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3 罗曦 Gary Snyder’s Translation of the Culture-loaded Words in Han Shan’s Poems from the Perspective of the Functionalist Skopos Theory

Cult_Load_Words_EN_3 功能主义目的论视角下加里斯奈德对寒山诗的英译研究 罗曦 Luo Xi, Hunan Normal University, China

Abstract

Since the 1970s, the German functionalist school, represented by Rice, Vermeer, Mantali and the Nordic school, has provided a new perspective for translation studies. According to this school, the translation process is governed by various factors, and the purpose of the act of translation determines the whole process of the act of translation. Taking the Functionalist Skopos Theory as the theoretical framework, this paper selects Gary Snyder's translation of Han shan's poetry as the object of study, and based on Nida's classification of the cultural factors involved in translation, namely ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture, it conducts a comparative analysis of the cultural-loaded words in the Chinese and English versions of Han shan's poetry, and draws the following conclusions: the translator adopts different types of approaches to translate different culture- loaded words. The overall aim of the translation is to spread the idea of indifference to fame and fortune in Han shan's poetry and to draw the attention of Americans to the protection of the environment by vividly restoring the beautiful nature images in Hanshan's poems. It has been proven that Gary Snyder's translations of his poems have led to a 'Han shan hit ' in the United States and have achieved his intended goal of translation. However, Snyder also distorted the image of Han shan to a certain extent, transforming him from a Chinese monk into a hippie figure. Although this facilitates the rapid integration of the translated poem into the culture of the target language for Snyder's use, it also creates a misinterpretation of Han shan's image by the Americans. On the whole, however, the English translation of Han shan's poetry is conducive to the outreach of Chinese culture. The success of Snyder's English translation of Hanshan's poem proves that Functionalist Skopos Theory is a practical guide in literary translation, and that the three principles of the Functionalist Skopos Theory can increase the speed of achieving the purpose of translation with maximum efficiency.

Key Words

the Functionalist Skopos Theory； Gary Snyder； Culture-loaded Words；Han Shan

摘要

20世纪70年代以来，以赖斯、维梅尔、曼塔利和诺德学派为代表的德国功能主义学派为翻译研究提供了一个全新的视角。根据这一学派的观点，翻译过程受各种因素的制约，翻译行为的目的决定了翻译行为的整个过程。本文以德国功能主义目的论为理论框架，选择加里斯奈德对寒山诗歌的翻译作为研究对象，以奈达对翻译中涉及的文化因素的分类为基础，即生态文化、物质文化、社会文化、宗教文化和语言文化，对寒山诗歌的中英文版本中的文化负载词进行了比较分析，并得出了以下结论：译者对不同的文化负载词采取了不同的翻译策略和方法，其总目的为通过翻译寒山的诗歌传播其诗歌中淡泊名利的思想，并通过生动还原寒山诗中优美的自然之境引起美国人对保护环境的重视。据考证，加里斯奈德的译诗传至美国后引发了“寒山热”，达到了他预期的翻译目标。然而，斯奈德也在一定程度上扭曲了寒山的形象，使寒山从一个中国和尚摇身一变，成了嬉皮士的代表。虽然这有利于使译诗快速融入目标语文化，为斯奈德所用，但也造成了美国人对寒山形象的一种误读。但从整体看，英译寒山诗歌有利于中国文化走出去。斯奈德英译寒山诗的成功证明了功能主义目的论在文学翻译中具有实际的指导作用，而功能主义目的论的三原则可以最大效率地达成翻译目的

