the translation of culture-loaded words, this paper finds now many websites of scene spots spend few in foreign publicity with some problems in lacking establishment of website, simple layout, logical weakness, old sources. And there are many problems in the translation mainly in the following aspects:

Firstly, the indication od machine translation is obvious. Some tourism websites seem to cover all the facets in external publicity, but in actual fact its contents depend on machine translation even making ridiculous errors like translating “腰子寨”(Yao Zi village) into “Kidney village”, “一夫当关，万夫莫开”（One man can hold out against ten thousand）into “When Kazuo, Fumo opens” and “the undulating mountains” into “Miao Feng mountain”. Then the methods of tourism translation need to strengthen. Some translation lack accuracy, leading to superficial contents and difficulties to understand. The reasons for these problems are that lacking the comparisons between English and Chinese and system structure of tourism translation.

Finally is the consciousness of carrying forward Chinese culture is weak. Tourism translation is directly relative to cultural transmission and has been focus in cross-cultural communication. Some of them exactly are in accordance with “faithfulness” -- the traditional translation standard, but devoid of deeply expressing Chinese culture and just blindly doing literal translation without reflections on culture. In current, cultural construction and promoting are the main point of China’s development, so the tasks related to foreign language should not pursue to introduce diverse culture and making an issue of carrying on domesticate culture. In translation of tourism texts, a translator should consider how to emphasize Chinese culture and build cultural confidence, aiming to making foreign tourists experience, understand and explore local culture.

In cross-communication, the fundamental aim of translation is language and cultural exchanges. The first is keeping the meaning accurate without misunderstanding the meaning of cultural words. Translators should grasp the meaning of a culture-loaded term combining with the native culture, which requires their Chinese literary at a high level. Secondly, keeping clear and simple. The translation of tourism should be so brief and clear that people can grasp the key point at a glance; then based on the two aspects, giving consideration to cultural transmission and aesthetic expression.

语言是文化中一个颇为特殊的组成部分。首先，它是整个文化的基础，正是通过语言，文化才能保存下来，并传递给后人。其次语言直接反映一种文化的现实。所以王佐良说：“不了解语言当中的社会文化，谁也无法真正掌握语言。”（方梦之2011）

本文在分析文化负载词的翻译时，发现目前张家界许多景点的官方网页在外宣方面投入甚少，网页建设不足，版面设计单一，逻辑性不强，来源老旧，翻译方面的问题也存在不少，总体看来表现在以下几个方面：一、机器翻译痕迹严重；一些旅游网站看似外宣工作做的面面俱到，内容都依靠机器翻译，出现诸如将“腰子寨”译为“Kidney village”,将“一夫当关，万夫莫开”译为“When Kazuo, Fumo opens”,再如将“妙峰连绵”译为“ Miao Feng mountain”等令人贻笑大方的翻译。二、旅游翻译的方法亟待提升；一些旅游翻译的准确性不高，译文内容肤浅，不深入,成形后的内容理解起来较为困难，究其原因还是，在英汉语言对比方面的研究不足,没有形成系统的旅游翻译体系。三、弘扬中国文化的意识不强。旅游翻译与文化传播直接相关，是跨文化交际研究的重点，一些翻译虽然做到了传统意义上的“信”，但是并没有深入展现中华文化，译文一味追求直译，少了文化思考。目前，文化建设与弘扬是我国发展的重点，外语工作不应该在像之前一样追求引入新文化，而是应该多在本土文化上做文章。在旅游翻译中，我们应该考虑的是如何充分凸显我国文化，建立文化自信，我们的目的是使外国游客体验、感悟、探索当地文化。

跨文化交际中，翻译根本目的在于语言和文化交流。首先应该保证意思准确，不能歪曲文化词汇的词意，在文化负载词的理解上应结合文化来理解，所以要求译者本身要有良好的中文素养；其次，保证简单、清晰。旅游文本的翻译应该简单明了，让游客一目了然，很快能够抓住中心；在把握住这两方面的基础上，再同时兼顾其中的文化和美学表达。

Conclusion

Culture-loaded words bear an abundance of historical and cultural represents. In the process of translation, a translator should carefully consider in the choice of word. If there is a correspondent term in English and using it without influences to cultural expression; if there is no correspondent terms, transliteration and amplification is appropriate especially in application of translation of some characteristic place name; if there are difficulties to literal translation, it is necessary to comprehensively understand culture-loaded words under the relative context, just expressing the meaning of them and sometimes leaving out some irrelevant words. However, no matter which strategy is adopted, all translators should deeply consider three aspects of language, culture and cross-cultural communication, keeping China’s confidence and taking carrying forward Chinese culture as the destination.

This paper briefly analyzes the strategies of translation between English and Chinese from the perspective of intercultural communication. There are so many limitations mainly in inadequate research experience, deficient expression and superficial research results, but the author still hopes to provide some help. If it is possible, the author will consistently enhance the ability of translation and research and accumulate experience, looking forward to contribute more constructive and effective tactics in intercultural communication and tourism translation.

References

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7 宫博雅 An analysis of the Chinese translation of culture-loaded words in Russian Idioms

Cult_Load_Words_EN_7

Abstract

Language is the carrier of culture, and the characteristics of language also reflect the characteristics of culture. Culture is closely related to language. In-depth understanding and exploration of culture is conducive to language learning and better use of language for communication. Idiom as a fixed structure in language expression, with profound cultural connotation, is an important part of a national culture. Russian idioms are the concentration of the essence of Russian national culture, including Russian history, religion, national thinking, cultural customs, local customs and other unique national characteristics. In the process of language development, each nation has accumulated its own unique culture-loaded words. These words are loaded with the unique cultural connotation of this nation and express the rich cultural color of this nation. Due to different cultural backgrounds and historical development tracks, Russian contains many words, phrases and idioms that represent unique things in Russian culture. From the perspective of Nida's cultural classification, this paper analyzes the Chinese translation of culture-loaded words in Russian idioms, which is helpful to promote the study of Russian language and deepen the understanding of Russian traditional culture and Russian national psychology.

Key words

Culture-loaded Words; Russian idioms; Russian culture

题目

俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析

摘要

语言是文化的载体，语言的特性同时也体现了文化的特性，文化与语言紧密相关。对文化的深入了解和探究有助于语言的学习和更好的运用语言进行交际。成语作为固定的结构存在于语言表达中，具有深刻的文化内涵，是一个民族文化的重要表现部分。俄语成语是俄罗斯民族文化精华的浓缩，其中包含俄罗斯历史、宗教、民族思维、文化习俗、风土人情等特有的民族特点。语言发展的进程中，每个民族都积累了本民族特有的文化负载词。这些词语负载着本民族独特的文化内涵，表现本民族丰富的文化色彩。由于不同的文化背景和历史发展轨迹，俄语中包含许多代表俄罗斯文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。本文以奈达的文化分类为视角，分析俄罗斯成语中文化负载词的中文翻译，有助于促进对俄罗斯语言的学习，进一步加深对俄罗斯传统文化及俄罗斯民族心理的了解。

关键词

文化负载词；俄语成语；俄罗斯文化

Introduction

Nowadays, with the sound development of relations between China and Russia and the deepening of exchanges in all aspects, a better understanding of Russian culture can further strengthen bilateral exchanges and cooperation. Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that mark the unique things in a certain culture. They directly reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. At the lexical level, cultural differences between the two countries are reflected in culture-loaded words. Idioms, as the essence of language, contain rich cultural connotations, reflect national character and reflect social changes. The analysis of the Chinese translation of culture-loaded words in Russian idioms can help us trace the origin of Russian culture, go deep into the core of Russian culture, and explore the significance of Russian culture. According to Nida's classification of language and cultural characteristics, this paper tries to have a deep understanding of Russian culture and make tiny contributions to cross-cultural communication and translation through the analysis of Chinese translation of culture-loaded words.

1.The meaning of culture-loaded words

Culture-loaded words are the cultural labels of a nation, which have distinct cultural characteristics and play an important role in the development and dissemination of culture. Liao Qiyi said, "Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that mark things unique to a certain culture. These words reflect the unique activities of a particular ethnic group that have gradually accumulated in the long course of history and are different from other ethnic groups."When some foreign words are translated into Chinese, they cannot find their exact corresponding or equivalent words, thus forming culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words are also called culture-unique words and culture-connotation words. They are deeply marked by the region and times of a certain language society, and are words (phrases) expressing the things and concepts peculiar to a certain culture. Such words not only carry rich cultural connotations, but also "exist only in one culture and are blank in another culture". Just because I have characteristics that you do not have, they are often obstacles to cross-cultural communication and translation.

2. Classification of culture-loaded words

According to Nida's classification of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can be divided into five categories. The first category is ecological culture-loaded words, which usually refer to the plants and animals, geographical environment, climate change and other related words in a specific region. The second category is material culture-loaded words, which refer to the specific material products in different cultures. Generally, they refer to words including food, clothing, housing and transportation. The third category is the social culture-loaded words, which usually involve the words of social etiquette, social identity, leisure and entertainment, such as local conditions and practices, traditions, social rules, religious moral standards, historical background, ideology and so on. For example, different cultures have different festivals and celebration customs, and people give different meanings to color words. The fourth category is religious culture-loaded words, which generally reflect the cultural beliefs of a certain nation. The fifth category is language culture-loaded words. Different nations have different speaking ways and habits, which are reflected in pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and other aspects.

3. Translation methods of culture-loaded words

1. Substitution Substitution method is a translation method that converts the cultural images in the source language into the cultural images familiar to the target readers. When the cultural images of the source language words are quite different from those familiar to the target readers, it is difficult for the target readers to understand, so the alternative translation method can be adopted. 2. Interpretation Interpretation is a method of interpretative translation of words. Some words exist in both Chinese and Japanese languages, but due to the change of national culture, such words have different connotations in the two nations and are easily confused by translators and readers. At this point, the real meaning of the source words is supplemented by interpretation. 3. Annotation Annotation is a translation method that is faithful to the source language. When the cultural information contained in a word is relatively simple, the translation method of in-text annotation can be adopted. When the cultural information contained in the vocabulary is long, the method of footnote can be adopted.

4. Culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

No matter in Chinese or Russian, there are many words with rich cultural characteristics, especially in many idioms, speech, slang and dialects, with rich cultural connotations. Russian idiom is a language unit composed of two or more stress components with fixed structure and integral meaning. Generalized Russian idioms include proverbs, sayings, idioms, fixed phrases of parole or called idiomatic phrases; In the narrow sense, Russian idioms only include idioms and idiomatic fixed phrases. This paper analyzes the Chinese translation of culture-loaded words in Russian idioms from a broad perspective. Russian can reflect the culture and way of thinking of a nation, with rich cultural connotation and distinctive national characteristics. As the essence of Russian traditional culture, Russian idioms can fully reflect the vivid and vivid Russian national culture, fully reflect the Russian nation's daily life behavior habits, value orientation and traditional customs. As the concentration and essence of Russian national language, Russian idioms are of great significance to the study of Russian and Russian national culture. It can reflect the lifestyle of the Russian nation, the character of the Russian people and cultural connotation. The research on the characteristics and translation methods of Russian idioms can help us understand Russian language and culture in a deeper level. It also gives us a unique glimpse of the world's brilliant culture.

General translation methods of Russian idioms (1) Translation of equivalent idioms There are some idioms that are basically the same in terms of literal meaning, inner meaning, word image, and implied philosophy in Russian and Chinese. We can use the corresponding translation method to translate these idioms, that is, the formal word-by-word translation. When translating these counterparts, the context can be ignored, as long as the translator keeps in mind the corresponding equivalents. This type of idioms can be translated using literal translation, that is, a translation method that maintains the content of the original idiom without changing the rhetorical characteristics. E.g: 　　1.Беда не приходит одна-祸不单行. Among them, "беда", "не", and "приходит одна" respectively have the same literal meaning and image of words as "祸", "不" and "单行" in Chinese, and their philosophical meanings are also the same. 　　2. Куй железо, пока горячо-趁热打铁. Among them, "куй", "железо", and "пока горячо" correspond to the Chinese words "打", "铁", and "趁热" respectively. 　　3. Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать — 百闻不如一见. 　　4. Век живи, век учись — 活到老，学到老. (2) Translation of similar idioms approximate idioms are also called semi-equivalence idioms, which refer to the same literal meaning, inner meaning, and philosophical meaning of the Russian and Chinese idioms, but the image of the words is partly the same, and partly different. Free translation is usually used when dealing with the translation of such idioms. The so-called free translation method is to convert the image of an idiom in one language into another language as much as possible without losing its meaning. For example: Правда глаза колет-忠言逆耳. "Правда" and "колет" in Russian are the same as "忠言" and "刺痛" in Chinese; however, "глаза" (眼睛) in Russian is not the same as "耳朵" in Chinese. The image needs to be changed when translating. Similar idioms are: как грибы после дождя-如雨后春笋. When грибы (蘑菇) is translated into Chinese, it becomes "春笋". (3)Translation of non-equivalent idioms Non-equivalent idiom refers to the national culture contained in the Russian idiom that is unique to the Russian nation and is unfamiliar to the Han nation. This kind of idioms are usually translated using creative methods, that is, without changing the meaning of one language idiom, using the most appropriate interpretation of another language for translation. There are generally two ways of creativity: literal translation + free translation, such as мало каши ел (喝很少的粥)-经验不足, use "каша" to refer to experience; выжимать соки (挤果汁)-榨取血汗, use "сок" refers to blood and sweat, labor; literal translation + comment, such as червонный валет (红桃 "J")-花花公子, using playing cards to refer to the macaroni（纨绔子弟）; мелкая сошка (小木犁)-无名小卒, using small things to refer to Little people. The paraphrase and annotations here are equivalent. ездят в тулу со своим самоваром (带着茶炊去图拉)-没有必要，多此一举, it involves the cultural and national conditions, Tula is a place rich in teapots, so it is unnecessary to take a samovar to Tula.

4.1 Ecological culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

As we all know, Russia is a vast country with vast resources. The unique vast land area has created a unique geographical environment in Russia, while breeding a variety of animals and plants on the Russian land.

Crows have a bad connotation in the eyes of the Russian people and are often seen as a bad omen. "белая ворона -白乌鸦" refers to a person who is out of place(特立独行的人), and this idiom is used in Russian with a sense of disapproval. Crows are usually black, but white crows are very strange. "ворон считать - 数乌鸦" means eating the bread of idleness(游手好闲). Usually people with nothing to do have time to count crows. "ворона в павлиньих перьях - 伪装成孔雀的乌鸦" is a person who adorn oneself with borrowed plumes(装腔作势的人). Sparrows are also common in Russian idioms. Sparrow action speed is very fast, in "слово не воробей, вылетит - не поймаешь - 话语如麻雀，出口追不回"as a metaphor of a gentleman's word can't be chased(君子一言驷马难追). There are also "стреляный воробей" refer in particular to sophisticated man (老于世故的人，老油条). Similar words for " старого воробья на мякине не проведёшь посл -秕糠捉不住老鸟"are refers to the sophisticated people are not easily deceived(久经世故之人不易受骗).

In Chinese and Russian idioms, different animals and plants are often used to describe the same phenomenon due to different historical and cultural backgrounds. In Russian, the word "Брать быка за рога (抓住牛角)" has a similar meaning with the Chinese word "抓住牛鼻子", which means destroying the leader and the gang will collapse(擒贼先擒王). "Метать бисер перед свиньями(猪前撒珠)" is like "对牛弹琴". It means speaking truth to unreasonable people and speaking elegance to those who do not understand beauty.

Crocodile tears - "крокодиловы слёзы" refers to false compassion假慈悲. According to ancient Western legends, crocodiles are both ferocious and cruel as well as cunning and crafty. When it peeps into people, livestock, animal fish and other prey objects, often will first shed tears, like mercy, so that you were paralyzed by the illusion of its sudden attack to lose vigilance, in a state of no defense by it fiercely swallowed. Another said, is the crocodile will be captured after the prey, greedily swallowed at the same time, will shed crocodile tears. In short, it's a metaphor for false tears, fake sympathy. Later, it is conventionally extended to satirize those insidious and crafty people who harm others while pretending to be compassionate and kind.

4.2 Material culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

Russia has its own unique cultural material products, these cultural characteristics reflected in all aspects of clothing, food, housing and transportation.

"первый блин всегда комом - 第一张薄饼是一团" means all things are difficult before they are easy(万事开头难). "блин - 薄饼" is a kind of unique Russian food. It is round in shape, symbolizing the bright sun and heralding the coming of spring and the lengthening days. "блин - 薄饼" is also a staple in the traditional Slavic festival - Maslenitsa. To "ездят в тулу со своим самоваром - 带着茶炊去图拉" is to make a waste of time(多此一举). Tula is a place name in Russia, where the samovar is abundant, so it is unnecessary to take the samovar to Tula."за семь вёрст киселя хлебать - 跑七里路去喝一口羹(没有必要)" and "седьмая вода на киселе - 羹里的第七滴水(八竿子打不着的亲戚)". Among them "кисель(甜羹)" is also native food to the Russian nation. It can be made from almost any kind of fruit and berries, fresh and dried, fruit and pulp juices, syrups, jams, and milk with potato starch or corn starch. There are also non-sweet-tasting ones made from vegetables like peas. "по ерёме колпак кафтан - 捉襟见肘" and "тришкин кафтан - 什么样的人就戴什么样的帽子(恰如其分)". "кафтан(男长衣)" in this idiom is a kind of long coat with belted waist and floor-length sleeves worn by Russian men in the old days, which was very popular in Russia before the 20th century. "садиться не в свои сани - 坐在别人的雪橇上(不称职、对职务不能胜任)", the word "сани(雪橇)" in this idiom is one of the most common means of transport for Russians in winter.

4.3 Religious culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

Most people in Russia are religious, but most of the Idioms in Russian with religious cultural overtones are derived from Western Christianity.

"Дорого яичко к Христову дню - 送红鸡蛋要赶复活节" refers to do not send umbrellas after rain, refers to do good deeds must be timely(不要雨后送伞、做好事必须及时), Easter is a very important traditional Festival in Russia, is to commemorate the resurrection of Jesus after the death. Easter eggs to prepare cooked eggs (Easter eggs), boiled eggs coated with red, yellow, blue, coffee, green, purple and other colors, when the guests come, the host gives an egg, to symbolize the prosperity of life.

"не все коту масленица - 不是全年都是谢肉节" means that the good times will not last long and the feast will not come again(好景不长、盛宴难再). This idiom comes from the Maslenitsa culture of Russian national religion. The festival of Maslenitsa originated in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Meat and entertainment are forbidden during the 40-day Maslenitsa period. Thus, in the week before the start of Ramadan, people indulge in orgies and families eat meat to make up for the ascetic lifestyle of fasting. Hence the name of the Festival.

"козёл отпущения" refers to a scapegoat(替罪羊). At that time, the ancient Jews had such a ritual in life. When the day of confession came, the highest priest would put his hands on the head of the live goat, which indicated that the sin of all mankind would be transferred to the goat, and the goat would be banished to the desert. In Russian national and religious culture, this idiom is usually used to mean that people take the blame for others.

The Influence of Christianity on Russian idioms is very profound. Pushkin, the great Russian writer and poet, pointed out that the birth of Christianity was the greatest spiritual and political turning point on our earth, and the world died and was born in this sacred environment. It can be said that Christianity has played an extremely important role in human history, especially in western social life and cultural development. Since 988, when The Archduke of Kievan Rus established Christianity as the state religion, most Of the Russian people believe in Christianity, and there are about 200 idioms and fixed words from the Bible. A large number of Idioms in Russian derive from the Bible. The Bible is a Christian classic, including the Old Testament and the New Testament in 66 volumes. With the development of history and the evolution of language, idioms derived from the myths and legends of the Bible and the teachings and precepts of the Gospels have entered the Russian standard language and acquired new meanings. Now, through the study of Russian idioms from the Bible, analysis of their source text interpretation, use characteristics, we can see the influence of the Bible on Russian from the side.

"в поте лица - 汗流满面" From "Old Testament·Genesis" (Chapter 3, Section 19), God says to Adam, the father of mankind, when he sinned and drove him out of the Garden of Eden for eating from the tree of good and evil: "В поле лица твоего будешь есть хлеб, доколе не возвратишься в землю, из которой ты взят, ибо прах ты и в прах возвратишься.” - 你必须汗流满面才有饭吃，直到你归于尘土，因为你是由土而来的；你即是灰土，还要归于灰土." "Волк в овечьей шкуре 或 волк (напялил) на себя овечью шкуру - 披着羊皮的 狼" from "New Testament Gospel of Matthew" (Chapter 7, Section 15), "Берегитесь лжепророков, которые приходят к вам в овечьей одежде, а внутри суть волки хищные - 你们要提防假先知! 他们来 到你们跟前,外披羊皮,内心却是凶残的豺狼." "Кто не работает, тот не ест - 不劳动者不得食" originally derived from "The New Testament·2 Thessalonians": "Ибо когда мы были у вас, то завещевали вам сие: если кто не хочет трудиться, тот не ест. - 当我们在你们那里的时候，早已吩咐过你们：谁若不愿意工作就不应当吃饭." "продать (предать) за тридцать сребреников(кого) - 为三十块银币而出卖某人" from "the New Testament Gospel of Matthew". The story tells that judas, one of The twelve disciples of Jesus, got thirty pieces of silver from the priest and sold Jesus to the Jewish authority. Then he took the opportunity to bring many people with knives and clubs to the house of Jesus and his disciples and arrested Jesus. As a result, Jesus was crucified. According to the statistics of the Dictionary of Russian Idiom etymology, there are more than 1400 Russian idioms in the book, among which 161 are derived from the Bible or related to them, accounting for 11.5%. It can be seen that the Bible has a deep influence on Russian.

4.4 CultureSocial culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

Russia has a long history and diverse social customs. Many unique Russian cultural phenomena are reflected in Russian idioms.

During the Soviet Union, some words and languages produced under the background of The Times had unique meanings and connotations of the society at that time. The "Красный уголок (红角)" was a place for cultural and educational activities in the Soviet Union. Russian idioms also reflect their national cultural characteristics through their lexical composition. Some words in these idioms are not equivalent words. "Фертом стоять (смотреть, ходить, глядеть, выглядеть. . . ) - 趾高气扬、威武自负、洋洋自得的样子" The word is an ancient name of the Russian letter "ф", which resembles a man standing erect with his hands akimbo, so the meaning of the whole idiom is to place his hands between the waist in a confident, aggressive posture. Other similar Russian idioms include "На ять - 顶呱呱，呱呱叫" and "Лезть на рожон - 铤而走险". The idiom "Чувство локтя - 站队时保持一肘距离的习惯" is used in the spirit of supporting friendly troops and helping each other(支持友军的精神，互助精神). The word "Белый - 白色的" in idioms sometimes conveys a negative meaning. The idiom "Показать белое перо - 展示白羽毛" comes from a cockfight. In fights between roosters of different colors, red, red, and black roosters were found to be more aggressive, biting off the tail feathers of timid white roosters. So this idiom means to be defeated and laughed at(被打败，被嘲笑). "Белый - 白色的" in this idiom means "cowardice, cowardice, and submission."