关键词

功能主义目的论；加里斯奈德；文化负载词；寒山

Introduction

Gary Snyder (1930-) is a contemporary American poet as well as an environmentalist. There are profound ecological awareness and themes in his poems, and he is also well-known as one of the member in “beat generation”，which is a group of people who take an arm against the corrupted and hypocritical American society. In order to save people’s hollow spirit at that time, Gary Snyder resort to other culture. For example, he absorbed the thinking of Zen in Japan, and tried to disseminate the essence of it among American, so he translated Han Shan’s poems, who is a Chinese monk and poet in Tang dynasty showing Zen spirit in his poems. Culture-loaded words can express different ideologies in different countries, and the analysis on Gary Snyder’s translation of the culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems has found that Snyder’s translation is consistent with the idea of Functionalist Skopos Theory. This theory proposes that all the methods and strategies of translating depend on the purpose of the translation，and Gary Snyder didn’t translate the culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems faithfully to meet his own need, which is consistent with the Functionalist Skopos Theory. Through analyzing different strategies used by Gary Snyder in his translation, this paper aims to probe the pros and cons of Functionalist Skopos Theory and the significance of Gary Snyder’s translation in transcultural communication.

Gary Snyder (1930-) is a contemporary American poet as well as an environmentalist. There are profound ecological awareness and themes in his poems, and he is also well-known as one of the member in "beat generation", which is a group of people who take an arm against the corrupted and hypocritical American society. In order to save people's hollow spirit at that time, Gary Snyder resort to other culture. For example, he absorbed the thinking of Zen in Japan, and tried to disseminate the essence of it among American, so he translated Han Shan's poems, who is a Chinese monk and poet in Tang dynasty showing Zen spirit in his poems. Culture-loaded words can express different ideologies in different countries, and the analysis on Gary Snyder's translation of the culture-loaded words in Han Shan's poems has found that Snyder's translation is consistent with the idea of Functionalist Skopos Theory. This theory proposes that all the methods and strategies of translating depend on the purpose of the translation，and Gary Snyder didn't translate the culture-loaded words in Han Shan's poems faithfully to meet his own need, which is consistent with the Functionalist Skopos Theory. Through analyzing different strategies used by Gary Snyder in his translation, this paper aims to probe the pros and cons of Functionalist Skopos Theory and the significance of Gary Snyder's translation in transcultural communication.--He Qin (talk) 13:59, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Culture-loaded Words

Definition of Culture-loaded Words

Different culture has different histories, and during its historical changes, each country will have its own culture, unique and distinctive. As a result, each country has many unique things, including but not limited to habits, language and rhetoric, religious beliefs, authorities and so on. To a certain extent, the words that describe these things can only be understood by the people who live in that country. The denotations and connotations of these words have been endowed by the indigenous people of different countries，and these words are culture-loaded words. "culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify something specific to a culture" (Liao Qiyi, 2000).The birth of these words inevitably comes from the unique habits of different people in different countries" (Liao Qiyi, 2000: 232). For instance, '鱼服', which appears in a famous Chinese poem '采薇', refers to a kind of bag made from fish skin, and this was a tool used in warfare in ancient China to hold arrows. The tool is unique to China and was created through the experience and simple wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. It is unique to China, and such a tool, obviously,is culture-loaded, which people of other nations do not possess and cannot understand. This is a culture-loaded term that needs explanation in order to be understood by other peoples.

Classification of Culture-loaded Words

A number of scholars, both nationally and internationally, have classified culture-loaded words. Given that Eugene A. Nida’s classification of culture- loaded words has been influential, who is a distinguished American linguist and translator，and his five categories of texts are relatively parallel. This paper classifies the culture-loaded words in Gary Snyder's translation of Han Shan's poems according to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words. According to Naida's classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into five categories: ecocultural-loaded words,physical material culture-loaded words, sociocultural-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, and linguistic culture-loaded words(Nida,1993)

A number of scholars, both nationally and internationally, have classified culture-loaded words. Given that Eugene A. Nida’s classification of culture- loaded words has been influential, who is a distinguished American linguist and translator，and his five categories of texts are relatively parallel. This paper classifies the culture-loaded words in Gary Snyder's translation of Han Shan's poems according to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words.