Conclusion

Culture-loaded words, as their name implies, carry the culture of a particular nation or country, which are closely related to the culture they carry. This sets up difficulties for translators when translating such expressions. If the translation only stays on the surface and ignores the cultural connotation of the words, it will lead to the loss of culture. In addition, another point worth the translator's attention is that the conceptual meaning and connotative meaning of culture-loaded words are often inconsistent. This requires us to flexibly choose appropriate translation strategies in translation to convey the connotation and meaning of culture-loaded words as far as possible, so as to ensure the readability of the translated text and retain the flavor of the original text to facilitate cultural exchange and communication.

Differences in cultural systems and language systems, and difficulties in translation, lead to misunderstandings in the translation of culturally loaded words, and it is difficult to deeply grasp the core of culture and make it fully presented in front of us. There are several situations in the translation and translation effect of culturally loaded words: 1) Omission-complete lack of cultural connotation; 2) Simple transliteration-whether the cultural connotation is transmitted or not depends on the degree of communication of the word and the cultural level of the target language reader; 3) Transliteration plus annotations-cultural information is conveyed, but it is likely to damage the readability of the story or cause the translation to be cumbersome; 4) Replacement imagery and even complete domestication-the cultural connotation of the original word disappears, but it is easy for readers of the target language to understand. It can be seen that several translation strategies are not superior in the absolute sense. For the translation of culturally loaded words, the translator must not only have a deep language foundation, but also an encyclopedia-like knowledge structure, and must be careful and patient in the translation process. Culture-loaded words belong to micro-culture, and their distinctive and strong cultural color is an indispensable part of Russian culture. Although they will inevitably "make a facelift" in the process of translation, resulting in the loss of some information, translators should still work hard to understand the cultural connotations of the original language and the target language in order to build a bridge for communication and understanding between the two sides.

Culture is a complex social phenomenon, which is the sum total of a nation's knowledge, experience, value, rank, religion and concept of time and space. It has distinct national and regional characteristics and is used in all areas of a certain society. Language is only a part of culture, any language is a reflection of a certain culture, language is the carrier of culture, language and culture are inseparable. Russian and Chinese are both languages with a long history, yet each belongs to a completely different language family. Their differences are not only reflected in the form of language (pronunciation, grammar), but also show the rich cultural characteristics of words. Because the objectivity of language, social and cultural are casting together, language is a nation created in the long-term productive labor and social practice and service for them, so their words are bound to the social reality of the nation, the native living habits and way of thinking, language, psychology, behavior norms, moral values, political ideas and cultural traditions, and deeply stamped with this nation, this region and this era. Therefore, Russian and Chinese words are bound to carry their own specific cultural connotations. To understand the culture of a nation, in addition to observing its actual behavior, what is more important is that we can study their language, especially through the study of language vocabulary to understand their cultural traditions and connotation in the culture. Because vocabulary contains abundant cultural information, it is an important content for better cross-cultural communication.

To sum up, Russian idioms are an important part of Russian national culture, which fully reflect the Russian nation's daily lifestyle, beliefs, customs and psychological characteristics. Russian idioms content is rich and colorful characteristics, by strengthening the study of Russian idiom learning, can help us deeply understand the master to the traditional customs of ethnic russians, and correct use of Russian language, add more glory for language expression, and to avoid in the process of Russian social expression appeared a slip of the tongue, affect each other on both sides of the normal communication smoothly.

Reference

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8周小雪 The Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English and Japanese Versions of Medicine

Cult_Load_Words_EN_8

Abstract

Language is the carrier of culture and closely related to culture. Translation of culture- loaded words has been a difficult problem for translators.The culture behind culture- loaded words made translator hard to find words that are coherent to the original text. For the same culture-loaded word, different languages have different translation methods. This paper takes the novel Medicine as an example exploring the contrast of English and Japanese translation of culture-loaded words in the same text.

Key words

Culture-loaded Words; Medicine; English and Japanese Translation

题目

《药》英日译本中文化负载词的翻译对比研究

摘要

文化负载词的翻译一直是译者面临的一个难题。文化负载词背后的文化因素使得译者很难找到与之对应的词句。对于同一文化负载词，不同的语言有不同的翻译方法。本文以鲁迅的小说《药》为例，探讨同一文本中文化负载词的英、日翻译对比。

关键词

文化负载词；《药》；英日翻译

Introduction

Translation is not the direct conversion of two languages. In the process of translating from one language to another, we should not only get faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, but also understand the culture concepts behind each word in the original text. Culture-loaded words have always been a difficult problem in translation. Due to cultural differences, it is difficult for translators to find words that are coherent to the original text. In the process of translation, if the translation work in a comparatively mechanical manner, it is hard for us to understand the true meaning of the original text. Therefore, it is very important to do a good job in translating culture loaded words.

1.Culture-Loaded Words

1.1 Definition of Culture Loaded Words

Language is the carrier of culture and closely related to culture. With the development of cultural communication, more and more scholars begin to study the translation of culture-loaded words. Different people have different definitions of culture-loaded words. Mona Baker put forward the the concept of “culture-specific” .A word in the original language is often different in the target language, which often makes readers from the target language culture at a loss end. Sometimes culture-loaded words are abstract, involving religious beliefs or cultural customs, and sometimes they are specific.Spanish translator Javier Franco Aixela put forward the definition of "cultural-specific item”. It tells us that "There are some items in the text, and the translation difficulties will occur when its function and meaning are transferred from the source language to the target language. There is no coherent item in the cultural system of the target language.In China, Jin Huikang thought "Culture loaded words exist in every language and they reflect the unique characteristics of a certain culture. In translation, it is almost impossible to find a perfect equivalent. "(Jin Huikang, 2003:78). Bao Huinan viewed culture-loaded words as a kind of vocabulary vacancy,means that the cultural information carried by the source language vocabulary has no counterpart in the target language. (Bao Huinan, 2004:10) He think that"Every language is the product of the cultural development of a country and nation, and has its long historical background and rich cultural connotation. Every country and nation has its unique development history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and national customs. Therefore, each language has its own specific vocabulary, idioms and allusions Culture loaded words reflect these concepts and things. (Bao Huinan 2001:341) Liao Qiyi, a famous translation expert in China. He thought that culture loaded words are "Words, phrases and idioms that mark the unique things in a culture.These words reflect the unique activity mode gradually accumulated by a specific nation in the long historical process, which is different from other nations."(Liao Qiyi 2000:230)Language reflects different living conditions and religious differences, which lead to different modes of thinking, values, aesthetic standards and moral differences. (Wang Chuanmei, 2008:5) Culture-bearing words are closely related to culture and have rich cultural significance. These words are closely related to cultural, whether in concept or in connection. On the one hand, people of all nationalities live together in the world and have similar ideas about nature. Therefore, different cultures and languages have some common characteristics, which is also an important reason for all kinds of thinking to achieve communication. On the other hand, people living in different social contexts may have different concepts, emotion and subjective judgments. so some words are endowed with special meanings, which are rooted in the culture of a country or a nation and reflects the cultural characteristics.(Wu Xiaodan:2015)

1.2 Classification of Culture-loaded Words

Nida believes that cross-cultural translation is more important than linguistic translation. Therefore, the translation of culture-loaded words is very challenging. Nida divided culture-loaded words into the following five categories: Ecological Culture-loaded Words;Material Culture-loaded Words;Social Culture-loaded Words;Religious Culture-loaded Words;Linguistic Culture-Words.

1.2.1.Ecological Culture-loaded Words Due to the differences of living environment, the ecological and cultural systems of different nations or countries may differ greatly, and it is often difficult to understand each other.This kind of culture-loaded words refer to plants, animals, monsoon, hills and other related words in a specific region.

1.2.2.Material Culture-loaded Words the main part of material culture, such as clothing, food, housing and transportation Material culture is reflected through a variety of material objects and products, such as buildings, food, clothing and various tools. In view of the different habits of life, there are great differences between nations and peoples in material things.Some things that are very common in China may not be heard of in other countries

1.2.3.Social Culture-loaded Words In the long history, different countries have formed their own customs, lifestyles and behavior. The words that reflect the characteristics of these fields are called social cultural loaded words. This paper will also analyze from these five aspects, so as to provide a clear context for the comparison of the following English and Russian versions.

1.2.4.Religious Culture-loaded Words In the long history of development, different countries and nations have formed their own religious beliefs.Therefore, in order to better understand the culture of a nation, we must understand the religious beliefs of that nation or people. The words of religious culture reflect the religious belief and cultural tradition of a nation or nation. The difference of religious culture between countries is a big obstacle for readers to understand the words embodied in the religious culture

1.2.5.Linguistic Culture-loaded Words The grammatical, phonetic and constitutive characteristics of culture-loaded words. Its visual effect and linguistic effect are the biggest characteristics of this kind of words.

In the development history of a nation, it is certain to accumulate rich language and culture. And these expressions of language characteristics, usage, including a certain cultural background and other characteristics are language culture-loaded words. There are a lot of culture-loaded words in the novel medicine.

2. Introduction of Medicine

Lu Xun was a great writer and thinker in modern China. His articles reflected the people's living conditions under the dual oppression of feudalism and imperialism. He wrote about the unfortunate people in society, trying to wake up the ignorant and numb people. He was the forerunner of China's modern ideological liberation. Lu Xun's works have always been an important treasure of Chinese modern literature and people attach great importance to them. There are many culture-loaded words in Lu Xun's novels, which bring great difficulties to the translation of his novels. The novel Medicine is a short story written by LuXun. As part of LuXun's most influential works, Medicine contains a number of culture-loaded words, these cultural loaded words truly reflect the national culture of the times in the novel. At this point, the thesis chooses the masterpiece, Medicine as the typical representative of LuXun, the great standard-bearer of national culture. Through the story of the teahouse owner Hua Lao Shuan and his wife buying human blood steamed bread for their son Xiao Shuan to cure diseases, the novel Medicine exposes the numbness and ignorance caused by feudal rule, praises the brave and unconquerable spirit of the revolutionary Xia Yu, and points out the limitations of the revolution in not getting close to the masses.

3. The Comparison of Culture-loaded words'Translation between English and Japanese of Medicine

Lu Xun's novel Medicine contains a great deal of cultural load Words, and rich connotation.The research uses the English translation of Yang Hsien-yi in 1960 and the Japanese translation done by Inoue Kōbai in 1931 as the examples discussing the different translation strategies of culture-loaded words in English and Japanese version.

3.1Ecological Culture-loaded Words （1）茶馆的两间屋子里，便弥漫了青白的光 。 Yang:which shed a ghostly light over the two rooms of the tea-house. Inoue :青白い光は茶館の中のに満ちた。 “茶馆”means a place for drinking tea and is an important place in the novel. Chinese has the habit of drinking tea, so teahouse is a unique place in China, which is translated into English as tea-house, translated Japanese as “茶館”. （2）西关外靠着城根的地面，本是一块官地。　 Yang:Originally, the land adjacent to the city wall outside the West Gate had been public land. Inoue :西関外の城の根元にる地面はもとからの官有地で Both Yang and Inoue used free translation to translate “官地”,which are simple and easy for readers to understand. （3）老栓正在专心走路，忽然吃了一惊，远远里看见一条丁字街，明明白白横着。 Yang:Old Chuan was startled when he saw distinctly the cross-road ahead of him. Inoue :老栓はひたすら歩みを続けているうちにたちまち物に驚かされた。そこは一条の丁字街がありありと眼前に横たわっていたのだ。 Yang adopted the domesticating method, translating“丁字街” as “cross-road”,Inoue adopted the foreignizing method, translating“丁字街” as “丁字街”. The translation of Yang makes it easier for readers to understand what “丁字街”is,while the translation of Inoue will give readers a sense of freshnes.

3.2Material Culture-loaded Words （1）衣服前后一个大白圆圈 ， 远地里也看的清楚。走过面前的，并且看出号衣上暗红色的镶边。 Yang:The large white circles on their uniforms, both in front and behind, were clear even at a distance; and as they drew nearer, he saw the dark red border too. Inoue :近寄って来ると、その白い円いものはの上の染め抜きで、のふちぬいの中にあることを知った。 The meaning of “号衣”is the marked garment worn by soldiers, officers, etc. in old times and marked with the words "soldier" or "brave". Yang translated it as a “uniform”, while Wang translates it as “のふちぬい”.Both adopted domesticating method. （2）便点上灯笼，吹媳灯盏，走向里屋去了。 Yang:then lighting a paper lantern and blowing out the lamp went into the inner room. Inoue :そこで彼はに火を移し、燈盞を吹き消して裏部屋の方へ行った。 Yang translated “灯笼” as“paper lantern” , while Inoue used Chinese words directly. （3）华大妈在枕头底下掏了半天，掏出一包洋钱，交给老栓。 Yang:After some fumbling under the pillow his wife produced a packet of silver dollars which she handed over. Old Chuan pocketed it nervously, patted his pocket twice Inoue :華大媽は枕の下をさぐって一包みの銀貨を取出し、老栓に手渡す。 The foreign currency used in China at that time was called “洋钱”.Yang adopted the domesticating method, translating“洋钱” as “silver dollars”.Because the meaning of “銀貨” in Japanese is similar to the meaning of “洋钱”in Chinese,so Inoue adopted translated“洋钱” as “銀貨”.But neither Yang nor Wang translated the meaning of foreign coins （4）那人一只大手，向他摊着；一只手却撮着一个鲜红的馒头，那红的还是一点一点的往下滴。 Yang:This man thrust one huge extended hand towards him, while in the other he held a roll of steamed bread, from which crimson drops were dripping to the ground. Inoue :その人は老栓の方に大きな手をひろげ、片ッぽの手に赤いをんでいたが、赤い汁は饅頭の上からぼたぼた落ちていた。 Because of bread is more common in the West, so Yang translated “馒头” into “a roll of steamed bread”. In Japan, they also have “馒头”,so Inoue translated “馒头” into “饅頭”. But it should be noted that “饅頭” are a little different from “馒头”. Both Yang and Inoue adopted foreignizing method. （5）小路上又来了一个女人,也是半百头发，褴褛的衣裙；提一个破旧的朱漆圆篮，外挂一串纸锭，三步一歇的走。 Yang:Another woman came down the path, grey-haired and in rags. Carrying an old, round, red-lacquered basket with a string of paper money hanging from it, she walked haltingly. Inoue :の上にまた一人、女が来た。これもの頭での著物の下に襤褸のをつけ、壊れかかったの丸籠を提げて、外へ銀紙のお宝を吊し、とぼとぼと力なく歩いて来た。 “纸锭” are made of tin foil paste silver ingot-like ghost money. Superstition holds that incineration is given to the dead so that they can be used as money. Both Yang and Inoue adopted the way of literal translation.

3.3Social Culture Culture-loaded Words （1）老栓候他平静下去，才低低的叫道，“小栓……你不要起来。……店么？你娘会安排的。 Yang:Old Chuan called softly: "Son! . . Don't you get up! . . . Your mother will see to the shop." Inoue :老栓はそののおさまるのを待って、静かに口をひらいた。「お前は起きないでいい。店はお母さんがいいにする」 Chinese people are used to calling older people “小~”younger people “小~”. Yang adopted domesticating transliteration strategy translating “老栓” as “Old Chuan”. , Inoue adopted foreignizing method using“老栓”directly. （2）老栓倒觉爽快，仿佛一旦变了少年，得了神通，有给人生命的本领似的，跨步格外高远。而且路也愈走愈分明，天也愈走愈亮了。 Yang:It was much colder than indoors, yet Old Chuan's spirits rose, as if he had grown suddenly younger and possessed some miraculous life-giving power. He lengthened his stride. And the road became increasingly clear, the sky increasingly bright. Inoue :天気は室内よりもよほど冷やかで老栓は爽快に感じた。何だか今日は子供の昔に還って、神通を得て人の命の本体を掴みにゆくような気がして、歩いているうちにも馬鹿に気高くなってしまった。行けば行くほど路がハッキリして来た。行けば行くほど空が亮るくなって来た。 The meaning of “神通”is getting magical powers.Yang adopted domesticating translation strategy,while Inoue adopted foreignizing method using“神通”directly. （3）仿佛抱着一个十世单传的婴儿。 Yang:as if it were the sole heir to an ancient house. Inoue :さながらの十世単伝の一人子を抱いているようなものであった。 The author refers to the preciousness of "human blood steamed bread" through the "十世单传". Yang adopted free translation strategy,while Inoue adopted literal translation strategy.However, both Yang and Inoue did not attach too much importance to the status of the only child, so readers cannot perceive the author's metaphorical meaning through this source area. （4）“谁的？不就是夏四奶奶的儿子么？ Yang:"Who? Son of Widow Hsia, of course! Young rascal! Inoue :「誰って、きまってまさ。夏四奶奶の子さ。あの餓鬼め」 Neither English nor Japanese can convey the meaning of the original text well. Yang Widow translated “夏四奶奶”into “Son of Widow Hsia”by free translation. Inoue adopted transliteration using“夏四奶奶”directly that will make people misunderstanding about the original text. （5）康大叔见众人都耸起耳朵听他，便格外高 兴。 Yang:Seeing how they all hung on his words, Mr. Kang's spirits rose even higher. Inoue :康おじさんはみんながを引立てているのを見て、に得意になって瘤のがハチ切れそうな声を出した。 "叔" is the title of the father's younger brother. Now "叔" also refers to an older adult man, or a man more than 20 years older than oneself. In English, "uncle" does not mean blood relationship. "Mr. Kang" does not show the relationship between people.Both Yang and Inoue used domesticating method. （6）第一要算我们栓叔运气；第二是夏三爷赏了二十五两雪白的银子，独子落腰包，一文不花。 Yang:Our Old Chuan was luckiest, and after him Third Uncle Hsia. He pocketed the whole reward—twenty-five taels of bright silver—and didn't have to spend a cent!" Inoue :「第一は栓じいさんの運気を取逃がさねえためだ。第二は夏三爺から出る二十五両のの銀をそっくりのの中に納めて一文もつかわねえ算段だ」 Yang Widow translated “夏三爷”into “Third Uncle Hsia”by free translation. Inoue adopted transliteration using“夏三爺”directly. （7）夏三爷真是乖角儿，要是他不先告官，连他满门抄斩。 Yang:Third Uncle Hsia is really smart. If he hadn't informed, even his family would have been executed, and their property confiscated. Inoue :夏三爺はすばしッこいね。もし前に訴え出がなければ今頃はどんな風になるのだろう。一家一門は皆殺されているぜ。 “乖角儿” in Chinese means a clever and intelligent person. “满门抄斩” is an ancient Chinese punishment, which means to confiscate property and kill the whole family. Both Yang and Inoue used domesticating method. （8）“义哥是一手好拳棒，这两下，一定够他受用了。” Yang:Red-eye is a good boxer. Those slaps must have hurt!" Inoue :義哥は棒使いの名人だ。二つも食ったら参っちまうぜ It was difficult to understand the local dialect.Both Yang and Inoue used domesticating method. （9）他这贱骨头打不怕，还要说可怜可怜哩。 Yang:"The rotter was not afraid of being beaten. He even said how sorry he was." Inoue :「ところがあの馬の骨め、打たれても平気で、そうだ。そうだ、と抜かしやがるんだ」 "贱骨头" is a common saying often used by Chinese people to scold people. It was difficult for translators to translate it. So both Yang and Inoue used domesticating method and free translation. （10）这一年的清明，分外寒冷。 Yang:The Ching Ming Festival that year was unusually cold. Inoue :今年の清明節は殊の外寒く “清明” is a traditional Chinese festival. It is also one of the most important sacrificial festivals. It is also the day for ancestor worship and tomb sweeping. Influenced by Chinese culture, in Japan,they also have “清明”. so it can be directly translated as Japan’s “清明節” .Because the western countries do not have this holiday, so Yang translated it as “The Ching Ming Festival”by foreignizing method.

3.4Linguistic Culture-loaded Words （1）只有小栓坐在里牌的桌前吃饭，大粒的汗，从额上滚下，夹袄也贴住了脊心，两块肩胛骨高高凸出印 成一个阳文的”八”字 。 Yang:Only his son sat eating at a table by the wall. Beads of sweat stood out on his forehead, his lined jacket clung to his spine, and his shoulder blades stuck out so sharply, an inverted V seemed stamped there. Inoue :見ると額の上から大粒の汗がころげ落ち、左右の肩骨が近頃めっきり高くなって、背中にピタリとついている夾襖の上に、八字の皺が浮紋のように飛び出していた。 “阳文”is the pattern printed on some utensils. It describes the bony appearance of Xiao Shuan. Lu Xun used the character "eight" to tell readers that Xiao Shuan is thin and weak, which is very vivid and clear to us. However, it is difficult for foreign language readers to understand. The inverted English letter "V" is very similar to the Chinese letter "八".so Yang translated it to "V". And since Japan also has the word "八", so Inoue used it directly. （2）还要老虎头上搔痒，便给他两个嘴巴！ Yang:and then the young fool would 'scratch the tiger's head,' so he gave him a couple of slaps." Inoue :あいつが虎の頭を掻いたから堪らない。たちまちポカポカと二つほど頂戴したぜ "老虎头上搔痒" is a allegory of boldness, recklessness and overreach. It can also be extended to mean "seeking death" or "not afraid of death". both Yang and Inoue adopted literal translation.

Conclusion

Culture-loaded words are closely related to culture and have rich cultural meanings. These words are closely related to cultural relations, whether in concept or in connection. On the one hand, people of all nationalities live together in the world and have similar ideas about nature. Therefore, different cultures and languages have some common characteristics, which is also an important reason for all kinds of thinking to achieve communication and communication. On the other hand, people living in different social contexts may have different cognitive concepts, emotional colors and subjective judgments. Because of this, some words are endowed with special meanings, which are rooted in the culture of a country or a nation. Deeply reflects the cultural characteristics.The biggest difficulty in translation is not the language itself, but the cultural implications that language carries.Medicine, as a national literary work, contains a large number of culture-loaded words. the culture-loaded words in Medicine are classified On the basis of classification, we can learn from the comparison of English and Japanese translations that the translation strategies adopted in the translation of culture-loaded words are different due to the differences between eastern and western cultures. Due to the great differences between eastern and Western cultures, it is difficult to find a complete equivalence of some culturally loaded words in the translation of Chinese traditional literary works into English. So the English version is mainly translated by domesticating method and free translation. Since Japan and China have had a lot of communication since ancient times and were greatly influenced by Chinese culture, the Japanese translation mainly adopts foreignizing translation, literal translation and transliteration. Even if the Chinese culture-loaded words that Japanese have never seen , they can understand them and even use them directly because they have similar culture and both use Chinese characters. foreignizing translation and domestication translation, literal translation, free translation, transliteration are not in isolation, Sometimes they need to be combined to play a better role in the translation of culture-loaded words. the translation of culture-loaded word involves all aspects of culture, is a complex and worthy of further discussion. Only by fully understanding the culture of the original text and accurately interpreting the author's intention, can we better convey the cultural information of culture-loaded words to readers.

Reference

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[2]Li Ying. Chinese-English Translation of Culture-loaded Words from the Perspective of Interpretation Theory: A Case Study of Simultaneous Interpretation of Important Chinese Leaders'Conference. Journal of Liaoning University of Engineering and Technology (Social Science Edition), 2017, 19 (04): 419-424.