According to Naida's classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into five categories: ecocultural-loaded words,physical material culture-loaded words, sociocultural-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, and linguistic culture-loaded words.(Nida,1993)--He Qin (talk) 14:01, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

The Translation methods of culture-loaded words

By its very nature, translation is an intercultural activity, and as such the aim of translation is to transmit what is expressed in the culture of the original language to the culture of the target language. In fact, there is no strictly fixed formula for this process of cultural transmission. However, after many years of translation activity, there are broad categories of translation methods that people use. These classifications can help translators to clarify their thinking and to translate better. Therefore, some of the translation methods used by Gary Snyder are listed here as follows. Firstly, A direct translation, as the name suggests, is a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence translation. The direct translation method is a way that can best preserve the meaning of the original text among all translation methods, and it is also the method that is most frequently used in translation. Due to differences in culture, lifestyle and other aspects, there may not be many identical correspondences between Chinese and English, but if possible, using a direct translation is literally the best strategy. For instance, the Chinese phrase "大锅飯" can be translated directly as "big pot system"; Chinese readers also mostly understand the English phrase "black horse "in English.Secondly,Substitution,the replacement of culture-loaded words in the original language with words from the target language, is a method with mixed advantages and disadvantages The advantage of the substitution method is that it makes it easier for readers of the target language to understand the meaning of the original text by using words that are familiar to them.However, the disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult to find a proper relevant cultural expressions in the culture of the target language, making it difficult to disseminate the culture of the original country, and even causing the readers of the target language to misunderstand the culture of the original country and believe that the cultural habits of the two countries are the same.Thirdly,Phonetic translation means using words with a similar or identical pronunciation to the original language instead of the words used in the original language in order to achieve the translation effect desired by the translator. The use of phonetic translations can actually help a country's culture to reach out, but they are not easily understood by readers in the target language. This is why transliteration is often used in conjunction with an annotation, while it is not always necessary. For example, '沙发' in Chinese is a phonetic translation of the English word,and the Chinese word '粽子‘ can also be directly translated as “zongzi” in English. Fourthly，Paraphrasing refers to the use of the target language to explain the original text. Paraphrasing can, to the greatest extent， possible preserve the meaning of the original language. The paraphrase, however, has its disadvantage that it is difficult to preserve the structure of the poem in its lucidity and elegance. This includes the difficulty of preserving some of the rhythmic and prosodic forms, so sometimes lucidity and elegance need to be sacrificed to preserve expressiveness. For example, the Chinese phrase "八寶粽子", when translated into English, is translated as "Glutinous Rice Dumpling with Eight-Treasure".Fifth,Creative rebellion refers to the process of translation in which the translator consciously 'distorts' the meaning of the original language so the translation can become more understandable to the reader or can be more easily expressed by the translator himself. For example, Zhai Lisi（Herbert Allen Giles）In his translation of Early Spring in the East of the City, he translates the word '新春' as 'early May'.This seems to be a 'mistranslation' of the original text, but the fact that the chronology is different in Central Europe makes this translation more helpful to Western readers. Thus, although such a translation "distorts" the apparent meaning of the original, it is a better way of conveying the true meaning of the text.Sixth, In literary translation, 'annotation' is a common method of translation because it is difficult to translate the 'quotations' of Chinese and Western cultures in just a few words. The translator will therefore often add annotations in their translations. For example, in the beginning, when Chinese readers were not aware of cloning technology,the term clone was translated as "cloning (a method of asexual reproduction)" ,which is a combination of "phonetic" and "apostrophe". Seventh, Generalisation refers to a method of translation in which a more refined range of things is translated to encompass a wider range of meanings. Generally speaking, such translations lose the nuance and precision of the original. However, it can be used when necessary. For example, the translator translates "lily" as "flower",which is a kind of "generalisation".Eighth,Omission is not a very common translation technique,However, when translating from Chinese to English, in order to make the translation more concise and easier for Western readers to read, translators will choose to use omission.

By its very nature, translation is an intercultural activity, and as such the aim of translation is to transmit what is expressed in the culture of the original language to the culture of the target language. In fact, there is no strictly fixed formula for this process of cultural transmission. However, after many years of translation activity, there are broad categories of translation methods that people use. These classifications can help translators to clarify their thinking and to translate better. Therefore, some of the translation methods used by Gary Snyder are listed here as follows.

Firstly, A direct translation, as the name suggests, is a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence translation. The direct translation method is a way that can best preserve the meaning of the original text among all translation methods, and it is also the method that is most frequently used in translation. Due to differences in culture, lifestyle and other aspects, there may not be many identical correspondences between Chinese and English, but if possible, using a direct translation is literally the best strategy. For instance, the Chinese phrase "大锅飯" can be translated directly as "big pot system"; Chinese readers also mostly understand the English phrase "black horse "in English.

Secondly,Substitution,the replacement of culture-loaded words in the original language with words from the target language, is a method with mixed advantages and disadvantages.The advantage of the substitution method is that it makes it easier for readers of the target language to understand the meaning of the original text by using words that are familiar to them.However, the disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult to find a proper relevant cultural expressions in the culture of the target language, making it difficult to disseminate the culture of the original country, and even causing the readers of the target language to misunderstand the culture of the original country and believe that the cultural habits of the two countries are the same.

Thirdly,Phonetic translation means using words with a similar or identical pronunciation to the original language instead of the words used in the original language in order to achieve the translation effect desired by the translator. The use of phonetic translations can actually help a country's culture to reach out, but they are not easily understood by readers in the target language. This is why transliteration is often used in conjunction with an annotation, while it is not always necessary. For example, '沙发' in Chinese is a phonetic translation of the English word,and the Chinese word '粽子‘ can also be directly translated as “zongzi” in English.

Fourthly，Paraphrasing refers to the use of the target language to explain the original text. Paraphrasing can, to the greatest extent， possible preserve the meaning of the original language. The paraphrase, however, has its disadvantage that it is difficult to preserve the structure of the poem in its lucidity and elegance. This includes the difficulty of preserving some of the rhythmic and prosodic forms, so sometimes lucidity and elegance need to be sacrificed to preserve expressiveness. For example, the Chinese phrase "八寶粽子", when translated into English, is translated as "Glutinous Rice Dumpling with Eight-Treasure".

Fifth,Creative rebellion refers to the process of translation in which the translator consciously 'distorts' the meaning of the original language so the translation can become more understandable to the reader or can be more easily expressed by the translator himself. For example, Zhai Lisi（Herbert Allen Giles）In his translation of Early Spring in the East of the City, he translates the word '新春' as 'early May'.This seems to be a 'mistranslation' of the original text, but the fact that the chronology is different in Central Europe makes this translation more helpful to Western readers. Thus, although such a translation "distorts" the apparent meaning of the original, it is a better way of conveying the true meaning of the text.

Sixth, In literary translation, 'annotation' is a common method of translation because it is difficult to translate the 'quotations' of Chinese and Western cultures in just a few words. The translator will therefore often add annotations in their translations. For example, in the beginning, when Chinese readers were not aware of cloning technology,the term clone was translated as "cloning (a method of asexual reproduction)" ,which is a combination of "phonetic" and "apostrophe".

Seventh, Generalisation refers to a method of translation in which a more refined range of things is translated to encompass a wider range of meanings.

Generally speaking, such translations lose the nuance and precision of the original. However, it can be used when necessary. For example, the translator translates "lily" as "flower",which is a kind of "generalisation".Eighth,Omission is not a very common translation technique,However, when translating from Chinese to English, in order to make the translation more concise and easier for Western readers to read, translators will choose to use omission. --He Qin (talk) 14:05, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

The Functionalist Skopos Theory

Definition

the Functionalist Skopos Theory is the founding theory and mainstream of German functionalism. It was proposed by the famous German translation theorist Hans Vermeer in the 1970s on the basis of behavioural theory. the Functionalist Skopos Theory holds that the act of translation and the nature of translation is a purposeful intercultural communication with its purposive, communicative and intercultural nature.