[3]Canadian Social Science Vol.12,No.6, 2016, pp. 69-74 DOI:10.3968/8067 Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words XIANG Chunyan

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[5]谢雯洁. 认知隐喻视角下小说中文化负载词的英译研究——以鲁迅小说《狂人日记》和《药》为例[J]. 怀化学院学报,2019,38(06):116-119.

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[7]高照慧,李桂华. 《红高粱》中文化负载词的日译研究——基于翻译转换理论[J]. 兰州教育学院学报,2019,35(11):148-150.

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9 付诗雨 On Translating Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Cultural Relics Commentaries into Japanese——A Case Study of Hunan Museum

Cult_Load_Words_EN_9

Abstract

Museum has served as an indispensable platform for cross-cultural communication. The commentaries translation of cultural relics provided by museums, affecting the acceptability of the target text receiver directly, has a crucial impact on the inter-cultural understanding and communication. In the process of cultural relics commentaries translation, it is still an important academic subject needing further research that how to deal with the incompatibility of linguistic signs and cultural concepts between the source language and the target language, and how to accurately convey the characteristics, meanings and cultural implications of culturally-loaded words inside. Nevertheless, the academic studies on the translation of cultural relics commentaries in Chinese museums started relatively late, among which especially the researches focused on the Japanese version are not abundant enough both in quantity and content, and the intelligibility and acceptability need to be strengthened.Therefore, this thesis takes the Japanese version of the cultural relics commentaries from Hunan museum’s basic display as the research objects, adopting Eugene Nina’s translation equivalence theory as the theoretical guidance. In this thesis, culturally-loaded words with different cultural meanings are analyzed through comparing with the source text, and then the translation skills are concluded, expecting to provide some reference for future translation of cultural relics commentaries. 

Key words

Cultural Relics Commentaries; Culturally-loaded Words;Translation Equivalence;Chinese-Japanese Translation Skills;

题目

文物解说词中的文化负载词的日译研究——以湖南博物馆为例

摘要

博物馆是跨文化交际的重要窗口。其所藏文物解说词的翻译质量直接影响着目标受众对译文的接受度，制约着异文化的理解和交流。在文物解说词的翻译过程中，如何对待和处理源语言和目标语言在语言符号和文化观念不对等问题，怎样才能使其中的文化负载词的特点、含义和文化意蕴得以准确的传达，是一个亟待深入研究的重要课题。然而，中国国内博物馆文物解说词的翻译研究起步较晚，特别是日译研究在数量和内容上都不够丰富，可读性和接受性等诸多方面还亟待加强。本文选取湖南省博物馆基本陈列的文物解说词作为考察对象，以尤金·奈达的翻译等值论为理论指导，逐一对具有不同文化含义的词汇进行原、译文对照分析与改进，归纳出这类文化负载词的翻译技巧，以期为文物解说词日译提供些许参考。

关键词

文物解说词;文化负载词;翻译等值论;日译技巧;

Introduction

Under the background of globalization, translation has become an important bridge of cross-cultural communication and transmission, rather than merely a simple conversion of language signs. With the further development of China's opening up, Chinese museums have gradually become one of the main channels for foreign tourists to know about Chinese culture, among which the translation of cultural relics commentaries play an indispensable role. Owing to their own characteristics, the cultural relics commentaries often contains numerous vocabularies carrying abundant information of history, culture, customs, habits and so on, what is called culturally-loaded words. The translation quality of culturally-loaded words directly affects the target text receiver’s acceptability of Chinese culture, influencing the intercultural communication. In order to make a better use of translation versions of cultural relics commentaries and better display Chinese culture, it is crucial to take further studies on the translation and introduction of culturally relics commentaries, especially culturally-loaded words inside. 

In recent years, foreign translations of cultural relics commentaries have appeared successively in museums at different levels in China, on which more and more academic studies have been made. Whereas researches on Japanese version have a relatively later start comparing with English version, so outcomes are not abundant enough both in quantity and content. However, Japan belongs to the cultural circle of Chinese characters as well, whose culture has been also deeply influenced by Chinese traditional culture since ancient times, so there must be its own uniqueness in the translation skills of cultural-loaded words. So as to improve the display of Chinese culture to Japanese tourists, the expression selected is supposed to be understood and accepted by them, especially the Japanese translation quality of culturally-loaded words. The translation equivalence theory represented by Eugene A. Nida holds that the seek of translation is rather than the mechanical correspondence on the text superficially, but the relationship between the target text receiver and the target text information be basically the same as that in the source text. This theory is in line with the fundamental mission of commentaries translation as external propaganda, which has a practical guiding significance for the research and practice of Japanese translation of cultural relics commentaries. Therefore, based on the similarities and differences between Chinese and Japanese languages and cultural values under the background of cross-cultural communication, this thesis discusses the Japanese translation skills of Chinese culturally-loaded words in cultural relics commentaries under the guidance of translation equivalence theory and the reference of specific translation skills.

在全球化语境下，翻译不仅是语言符号的简单转换 , 更是文化交流和传播的重要手段。随着中国对外开放的深入发展，博物馆逐渐成为了外国游客了解中国文化的主要平台之一，其中文物解说词的翻译便发挥着不可或缺的作用。文物解说词因自身特性，包含着众多承载了丰富历史、文化和风俗习惯等信息的词汇，即所谓的“文化负载词”(culturally- loaded words)。文化负载词的翻译质量直接影响着目标受众对中国文化的理解程度，影响着异文化间的交流。为了更好地发挥文物解说词翻译文本的作用，更好地介绍中国文化，对文物解说词、特别是其中文化负载词的译介研究则显得尤为重要。

近年来，文物的外文解说词在中国各个级别的博物馆内接连出现，关于翻译文本的研究也是层出不穷。但相较于英译研究，日译研究方面起步较晚，在数量上和内容上都还不够丰富。而中日同属汉字文化圈，日本文化更是深受中国传统文化的影响，因此有关文化信息的翻译技巧必然存在着其特殊之处。为了更好向日本游客介绍中国文化，应该选取日本游客能理解和接受的语言，特别是提高其中文化负载词的日译质量。以尤金·奈达(Eugene A. Nida)为代表的翻译等值论认为翻译时不求文字表面的机械的对应，而要求译文读者与译文信息之间的关系基本上与原文接受者和原文信息之间的关系相同。该理论与解说词外宣翻译的重要使命相契合，对文物解说词的日译研究与实践具有现实的指导意义。本文以文物解说词中的文化负载词为切入点，在翻译等值论的指导下结合具体的翻译技巧，立足跨文化交际背景下中日两国在语言和文化价值观之间的异同，进而探讨中国文化的日语翻译技巧。

1. The Theory of Translation Equivalence and Specific Translation Skills

Translation theories before the 20th century focused on the conversion of linguistic signs. With the increasingly frequent exchanges among different countries under the background of globalization, cultural differences have inevitably had a considerable impact on translation, leading to a cultural turn in translation theories, among which the translation equivalence theory represented by Eugene A. Nida is best-known. In 1969，the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Nida put forward the definition of functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) (Nida E.A.,Taber C.R. 2004:). Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the source language and target language, Nida‘s functional equivalence theory focus on reader's response, opening up a new perspective to translation studies. Nida further perfect his theory in the 1990s. In his book Language, Culture and Translating, he divided functional equivalence into different degrees of adequacy from minimal to maximal effectiveness on the basis of both cognitive and experiential factors, holding that the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they call conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it, and the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did (Nida E.A. 2001:87). Therefore, in the process of translation, it is necessary to screen and process the cultural information in the source text, especially the translation of culturally-loaded words, taking into account the similarities and differences in the historical and cultural factors, and the values between the source language and the target language, so as to make the translation more in line with the linguistic norms and habits of the target text receiver.

Equivalence translation theory has exerted significant influence on Chinese translation studies since it was introduced into China. Chinese translation researchers have discussed not only the relationship between culture and translation from a macroscopic point of view, but also the translation skills of culturally-loaded words in detail, which provides important guidance for practical translation activities. In terms of specific translation skills, there are various opinions in academic circles, which can be roughly summarized as the following four types, namely literal translation, amplification, substitution and free translation, or the two kinds succinctly, namely domesticating translation and foreignization translation (Wang Enke 2002:83). Accordingly, corresponding translation skills are supposed to be applied based on different kinds of textual content and structure, distinct culturally-loaded words, to make a better achievement of translation equivalence.

1、 翻译等值论及具体的翻译技巧

二十世纪以前的翻译理论看重语言符号的转换。随着全球化背景下各民族交往的日益频繁，文化差异对翻译的影响愈发明显，出现了翻译理论的文化转向，其中以尤金·奈达为代表的“翻译等值论” 尤为著名。奈达在1969年明确提出了功能对等（动态对等）的概念(尤金·奈达,查尔斯·泰伯 2004:)。比起更注重语言形式一致性的传统翻译理论，功能对等理论更强调读者的反应，为翻译研究提供了一个全新的视角。奈达在90年代进一步完善了其理论，基于认知和经验因素，他认为功能对等具有不同的适合程度，提出了功能对等的两个层次：最低层次的对等和最高层次的对等。主张“译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想象出原文作者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度，并基本上能按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解译文”(尤金·奈达 2001:87)。因此，在翻译过程中，特别是有关文化负载词的翻译，必须对原文中的文化信息进行筛选和加工，兼顾源语言和目标语言的历史文化和价值观念的异同点，使译文更加符合目标受众的语言表达的规范和习惯。

翻译等值论在传入中国后，给中国的翻译研究也带来了很大的影响。中国翻译研究者们，不仅从宏观上论述了文化与翻译的关系，还具体地探讨了文化负载词的翻译技巧，对实际的翻译实践活动提供了重要的指导。其中有关具体的翻译技巧方面，学界意见各有千秋，大致可以归纳为如下四类：直译法、增词法、代换法、意译法，或概括成归化法和异化法(王恩科 2002:83)。要根据不同的文本内容和结构、不同的文化负载词，选取相应的翻译技巧，以更好地实现翻译的“等值”。

2. The Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words

Culturally-loaded words are the vocabulary in the language system, which can best embody the cultural knowledge that a language carries and reflect the social information of human life. Culturally-loaded words refer to those words or phrases which convey a certain kind of cultural connotations rooted in their own society, which may not be found in other languages. In other words, it is difficult to find ready-made equivalent words in the target language, leading to the phenomenon of lexical gaps (Hu Jie 2018:235). Accordingly, culturally-loaded words in cultural relics commentaries can be defined as words or phrases embodying unique cultural information rooted in Chinese society.

The formation of culture-loaded words is influenced by many factors: under various geographical, historical and social environments, different nations have formed their own lifestyles, ideologies, religious beliefs, customs and habits, literature and art, etc., resulting in numerous cultural differences. The essential differences between eastern and western cultures make the processing of cultural information a key problem in translation activities. Whereas Japan, as a close neighbor of China belonging to the same Chinese character circle, has had continual exchanges with China since ancient times, whose culture is profoundly influenced by traditional Chinese culture. Therefore, the research on the Japanese translation of culturally-loaded words would be inevitably different from that of other languages (Zhang Li,Wu Linan 2021:43). It should not be generalized, or limited to the single direction of Chinese culturally-loaded words, but based on the similarities and differences between Chinese and Japanese language and cultural values under the trends of cross-cultural communication.

On the classification of culturally-loaded words, opinions varies in the academic circles. In this thesis, taking the classification of Zhang (2002:60) as reference, culturally-loaded words in cultural relics commentaries are divided into four categories according to their contributing factors: culture-loaded Words related to material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture, on which the translation skills are analyzed and summarized by comparing the source text and the translated version detail by detail.

2、 文化负载词的定义和分类

文化负载词是指在语言系统中，最能体现语言承载的文化信息、反映人类的社会生活的词汇。因为文化负载词反映的是本民族文化中特有的概念，所以往往在另一种语言中无法找到对译的词语，或者说是在译语中很难找到现成的完全对应的“等值词语”，也就形成了词汇空缺(胡洁 2018:235)。因此，文物解说词中的文化负载词可以定义为包含中国独特文化信息的词语。

文化负载词的形成受到诸多因素的影响‚。各民族在不同的地理、历史、社会环境下，形成了各自不同的生活方式、意识形态、宗教信仰、风俗习惯和文学艺术等，从而造成了各种文化差异。特别是东西方文化之间有着本质的不同，使文化信息的处理成为翻译活动中的重点难题。而中日两国一衣带水，自古以来交流密切，日本不仅同属于汉字圈，日本文化更是深受中国传统文化的影响(张丽,吴丽楠 2021:43)。因此，关于文化负载词的日译研究必然有着不同于其他语言的特别之处，不能一概而论，更不能仅局限于汉语文化负载词的单方向，应立足于跨文化交际背景下中日两国在语言和文化价值观之间的异同。

关于文化负载词的分类，学术界各抒己见。本文在参考张（2002:60）分类标准的基础上，把文物解说词中的文化负载词根据其成因，大致分为物质文化类、制度习俗文化类、宗教道德文化类以及文学艺术文化类的四大类，逐一对照源文和译本，进行翻译技巧的分析和归纳。

3. Approaches Applied in Translating Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Cultural Relics Commentaries into Japanese

The research data in this thesis are the Chinese-Japanese translated texts that come from the cultural relics commentaries of Basic Display in Hunan Museum’s exhibition hall, totally 10145 characters. On the whole, the Chinese commentary texts do not translated to Japanese one-to-one correspondence. Among them, some introductions in Chinese do not appear in the Japanese version,  meanwhile, there are also some parts in the Japanese version that are not in the Chinese text. This reflects the distinguishing feature of the commentaries translation for foreign tourists in museums as external propaganda, that it is necessary to make a choice on the content to translate according to the target text receiver, rather than the simple text translation. In view of this, a small number of Chinese culture-loaded words untranslated do not be took into account in the thesis, and according to the four categories of culturally-loaded words that related to material culture, social culture,  religious  culture, and linguistic culture, the representative ones are selected to be analyzed in their translation skills.

3.本文数据来源于湖南博物馆展厅中“基本陈列”中的文物解说词，中日对译文本共计10145字。从整体上来说，解说词的日语译本并非与中文原文一一对应。其中，中文解说中的一些介绍在日语译本中并未出现，相反日语译本里也存在着一些中文解说中没有的部分。这体现了博物馆针对国外游客的解说词译本作为外宣翻译的独特之处，即不仅是简单的文本翻译，更要根据目标对象进行译本内容的取舍。鉴于此，本文将不考虑小部分未译的汉语文化负载词，基于物质文化类、制度习俗文化类、宗教道德文化类以及文学艺术文化类的四种类别，选取其中具有代表性的文化负载词进行翻译技巧方面的分析。

3.1 Culture-loaded Words Related to Material Culture

There are differences in the material entities produced and used by different nations. For example, national costume, architecture, cuisine, etc. the highly traditional culture the social life closely linked, the names of which would indispensably become lexical gaps in other languages. Even the same name often carries different concepts among different nations. The names of the cultural relics, as the most representative example, can convey the information of the object intuitively.

For example, the name of “彩绘双层九子漆奁” (Two-tiered Cosmetic Box Containing Nine Small Boxes )excavated from the Han Tomb 1 at Mawangdui, in which “彩绘”and “漆”(coloured drawing or pattern and lacquer) mean its outer surface feature, “双层”and “九子”(two tires and nine small boxes) mean its internal structure, and the central part “奁”(cosmetic box) means its main application, that containing the dressing articles and other personal articles. It was translated into “彩絵二重九子漆製化粧箱” in Japanese, of which the characteristics and uses could be understood intuitively by the target readers, so that the information received by the target readers and the original readers could be  equivalent, in line with the principle of "formal equivalence" in translation equivalence theory. However, it is worth noting that the concept of "奁" was translated into "化粧箱" in Japanese, which generally refers to the storage box for cosmetics (Kojien6 2008), whereas in Chinese, besides cosmetics, some daily articles are also placed. Consequently, there is an additional explanation in the Japanese version of the detail commentary, that “化粧用具と日用品の物入れである”(the box to contain cosmetics and daily articles), and an introduction of the social custom at that time as well, that “中国の古代には男女問わず、みんな髪を伸ばすので、化粧具も用意する必要がある”(Both men and women in ancient China wore their hair long and possessed dressing articles). It is so complete that the target readers could know about the cultural relic fully. 

In addition, in the commentary of “素纱单衣”(Plain Gauze Gown), the concept of "右衽" (a jacket) of Hanfu, meaning the front part covering to the right, which has been the very characteristic of Hanfu and also considered as one of the symbols of the Han nationality (Zuo Na 2011:30). However, it was translated into “右衽” in Japanese directly. Although Japan's national costume Kimono also has the reference concept of "衽", for the  historical connection that Japanese Kimono originated from Chinese Hanfu, the concrete part referred by “衽” is different, and "右" refers to the directionality of "covering to the right" in Chinese, while "右" may be mistaken for the orientation of "right" in Japanese. Consequently, it is obvious that literal translation is untenable,  thus "前おくみ" is added to the translation to help the target readers understand it. Besides, the cultural connotations contained in "右衽", such as the philosophical view of "harmony between nature and man", and the etiquette thought of "good things is on the left" (Sun Lingling 2018:81), are also hard for the target readers to understand. The characteristics of culturally-loaded words are also convincingly demonstrated by this.

3.1物质文化类

不同民族生产和使用的物质实体存在着差异，例如一些民族特有的服饰、建筑、食物等，这些名称到了其他民族的语言中就会成为“缺项”。 即使是同一名称，在不同民族中所包含的概念也往往不同。而文物的名称就是其中最具代表性的例子，这些名称通常能直观地传达物体的信息。

例如辛追墓出土的文物“彩绘双层九子漆奁”，“彩绘”“漆”说明了其外表特征，“双层”“九子”说明了其内部结构，最重要的主体“奁”说明了其用途，即“古代女子梳妆用的镜匣”。日语译成了“彩絵二重九子漆製化粧箱”，便于译文读者直观地了解该文物的特征和用途，使译文读者和原文读者接收到的信息对等，符合翻译等值论中的“形式对等”原则。但是值得注意的是“奁”这个概念，日语中译成了“化粧箱”，指化妆用品的收纳箱(広辞苑第6版 2008)，而汉语中除化妆用品外，还放置一些日常用品。因此，在详细的文物介绍中，日语译文中另外增加了“化粧用具と日用品の物入れである”的解释，还配有“中国の古代には男女問わず、みんな髪を伸ばすので、化粧具も用意する必要がある”的社会习俗说明。可谓之十分完备，便于译文读者充分了解该文物。

此外，还有关于著名的“素纱单衣”的解说中，涉及到了关于汉服的“右衽”的概念，指前襟向右掩，是汉服始终保留的特点，被认为是汉族的象征符号之一(左娜 2011:30)。而日语译文中直译成了“右衽”，虽然日本的民族服装和服中也有“衽”的参照概念，源于日本和服起源于中国汉服的历史联系。但“衽”在汉服和和服中所指的具体部位是不同的，且“右”在汉语里指“向右掩”的方向性，日语中容易理解为单纯的“右边的”的方位性，因此显然直译是难以成立的。所以译文添加了“前おくみ”的解释，能够助于读者理解。此外，“右衽”所蕴藏的文化内涵，如“天人合一”的哲学观，“吉事尚左”的礼法思想，传统医学的“阴阳观”等(孙玲玲 2018:81)，也是目标读者很难领会到的。这也正充分体现了文化负载词的特性。

3.2 Culture-loaded Words Related to Social Culture

Different nations have different historical development and political evolution, and also have experienced corresponding social system and traditional customs in different periods, thus producing a large quantity of words with era characteristics. Commentary concerned with the time or historical background of cultural relics often involve such words. 

For example, “辛追墓非衣帛画”(T-Shaped Painting On Silk), unearthed from Mawangdui Han Tomb No.1, “非衣”(flying garment), namely “魂幡”，was the banner carried in the funeral procession and then buried in the tomb for the purpose of calling back the spirit of the deceased, which is one of the funeral customs etiquette in ancient China. Banded on the shape of the painting, it was translated into “T形帛画”, obviously neglecting the the concept of “魂幡”, which is not mentioned in the detail commentary as well. However, in the commentary of “人物龙凤帛画”(Silk Painting with Female Figure, Dragon and Phoenix Patterns”, “魂幡” was translated into “霊幡”, with an explanation additionally that “魂を引いて昇天する「霊幡」”(the banner calling back the spirit of the deceased), which could prevent the target readers from misinterpreting it literally as “the flag calling for gods" for there is no such funeral custom etiquette in Japan.

Also, in the commentary of “凤鸟纹’戈’提梁铜卣”(Bronze You with Swinging Handle and Phoenix Design and Inscription “Ge”), the inscription “Ge” on the cover and inner, is “族徽“(the emblem of “Ge” clan), which was translated into “家徽”. Nevertheless, there was a similar concept “家紋” in ancient Japan, referring to the symbol of one clan (Kojien6 2008), thus this paper holds that the latter translation is more appropriate in Japanese. However, in the detail introduction, a historical explanation about the "Ge" clan was added to the Japanese translation text, which could help the target readers understand the social background at that time.

3.2制度习俗文化类

不同民族的历史发展和政治演变各有不同，在不同时期也有与之相应的社会制度和生活习俗，由此产生了许多具有时代特色的词汇。而关于文物的时代和历史背景的介绍往往会涉及到这类词汇。 例如辛追墓出土的“非衣”帛画，“非衣”即“魂幡”，指古代招引亡魂的旗子，出殡前引作前导，入葬时放置在内棺盖上，属于中国古代的丧葬习俗。日语中基于其形状，译成了“T形帛画”，显然直接舍弃“魂幡”这一概念，且在具体的介绍中也并未提及。而在“人物龙凤帛画”的解说词中，也涉及到了“魂幡”的概念，日语译成了“霊幡”，并稍作了“魂を引いて昇天する「霊幡」”的加释，因为日本没有这一丧葬习俗，防止读者从字面误解为“召唤神灵的旗子”等。

又如风鸟纹“戈”提梁铜卣的介绍中，其上铸有“戈”字的族徽。日语译为了“家徽”，但日本古代有“家紋”这一概念，指就是“一个家族的标志”(広辞苑第6版 2008)，所以笔者认为译为“家紋”更符合日语表达习惯。但详细的介绍中，日语译文中另添加了关于“戈族”的历史说明，这可以帮助读者理解当时的社会背景。

3.3 Culture-loaded Words Related to Religious Culture

Religious beliefs and traditional virtues have a profound impact on people's daily production mode and life style, among which some particular concepts created which play an important part of national culture. Such words will inevitably appear in the commentary of cultural relics related to religious and sacrificial activities. 

For instance, the outside painting of “黑地彩绘漆棺”(Coffin with Painted Designs an Black Lacquer Coating, unearthed from XinZhui’s Tomb), indicates that “死者灵魂进入受神灵保护的地府”(the deceased is entering a realm that is under the earth), was translated into “死者の魂は神様の保護で暗い地獄に入ること”, referring to “the deceased is entering the dark hell under the protection of the gods”, which obviously made a different  comprehending to the meaning. Besides, the concept of "地府" originated from the Yin and Yang theory in ancient China, and only after the introduction of Buddhism in Han Dynasty did the system of "地狱"(hell) come into being (Pu Wenqi 2021:12). The concept of "地府" is greater than that of "地狱", which refers to the place where the spirits of the deceased who have sinned deeply during their lifetime are imprisoned and punished. The translation "暗い地獄" is easy to cause the target readers to misunderstand the deviation, thus, “黄泉”“冥土”“あの世”etc.are suggested. 