The Functionalist Skopos Theory is the founding theory and mainstream of German functionalism. It was proposed by the famous German translation theorist Hans Vermeer in the 1970s on the basis of behavioural theory. the Functionalist Skopos Theory holds that the act of translation and the nature of translation is a purposeful intercultural communication with its purposive, communicative and intercultural nature.--He Qin (talk) 14:06, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Three Principles of the Functionalist Skopos Theory

the Functionalist Skopos Theory consists of three principles: the principle of purpose, the law of coherence and the law of fidelity. The principle of purpose means that the translation should work in the context and culture of the language into which it is translated The purpose principle means that the translation should function in the way that the recipient of the translation expects it to function. The principle of coherence means that the translation must be internally coherent, so that the translation is readable, meaningful and relevant in the culture and communication of the target language. The principle of fidelity means that the translation must be faithful to the original, that it must be interlingually consistent with the original, and that the translation must be faithful to the extent and in the way that the recipient understands it. The degree of fidelity and the form of fidelity are determined by the purpose of the translation. The principle of purpose is the primary principle of all translations.

The Functionalist Skopos Theory consists of three principles: the principle of purpose, the law of coherence and the law of fidelity. The principle of purpose means that the translation should work in the context and culture of the language into which it is translated.

The purpose principle means that the translation should function in the way that the recipient of the translation expects it to function. The principle of coherence means that the translation must be internally coherent, so that the translation is readable, meaningful and relevant in the culture and communication of the target language.

The principle of fidelity means that the translation must be faithful to the original, that it must be interlingually consistent with the original, and that the translation must be faithful to the extent and in the way that the recipient understands it. The degree of fidelity and the form of fidelity are determined by the purpose of the translation. The principle of purpose is the primary principle of all translations.--He Qin (talk) 14:23, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Gary Snyder’s Translation of the Culture-loaded Words in Han Shan’s Poems

ecocultural-loaded words

According to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, ecocultural- loaded words include words related to plants, animals, monsoons, hills, and so on. Through analyzing the translation methods adopted by Gary Snyder in his translation of the ecocultural- loaded words in Han Shan’s poems, this paper found that he mostly used the way of direct translation when he translated the natural sceneries. For instance，he translated“溪长石磊磊，涧阔草蒙蒙” into “The longgorge choked with scree and boulders, The widecreek, the mist blurred grass.”Snyder used“choked”to express the original meaning expressed by“石磊磊”，which means “so many rocks”. Moreover，Snyder didn’t stiffly directly translated “石” into rocks，instead，he creatively divide the types of the rocks by the stream into scree and boulders, thus making more vivid image. And he adds mist in the second sentence, which has explained the reason for why the grass is blurred. There are many other translations where direct translations also appear. Such as he translated “沓嶂恒凝雪，幽林每吐烟” into “Jaggedscarps forever snowed in. Woods in the dark ravines spitting mist.” He reserved the personification in his translations, and the words he used are also adequate enough to restore the calm and quiet context in the original text. There are also some direct translations that have changed the original meanings, such as in the first poem titled《可笑寒山道》，Snyder wrongly interpretated “寒山道” into “the path to Han Shan’s place”, while “寒山”is a name of Chinese mountain in Chinese Zhe Jiang province, and the path is the mountain’s path. And in the poem titled《重岩我卜居》，Snyder directly translated “幽石”into “vague stone”. According to Chinese culture, “幽石“ means funeral stones. And in the original poem，Han Shan used the image of the funeral stones to show the quietness of the mountain. Snyder’s translation can’t totally express the quiteness，so it need to be improved. Also, in the poem titled《我家本住在寒山》，Snyder directly translated “寒山” into “Cold Mountain”. This translation is not good for Chinese cultural dissemination，because American readers can‘t know the real name of the mountain. Apart from direct translation，which is mostly used by Snyder in his ecoculture-loaded words’ translation，Snyder also used the way of generalizations. For instance, he generalized “畅岩” appeared in《一自遁寒山》to “cliffs ”，making “畅岩” lost its Chinese geographical background information. All in all, direct translation is the mostly-used way adopted by Snyder in ecoculture-loaded words’ translation. Though there are some inconsistencies caused by direct translation, to a great extent, Snyder still reserved most original meanings. According to the Functionalist Skopos Theory, the act of translation and the nature of translation is based on the target of the author. On the one hand, considering the identity of Gary Snyder as a nature protector and the beautiful and tranquil nature images showed in Han Shan’s poems, we can find that Snyder choose direct translation to restore the original artistic conception so as to persuade American people to protect the environment, because direct translation is the best way to achieve the goal of expressiveness. On the other hand, according to three principles in the Functionalist Skopos Theory, the law of purpose is superior to fidelity and coherence, and the law of coherence is superior to fidelity. We can see that in order to accelerate American’s understating and acceptance process, Snyder deliberately sacrificed fidelity in some cases mentioned above so as to achieve his translation target, that is to save American’s environment by directly presenting the beautiful landscapes in Han Shan’s poem, and he didn’t translate some names of the Chinese landscapes is because that it’s unnecessary.