3.3宗教道德文化类

宗教信仰和传统道德深刻影响着人们日常的生产和生活方式，其中出现的一些专用的概念，是民族文化的重要组成部分。而与宗教、祭祀等活动相关的文物介绍中不可避免地会出现该类词汇。

例如辛追墓出土的“黑地彩绘漆棺”其上绘制的“死者灵魂进入受神灵保护的地府”的形象，日语中译成了“死者の魂は神様の保護で暗い地獄に入ること”。首先，日语译文所表达的意思是“死者灵魂在神灵的保护下进入了黑暗的地狱”，显然在理解上有一定的偏差。其次“地府”这一概念，源于中国古代的阴阳学说，汉代佛教传入后才有了系统的“地狱”体系(濮文起 2021:12)，“地府”的概念大于“地狱”，后者特指囚禁和惩罚生前罪孽深重的亡灵之地。因此，译文“暗い地獄”易造成读者理解偏差，笔者建议译为例如“黄泉”“冥土”“あの世”等会更贴切。

3.4 Culture-loaded Words Related to Linguistic Culture

Speech activities are the products of human spiritual activities, which produce some words concerned with historical allusions or legends. Some words have been gradually given new meanings due to folklore and usually appear in literary works. Such words are likely to be used in the commentary of cultural relics containing with idioms or proverbs. 

For example, in the commentary of the ancient instrument “竽”(Reed Mouth Organ Yu), the idiom “滥竽充数”(pretend to play the Yu to make up the number for an orchestra, or in other words, to fill a post without real qualifications) indicates the popularity of the Yu at that time. Although the Japanese translation “員に備わるのみ”(to fill a post without real qualifications), a Japanese idiom with the same meaning, is in line with the principle of equivalence, the meaning of the idiom “滥竽充数” in this very context has been mainly functioned by its original fable, which is supposed to be explained additionally. Such as “『語源』斉の宣王は竽の音を聞くのが好きで、竽のできる人を300人雇ったところ、竽の吹けない南郭先生が混じって俸給をもらっていたという故事から”.

In addition, the word “凤鸟乘云”(phoenixes riding on clouds), was translated into “雲に乗る鳳鳥”in Japanese literally. The concept of "凤鸟"(phoenix) originated from the ancient Chinese legend, which is a kind of auspicious animal, and "phoenixes riding on the clouds" means good luck. Although Japan has been influenced by Sinology since ancient times and the four Rui animals that "Dragon, Phoenix, Kylin and Turtle" has had some effects on Japanese literature and culture,  an additional explanation "祥瑞を寓意する" could be more easily understood by the target readers.

3.4语言文化类

语言活动是人类精神活动的产物，其中产生了一些隐含着历史典故或人物传说的词汇。一些词语因为民间传说而逐渐被赋予了新的指代含义，多出现在文学作品中。而与文物涉及到相关的成语和谚语等的介绍中，很有可能会使用到此种词汇。

例如，关于古代乐器“竽”的解说中，提到了“滥竽充数”这一成语的出现来说明当时竽的流行程度。日语译成了相同意思的谚语“員に備わるのみ”，虽然在含义上做到了“功能对等”，且符合目标语习惯，但“滥竽充数”在这个特定的语境中，主要以其出典的寓言故事发挥意义功能的，所以笔者认为注解其成语故事更为妥当，例如“『語源』斉の宣王は竽の音を聞くのが好きで、竽のできる人を300人雇ったところ、竽の吹けない南郭先生が混じって俸給をもらっていたという故事から。”

另外，如“凤鸟乘云”这一词语，日语译为“雲に乗る鳳鳥”，在形式上实现了对等。“凤鸟”这一概念起源于中国古代传说，是一种吉祥的动物，“凤鸟乘云”寓意着吉祥。虽然日本自古以来受到汉学的影响，“龙凤麟龟”的四瑞概念也在日本文学文化中有一定的影响，但是笔者认为加注“祥瑞を寓意する”等会更易于译文读者理解其中的文化概念。

Conclusion

In this thesis, taking the Japanese version of the cultural relics commentaries from Hunan museum’s basic display as the research objects, adopting Eugene Nina’s translation equivalence theory as the theoretical guidance, the translation skills of culturally-loaded words with different cultural meanings are analyzed through comparing with the source text, and some suggestions for perfection are provided. In the translation of commentary on cultural relics, more emphasis is placed on the reading needs of target readers and the purpose of displaying national culture than on literal translation, and there is no strict requirement for one-to-one correspondence in translation form, with great flexibility and freedom. Especially, the translation of culturally-loaded words in the cultural relics commentaries, is supposed to take both the external literal information and the internal cultural information into consideration. Take the translation equivalence equivalence theory as the theoretical guidance, adopt literal translation and free translation as the specific translation techniques, add explanation and interpretation when necessary, and tag the difficult Chinese words with Japanese Hiragana, so that the target readers' could understand the texts easily, improving the intelligibility and acceptability of the translation. In addition, the translation of culturally-loaded words should also consider the certain text and the concrete context, according to the pragmatic principles. The most appropriate meaning of the text should be selected from the numerous cultural information contained therein to translate, along with additional annotation or explanation necessarily. Language and culture’s association are so closed that the translation of the cultural relics commentaries has to focus attention on the culturally-loaded words embodying numerous cultural information. It is suggested that commentary translation skills should be studied from multiple perspectives, and the Japanese tourists’ acceptability of the translated commentaries should be researched through the actual surveys, so as to improve the quality of commentary translation, and provide some experience for other external propaganda translation, realizing a better display of the splendid and time-honored Chinese culture.

本文选取湖南省博物馆基本陈列的文物解说词作为考察对象，以尤金·奈达的翻译等值论为理论指导，逐一对具有不同文化含义的词汇进行原、译文对照分析，并提出了部分改进建议。在文物解说词的翻译中，比起单纯的字面对译，更强调目标读者的阅读需求和展示民族文化的目的，因此在翻译形式上不严格要求一一对应，具有很大的灵活性和自由度。特别是关于介在其中的文化负载词的翻译，应兼顾表面上的文字信息和隐藏在内部的文化信息两个层面，以翻译等值论为指导，具体翻译技巧上以直译和意译为主，必要时添加注释和解释，还可以给难读的汉字标注假名，以便于目标读者的理解，提高译文的接受度和可读性。此外，文化负载词的翻译还要考虑使用的实际文本和特定语境，即考虑语用原则，从其所蕴含的丰富的文化信息中，选取最贴合文本的含义，进行注解或者加释。语言与文化密切关联，文物解说词的翻译要考虑到这些包含大量的文化负载词的文化信息的翻译，今后可以从多个角度分析日译解说词的翻译技巧，并对日本游客对译本的理解度进行实际的调查，从而提高解说词翻译的质量，为其他外宣翻译提供一定的经验，更好地传播灿烂悠久的中国文化。

References

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10 丁旋 从纽马克翻译理论看林语堂版《扬州瘦马》中文化负载词的翻译 Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in The Concubine Market of Yangchow ofLin Yutang's version from the perspective of Newmark’s translation theory

Cult_Load_Words_EN_10

Abstract

The theme of this paper is to analyze culture-loaded words in The Concubine Market of Yangchow based on Newmark’s translation theory. Surrounding this theme, much background information was discussed, such as the introduction of Zhang Dai and The Concubine Market of Yangchow, the definition and categories of culture-loaded words according to Nida and Newmark’s translation theories and so on. Lin Yutang’s English version to The Concubine Market of Yangchow-- an essay written in Ming dynasty, contributes a lot to disseminating Chinese traditional culture all over the world. The question--how to translate culture-loaded words for better transmission of Chinese culture has been probed in this paper.

Key words

Newmark’s Translation Theory; Culture-Loaded Words; The Concubine Market of Yangchow; Lin Yutang

Introduction

The Concubine Market of Yangchow, a masterpiece of Zhang Dai, vividly describes the industry of bringing up and selling girls in Yangchow of Ming dynasty. This phenomenon was rare and immoral in Chinese history, which is worthwhile to be probed and discussed. This essay is written in Ming dynasty and we all know that Chinese culture is broad and profound especially in ancient Chinese culture. Therefore, there must be some culture-loaded words in it. When Lin Yutang translated it into English version, how could him deal with these culture-loaded words? We may want to know that what translation theories and methods he used for translating culture-loaded words. This paper combined Lin Yutang’s translation with Newmark’s theory and used Newmark’s theory to deconstruct the methods used by Lin Yutang to translate culture-loaded words. This paper is divided into four chapters which are logically connected and clearly displayed, which helps all readers of The Concubine Market of Yangchow to better understand this work.

1. Introduction of Zhang Dai and The Concubine Market of Yangchow

1.1 Introducation of Zhang Dai

Zhang Dai (1597-1684), ci poet and historian of the late Ming dynasty and early Qing dynasty, born in Shaoxing city, Zhejiang province. He came from a scholarly family for three generations of successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations in his family. In the first half of his life, he indulged in entertainments, living in an extravagant life and doing himself proud for his well-to-do family. He described himself as “I was a dude in early times and I liked prosperity, delicate houses, beautiful maids, clever children, new clothes and delicious food, fine horses, colorful lanterns, fireworks...... (卜正民, 2005:43)”. When Zhang Dai was 48 years old, Ming dynasty fell and his hometown destructed. He lost everything, went to a mountain temple and lived in a poor life. Because of this huge contrast, he wrote a lot of classical works such as Pottery Recall by Buddhist Nunnery Dreams and Seeking Dreams in West Lake. Besides, he also went to a lot of brothels and Chinese theatrical places in Jiangnan region. However, he acted as a spectator in these places, observing the scene and situation carefully. Especially The Concubine Market of Yangchow discussed here, he accompanied his friends to select and buy “lean horse” many times so that he could write a passage about it, which won universal praise. (Zhang Zetong, 2021:19).

1.2 Introduction of The Concubine Market of Yangchow

“Concubine market” refers to some people bought beautiful girls from poor family, taught them skills of women and courtesy, cultivated them how to be good wives and sold them to the rich as concubine. “Lean horse” refers to these girls. In the dialect of Yangzhou, “marry a horse” means “marry a wife”, which is the origin of the call of “breed lean horse” (Wang Yuanhua, 1994:80). “Horse” is a humiliating word to women and “lean” manifests the low status of women in ancient time.

Ancient Yangchow, a crucial harbor for canal transportation of salt, is a prosperous city which attracts a large number of scholars and businessmen to come. As a city of Jiangnan region, the weather here is suitable and scenery is beautiful. The green willows, warm breeze, bright moon, delicate buildings and colorful lighting were very attractive with songs and music throughout the night. The laughter and sound of wine glasses spread over the city and lasted all night. The wandering scholars often indulged in this prosperity and went to the entertaining places such as brothels, however, the rich businessmen despised these places. But they also had the requirement of beauties so that the “lean horse” industry began to operate to satisfy this need. This is the origin and history of “concubine market”.

The Concubine Market of Yangchow is written by Zhang Dai after observing the transaction of “lean horse” many times. So he wrote this transaction in detail which is regarded as a classical work in later time.

2. Introduction of Culture-Loaded Words

2.1 Definition of Culture-Loaded Words

In Linguistics, Spair-Whorf Hypothesis puts forward that the relationship between language and culture. Language molds our thinking patterns and expresses the unique ways of understanding the world. It is divided into two versions: strong version and weak version. Strong version refers to that language determines our thinking patterns but weak version thinks that the similarities of language are relative. The greater the structural differentiation is, the more divers the conceptualization of the world will be. Therefore, culture is encoded and transmitted by the language which influences the way of thinking and viewing of the world and embodies cultural realities. On the contrary, language is the product of culture which influences language and makes language change to fit the development of culture. Language loads a large amount of culture such as political system, living condition, religion belief and social custom and so on. Culture-loaded words are some terms, idioms and collocations full of national culture. Many masters put forward the definition of culture-loaded words. It was initially put forward in Culturally Loaded Words and English Language Teaching by Xu Guozhang in 1980. There are some other statements: “Culture-loaded words are words within a specific cultural range, and are a direct and indirect reflection of national culture in language vocabulary (Hu Wenzhong, 1999:64)”; “Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases, and idioms that mark a particular cultural thing. These words reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that are gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations (Liao Qiyi, 2000:232)”. We can see that culture-loaded words as a language carrier are the specific words of one nation, which loads rich national information of culture.

2.2 Categorization of Culture-Loaded Words

Nida E.A. mentioned five cultural categories of translation in his famous book—Language, Cultural and Translation (Nida, 1993:91). They are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. There five culture categories can be used into the concept of culture-loaded words so that the classification of culture-loaded words came out. Further, Newmark P. put forward five kinds of culture words: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, custom and religion and gesture and habit in A Text of Translation (Newmark, 2001:94). They have many similarities in culture or culture words categories. This paper mainly focuses on Nida’s theory of classification of culture-loaded words.

2.2.1 Ecological Culture-Loaded Words

Ecological culture-loaded words are related with natural geographical environment, weather change, animals and plants in a certain community. For instance, in the perspective of geographical position, China is a land country but England is a water country. If we describe someone spends money without restrictions, Chinese is “挥金如土”but English is “spend money like water”. We use “土”to describe the degree of money but in English, they use “water” to express this image. In addition, “羊肠小径”can be translated into “a small twisting path”(Mei Yanhong, 2016:137). In Chinese, the conception of “羊肠”can be collocated with “小径”. However, in English, “羊肠”cannot be collocated with “小径”so that the literal meaning of “羊肠”cannot be translated directly but translated to “small twisting” to collocated “path”. The other example is “走水”. This word is loaded with Chinese culture, which means fire rather than water. So we translate it as “fire” in English rather than water.

2.2.2 Material Culture-Loaded Words

Material culture-loaded words refer to the special material objects in different cultures (Chen Linlin, 2011:144). These words include food, clothes, buildings, vehicles and so on. For example, some Chinese food like “饺子”、“馄饨”、“包子”, some Chinese clothes like “旗袍”、“中山装” , some Chinese buildings like “长城”“故宫” and some Chinese vehicles like “黄包车”“轿子”. These objects only exist in China and other countries do not have such objects. So such words as material objects loaded with national culture are called Material culture-loaded words.

2.2.3 Social Culture-Loaded Words

Social culture is inclusive of tradition, custom, social rules, moral principles, history backgrounds and ideology and so on (Chen Linlin, 2011:144). Besides, some words connected with social decorum, social status and some entertaining activities are also regarded as social culture-loaded words. In a word, if some words engage in society and load the special culture of one certain country, they are social culture-loaded words. For example, from the perspective of Chinese culture, “三跪九叩”—this kind of social decorum in ancient China. Some Chinese traditional festivals like “七夕节”“端午节”and so on (Mei Yanhong, 2016:137). Some ancient Chinese political status like “状元”“举人”“榜眼”“探花”and so on .

2.2.4 Religious Culture-Loaded Words

Religious culture-loaded words refer to some words loaded with some ideas, beliefs and ceremony related to religions. As to religion, oriental countries have much difference with western countries. Even in western countries, they also have different religious beliefs. For example, from the perspective of Chinese religion, we have the special culture religion called “八字”“算命先生”“看风水”(Mei Yanhong, 2016:137). These things do not exist in western countries. Some “八字先生” can forecast one’s life fortune with the birth date, which is critical miraculous. So we call “八字先生” fortune-teller. Other instances are “观音菩萨”“如来佛祖”“法师”and so on.

2.2.5 Linguistic Culture-Loaded Words

Linguistic culture-loaded words refer to that different spoken manner and habits in different ethnics, which are manifested in phonological, lexical and syntax levels ((Mei Yanhong, 2016:137). The examples are naming and the use of idioms. Linguistic culture-loaded words treat words from the perspective of language characteristics. For example, Chinese and English have much difference in perspective of the two languages. Chinese is made up of many short sentences and lack of structure but English are long sentences made up of a lot of clauses and have strict structures. Chinese uses many verbs while there are many stative words like nouns, prepositions and adjectives in English. In a word, there are so many linguistic differences in Chinese and English. For example, the translation of“二月二，龙抬头，大仓满，小仓流”is “When dragon raises its head, abundant harvests of crops are promised ahead”.

3. The Translation Theory of Mewmark

3.1 Semantic Translation

Semantic translation, similar to foreignization, struggles to keep the linguistic characteristics and original expressive manner of original works and transmit the thought process of the author. It should be initially faithful to the author and transmit the correct meaning of the original work with the permission of words and phrases structures (Zhang Jianhui, 2008:143). The focus of semantic translation is the original work and author, which tries to achieve the original text’s effect. In other words, on the basis of not undermining the meaning of original text, translators should keep the original text’s grammatical rules, semantical and syntactic structures as much as possible. Semantic translation preserves the cultural characteristics of the original works to achieve the transmission of social culture.

The art value generated by translation is as eternal as original work. For example, when Wen Xianliang translated Li Bai’s The Trader’s Wife—“Lang rides a bamboo horse and makes green plums around the bed” （郎骑竹马来，绕床弄青梅）, he translated “青梅”into “green plums”, which uses semantic translation to preserve the unique expression of the original text (Zhang Jianhui, 2008: 143). The other example is put forward by Feng Jiajia-- Lu Xun’s novel.

The True Story of Ah Q: “所以不敢僭称,便从不入三教九流的小说家所谓“闲话休提言归正传”这一句套话里,取出“正传”两个字来,作为名目”。

I will take as my title the last two words of stock phrase of the novelist, who are not reckoned among the Three Cults and Nine Schools. ——Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie tranlasted. From that we can see, they translated “三教九流”into “Three Cults and Nine Schools”, which uses the method of semantic translation. “三教九流”is an saying in Chinese, foreigners cannot understand its true meaning, but Yang Xianyi also uses an annotation to interpret it. It is one method to make expression more clear when using semantic translation (Feng Jiajia, 2010:109).

3.2 Communicative Translation

Communicative translation, similar to domestication, focuses on the target readers rather than the original author. The translator moves closer to the target language by adjusting syntactic structures and logical relationship without destroying the original text. As to the national culture, the translator should fully understand the culture of target language so that the target readers can understand the work better. It focuses on the meaning and content rather than the text form itself any more, which transmits the information for reader to think, feel and act (Zhang Jianhui, 2008: 143). It is used in the non-literary text, technical text and textbooks and so on.

There is an advertisement example of alcohol put forward by Zhang Jianhui for us to understand what communicative translation is——

"爽口顺喉，和醇耐味，名贵高尚"——Sensuously Smooth; Mysteriously Mellow; Gloriously Golden.

The consonant “s” imitates a lot of oohs and aahs after drinking, the consonant “M” symbolizes the expression of wine-tasting and the explosive “G” manifests the deep exaltation from wine-tasters. This advertisement uses the method of communicative translation to transmit a kind of elegance.

4.1 Semantic Translation Theory in The Concubine Market of Yangchow

The Concubine Market of Yangchow is an essay in classical writing style belonging to the category of literature. In Newmark’s opinion, literary works should use the method of semantic translation to show the exotic custom and flavor to readers. The original linguistic characteristics and custom should be preserved. In order to disseminate Chinese culture around the world, a lot of culture-loaded words in semantic translation can be discovered in Lin Yutang’s translation version.

(1) 扬州人日饮食于瘦马之身者数十百人。(Line 1)

At Yangchow, there were hundreds of people making a living from activities connected with the “lean horses”. (Line 1)

In classical style of writing, “饮食”cannot be translated into “eating and drinking” in modern Chinese. Here, “饮食”means “make a living” in classical style of writing and Lin Yutang translated it properly. “瘦马”in this passage does not refer to the lean horse in literal meaning but the thin girls brought up to be the nobles and the rich’s concubines. But Lin Yutang translated “瘦马”according its literal meaning rather than “concubines”, which reflects the ancient Chinese cultural characteristic. Readers may be confused when reading this word but they can understand its meaning after looking through the whole passage or the content below.

(2)牙婆驵侩，咸集其门，如蝇附膻，撩扑不去。(Line 2)

The professional agents and go-betweens, both men and women, would swarm about his house or hotel like flies, and there was no way of keeping them off. (Line 4)

Here, “如蝇附膻”is translated semantically. Lin uses a metaphor to compare professional agents and go-betweens with flies crazy about the flavor of mutton, reflecting their snobbishness and worship of money. The interpretation of “如蝇附膻”in deep meaning is to describe that people serve the time and seek fame and fortune. But Lin does not translate the connotative meaning but the denotative meaning because the image of “flies” is the same in all culture and foreigners can understand in that context. This measure keeps the original feature and makes read understand easily.

(3) 牙婆扶瘦马出，曰：“姑娘拜客。”下拜。曰：“姑娘往上走。”走。(Line 4)

At once the woman agent would come out with a girl and announce, “Kuniang (mademoiselle), curtsy!” The girl curtsied. Next was said, “Kuniang, walk forward!” She walked forward. （Line 11）

Here, “姑娘”is translated into “Kuniang” in transliteration rather than “girl”, but Lin adds an annotation in the follow for interpretation. So transliteration with an annotation is one resort to semantic translation. In Chinese, we often use Kuniang to refer to a girl, which is our tradition since the ancient China and loads a long historical culture. Actually, the meaning of“上”in “姑娘往上走”is not walking upward but forward because “上”in ancient Chinses means “forward” in modern Chinese. I think Lin uses the semantic translation here to preserve Chinese culture.

(4) 高系其裙，人未出者而趾先出者，必小。（Line 9）

But if she wears her skirts relatively high and reveals her feet as she takes a step forward, you already know that she has a pair of small feet that she is proud of. (Line23)

In Chinese historical and cultural tradition, from ancient times to 1911, women should bind their feet because men regarded three- inch “golden lotuses (woman’s bound feet in feudal age) was beautiful. It was Sun Yat-sen who overthrew this system in his revolution and women were free from their feet. So in The Concubine of Market in which the story happened in Ming dynasty, women were still need to bind their feet. Lin translates “必小”into “a pair of small feet” with an annotation “she is proud of”, which helps foreigners to better understand the tradition of small feet of women in ancient China.

(5)看中者，用金簪或钗一股插其鬓，曰“插带”。（Line 12）

If the gentleman decided he would take a certain girl, he would put a gold hairpin or ornament on her hair, this was called tsatai. (Line 18)

As for the translation of “插带”, Lin translated it into “tsatai”by means of transliteration. This a special call used by people of Ming dynasty. “带”refers to a gold hairpin or ornament. The action of “插带”refers to put a gold hairpin or ornament on one girl’s hair. Lin preserves the pinyin of “插带”because he has interpreted this before. From that, readers can know more about ancient Chinese culture.

(6)用笔蘸墨，送客点阅。（Line 18）

The owner would dip the brush in ink and hold it ready for the customer to check and make any amendments he might wish.(Line 48)

“笔”here refers to “毛笔”which is used by Chinese and there is no “毛笔”in western countries. So Lin translated it according to our own object rather than finding some similar object to equalize it.

(7)礼币糕果俱齐。（Line 21）

Ceremonial papers, fruit and pastry also arrived.(Line 52)

“礼币”of the wedding in foreign countries means the gifts or money offered by guests or relatives. In China, it also has this meaning but there is a special action in ancient China or even today that hosts will record the name of gifts and givers on the papers. So Lin translated “礼币” into “ceremonial papers”, which preserves the unique Chinese wedding characteristic.

(8)而花轿花灯、擎燎火把、山人傧相、纸烛供果牲醴之属，门前环视。（Line 21）

There came back with the band, floral sedan chair, floral lanterns, torches, handled torches, sedan chair carriers, bridesmaids, candles, more fruit and roasts. (Line 54)

“花轿”is a special sedan chair used to carry the bride in Chinese traditional wedding. It is always decorated gorgeously and made in red to symbolize the celebration and auspiciousness. “花灯”, a traditional folk art, is made up by paper outside, candles inside and bamboos as the lantern bone. When at wedding, it is usually in red because red is the symbol of Chinese wedding. Lin translated the two words according to each Chinese words like “花”and “轿”, “花”and “灯”.

4.2 Communicative Translation Theory in The Concubine Market of Yangchow

If the translator uses communicative translation, he must stands on the side of readers for the purpose that readers can better understand the text. The translator must think deeply and try to find some equivalent words in other cultures. Then he uses these equivalent words which could be understood by readers to replace the original words. In Lin Yutang’s translation version of The Concubine Market of Yangchow, he used communicative translation many times.

(1) 牙婆驵侩，咸集其门，如蝇附膻，撩扑不去。(Line 2)

The professional agents and go-betweens, both men and women, would swarm about his house or hotel like flies, and there was no way of keeping them off. (Line 4)

“牙婆”refers to the women making profits from selling young girls. The original meaning of “驵侩”is go-betweens in horse sales and it refers to the between businessmen introducing the deals later. So Lin translated these in “the professional agents and go-betweens” so that English readers can understand Chinese special appellations in their thinking patterns.

(2) 牙婆扶瘦马出，曰：“姑娘拜客。”(Line4)

At once the woman agent would come out with a girl and announce, “Kuniang (mademoiselle), curtsy!”(Line11)

“拜客”, one kind of Chinese etiquette, refers to kneel on the ground and kowtow. It is not the meaning in western countries of visiting guests. So Lin translated it into “curtsy” accurate to its original meaning.

(3) 用金簪或钗一股插其鬓。(Line 12)

He would put a gold hairpin or ornament on her hair. (Line 18)

Lin used semantic translation to interpret“金簪”into “gold hairpin”. But as for “钗”, he did not find the equivalent in western culture but used “ornament” to replace it. “钗”is indeed an hair ornament used by ancient women to make their hair beautiful.

(4) 出钱数百文，赏牙婆或赏其家侍俾。(Line12)

A tip of several hundred cash was given the woman agent or the maids of the house.(Line 31)

“文”is the unit of money in Ming dynasty. But Lin translated “文”into cash, which uses the communicative translation so that readers can understand the meaning of “文钱”(Zhao Huihui, 2019:37).

(5) 心与目谋，毫无把柄，不得不聊且迁就，定其一人。（Line 16）

One does not know what to decide or which to take, and eventually makes his choice on one of them. (Line 40)

“心与目谋” means the customer is tired of watching and selecting the girls and“毫无把柄” means the customer has no thought and cannot make the decision. Lin translated these difficult phrases in their connotative meaning which can be easily understood by readers.

(6) 归未抵寓，而鼓乐盘担，红绿羊酒在其门久矣。（Line 20）

Before he arrived at his own place, drummers and musicians and carrier-loads of lamb and all kinds of wines were already here. (Line 50)

“鼓乐” means drum and song sound. “盘担” refers to huge boxes loading the precious food. “红绿”is not to replace the color of red and green but to describe the color of food especially wine are various rather than only red and green. So Lin use “盘担”to describe “羊”and “红绿”to describe wine. Besides, metonymy is used by translating“鼓乐”into “drummers and musicians”. Such adjustment and change can make the original sentence clearer.

(7)而花轿花灯、擎燎火把、山人傧相、纸烛供果牲醴之属，门前环视。（Line 21）

There came back with the band, floral sedan chair, floral lanterns, torches, handled torches, sedan chair carriers, bridesmaids, candles, more fruit and roasts. (Line 54)

“擎燎” means holding the torch in hand. “傧相”means bridesmaids in modern Chinese and Lin also translated in its modern meaning so that readers can better understand. The wedding supplies of “纸烛供果牲醴”, which are special in Chinese traditional wedding because there are some unique wedding ceremonies in ancient China such as “bowing to the groom and guests” and “entering the bridal chamber” and so on. Though Lin cannot translate its full meaning, he also find some equivalent words in English.

(8)未去半里（Line 21）

Before they had gone a quarter mile.(Line 54)

“半里”, one method of calculating distance, refers to 250 meters. Lin used “mile” , this call often used by English people, to refer to “半里”(Zhao Huihui, 2019:37).

(9)则蔬果、肴馔汤点、花棚糖饼、酒壶杯箸、龙虎寿星。（Line 23）

Vegetables, meats and sweets, followed by awnings, table service, longevity stars. (Line 58)

Though “肴馔”“糖饼”does not manifest their full meaning by “meats and sweets, westerns countries can understand this appellation. The original meaning of“酒壶杯箸”is that wine pots, cups and chopsticks. But Lin translated it into table service because these are tools for eating and drinking. “龙虎”in Chinese means longevity but in western culture, they are bad things and have inauspicious meaning so that Lin just translated them in “longevity star” (Zhao Huihui, 2019:37)

(10)新人拜堂。(Line 26)

The bride came up and performed the wedding ceremony (by bowing to the groom and guests). (Line 64)

“新人”cannot be translated into “new men” because “新人”means “bride” here. “拜堂” is a Chinese traditional wedding ceremony rather than visiting a house(Zhao Huihui,2019:38). Lin interpreted these words with new words rather than translating their meaning word by word.

Conclusion

The Concubine Market of Yangchow, an essay written by Zhang Dai, helps Chinese know more details about “lean horse” industry in Ming dynasty and Lin Yutang’s translation version helps western people know more about Chinese traditional culture. As for the question, how Lin Yutang translated such passage full of Chinese culture for English readers and achieved the successful cross-culture communication is probed in this paper. I used Newmark’s translation theory inclusive of semantic translation and communicative translation to analyze Lin Yutang’s translation for culture-loaded words. This paper made some contributions to analysis of culture-loaded words and enriched the realm of culture-words research.

References

[1] Nida, E. Language, Cultural and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 91.

[2] Newmark, P. A Textbook of Translation[M]. New York:Prentice Hall, 1988: 94.

[3] 卜正民. 《为权力祈祷：佛教与晚明中国士绅社会的形成》[M]. 南京：江苏人民出版社, 2005: 43.

[4] 冯家佳, 黄建凤. 纽马克翻译理论与汉语文化负载词的翻译[J]. 《东南亚纵横》, 2010(07): 109.

[5] 胡文仲. 《跨文化交际学概论》[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 64.

[6] 廖七一. 《当代西方翻译理论探索》[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2002: 232.

[7] 林语堂. 《扬州瘦马：汉英对照/（战国）庄子等著；林语堂英译》[M]. 合肥：安徽科学技术出版社, 2012:44-48.

[8] 梅艳红, 南华. 目的论视角下语言类文化负载词的英译——以巴金《家》为例[J]. 《广西教育》, 2016(07): 137.

[9] 王元华. 扬州“瘦马”的由来[J]. 《古典文学知识》, 1994(02): 80.

[10] 许国璋. Culturally Loaded Words and English Language Teaching[J].《现代外语》, 1980(04): 19-25.

[11] 张建辉, 陈凯. 彼得·纽马克翻译理论浅析[J]. 《河北师范大学学报》, 2008(06): 143.

[12] 张则桐. 买妾程式中的热闹和苍凉[J]. 《寻根》, 2021(5): 19.

[13] 赵慧慧. 浅析林语堂《扬州瘦马》中文化负载词的英译——从归化与异化的角度[J]. 《青年文学家》, 2019(27): 36-37.

11 高蜜On the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in The Travels of Lao Ts'an from the Perspective of Cultural Schema Theory

Cult_Load_Words_EN_11

Key words

The Travels of Lao Ts'an; Cultural Schema Theory; Culture-Loaded Words;

12 殷慧珍 A study on the English Translation of Culture-loaded Words in The Spring Festival written by Fang Wenhua Based on Domestication and Foreignization Strategies

Cult_Load_Words_EN_12

Abstract

Culture-loaded words refer to words with unique cultural connotations, which are powerful tools to promote cultural communication. Due to the great differences between eastern and western cultural backgrounds, the translation of culture-loaded words is a difficult task. Therefore, this essay studies the English translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in The Spring Festival, which is a prose written by Chinese Writer and translator Fang Huawen, introducing many Chinese customs and activities containing Chinese culture-loaded words. According to the Nida’s classification of culture, this essay classifies culture-loaded words into ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words. Based on the domestication and foreignization translation strategies proposed by Venuti, this essay analyzes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Fang Huawen’s essay The Spring Festival and its translation, and summarizes the translation of culture-loaded words based on domestication and foreignization strategies.

Key Words

Culture-loaded Words, The Spring Festival, Domestication and Foreignization Strategies, Fang Huawen

1. Introduction

Since the development of China’s reform and opening up, China's economy has improved rapidly. Culture, as a manifestation of the soft power of national development, playing an increasing role in the country. And Chinese culture is becoming more and more popular among foreign readers. As a carrier of culture, book is a powerful tool for cultural communication. Meanwhile, translation is a bridge connected different languages and different cultures and the main task of translation is to translate the content of the source language into the target language. Therefore, in China, more and more books, such as poetry collections, novels, essays and so on, are translated into foreign languages and then widely spread all over the world. However, due to the huge differences in economic system, language structure and cultural customs between China and the West, many culture-loaded words with unique characteristics of the Chinese nation, such as some idioms, sayings and idiomatic expressions, are difficult to translate. Those who do not understand the Chinese cultural background cannot fully understand the meaning of these culture-loaded words. Therefore, the translation of culture-loaded words is key to the whole translation which is well worth our research. The Spring Festival is a prose written by Fang Huawen, a famous Chinese literary translator. It talks about the Spring Festival, the most important traditional Chinese festival, and gives a detailed description of the activities during this traditional festival. Many culture-loaded words appeared in the prose represent Chinese culture, people can understand the profound Chinese culture through the authentic translation. Based on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, this essay explores the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Fang Huawen’s The Spring Festival.

2. Fang Wenhua and The Spring Festival

Fang Huawen was born in 1955, who is a famous Chinese literary translator and translation theorist. He plays an important role in literary translation in China and he was elected as a representative in the field of literary translation in China. He has translated many literary works such as Oliver Twist and David Copperfield written by Charles Dickens, Tess of the d'Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure written by Thomas Hardy, Jane Eyre and Pride and Prejudice written by Jane Austen and so on. Also, he wrote books of Chinese Culture of Editions Series such as Chinese Garden, Chinese Folk Customs, Famous Historical Cities in China and so on, which introduce Chinese culture in all areas. His representative translated work is History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century, which elaborately introduce the Chinsese Translation theories and translators, covering more than ten million words. His translated works have made great contributions to the spread of Chinese culture, and his translation views are well known both at home and abroad. He was named "the most productive literary translator in contemporary China” by the UNESCO International Federation of Translators and his translation theories were publish in Babel, the academic journal of the International Federation of Translators, which enabled the world to know the general situation of Translation in China and the characteristics of translation. In this essay, The Spring Festival is selected as the text of analysis, which is one of the prose collected in the book Translation and Appreciation of Chinese and Foreign Selected Famous Proses and Poems, whose author is also Fang Huawen, selecting and translating famous Chinese and foreign proses and poetry. The Spring Festival is written by Fang Huawen and he selcets his own translation version in the book. The essay introduces the Spring Festival, the most important traditional festival of the China. The essay introduces the customs and activities of the Spring Festival in detail, which have been passed down from the ancient time. With the changes of the times, the words and customs have their own distinctiveness. Taking the traditional activity “post picture” as an example in the essay, Chinese people posted pictures of Shen Shu and Yu Lu with the wish of getting good luck and happiness in Nan Dynasty. While in Tang Dynasty, they posted the photos of Qin Shubao and Yuchi Jingde. If you don't know the culture background of Chinese culture, you can hardly know the connotaion of the words. For example, the names of firecrackers are of various kinds, like "Rockets", "Rolling Mines", "Fairy Scattering Flowers", "Knights in Red" and so on. The author elaborately introduces all kinds of customs and activities from the first day of the first lunar month to the 15th day of the first lunar month, among which culture-loaded words are unique to Chinese culture, and the translation of these culture-loaded words will greatly promote the spread of Chinese culture.

3. Culture and Culture-loaded Words

3.1 The brief introduction of Culture

Compared with the economic and political field, culture refers to the spiritual activities of human beings and the products they produce. Culture is a set of customs, traditions and values formed by people living in a specific community over a long period of time, such as the culture of a nation or country. There are various cultures in the world, and each culture has its own characteristics, including its own ethnic values, such as religious belief, world outlook, etc. It also includes spiritual products produced by specific ethnic groups, such as some artistic and scientific spiritual products. Besides, the manners and behaviors of a nation such as folk customs, spirits and so on. Chinese contemporary writer and scholar Yu Qiuyu gave a detailed interpretation of culture. He gave a definition of culture with a concise and simple sentence in What is Culture, that is, culture is a kind of spiritual value and life style called habit, and its final result is collective personality. (Yu qiuyu, 3) The first key word is spiritual value, which means that culture is not only a cultural phenomenon, but also has cultural value. Therefore, it can be explained that culture is a spiritual symbol of human beings compared with the primitive state. The second key word is lifestyle. This is the concrete realization of spiritual value. In most cases, culture, it should be concrete and acessible. The third key word is collective personality. This shows that culture not only affects people, but also concentrates on personality precipitation to maintain some stability. That is to say, the unique spiritual value and way of life developed by a particular nation is the culture of this nation, such as Confucianism, ancestral hall culture in Chinese culture and so on. Specifically, Culture covers nearly all kinds of fields in social life. There are many classifications of culture from different perspectives. For example, from the geographical aspect, there are local culture and foreign culture, urban culture and rural culture, Eastern culture and Western culture and so on. Also, from the perspective of time, there are primitive culture, slavery culture, feudal culture, capitalist culture, socialist culture and so on. According to Nida, he divided culture into five categories in his book Language, Cultural and Translation:(1) ecological culture, (2) material culture, (3) social culture, (4) religious culture, (5) language culture. (Nida, 1993: 91)

3.2 The brief introduction of Culture Loaded Words

Culture-loaded words refer to the words or phrases carrying the unique cultural connotations of a certain nation, which are different from other nations. Chinese scholar Hu Wenzhong defined culture-loaded words as follows: "Culture-loaded words are words within the scope of a specific culture, and are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the language vocabulary" (Hu Wenzhong 1999:64). When these culture-loaded words are translated into the target language, it is not easy to find corresponding words in the target language. Therefore, the wide use of culture-loaded words can transmit national cultural values and promote national communication. Based on the classification of culture of Nida, culture-loaded words also can be divided into five catergories accordingly. The first is ecological culture-loaded words, which refer to the words that reflect the unique local ecology, such as climate, lgeomorphology, natural environment, mountains, rivers, vegetation and so on. Different geographical environments breed different cultures, such as the Chinese idiom “稳如泰山”, which translates into English as stable as Mount Tai, meaning as firm as a rock, "Mount Tai" is a unique ecological environment in China. Mount Tai is very majestic in the hearts of the Chinese people, and it is worshipped by the people and enjoys a high status. Therefore, people use this idiom to praise people as stable and unshakable as Mount Tai. For English phrase, "a big fish" is literally translated into Chinese “一条大鱼”, but in English culture, it means "Great man", because Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea, which reflects the influence of the sea on British culture. The second is material culture-loaded words, which refer to words produced in daily life to meet the development of people's material life, that is, words with cultural connotations such as clothing, food and household goods that people need in daily life. In different cultures, people have different associations with different objects. For example, in Chinese culture, since the ancient time, people have divided the universe into five kinds of things, namely are Wood (木), Fire (火), Earth (土), Metal (金), and Water (水), and called them "Wu Xing(五行)"also known as the Five Elements or Five Phases. The system of five phases was used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. The third social culture-loaded words refer to words that reflect various aspects of the society according to different social backgrounds, such as unique festivals, customs, local conditions and practices, as well as the way of address and greeting. For example, "aunt" in English refers to different people in Chinese, that is, maternal aunt, paternal aunt, wife of mother's brother, wife of father's brother. The fourth religious culture-loaded words refer to some words related to religious beliefs and concepts, reflecting the influence of religion o.n people's lives. For example, Chinese culture is deeply influenced by Buddhism. Some common sayings contain the influence of Buddhism on people's life, such as the Chinese proverb "菩萨心肠"，which refers to the people with a great kind heart. Cram at the eleventh hour. "菩萨"is Bodhisattvas, who embrace qualities like self-sacrifice and morality. The Image of bodhisattva in Buddhism is different from that of Jesus in Christianity. The last one language culture-loaded words are the reflection of different languages characteristics in speech, lexical, syntax and other linguistic aspects, usually found in dialogue, ancient poetry and colloquialisms, idioms, and so on. Chinese sentences attach importance to the connection of meaning, and clauses are often connected by meaning, while English sentences are connected by connectives. For example, the famous Chinese proverb,"经得广，知得多"，the whole sentence is very concise, only with six words, and there is no conjunction to connect the sentence. However, the English translation cannot completely translate the format, but need to use a conjunction to connect the sentences in English grammar, that is if you experience more, you can know more things.

4. Domestication and Foreignization Strategies

Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies proposed by Venuti in The Translator's Invisibility A History of Translation from the perspective of culture in 1995. According to Venuti, Domestication refers to the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers.(Shulttleworth , Cowie 1997 : 43~ 44) This was based on the Germanphilosopher Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation that don’t disturb the reader, as much as possible, and then lead the author towards the meaning that author want to convey. That is to say, using the tanslation strategie of domestication is to localize the translated text. And translator should first consider the target language readers but not the loyalty to the author. Therefore, when translating, the translator should choose the plain and familiar words and expressions in the target language that would not be a barrier to reading for readers, so that the translation can be read nativly and vividly but do not make the readers feel stiff or unfamiliar, and it would not be like a text has been translated but an original book. When translating, he also created many plots that cater to the public’s preferences, making the novel interesting and easy to understand. Because of the cultural differences between the East and the west, some specific words in the source language have no corresponding meanings in the target language. Therefore, especially when translating idioms and allusions, domestication is often used in order to maintain their unique simplicity and expressiveness. For example, cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头卖狗肉)/ live a dog's life(过牛马一样的生活)/seek a hare in hen's nest（缘木求鱼）（Fang Mengzhi 2004: 3） Foreignization refers to the translation strategy that a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Shulttleworth , Cowie 1997 : 58~ 59) Foreignization refers to the translation strategy that the translator first considers his loyalty to the author and the original text, so the translation will preserve the language characteristics and cultural customs of the original text. The use of foreignization translation strategy will not only make readers have "exotic" reading experience so as to help them better understand cultural differences，at the same time，it also enrich the target language. Many foreign words and expressions have been well integrated into the target language and used in people's daily life. The example of foreignization in Fang Mengzhi's a dictionary of translation studies, such as "time is money", comes from the foreignization of "time is money" in English. Many foreign words have been widely spread and used in Chinese. （Fang Mengzhi, 3） Domestication and foreignization are indispensable translation methods in cross-cultural translation. Domestication can invisibly introduce foreign cultural ideas into the country without causing exotic reading experience or bringing reading barriers to target language readers, thus increasing the readability of the text. However, with the advent of globalization, blindly domesticating other languages is a way of showing ethnocentrism, which is actually a kind of cultural aggression of other country. Venuti believes that the domestication is to use smooth translation strategy to hide the domestication in the transparency of the translation. This is not a cultural exchange but an act of culuture violence under the cover of domestication strategy with ethnocentric ideas, that is, tampering and cultural appropriation. (Fang Mengzhi, 96）Therefore, foreignization has become an increasingly important translation strategy in the process of translation. For culture-loaded words, adopting foreignization translation strategy can not only accurately express the meaning of the sentence, but also promote the spread of Chinese culture, so as to promote the mutual understanding and communication between the East and the West. Therefore, foreignization is more and more accepted by the world.

5. A study on the English Translation of Culture Loaded Words in The Spring Festival written by Fang Huawen Based on Domestication and Foreignization Strategies

The prose The Spring Festival contains many traditional Chinese festival culture-loaded words such as poems, idioms, proverb and so on, so in the process of translation, appropriate methods and strategies should be selected. For these Chinese culture-loaded words, the English translation is not completely corresponding to the original text. For example, some Chinese culture-loaded words have Chinese cultural connotations but are not reflected in the translation, and the sentence format in the original text is not completely corresponding in the translation. Based on the classification of culture-loaded words mentioned above, this essay analyzes the ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words in Fang Huawen's The Spring Festival on the theoretical basis of domestication and foreignization translation strategies.

5.1 Ecological Culture-loaded Words

Some words describing nature, environment, animals and plants are called ecological culture-loaded words. In the prose, the author used nature words "火树银花" to describe the scene of the Lantern Festival with bright lights. Literally, "火树" means the fire trees, "银花" means the silver flowers. If the translator uses the foreignization translation strategy to transliterate the sentence, the foreign readers who don't know the Chinese culture may not understand the meaning of the sentence, and will be confused. This is not a tree or flower, but a scene of bright lights. Therefore, the translator adopts the domestication translation strategy and translates it into "fireworks and laterns were everywhere to be seen", "火树" refer to the trees are covered with colorful lights, and "银花" refer to brightly lit scene.

5.2 Material Culture-loaded Words

Material culture-loaded words refer to some words used for material production, such as medicinal wine, units of weights and measures mentioned in the prose. Example 1: "爆竹声中一岁除，春风送暖入屠苏。" Translation: Firecrackers are sending the old year away; People are toasting in warm breeze. The sentence quoted the famous poem New Year's Day by Song Dynasty poet Wang Anshi, which depicted a lively scene during the Spring Festival. The word "Tusu"(屠苏) has great cultural connotation. "Tusu" is a kind of medicinal wine, called Tusu wine. According to Chinese legend, Tusu wine was first invented by hua Tuo, a famous doctor in the Eastern Han Dynasty. It is generally drunk on the first day of the first month, which plays a role in strengthening the body and defeating diseases. Therefore, drinking it on the first day of the New Year also conveys people's best wishes for the New Year that everyone can stay away from diseases and be healthy. It implied a wish, just as people in the western culture also toast on festivals, so the translator replaced the literal translation of Tusu with the familiar word toasting. Example 2: 曾架起一座二十丈的灯山。 Translation: ...was built up a mountain of lanterns to celebrate the festival, nearly 70 meters high. In the sentence, "二十丈", that is twenty Zhang. Zhang is a unit of length used in ancient China. The use of Chinese length units has evolved with the changes of history. The units of measurement are closely related to life, they have appeared since the beginning of human beings. The primitive people used fingers as inches, palms as feet, and stretching elbows as feet. Then Qin Shihuang unified the measurement and till now the appearance of modern measurement technology today, the evolution of ancient measurement system reflects the changes of history. In English, there is no length unit of Zhang. Therefore the translator used the domestication translation strategy that converted 20 Zhang into 70 meters.

5.3 Social Culture-loaded Words

The use of social culture-loaded words reflects the specific social background of the certain period. For example, the appellation or title of people is a significant part of social culture-loaded words. In this prose, the titles of the two ancient emperors "汉武帝" and "唐睿宗" are mentioned. The translator's translation of the ruler is as follows: Example 1：自从汉武帝以来...。 Ever since the Emperor Wu's Reign of Han Dynasty. Example 2：唐睿宗时，长安的皇宫外庆贺元宵节 During Emperor Ruizong's Reign in Tang Dynasty there just outside the royal palace in Changan. In Chinese history, from the Han Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty, the posthumous title of the emperor is generally used, which summarized the deeds and morality of the deceased. For example, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, whose posthumous title is "Wu", praised the moral character of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. From the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Yuan Dynasty, the temple name of the emperor was used as the appellation. Temple name is the name given by later generations when they worship in the temple after the death of the ancient emperor. For example, the temple name of the founding emperor is Gaozu or Taizu, such as song Taizu. For the successor, the last word is always Zong, which means to maintain the achievements of the predecessors. For example, Tang Ruizong's temple name is "Rui", which praises his wise. In English translation, the translator uses foreignization to translate the posthumous title "Wu" of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and the temple name "Rui" of Ruizong of the Tang Dynasty. Although the title of emperor is different from that of Di and Zong in Chinese, translator all uses the word emperor. Example 3: 其外形有"哪吒闹海""孙悟空""猪八戒"和"沙僧"。 Translation: lanterns in forms of Nazha's Adventure in East Sea, Monkey King, Pigsy, Sha Wujing. The words in historical allusions and legends have great social and cultural connotation. "哪吒闹海"is an ancient Chinese legend."孙悟空", "猪八戒" and "沙僧" are main characters in Journey to the West, one of China's four greatest master pieces. Chinese people have watched TV dramas or books about these characters since childhood, so they are familiar with them. However, for foreign readers, they are not familiar with these characters or plots, so it may perplex them if you don't explain the culture background here. The translator adopted the foreignization translation strategy to directly translate "孙悟空" into "Na Zha's adventure in the East Sea", "孙悟空"into the well-known Monkey King, "猪八戒" into Pigsy, and "沙僧" into his name Sha Wujing. Literal translation may confuse readers who do not understand these legends and stories, so notes can be added, that is, Nazha (a divine warrior in Chinese mythology). And Monkey King, Pigsy, Sha Wujing (main characters in Chinese classics pilgrimage to the West).

5.4 Regilious Culture-loaded Words

Example 1：死后玉皇大帝封他为"斩祟将军" And was appointed "ghost-killler general" by God of all gods after his death. In the translation, the translator uses domestication translation theory to translate "玉皇大帝" into God of All Gods. In Chinese culture, people believe that there are ruler and gods in heaven, and "玉皇大帝" is the leader of the gods in Chinese Taoist mythology. In addition to ruling all gods, "玉皇大帝" also governs the affairs of the universe. People regard "玉皇大帝" as the "emperor" in heaven, the supreme ruler of the world of all gods. In western culture, religions are numerous and varied. Ancient Greece is the land of pantheism, the ancient Greeks advocated many gods. Zeus is regarded as God of all gods and the supreme ruler of the gods in the Greek mythology. Several popular Western religions, such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam are monotheism, holding the belief that God is the only creator of the world. God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. So the use of domestication can not only express the same meaning of the sentence, but also adapt to the religious culture in the west. Example 2: 旧岁的最后一天叫"大年三十”，因"除旧岁”而得名除夕。 Translation: The last day of the old year, Danianshanshi in Chinese, is called Farewell Day, as the old year is sent away this day. The phrase "旧岁”, "岁”is not only refers to the age, but also means year. "旧岁" refers to the past year. The last day of the year, called "岁除", and the night of the day is called "除夕". 除夕, the original meaning of "New Year's Eve", refers to the end of the year to usher in the new. New Year's Eve is a time for family reunion. Like Tomb-sweeping Day, Ghost Festival and the Double Ninth Festival, New Year’s Eve is a traditional Chinese festival for ancestor worship. This sentence uses the combination of domestication and foreignization. The use of foreignization preserves the cultural image and promotes the culture exchange.

5.5 Language Culture-loaded Words

Chinese idioms usually contain the essence of language and have Chinese characteristics. Many of them use figures of speech such as metaphor. A metaphor is a comparison of something you want to say with something that has similar characteristics. In idioms, metaphors are used to describe the characteristics of something to make it vivid, so as to trigger the association of readers. The idiom in the prose like "像箭一般冲出去了", means that the children rush out quickly, but also shows that the children eager to go outside. In Chinese culture, the arrow(箭) is often used to describe high speed. For example, the idiom "离弦之箭" is used to describe high speed. "离弦之箭" refers to Time flies quikly. But there is no equivalent like arrow in English. In English, words like "bullet" or "cheetah" or "rocket ship" are used for things that are fast. Therefore, in order for readers to better understand the meaning of the sentence, the translator uses the domestication method to paraphrase as "dash out", "dash" is an act of running or moving very quickly or hastily, Although the cultural connotation of the source language is sacrificed in this way, the translator faithfully expresses the meaning of the source language.

Conclusion

This essay finds that the prose includes plenty of culture-loaded words, which contains extensive and profound meaning about traditional Chinese culture and customs. This essay introduces the Spring Festival, the most important traditional festival in China, as well as various activities prepared by Chinese people for the Festival and customs they adhere to, which largely spread Chinese culture, promote cultural exchanges in the world, and greatly enhancing the strength of Chinese culture. For this essay, using Fang Huawen's translation text as the analysis object, analyze the translation strategies of translator used about different kinds of culture-loaded words, that is, ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words. According to Venuti's translation theory, he advocates that translators should more use foreignization to preserve the cultural connotation of the source language. However, the translator Fang Huawen adopts the domestication translation strategy more frequently, choosing the cultural images familiar to the target language readers in order to resonate with the target language readers and make the target language readers get roughly the same reading effect like the source language readers. At the smae time, culture-loaded words have complex cultural images, if the target language readers do not understand the cultural connotation behind the words, they will not be able to get the real meaning of the text, and may even misunderstand the text mistakenly. When using domestication strategies, translators most commonly use free translation, in which they replace culture-loaded words in the original text with words and expressions more familiar to the target language readers, so as to improve the readability of the translated text and reduce readers' reading barriers. For example he translates the character of Chinese legend "玉皇大帝”into"God of the gods”that are more familiar to the target language readers. However, with the development of globalization, foreignization is increasingly used in translation. When the translator encountered some characteristic culture-loaded words, he chose literal translation, such as "Danianshanshi". Although the translator uses foreignization translation strategy to bring strangeness to the target language readers, it not only retains the traditional image of Chinese culture, but also meets the needs of cultural communication in the world. Foreignization can not only express the meaning of the source language, but also retain the characteristics of the national language. Domestication and foreignization are interactive and not completely opposite. Translators can combine foreignization and domestication in translating culture-loaded words. When translating culture-loaded words, the translator can not only use foreignization translation strategy to retain the cultural image and language connotation of the original text, but also use domestication translation strategy to make the translated text easy to understand and readable.

References

1.Yu Qiuyu. What is Culture [M]. Wuhan: Changjiang Literature and Art Press, 2012

2.Venuti, L. The Transltor’s Invisibility [M]. London&Newyork:Routledge, 1995

3.Nida Eugene, A. Language,culture,and Translating [M].Shanghai:Foreign Language Education Press, 1993

4.Shulttleworth, Cowie. The Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. St. Jerome Publishing, 1997

5.Fang Mengzhi. The Dictionary of Translation Studies in China [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2011

6.Fang Huawen. Translation and Appreciation of Chinese& Foreign Selected Famous Proses and Poems [M]. Hefei: anhui science & technology press, 2014

13 程杨 《边城》中文化负载词的翻译—以戴乃迭英译本为例 Translation of Cultural-loaded Words in Border Town:A Case Study of Dai Naidie’s English translation

Cult_Load_Words_EN_13

Abstract

With the increasingly frequent cultural exchanges in the world and the increasingly exposed differences between cultures, cultural diversity plays a very important role in national exchanges. Different countries and nationalities have their own cultural characteristics and features, which are deeply rooted in their own language. Language is the carrier of culture, and word is the basic unit of language and the most active part of language. In cross-cultural communication, culture-loaded words are an important part and an important bridge and link between two languages. The study of culture-loaded words is not only an important link in the process of cross-cultural communication, but also an important mean and method for the development of a nation. There are a lot of culture-loaded words in Shen Congwen's Border Town. This paper discusses the translation of culture-loaded words in the translation based on the theory of translator's behavior.

Key Words

Culture-loaded words; Border Town; Dai Naidie; Translator behavior criticism

1.Introduction of Border Town

1.1 Background of Border Town

Border Town was written in the 1930s, when the society was in turmoil and the development of urban civilization collided violently with the traditional agricultural civilization. The whole traditional civilization has been challenged and impacted unprecedentedly, and the traditional society has become fragmented, but on the whole it still exists peacefully. In China at that time, conscientious and thoughtful men of letters had a strong sense of responsibility and perception for the society. They did not want to see the whole nation degenerate in the violent civilization of cities, nor did they want people to lose their way in the vanity of cities. Mr. Shen as a member of the advanced intellectuals, he hoped that through Border Town this work for the impression of Xiangxi, which is similar to the Peach Blossom Land, to the confused people in cities shows the simplicity and purity of traditional culture, but also indicate the direction for them to move forward: there is a pure and natural love in life, and life needs to be converted to the nature of natural life.

1.2 Introduction of the Author Shen Congwen

The 1930s was the time when Shen Congwen had a good harvest in love and career, and his wife Zhang Zhaohe had the greatest influence on his creation. After their marriage, Shen Congwen wrote to his wife: "I have crossed many bridges, seen many clouds and tasted many kinds of alchohol, but I have only ever loved a man of the best age." Zhang's comely appearance and dark complexion are traits Mr. Shen used repeatedly in his works. Cuicui in Border Town was also based on her. At the same time, the Border Town also carries Shen Congwen's strong feelings for Xiangxi. Although his description of the stones, water plants, boatmen and other things in the Border Town is almost plain description, a close reading can feel his love for Xiangxi from the heart. Border Town is not only about the life of young men and girls born and raised in this small town, but also a beautiful, healthy, natural and human life form, which is also the original intention of Shen Congwen's creation.

Shen Congwen's style inclines to romanticism, he asked the poetic novel of effect, integrating realism, recording, symbolism be in harmony an organic whole. He also asked the language style of primitive simplicity, sentence of simple forms, and thick and pure style with rich local color. He highlighted the country unique charm with a twinkle in human nature. Shen Congwen's novels are typical rural culture novels, which not only compare with the modern civilization of the city on the whole, but also pay attention to the way of living, the footprint of life and the historical destiny of the villagers, which are determined by the collision of different cultures during the transformation of the Xiangxi Area to the modern era. The whole work is full of worries about life and philosophical thinking about life, just like his real and tenacious life, giving people lessons and enlightenment.

Shen Congwen is the main expressor and introspector of the rural world with special significance. He believed that "beauty lies in life". Although he was in a hypocritical, selfish and indifferent city, he was infatuated with the beauty of human nature. He said, "In this world, there may be people who build great pavilions on sand or water, but that is not me, I just wanted to build a small Greek temple. Choose a small ground for a foundation and pile it with hard stones. Delicate, solid, symmetrical, small but not slender, it is my ideal building. It is dedicated to humanity." Therefore, it can be said that the "Greek temple" symbolizes a spiritual space full of human beauty and divine love, which transcends the "secular heart and eyes" and radiates the light of holiness. This "small Greek temple" lived those beautification, by the divinity of the ordinary women, such as Cuicui, Yao Yao, they are beautiful, healthy, vigorous, vibrant, natural harmony, simple nature, they are "the life form of the border city".

2. Cultural-loaded Words

2.1 Definition of Cultural-loaded Words

As a complex social phenomenon, culture carries a nation's knowledge, experience, hierarchy, religion and concept of time and space. As a part of culture, language embodies the uniqueness and nationality of culture. Language is created in a nation's long-term productive labor and social practice and serves the society. As the core of language, vocabulary inevitably reflects and is influenced and restricted by national characteristics. At the same time, language can truly reflect the ecological region, material culture, religious belief, customs and habits of a country or a nation. Different languages determine the different ways of thinking, behavior and language expression of different nations. Therefore, there are inevitably huge cultural differences in languages, which produce a certain number of culture-loaded words.

Culture-loaded words are the concentrated expression of a nation's geographical environment, living habits, ideas, perceptions and national psychology in language level. It not only carries profound cultural connotation, but also closely links culture with language. In the language system, culture-loaded words are the words that can best reflect the cultural information carried by language and the social life of human beings. Language is not only a tool for the expression and communication of human thoughts and feelings, but also a carrier and an important part of culture. Therefore, culture-loaded words can best reflect the strong national color and bright cultural personality in language. The translation of culture-loaded words requires translators to accurately and appropriately understand the beliefs, customs, aesthetic values and other aspects of other cultures while faithfully conveying the essence and soul of their own cultures, so as to truly achieve the exchange of different cultures.

2.2 The Necessity of Cultural-loaded Words Study

In 1980, Professor Xu Guozhang published Culturally Loaded Words and English Language Teaching in Modern Foreign Languages, initiating the study of culture-loaded Words. At the same time, more and more attention has been paid to the study of culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words, as the main bearing object of a national culture, are the embodiment of the most distinctive personality of culture. However, such words reflecting cultural differences have brought great obstacles to cultural communication and translation. The differences in language and culture between ethnic groups contribute to the diversity of ethnic communication, but at the same time bring great difficulties. Due to the incomplete equivalence of the functions and contents of words among different nationalities, many errors or even major errors in translation process are caused, which will not only cause a certain loss to the cultural or commercial activities at that time, but even cause a certain negative impact on the subsequent cultural exchanges. The generation and use of vocabulary is a unique way of activities accumulated by a nation in the long historical process, which is different from other nations. The translation of culture-loaded words is quite difficult. If the translation is improper, cultural loss will occur, that is, cultural differences will be mistaken for cultural common core, and the target language will be forced to adopt the cultural model of the source language, resulting in communication failure; or replacing the cultural image of the source language with the cultural image of the target language. Communication succeeds, but the regret is the cultural loss of the source language.

Culture-loaded words usually appear in literary works with ethnic characteristics. The Border Town, Shen Congwen's representative work, is praised as "the purest novel text in the history of modern literature" and "the peak work in the pastoral legend of modern Chinese literature". It shows readers the harmonious life form of the Xiangxi Area. There are a large number of words which reflect the traditional customs and culture and dialect characteristics of the rural areas of Hunan, China. These culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of translation. In Dai Naidie’s translation, the translator also tries to reproduce the cultural characteristics of the original text in a variety of ways, so that the target readers can feel the local characteristics and charm of the Border Town more truly and appropriately.

3. Analysis of Translation of Cultural-loaded Words in Border Town:A Case Study of Dai Naidie’s English translation

3.1 The Introduction to Dai Naidie

Dai Naidie (1919-1999) was born Gladys B.Tayler in 1919 to a British missionary family in Beijing. At the age of seven, she returned to England to receive education. She initially studied French language and literature, but in the later switched to Chinese language and literature because of her love for traditional Chinese culture. After marrying Yang Yixian in 1940, she settled down in China, where she and her husband hosted and translated many Chinese classics. The translated works range from pre-Qin prose to A Dream of red Mansions of more than 100 kinds. In their early works, Yang Yixian presided over the completion of the first draft, while Dai Naidie was responsible for proofreading and correcting the English expression. "Yang Yixian actually translated the Chinese into English, and I turned it into a narrative antithesis," she later recalled. With the continuous improvement of her Chinese and English translation skills, she began to try to independently translate Chinese literary works into English books, and contributed a large number of classic English translation literary works. The Border Town is one of the representative translations of Diana's independent translation period. The translation of Chinese classic literature works by Dai Naidie and her husband Yang Yixian not only promoted the cultural exchange between China and English-speaking countries, but also promoted the development of literary translation, promoted the translation process of Chinese classical novels, and contributed a huge force that cannot be ignored for Chinese culture to go out.

In the process of translating Border Town, Diana was inevitably influenced by the social ideology of China at that time. As a foreigner herself, she was restricted and oppressed to a large extent, so her translation works mainly catered to the mainstream ideas of Chinese society at that time. At the same time, the powerful cultural countries represented by Britain and the United States at that time generally preferred the stereotyped works that fit their imagination in the weak culture. However, Shen Congwen's description of the backwardness and occlusion of the small town in Xiangxi was just in line with the imagination of the British and American society for the distant China, so it was once very popular in The British and American countries.

On the basis of being faithful to the original text, Diana's translation fully conveys the tendency of female translators' choice of translation strategies, which is reflected in the particularity of female translators' behavior in the process of translation.

3.2 Lexical Analysis

Each language has its own unique features in pronunciation, vocabulary and syntax. Due to the differences in language and culture, the translatability of the expression forms of these languages will be limited when they are conveyed as information content in communicative language. If we do not understand the language and cultural characteristics of the original language, it is bound to produce ambiguity and mis-understanding. Meanwhile, translators of different identities have different approaches to translation. As a female translator, Dai Naidie was deeply aware of Shen Congwen's attitude and view when she read his work Border Town. Therefore, when dealing with the problems encountered in translation, especially some words with the color of feminism, she carefully and rigorously screened the original author Shen Congwen's own attitude, avoiding unreasonable and inappropriate translation of words, thus improving the accuracy and readability of the translation.

3.2.1 Analysis on Character Names

【Original text】由于边地的风俗淳朴，便是作妓女，也永远那么浑厚，遇到不相熟的主顾，做生意时也得先交钱，数目弄清楚后在关门撒野……妓女多靠四川商人维持生活，但恩情所结，则多在水手方面 。（戴乃迭，2013: 23）【Translation version of Dai】Border ways are so simple that even these girls remain honest. Before entertaining a stranger, they ask for their money and count it before closing the door and getting down to business … Whereas most of the women’ s income comes from merchants, it is usually the boatmen who win their hearts.（戴乃迭，2013: 23）

In this example, the word "妓女" appeared twice. In Traditional Chinese values, this word is derogatory, and women in this industry will not be recognized and accepted by the society. In Shen Congwen's Border Town, prostitutes in the closed Xiangxi town described by Shen Congwen still retain a simple and kind quality belonging to Xiangxi women, although they cannot belong to the mainstream group of society. They are waiting for those travelling merchants or sailors ashore, and some innocent women who had never even crossed out of town, hoping to find their true love.

Dai Naidie translated the two repetitive words "妓女" in the excerpt as "girl" and "woman" respectively. These two words are neutral words, without any derogatory or discriminatory connotation, and more consistent with the original description of women who are forced to work as prostitutes for a living. In Shen Congwen's description, these women do not take pleasure in it, nor do they indulge in self-degradation. Just because they are in the closed small town of Xiangxi, they have not seen too much of the world, and they have no ability to support themselves, so they have to engage in humble and inferior occupation. These women have their own grievances, some even pitiable. Dai Naidie felt deep sympathy for the suffering of these women and could not bear it. As a woman, she consciously avoided the use of misogynistic words and used neutral words in her translation. On the basis of a full understanding of the original text, Dai Naidie described to the target language readers the innocent and simple characteristics of the women in Western Hunan, and then showed the plain local conditions and customs of the water town in Xiangxi. This way of dealing with these women not only did not become the object of public scorn, but more than a point of innocence color; not only does it not distort the original meaning of the author's writing, but it is helpful for the author to express his hometown -- Xiangxi water town nostalgia and yearning.

3.2.3 Analysis on Cultural-loaded Words

例二：[Original text] 两山深翠逼人的竹篁中，有黄鸟与竹雀杜鹃交替鸣叫。（戴乃迭，2013: 123）[Translation version of Dai] Among the vivid emerald bamboos on both hillsides, orioles, nightingales and lesser birds are warbling.（戴乃迭，2013: 122）

The word "杜鹃" was textured by Dai Naidie, who translated it into what readers of the target language will know as "Nightingale". Although the nightingale and the cuckoo refer to different things, they both represent sad images in Chinese and Western cultural backgrounds. The nightingale is the incarnation of the ancient Greek tragic woman Procony, and the cuckoo is the reincarnation of Wang Duyu, the General of water control during the war of the Seven Kingdoms -- the nightingale and the cuckoo are endowed with similar emotional images of the traditional eastern and western world respectively. Therefore, the use of nightingale instead of cuckoo not only does not cause the deviation of emotional expression, but helps western readers to comprehend the image in the original text. This approach, on the one hand, takes into account the comprehension ability and scope of the western readers, and at the same time takes into account the traditional eastern cultural color represented by the cuckoo in the original text, which fully demonstrates the excellent female translator's thinking.

14 胡舒情 浅谈中医典籍中文化负载词的翻译策略——以《伤寒论》为例On Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words in Traditional Chinese Medical Classics: A Case Study of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold

Cult_Load_Words_EN_ 14

Abstract

Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold, written by Zhang Zhongjing in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, is one of the "four Classics" of Traditional Chinese medicine which uses six channels as guiding principles of syndrome differentiation and treatment. The book concentrates the traditional Chinese medical wisdom, which is both scientific and literary. The writing is smooth and simple, and the language is straightforward and vivid. A large number of rhetorical devices such as reduplication of words are used to reflect the beauty of Classical Chinese. Its multiple values have led more and more scholars to devote themselves to research, study and even translation and promotion, and a number of outstanding scholars have emerged at home and abroad to devote themselves to the translation work of this book. However, it is not easy to translate this book. China has an excellent history and profound culture, and the book contains many culture-loaded words. The translation quality of such words directly affects the translation quality, so it is necessary to adopt appropriate translation strategies. Therefore, the author chooses the version translated by Professor Luo Xiwen as the research blueprint to study the translation strategy of culture-loaded words in traditional Chinese medicine classics, in order to promote the translation of this book to a higher level.

Key Words

cultrue-loaded words; Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold; Tranditional Chinese medicine classics; translation strategies

摘要

《伤寒论》为东汉末年的张仲景所著，是以六经作为辩证论治的纲领，荣列为中医“四大经典”之一。该书浓缩了中国传统医学智慧，兼具科学性与文学性，行文流畅朴素，语言直白形象，其中大量运用叠词等修辞手法，体现了中国文言文之美。其多重价值致使越来越多的学者致力于研究、学习、甚至是翻译推广，国内外皆涌现出一批优秀学者投身该书的翻译工作中。但翻译此书并非易事，中国历史优秀、文化精深，书中包含众多文化负载词，这类词的翻译质量直接影响译文质量，采取合适的翻译策略必不可缺。因此，笔者选择了罗希文教授所翻译的版本，作为中医典籍文化负载词翻译策略的研究蓝本，以期推进该书翻译工作更上一层楼。

关键词

文化负载词，《伤寒论》，中医典籍，翻译策略

1. Introduction

In recent years, China's international influence and national soft power have gradually improved, and the country has consciously pushed Chinese culture to all over the world. Traditional Chinese medicine culture, as an indispensable part of the excellent traditional culture of the Chinese nation, has a long historical tradition and unique theories and technical methods. Rich classic materials and humanistic spirit of TCM are amazing, and the external dissemination of traditional Chinese medicine culture is becoming more and more important. Under this background, the translation of traditional Chinese medicine in China has been gradually carried out, and the culture-loaded words in the classics of traditional Chinese medicine are important features that reflect their rich cultural color and humanistic connotation, and the translation of culture-loaded words is the key to the translation of traditional Chinese medicine. Culture-loaded words are parts of the construction of traditional Chinese medicine culture and have basic research value. They cannot be unilaterally regarded as completely untranslatable because of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Facing the problems of translation, it is particularly important to put forward feasible translation strategies. A large number of translators of traditional Chinese medicine classics have also emerged in China, facing difficulties and striving to show the world the classics’ cultural accumulation and research results. Among them, the translator Luo Xiwen has translated a series of traditional Chinese medicine classics such as Condensed Compendium of Materia Medica, Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber, Huangdi Neijing, and Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold. As one of China's historical medical works, Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold is a classic work of traditional Chinese medicine written by Zhang Zhongjing in the Eastern Han Dynasty. It plays an important role in the development of medical history in the cultural biography of traditional Chinese medicine. This article will discuss the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in traditional Chinese medicine classics through Luo's translation of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold.

2. TheDefinition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Medical Classics

2.1 The Definition

Different scholars have different interpretations of culturally loaded words, but a widely accepted definition is that words, phrases and idioms which mark the unique things in a certain culture. These words are deeply imprinted by the region and times of a language society. They only exist in one culture but are blank in another culture. In recent years, many scholars have begun to pay attention to culture-loaded words in traditional Chinese medicine classics. Some scholars have tried to give a definition of traditional Chinese medicine culture-loaded words, but there is no clear definition yet. However, scholars Zhang Miao and others put forward a recognition step and word selection standard for traditional Chinese medicine culture-loaded words. First of all, read through the full text and divide the semantic groups. Secondly, judge whether the semantic group belongs to the shared vocabulary of all human culture, that is, to express one concept of things as a vocabulary in the context of one language and culture, and words that indicate the corresponding concept in another language and culture background. For example, the words "apple", "pear" and "fire" in Chinese express the same concept and corresponding words in English. If it does not belong to part of speech, then determine whether each semantic group belongs to the following three categories. First, the basic terminology of traditional Chinese medicine. Such terms are usually divided into basic theories of traditional Chinese medicine, diagnosis of traditional Chinese medicine, diseases of traditional Chinese medicine, treatment of traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and moxibustion, and prescriptions of traditional Chinese medicine. Second, words unique to Chinese material culture, such as unique characters and things. Third, the unique language phenomenon of ancient Chinese. Such as ancient and modern synonymous words, common false words, word polysemy, etc. If it belongs to, and there is no obvious English corresponding word in the above semantic group, it is a culturally loaded word. According to this method, this paper selects the culture-loaded words in Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold in the following article for analysis.

2.2 The Classification

After framed the culture-loaded words of traditional Chinese medicine, it is often necessary to classify and discuss them. Different scholars have different classification methods. Xu Xueyuan divided the culture-loaded words in the Yellow Emperor's Internal Classics into basic philosophical concepts of traditional Chinese medicine, place names, traditional Chinese medicine medical terms and organs. Zhang Xuan divided the culture-loaded words in Su Wen into people's names, traditional Chinese medicine terminology, traditional Chinese medicine-related philosophical concepts, and other descriptive cultural load parts of speech. Song Conghui and others divided the words of cultural load into: symptoms of traditional Chinese medicine, symptoms of traditional Chinese medicine, etiology and pathogenesis of traditional Chinese medicine, treatment of traditional Chinese medicine, basic philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine, etc. Chen Zinuo and others divide the culture-loaded words of traditional Chinese medicine into five categories: syndrome, symptom, prescription, philosophy and rhetoric. The latter includes the classification mentioned in the first three, and also opens up a rhetorical class to make the classification more detailed and clear. Therefore, this paper adopts Chen's classification method.

3. Translation Strategies Used for Culture-loaded Words in Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold

3.1 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Syndrome

The translation of the disease name affects the readability of the whole translation. Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold has been written for a long time, and the simple structure of disease name carries a lot of information, so there are few modern terms that can be matched with ancient disease names. According to the methods mentioned above, most of the terms of traditional Chinese medicine diseases belong to culture-loaded words. The author selected the disease-type cultural load words in Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold translated by Professor Luo Xiwen to study the translation strategies of these words.

There are several syndromes mentioned in translation of Professor Luo: “太阳病” “阳明病” “少阳病” “太阴病” “少阴病” “厥阴病” “霍乱病” “阴阳易差后劳复病”. Sheng Jie believes that the translation of the syndrome name should be accurate first, then concise, and there is no need to overemphasize formal equivalence. When the meaning of the syndrome name has the corresponding words of Western medicine, the literal translation method should be directly used, and when there is no word to use, the method of additional translation can be selected.

Luo mainly adopts transliteration and free translation for syndrome names, first transliteration, followed by free translation, extending the cultural connotation and giving readers a way to deepen understanding. The following analysis can be seen.

“太阳病” appeares in chapter I, and Luo translates it into The Taiyang (Initial Yang) Syndromes. “太阳” does not refer to the celestial body “sun”, but to the Bladder of Foot-Taiyang. The bladder is located in the lower jiao, that is, below the belly button and above the bladder, which contains body fluid, which evaporizes to form "Qi of Taiyang", which is obvious on the body surface. This Qi has the function of protecting the body, also known as "Wei-qi". Because “Wei” meaning defensive, it is also reputed as “defensive Qi”. Because the Qi of Taiyang travels on the surface of human body, when exogenous pathogenic factors invade the human body, Taiyang must bear the brunt, and the syndromes presented as 太阳病. Professor Luo first gives the transliteration form of 太阳病, and then in view of Taiyang syndromes being the first from the law of transmission, Luo also adds “Initial Yang” as an expression of this kind of law of transmission.

“阳明病” appears in Chapter 4, Luo translates it as: The Yangming (Greater Yang) Syndrome. “阳明病” is related to the stomach channel of Foot-Yangming and the Large Intestine Meridian of Hand-Yangming, which means that Yang Qi is so strong that can be observed. Luo uses "Greater" to indicate the prosperity of yang qi to help readers understand the degree of yang.

“少阳病” appears in Chapter 5. Luo translates it as: The Shaoyang (Lesser Yang) Syndrome. Shaoyang is related to Sanjiao Meridian of Shaoyang and Shaoyang Gallbladder Meridian of Foot. It is one of the three Yang, but its ability to stand up to evil is not as good as Tiyang and Yangming, so "Lesser" is used to correspond to "少" in the name.

“太阴病” and “少阴病”, which have similar names with the “太阳病” “少阳病”, just different from Yin and Yang, have similar translations, so there is no need to go into detail. It is worth mentioning that “厥阴病”, Luo translates it as: The Jueyin (Greater Yin) Syndrome. “厥” has the meaning of “extreme”. When the disease or syndrome reaches Jueyin, Yin is extremely cold. Therefore, the degree of Yin embodied with "Greater" is similar to that of Yangming.

“霍乱” appears in Chapter 9, Luo translates it as: Huoluan (Cholera). “霍”, has the meaning of “suddenly” and “haste”, “乱” has the meaning of chaos. “霍乱” is an explosive gastrointestinal disease with vomiting and diarrhea as the main clinical manifestations. Traditional Chinese medicine believes that it is mostly caused by the combination of the six pathogenic factors and unhealthy diets. In Western medicine, Cholera is more likely to be an acute diarrheal infectious disease caused by the intake of food and water which is contaminated by Vibrio cholerae. It is not appropriate to have Cholera's literal translation of “霍乱” in Chinese medicine.

“阴阳易差后劳复病” appears in Chapter 10, Luo translated it as: The Recurrence of Disease and Yin Yang Yi Syndrome. This chapter introduces two parts: one is related to Yin Yang Yi, that is, the differentiation and treatment of Yin Yang Yi syndrome caused by patients with typhoid fever when they are not healed or just recovering, giving way to their carnal desires; the other refers to the differentiation and treatment of recurring diseases resulted from that, at the beginning of recovering from an illness or no recovery, patients start to work. In this chapter, Luo does not add interpretations, but directly arranges the free translation and transliteration in a phrase. The language is concise, easy to be accepted and understood by readers, and achieve the purpose of communication between Chinese and Western medicine. As a matter of fact, observations show that Luo's translation is relatively accurate in grasping the prosperities of syndromes, and tends to use free translation to reflect the characteristics of the progress of syndromes. However, Luo still mainly uses transliteration to convey cultural information about Yin and Yang and other Chinese-specific philosophical characters. This method also has drawbacks, that is, the transmission of cultural connotation depends on the degree of such characters’ propagation and the reader’s cultural level. For some readers who are first exposed to Chinese medicine culture, the transliteration is not friendly, which is not conducive to their reception of Chinese specific cultural information.

3.2 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Symptom

When describing various syndromes in the book, it also points out the symptoms of the patient who is attacked by those disease. Most of the symptoms are described in detail at the beginning, and Chinese medical books are quite different from Western medical books in terms of the degree of language rigor. About Chinese medicine books, they make good use of rhetoric and pay attention to flowery characters and rhyme beauty, which adds a literary flavor to Chinese medicine, while it also causes the ambiguity and non-standardization of the concept of Chinese medicine, which increases the difficulty of translation as well. Examples are as follows.

Example 1：阳浮者，热自发；阴弱者，汗自出。 Translation：Floating at the surface signifies Heat weak in depth signifies spontaneous perspiration. This sentence is neatly formed and catchy to read. Luo's translation is roughly the same as the original in form. It is worth noting that Luo translates most of the character "热" which refers to heat symptoms caused by an exopathgen as "Heat" or "pathogenic Heat", and capitalized H to distinguish the "heat" from common heat.

Example 2：鼻鸣干呕 Translation：nauseous and with a tendency to snore In response to “干呕”, Luo uses the adjective “nauseous” to express "disgusting". In fact, the original text “干呕” is closer to “retching”, which refers to only the sound and action of vomiting, but no food or only salivation. This is not the same as complete nausea. “Nauseous” the word chosen by Luo here does not fit the context of Chinese medicine. “鼻鸣” are sounds made when the breath enters and exits due to suffocation in the nasal passages. It is manifested as thick breathing like a squeak, and snoring is the sound of thick breathing after falling asleep. Luo use the translation of “snore” is rather accurate.

Example 3：不下利，但呕者 Translation：……not cause diarrhea, but rather cause nausea and vomiting “下利” refers to having the trots in Chinese medicine. The literal translation of "diarrhea" here fits the context. Compared with using the previous term nauseous to indicate “干呕”, Luo treats the character “呕” more carefully, using two words nausea and vomit to expresse together. At the same time, ancient Chinese medical writings in classical style tend to use omissions and emphasize parataxis, while English paying more attention to hypotaxis, Luo uses the word “cause” to make sentences more coherent and clearer.

In summary, it can be seen that the translation of symptoms extremely tests the translator's Chinese and English levels and medical understandings, and a slight difference will lead to deviations in meaning. For such culture loaded words, translators also use more literal translation and omission methods, and less transliteration. But there is also a problem, that is, most of the symptom names in Chinese and Western medicine can not completely point to the same content, and this subtle difference may cause doctors to make mistakes in judgment and cause major accidents. Therefore, the translation of symptoms should be more careful, and comments can be added when necessary to help understand.

3.3 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Prescription

Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold is the "ancestor of all prescriptions", which contains many culture loaded words related to prescriptions. Chai Hui has carried out research on the English translation of the prescriptions of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold, using the transliteration + literal translation + Latin notation of the "three insurances" translation method for prescription names to ensure that the translation is accurate and comprehensive. Luo's translation mainly uses literal translation for such culturally loaded words. Examples are as follows. Example 1：芍药 Translation：Radix Paeoniae The translation of medicinal materials needs to pay attention to the phenomenon of different medicines with the same name. For example, in Zhang Zhongjing's book, there is no distinction between white peony and red peony, but in modern times, white peony and red peony are clearly classified as two kinds of medicinal materials. At present, clinical physicians generally believe that white peony’s function is rather tonic and restorative, while that of red peony refers to ejecting or diarrhea, and two medicinal materials need to be used flexibly according to the condition of the disease. Professor Luo uses Radix Paeoniae to translate it in general, without any distinction or explanation.

Example 2：潦水 Translation：rain water In Chinese medicine, “潦水” refers to rain water. Luo Zhi literally translated it. “潦水” can be used to decoct herbal medicines whose functions are to nourish spleen and stomach and remove the dampness-heat. In fact, the translator can also explain the reasons for the use of rain water in Chinese medicine after the text, which is more conducive for readers to understand the connotation of Chinese medicine.

Example 3：苦酒汤 Translation：decoction of Bitter Wine (Ku Jiu Tang) "苦酒汤" in Chinese medicine is actually rice vinegar. Luo translates it as "bitter wine", which means wine with a bitter taste, which is not in line with the original meaning and can be misleading.

Through the above analysis, we can find that the names of the prescriptions and the materials used in the book all have specific cultural connotations of traditional Chinese medicine. There are few corresponding words in Western languages, and even if they do, they are different from the original cultural connotations of the word in the West. We need to adopt appropriate methods in translation, which not only preserves the cultural characteristics of Chinese medicine, but also facilitates the understanding of target readers.

3.4 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Philosophy

The philosophy of Chinese medicine is the ideological basis and theoretical guidance of Chinese medicine, covering Qi, Yin and Yang, and the Five Elements and so on. Among them, the theory of Yin and Yang is the main line of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold, which is expressed as two opposite sides of the same thing or two opposite things in a unified way. Jiang Mingde and others have analyzed the polysemous nature of the term "Yin and Yang" in Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold, and pointed out that Yin and Yang can represent multiple meanings such as pulse location, pulse condition, disease attributes, pathological characteristics, etc. The specific meanings in terms vary according to the environment and the translators different. Some examples are analyzed as follows.

Example 1：阴阳自和 Translation：if yin and yang are still in harmony "阴阳自和" means that after sweating, vomiting, and using the purgation method, the human body achieves Yin-yang harmony and heals through self-regulation. This is an important content of Chinese philosophy. This tends to be a kind of dynamic balance, while Luo Yi's translation of “in harmony” is more inclined to a kind of static stability, which is somewhat different from the original meaning.

Example 2：脉阴阳俱浮 Translation：floating pulse at Yin and Yang The translations of “阴阳” here are still transliterated as Yin and Yang. As a matter of fact, the two terms here refer to “Cun” and “Chi” (the transliteration of “寸部” “尺部”) appearing as floating features. Cun pulse pertains to Yang, and Chi pulse is to Yin. Professor Luo only uses transliteration, without supplementing background knowledge and relevant contextual information, so that readers in the target language may not understand what exactly they refer to.

Example 3：伤寒阴阳易之为病 Translation：Febrile disease caused by Cold with Yin Yang Yi syndrome Luo adopts transliteration and free translation. In regard to Yin Yang Yi, Yin and Yang here refer to sexes of male and female, among which Yin Yi is the disease transmitted from female to male; Yang Yi is the diseases transmitted from male to female. After analysis, it can be found that most of philosophical characters such as Yin and Yang are transliterated by Luo, who does not provide additional explanations or supplementary background information. Without pre-connotations, this kind of translation would make the target language readers and feel confused and think that the translated work is obscure.

3.5 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Rhetoric

The language of Chinese medicine has its unique features, which are mainly manifested in its literariness, rich philosophical thoughts, and good at comparing images and analogies. Various rhetoric techniques can be seen everywhere in the book. While deepening people’s understanding of the original text, it also increases the difficulty of literary translation into English. The correct transmission and translation of the true meaning requires a solid foundation in Chinese medicine and linguistics.

Example 1四肢烦疼： Translation：the patient feels heavy and painful in the extremities The "烦" in this phrase, Explanation of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold and other books explain it as an annoyance, a kind of feeling for people. The Chinese sentence here is a non-spirited sentence to replace people with limbs. Luo’s version of the translation emphasizes people's feelings. It rather focuses on people's feelings of heavy pain in their limbs, than translates people's feelings of boredom.

Example 2：啬啬恶寒，渐渐恶风，翕翕发热 Translation：The patient feels chill and fears wind, uneasy because of a fever. Among them, “啬啬” “渐渐” and “翕翕” manifest various kinds of rhetoric techniques. “啬啬” reflects the howling shudder look, expressing that the degree of people’s aversion to cold is severe. And “渐渐” describes the onomatopoeia of mild wind and rain, while “翕翕” describes the appearance of mild fever, but these characters are not translated in Luo's translation, and Luo adopts the omission method.

4. Conclusion

Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold is a classic work of Chinese medicine and a treasure of Chinese medicine culture. The translation and dissemination of this book has extraordinary significance for the promotion of Chinese culture and the connotation of Chinese medicine. The culture loaded words are the condensed form of the unique national culture, and their translation is related to the readability of the entire book. The English translation of culture loaded words in Chinese medical classics is an extremely complex cross-cultural translation activity. It not only takes cultural characteristics into account, but also reflects the characteristics of scientific and technological styles, which is a great test for the level of translators. Professor Luo’s translation of this book is the world's first fully translated English translation of TCM classics. The book was published earlier than most translations. Under the background of that time, Luo Xiwen's translation of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold is no doubt of pioneering significance.

The translation strategies Professor Luo chooses are basically literal translation, free translation, omission, and transliteration, with few additional interpretations. Each of these translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. The ultimate goal of translation is for readers to better understand the original text, and there is definitely a great similarity between the two different medical systems of Chinese and Western medicine, which cannot be separated. Literal translation can be used appropriately, and some of Western medicine terms can be used to express some concepts of that of Chinese medicine. Literal translation is a translation method that maintains both the original content and the original form. Generally, when the target language and the original language can express the same content in the same form, we will use literal translation. However, culture loaded words are the difficulties of translation due to the vocabulary vacancy in the target language. The use of literal translation seems to be contradictory. In fact, the choice of literal translation is also for the construction of the concept of TCM culture. Although Chinese medicine culture loaded words are not only a language full of Chinese national characteristics, but also a part of the world's national culture. We should also have full cultural self-confidence. In the translation process, we should dare to retain the national cultural characteristics, express the Chinese medicine culture with the conceptual language of Chinese medicine, and present the pure and natural Chinese medicine culture to Western readers, so as to increase the understanding, recognition and respect of the Chinese medicine culture. This is why Professor Luo extensively use transliteration is his translation, which reflects his care and thought. At the same time, we have to admit that Luo’s translation also has its shortcomings, such as mistranslation or incomplete translation of culture loaded words with multiple meanings, omission of some modifiers, and no supplementary explanations for relatively large differences between Chinese and Western cultures. In the future, Chinese medicine Translation needs to continue to explore, innovate, revise and develop.

All in all, the translation of Chinese medical culture loaded words must not only maintain national cultural characteristics, but also be conducive to the understanding and acceptance of target readers. All major translation strategies are worthy of careful consideration. Only translators familiarize themselves with the original text, master the similarities and differences between the two languages, choose the most appropriate translation strategy in different contexts, and supplement the relevant cultural background when necessary to help readers understand, translations of Traditional Chinese Medicine classics can be rather outstanding.

References

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15 陈静 The Translation of Culture-loaded Words From the Perspective of Skopos Theory: A Case Study of Xi Jinping: The Governance of China

Cult_Load_Words_EN_15

Key words

Culture-loaded words; Skopos theory; Xi Jinping: The Governance of China

1. Introduction

1.1 Research Backgrounds

Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors. Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation. Cultural differences lead to difficulties in translation, so how to manage cultural differences has become the focus of many researchers. Aixela (1996) proposed a translation classification strategy for culture-specific items. Culture-loaded words are defined as words that have no equivalents in the target culture, hence difficulties in translation emerged. Wang (1997:55) defined cultural default as “the emitted part as shared cultural background by both sides” and summarized five approaches to deal with cultural default. The following year, Qiu (1998) proposed seven methods of cultural equivalence. The year 2021 is the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Communist Party of China. At this critical moment, Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III) was published. This is a major event in the historical and political development of China and the ruling party. In the third version, Xi Jinping’s political vision is further expanded. Many comments on China’s exchanges with other countries, including China, the BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, African countries, and ASEAN countries, are included in the book. This book is a window for foreign readers to understand China’s leadership and insight into China’s unique governance. Therefore, the book plays a crucial role in helping foreigners understand China’s political position in domestic affairs and international relations. This article aims to study the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III) and analyze them through the framework of the skopos theory.

1.2 Research Significance

China’s politics and policies are attracting increasing attention from the outside world as China’s overall national strength and economic development improve. The Communist Party of China celebrates its 100th anniversary in 2021. This is a significant event in Chinese ruling party's historical and political development. Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III) was published at a critical juncture. Xi Jinping’s political vision is expanded in the third version. The language in the book is rich and diverse. In addition to general political terms, the book employs rhetorical devices such as exclusion and repetition to improve the language’s persuasion. The books also contain a large number of poems, proverbs, and idioms rich in Chinese cultural heritage. A minor blunder may result in cultural misunderstanding, a negative national image, and an impact on international relations.

According to Gao Fang (2010), in the context of “Chinese culture go out”, the country has taken various measures to strengthen cultural export, but Chinese readers disregard for local literature, western readers of Chinese culture cognition, English world innate discrimination against translation work and translation strategy decisions, which reflects the difficulties in the broadcast of Chinese culture. As a result, it has piqued the interest of the domestic literary circle, the translation circle, and various publishing institutions: how to successfully realize cross-cultural communication of cultural works, how to properly and effectively solve the translation problem?

The paper uses the English translation of culture-load words in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China as the research content, and attempts to summarize and analyze the translator’s translation strategy and rationality when translating Chinese culture-loaded words from the perspective of Skopos Theory, as well as providing a reference for the English translation of Chinese cultural load words in current publicity materials.

2. Literature Review

2.2 The Skopos Theory

Skopos Theory, the core of Functionalist Translation Theory, was put forward by Vermeer who is Reiss's student. “Skopos”in Skopos Theory is a Greek word which means “purpose”. Skopos Theory holds that the purpose of translation activities is the primary principle deciding the translation process. According to Vermeer, there are three possible types of purposes. Firstly, a general purpose that a translator strives for, such as translating as a source of professional income. Secondly, a communicative purpose of a target text in a target circumstance, such as to instruct the audience. Thirdly, the purpose of a translation strategy or approach, such as to exhibit the structural traits of the source language. In the case of the term ‘skopo’ in skopos theory, it refers to the second type of purpose. The theory treats the source text as an "offer of information in a target culture" and this view is seen as a consequence of constructivist comprehension theories.

There are three terms associated with skopos(purpose): aim, function and intention. “Aim" means the final result that an agent intends to achieve through an action (Vermeer,1986:239). “Purpose”is defined as a temporary stage in the process of achieving an aim (Nord,2001:28). “Function” refers to what the meaning or intention of the text is from the perspective of the receiver, while the aim is the purpose for which it is needed or supposed to be needed ( Vermeer, 1989:95). “Intention” is understood as “aim-oriented action plan” (Vermeer, 1983:4), which points to an appropriate way in both sender and receiver to produce or understand text. It is also synonymous with the function of action (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98).

According to the Skopos Theory, there are three basic rules:

First of all, the skopos rule. It represents the top-ranking rule for any translation which means that translation activities are decided by the translation purpose. Vermeer(1989)'s explanation of this rule is as follows. Each text is written for a specific purpose and should be served for that purpose. In this sense, the skopos rule thus reads as follows: “translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function”(Nord, 2001:29). Nonetheless,the skopos rule does not provide any general principles or strategies that can be applied to guide any certain translation process. Instead, they can only be determined in accordance with the specific purpose that the translation is prepared to reach. Translation behavior is determined by the translation purpose, so the skopos rule is the principal rule for all kinds of translation.

The second one is the coherence rule. This rule states that target text must be coherent enough to be comprehensible, given the background and context of the intended receivers. The starting point for translation is the text as part of the word continuum, written in the source language. The word continuum embodied in the source language should be inherited into the target language. At the very least, the translator should make sure that the translation makes sense to recipients of the target culture. Furthermore, only when the target text conforms to the standard of being intratextually coherent can it play a presupposed role in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received and the audience will have no trouble understanding it. A communicative interaction is successful only if receivers think it is compatible enough with their situation. Hence,as another significant rule of Skopos Theory，the “coherence rule” stipulates that translation should be acceptable,and in a sense, it is consistent with the situation of receivers(Nord, 2001:32).

The third one is the fidelity rule. Vermeer (1989) refers to the relationship between translation and the corresponding source text “intertextual coherence” or “fidelity” which is another hypothetical principle known as the “fidelity rule”. This rule focuses on the intertextual coherence between the translation and the original text,which is not the same as intertextual coherence. The former is thought to be subordinate to the latter, and both are subordinate to the skopos rule. When the purpose needs to change the function, the standard will no longer be intertextual coherence with source language, but the adequacy or appropriateness regarding the purpose (Reiss and Vermeer,1984). It is important that intertextual coherence in translation should exist between the source text and the target text, and its form depends on both the translator's understanding of the original text and the translator's translation purpose. Maximum fidelity to the original text is only one possible intertextual coherence.

Finally, the three basic rules of Skopos Theory are designed to guide the translator in the whole translating process. In most situations, the translation cannot meet these three rules at the same time, for doing so often makes it deviate from the original intention of the source text.. Generally speaking, the hierarchical order of abidance of the three rules should be the skopos rule first, the coherence rule second and last comes the fidelity rule, or in another way, the need for loyalty is considered to be subject to intratextual coherence,both are subject to the skopos rule. When a translation that is faithful to the original text cannot be effectively understood by receivers of the target text, the translator should abandon the fidelity rule and follow the coherence rule, that is, to make the translation meaningful in the communicative context and culture of the target language. If the purpose needs to change the function, the required standard will no longer be intertextual consistence with ST,but the adequacy or appropriateness in terms of the purpose (Nord, 2001).If the purpose requires intratextual incoherence, the criterion of intratextual coherence is no longer valid.

2.3 The Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words

Wang Jianguo (2019) identified four limitations in translating culture-loaded words.

First, culture-loaded words are untranslatable. Culture has a distinguishing feature that sets it apart from the culture of the target language. Culture-loaded words are difficult to translate in certain literary works because they require more explanation and thus have the potential to influence the structural and aesthetic value of the target text. Second, cultural information that is highly relevant to the theme should be translated, and explanatory notes should be included as needed. If the culture-loaded word is unrelated to the source text, the target text will most likely be deleted or omitted. If the target text translated with literal translation can be understood, then literal translation is the most likely translation strategy to be used. Third, cultural values are difficult to convey. As a result, while translating culture-loaded words with Chinese characteristics, western media translation can be borrowed. Gu Hongmin, for example, translated “君子” as “a wise man”. Western culture emphasized wisdom, whereas Chinese culture emphasized benevolence. Gu translated “君子” as “wise man” because he thought the two words were culturally equivalent. Fourth, the principle of economy should be applied in translation. Wang discovered that when culture-loaded terms in the source text have little influence on comprehending the whole article, translators can find culturally equivalent words so that the target text will be more concise.

Wang also classified translation strategies into three categories: literal translation, non-literal translation, and translating words with unique cultural information.

The first strategy is literal translation. When there are words with similar cultural meanings, a literal translation is usually used. One type of literal translation is transliteral translation, which refers to the use of pinyin to translate culturally loaded words. Because transliteral translation preserves more cultural characteristics of the source language, it is frequently used in target text of the Big Breasts and Wide Hips. A translation strategy like this can help to avoid misinterpretation of the source language’s culture.

The second strategy is non-literal translation. This translation strategy is typically used in reader-friendly texts in the target language. Such a translation strategy does not adhere to the source text and overcomes constraints in language structure, which is a widely accepted strategy among targeted readers. Nonliteral translation strategies include explanatory notes both inside and outside the main body, including footnotes and tail notes. Filling-in translation is commonly used with literal translations, but it is also one of the non-literal translation strategies. Deletion refers to the practice of translators removing unnecessary words when the original meaning is unaffected.

The third strategy is to translate words that contain specific cultural information. Wang pointed out that idioms, aphorisms and maxims, two-part allegorical saying, the common saying, idioms and proverbs are the six major categories of idiomatic expressions. In many cases, the target text contains no words or phrases that are completely culturally equivalent to the source text.

3. Analysis of Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China

3.1 Translation Strategy of Social Culture-loaded Words

Social culture-loaded words reflect social ideology, which refers to the system in the form of social and economic factors in specific classes or groups. Social culture-loaded words encompass all aspects of social life, such as social activities, historical allusions, and festival customs. Words or phrases containing social culture-loaded words will emerge from a specific social context. As a result, it encompasses a wide range of word collocations. Political terms with Chinese characteristics, Chinese common saying, and rhetoric in Chinese are examples of social culture-loaded terms.

ST: 中国在人类发展史上曾经长期处于领先地位，自古以来逐步形成了一整套包括朝廷制度、郡县制度、土地制度、税赋制度、科举制度、监察制度、军事制度等各方面制度在内的国家制度和国家治理体系。

TT: Over a long period of history China led the world in development. It forged a complete set of state and governance systems covering the court, administration of prefectures and counties, land, taxation, civil service examination, supervision and the military.

“朝廷制度、郡县制度、土地制度、税赋制度、科举制度、监察制度” are institutions in the past of China that international readers may not be familiar with. In this case, the translators use literal translation by looking for words with similar meanings in the target language and the source language while adhering to the fidelity rule. “郡县” is translated into the modern expression of “prefectures and counties”. Such a translation strategy is in accordance with the principle of efficiency in dealing with cultural information. When the cultural information in the source text has limited influence on comprehending the entire passage, most translators will use a common strategy of finding words or phrases with similar meanings. By doing so, the original context's structure is not jeopardized, and the target text can adhere to the original meaning, which meets the fidelity rule’s requirement.

A similar strategy is adopted in translating “税赋” and “土地”. As for“税赋”in ancient China, the feudal land tax and taxation are included. However, the purpose of this excerpt is only to provide context for China's magnificent culture. Translators look for culturally equivalent words so that the target text is more precise and coherent. When translating “税赋”, since feudal land tax is a unique expression of the social system in ancient China and has little influence on the meaning of the whole passage, the translators use deletion and only translate the meaning of “税”. “土地制度” is also translated into the brief version of “land”, also using the strategy of deletion. Instead, inline annotation is used by translators when translating “科举制度”. “科举制度” is a unique examination system for public officials in ancient China, and it is difficult to find culturally equivalent words for it. To avoid misinterpretation from international readers, the translators explain this noun through explanatory notes, employing the Skopos rule to ensure effective cross-cultural communication. The translators take into account the cultural backgrounds of international readers and used culturally equivalent words in the target language. The goal of these two different translation strategies is to make cross-cultural communication easier. The Skopos rule and the coherence rule have been followed as a result of these strategies.

ST: 广大青年要坚定理想信念，志存高远，脚踏实地，勇做时代的弄潮儿，在实现中国梦的生动实践中放飞青春梦想。

TT: To all our young people, you should have firm ideals and convictions, aim high, and have your feet firmly on the ground. You should ride the waves of your day; and in the course of realizing the Chinese Dream, fulfill your youthful dreams.

“弄潮儿” is a common Chinese saying that originally referred to swimmers who swim against the tide but has since come to refer to people who are brave and entrepreneurial. This phrase has Chinese cultural characteristics and comes from a poem written during the Tang dynasty. This phrase was translated literally by the translators in accordance with the fidelity rule. The fidelity rule requires translators to avoid contradicting the original meaning of the source text while making the translation more understandable in light of the cultural differences. In the target text, the translators use literal translation to directly translate “弄潮儿”, implying that people should follow the trend of the times, which also meets President Xi’s extended meaning. Certain cultural information has its uniqueness, making it untranslatable. “弄潮儿” is a distinctive Chinese expression, and “ride the waves” refers to enjoying the advantage or benefit of a particularly successful, popular, fortunate or interesting moment. It can be difficult to find phrases that are completely culturally equivalent, so the translated version restored as much of the original information as possible, demonstrating how the fidelity rule is applied in the target text.

The above-mentioned social culture-loaded terms demonstrate a high level of adherence to the coherence rule and the Skopos rule, most likely due to the fact that social culture-loaded terms vary greatly across cultures. Target readers may find it difficult to interpret translations that strictly adhere to the fidelity rule, whereas translations that adhere to the coherence and Skopos rules can better facilitate cross-cultural communication. According to the appendix’s collected social culture-loaded terms, the majority of social culture-loaded terms used deletion, literal translation, and inline annotation. These three strategies allow international readers with limited knowledge of Chinese society to comprehend China’s policies and read the volume fluently.

3.2 Translation Strategy of Material Culture-loaded Words

Material culture-loaded words include material products and technology invented by human beings derived from the development of society. The third volume’s material culture-loaded terms can be divided into four categories: construction, items, literary works, and names. Most material culture-loaded terms use transliteration and amplification strategies when translating literary works and names, as well as substitutions when translating constructions and products. Materials can have a variety of meanings in different cultures. For example, in Chinese culture, the terms “勤务员” and “伙夫” are distinct expressions that may not have equivalent words or phrases in English. While translating these words, translators should be aware of expressions in Western culture with similar meanings.

ST: 中华民族伟大复兴，绝不是轻轻松松、敲锣打鼓就能实现的。

TT: Achieving national rejuvenation will be no walk in the park; it will take more than drum beating and gong clanging to get there.

East and Southeast Asian musical instruments include drums and gongs. Gongs and drums, with their symbolic meaning of hyping up, can be used in times of grand celebrations in Chinese culture. President Xi is emphasizing the difficult efforts that the Chinese people must make in order to achieve national rejuvenation. As a result, the translators use the translation strategy of addition to limit the boundaries the source text may transform so that the readers can have a more precise understanding, as shown in this excerpt by how the Skopos rule is applied. Meanwhile, the translators render the phrase as "drum beating and gong clanging," demonstrating the fidelity rule. The literal translation is used here to restore Chinese cultural connotations. The fidelity rule in translation requires equivalence in meaning and refers to word for word translation. In this case, the translators have kept the names of well-known Chinese musical instruments. At the same time, the translators explain their connotations, in order to maintain the fidelity of the target text to the source text and to improve cross-cultural communication. Understanding and conveying information of “rejuvenation is no easy task” to international readers is facilitated.

ST: 天宫、蛟龙、天眼、悟空、墨子、大飞机等重大科技成果相继问世。

TT: ... with major advances made in science and technology, including the successful launch of space lab Tiangong, the commissioning of the deep-sea manned submersible Jiaolong and of the five-hundred-meter aperture spherical telescope (FAST) Tianyan, the launch of the dark matter probe satellite Wukong and the quantum science satellite Mozi, and the test flight of the airliner C919.

In material culture-loaded terms, the aforementioned Chinese innovations fall under the category of "names." Tiangong, Jiaolong, Tianyan, Wukong, and Mozi are all important cultural figures in China, representing advances in science and technology. The translators use inline annotation to further explain these terms, demonstrating the application of the Skopos rule. This type of explanatory inline annotation takes into account English readers' understanding of Chinese culture-loaded terms. It is a limitation of language form of culturally loaded terms that also facilitates international readers' understanding of Chinese cutting-edge technology. Though the length of the article is longer, semantic conveyance can be realized through the explanation that Tianyan is the five-hundred-meter aperture spherical telescope, and the purpose of the book of showing international readers China’s accomplishments is achieved. The original names are faithfully conveyed through transliteration of these advances in science and technology. On the one hand, international readers can still see Chinese culture embodied in cutting-edge technology. Readers from different cultures, on the other hand, can still understand what these terms are thanks to inline annotation, which follows the Skopos and fidelity rules.

In these examples, the fidelity rule takes precedence over the skopos rule. Material culture-loaded terms are typically objects with Chinese characteristics. In most cases, these objects will have no effect on the coherence of the target text. As a result, fidelity to the original text and facilitation of cross-cultural communication are given top priority. Transliteration and inline annotation are the most widely used methods for translating material culture-loaded terms, demonstrating that translators prioritize preserving cultural information and making target text easily understood by international readers.

3.3 Translation Strategy of Linguistic Culture-loaded Words

Linguistic culture-loaded words reflect phonetic meaning of language at the language family level. In contrast to English, Chinese language, particularly idioms, typically uses four-character structures. Linguistic culture-loaded terms can be found in a variety of contexts. Linguistic culture-loaded terms include idioms, classical literary prose, the two-part allegorical saying, proverbs, and so on. Linguistic terms that are culturally loaded are more difficult for international readers to understand. As a result, translators must employ translation strategies that are both effective and skillful in order to facilitate cross-cultural communication.

ST: 鸦片战争后，中国陷入内忧外患的黑暗境地，中国人民经历了战乱频仍、山河破碎、民不聊生的深重苦难。为了民族复兴，无数仁人志士不屈不挠、前仆后继，进行了可歌可泣的斗争。

TT: But with the Opium War of 1840, China was plunged into the darkness of domestic turmoil and foreign aggression; its people, ravaged by war, saw their homeland torn apart, and lived in poverty and despair. With tenacity and heroism, countless dedicated patriots fought, pressed ahead against the odds, and tried every possible means to seek the nation’s salvation.

In this excerpt, “战乱频仍”，“民不聊生”, “仁人志士”, “不屈不挠”, “前仆后继” and “可歌可泣” are Chinese idioms, with distinct national characteristics in language structure and expression. These idioms have a distinct origin in Chinese culture and are inextricably linked to national culture. It is not necessary to find culturally equivalent idioms in English when translating these idioms. The Chinese nation and Western countries share a wide range of values and aesthetics. If too many idioms are used in English translation, the same tired formulas will appear. The translations of these idioms are divided into two categories based on the coherence and fidelity rule. The first is deletion, and the second is literal translation. These idioms are intended to demonstrate that, even in difficult situations, Chinese patriots are willing to press on, which has a low chance of causing cultural misinterpretation for international readers. As a result, “战乱频仍”, “民不聊生”, “不屈不挠” and “前仆后继” adopt literal translations that improved the original meaning and demonstrated how the fidelity rule is applied. “仁人志士” is translated as “dedicated patriots” because, while it originally referred to people who were charitable, its meaning later evolved to patriots, which is also translationally adapted to the context. This translation eliminates ambiguity and allows for a more coherent reading experience. Meanwhile, “可歌可泣” was removed while translators worked from a results-oriented perspective and demonstrated the outcome of their struggle, which is "tried every possible means to seek the nation's salvation." The coherence rule was followed in this case by making the reading process for the target text readers smooth and interrupted.

ST: 应该风雨同舟，荣辱与共，努力把我们生于斯、长于斯的这个星球建成一个和睦的大家庭，把世界各国人民对美好生活的向往变成现实。

TT: We are in the same boat, and we should stick together, share weal and woe, endeavor to build this planet of ours into a single harmonious family, and turn peopled longing for a better life into reality.

The translators used two translation strategies in the passage: literal translation and full implication. These strategies adhere to the Skopos rule. When translating “风雨同舟” and “荣辱与共”，the translators restore the meaning of the two idioms, because these two idioms are an essential part of the source text in the construction of meaning. However, “生于斯、长于斯” has been translated into “the planet of ours", demonstrating the adoption of full implication. “生” and “长” are part of the process, and this process is implicated in the “the planet of ours”, which is a result-oriented structure. The translators omitted the process and presented the end results to international readers, restoring the meaning, by employing various translation strategies. The use of various strategies exemplifies the Skopos rule of facilitating cross-cultural communication.

The examples above show that the coherence rule and the skopos rule can be found frequently in the translation of these linguistic culture-loaded terms. Literal translation, inline annotation, deletion, and full implication are the most common translation strategies used when translating linguistic culture-loaded terms. Linguistic culture loaded terms are words or phrases with distinct Chinese characteristics; thus, most translators adhere to the Skopos of improving cross-cultural communication and use literal translation and inline annotation to preserve cultural value. In some cases, the linguistic culture-loaded terms are too difficult to restore their implication; therefore, the translators used deletion and full implication to improve the reading experience of international readers, demonstrating the importance of the coherence rule in the target text. With the impression that international readers will be unable to fully comprehend the meaning of such cultur3-loaded words unless they have a basic understanding of the Chinese social, ecological, and cultural environment, translators should shoulder the responsibility of selecting different translation strategies under the guidance of the Skopos theory and constructing a bridge between different cultures.

3.4 Translation Strategy of Ecological Culture-loaded Words

Ecological culture-loaded words reflect the climatic features, natural environment and geographical conditions in an area. People from various regions have distinct expressions that reflect regional characteristics. There are three major categories of ecological culture-loaded terms: animals, plants, and places. Cows and oxen, for example, are animals that represent diligence and industriousness in China, whereas in Western countries, the expression "work all day like a donkey" is common. As is well known, the geographical environment of China gives rise to an agriculture-based culture with a large vocabulary for animals and plants. It explains why many idioms in Chinese and English have completely different meanings. To help international readers fully understand different cultures, translators should use different strategies when translating ecologically and culturally loaded terms. The following examples will demonstrate the use of translation strategy.

ST: 坚定不移“打虎”、“拍蝇”、“猎狐”

TT: We have taken firm action to “take out tigers”, “swat flies”, and “hunt down foxes”.

In Chinese culture, the tiger is both a revered entity and a hunted beast. Tigers are used as a symbol of vigor and vitality in Chinese idioms such as “虎虎生威” (forge ahead with the vigor and vitality of the tiger) and “生龙活虎” (with furious energy). Nonetheless, there are numerous expressions and literary works in which tigers are portrayed as ferocious villains, such as the stories of Wu Song or Li Kui beating tigers. President Xi Jinping’s expression here is reminiscent of tiger figures in fiction, in which heroes battle tigers. The image of a tiger has various meanings in Western culture as well. On the one hand, it is associated with beauty and power, but it has also been referred to as a man-eater on numerous occasions. Tigers are described as “burning bright” and “dare seize the fire”, but it also appeared in Jim Corbett's adventures in India, where he used to hunt "man-eaters," including tigers. Because the images of tigers are so similar, the translators used literal translation in their translation strategy under the rule of fidelity. To save space, translators will use literal translation when a targeted language has words with the same or similar cultural meaning as the source language. Meanwhile, the ecological culture-loaded term revealed the Skopos theory’s fidelity rule. “打虎”, “拍蝇” and “猎狐” are expressions with Chinese roots. Fighting corruption is like fighting tigers, flies, and foxes. Tigers and flies can refer to corrupt officials at various levels in these expressions, while the original meaning of the source text is preserved. It is difficult to find words in Western culture that are culturally equivalent to these ecologically loaded terms. Therefore, the translators did not change the meaning of source text by using literal translation. Such selection of translation strategy shows how fidelity rule is applied.

ST: 深入开展调查研究，解剖麻雀，发现问题。

TT: We should conduct in-depth research to identify prominent problems.

In Chinese culture, there is an old proverb of “麻雀虽小五脏俱全”, which means “A sparrow may be small but it has all the vital organs”. Sparrows can represent small but vital items, whereas such expressions are difficult to find culturally equivalent terms in Western culture. The similarity between “解剖麻雀” and “发现典型” is understandable in Chinese, but the literal translation of “anatomy of a sparrow” may be difficult to grasp for an international audience. As a result, translators use deletion to make target text more fluent without affecting the original text, and the coherence rule is demonstrated in the translation strategy selection. The translation of “解剖麻雀” is omitted, and the translation of “发现典型” encompasses the extended meaning of “sparrow as the major problems”. If both terms are translated, the English expression will be reductant and not conform to English expressions. According to the coherence rule, the author omitted the explanation of why sparrow means prominent problems to facilitate readers’ reading experience and made the reading uninterrupted.

The example above show that when translating ecological culture-loaded words, translators would consider three rules of the Skopos theory, with the coherence rule taking precedence. It is most likely because most ecological culture-loaded words are names of places or animals, which may be unfamiliar to international readers. To ensure that target readers read in a consistent manner. In translating ecologically loaded terms, the translators use literal translation (including transliteration, implication, and deletion). The mixed-use of translation strategies revealed various rules that are used in translation.

4. Conclusion

Since the publication of Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III), it has served as the Chinese government's authoritative voice and a window for the rest of the world to understand China's policies. It crystallizes Chinese governance theory and practices and has high research value.This thesis is concerned with the classification of culture-loaded words, their translation strategies, and how these strategies demonstrate the application of three Skopos theory rules.

The Skopos theory, according to the analysis of these examples, can be used as a guiding principle for translating texts similar to those in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III). The Skopos rule states that the translation strategy is determined by the purpose of the target text. The coherence rule, also known as intertextual coherence, requires readability in the target text and will not cause dyslexia in grammar or logic. Using the fidelity rule, the target text should be faithful to the original text. However, the fidelity rule does not require literal word-for-word translations; rather, it necessitates flexibility on the part of the translator.

Following a brief examination, it is discovered that culture-loaded words in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III) can be divided into four major categories, with social and linguistic culture-loaded words accounting for the lion’s share. The coherence rule is frequently demonstrated in the translation of ecological culture-loaded words. Names of places or animals are examples of ecological culture-loaded words. To achieve coherence in the target text, the translators employ literal translation (including transliteration), implication, and deletion strategies when translating ecological culture-loaded words. The fidelity rule and the Skopos rule are frequently seen in target text when translating material culture-loaded words. The majority of material culture-loaded words are objects with Chinese characteristics. Transliteration and inline annotation are the most widely used, demonstrating that translators prioritize being faithful and making target text understandable to international readers. The translation of social culture-loaded words demonstrates a high level of adherence to the coherence and Skopos rules, which is likely due to the fact that social culture-loaded words differ greatly across cultures. The majority of social culture-loaded words were deleted, literal translated, or annotated inline. These three strategies promote coherence in the target text, making it easier to read and comprehend. Linguistic culture-loaded words are words or phrases that have distinct Chinese features. When translating terms of this nature, the translator usually adhered to the coherence and Skopos rules. Literal translation, inline annotation, deletion, and full implication are the most common translation strategies used when translating linguistic culture-loaded words.

To sum up, different translation strategies are very important and indispensable. Different translators would adopt different translation strategies when translating culture-loaded words due to the constraints of history, politics, culture, language and translation objectives. In order to better carry out the translation and transmission of literature and culture, different translation strategies should be used together to supplement each other.