According to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, ecocultural- loaded words include words related to plants, animals, monsoons, hills, and so on.

Through analyzing the translation methods adopted by Gary Snyder in his translation of the ecocultural- loaded words in Han Shan's poems, this paper found that he mostly used the way of direct translation when he translated the natural sceneries. For instance，he translated“溪长石磊磊，涧阔草蒙蒙” into “The longgorge choked with scree and boulders, The widecreek, the mist blurred grass.”Snyder used“choked”to express the original meaning expressed by"石磊磊"，which means “so many rocks”. Moreover，Snyder didn’t stiffly directly translated “石” into rocks，instead，he creatively divide the types of the rocks by the stream into scree and boulders, thus making more vivid image. And he adds mist in the second sentence, which has explained the reason for why the grass is blurred. There are many other translations where direct translations also appear. Such as he translated “沓嶂恒凝雪，幽林每吐烟” into "Jaggedscarps forever snowed in. Woods in the dark ravines spitting mist." He reserved the personification in his translations, and the words he used are also adequate enough to restore the calm and quiet context in the original text. There are also some direct translations that have changed the original meanings, such as in the first poem titled《可笑寒山道》，Snyder wrongly interpretated "寒山道" into "the path to Han Shan's place", while "寒山"is a name of Chinese mountain in Chinese Zhe Jiang province, and the path is the mountain’s path. And in the poem titled《重岩我卜居》，Snyder directly translated “幽石”into “vague stone”. According to Chinese culture, "幽石" means funeral stones. And in the original poem，Han Shan used the image of the funeral stones to show the quietness of the mountain. Snyder’s translation can’t totally express the quiteness，so it need to be improved. Also, in the poem titled《我家本住在寒山》，Snyder directly translated “寒山” into "Cold Mountain".This translation is not good for Chinese cultural dissemination，because American readers can‘t know the real name of the mountain. Apart from direct translation，which is mostly used by Snyder in his ecoculture-loaded words’ translation，Snyder also used the way of generalizations. For instance, he generalized “畅岩” appeared in《一自遁寒山》to “cliffs ”，making “畅岩” lost its Chinese geographical background information.

All in all, direct translation is the mostly-used way adopted by Snyder in ecoculture-loaded words’ translation. Though there are some inconsistencies caused by direct translation, to a great extent, Snyder still reserved most original meanings. According to the Functionalist Skopos Theory, the act of translation and the nature of translation is based on the target of the author. On the one hand, considering the identity of Gary Snyder as a nature protector and the beautiful and tranquil nature images showed in Han Shan’s poems, we can find that Snyder choose direct translation to restore the original artistic conception so as to persuade American people to protect the environment, because direct translation is the best way to achieve the goal of expressiveness. On the other hand, according to three principles in the Functionalist Skopos Theory, the law of purpose is superior to fidelity and coherence, and the law of coherence is superior to fidelity. We can see that in order to accelerate American’s understating and acceptance process, Snyder deliberately sacrificed fidelity in some cases mentioned above so as to achieve his translation target, that is to save American’s environment by directly presenting the beautiful landscapes in Han Shan’s poem, and he didn’t translate some names of the Chinese landscapes is because that it’s unnecessary.--He Qin (talk) 14:10, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

physical material culture-loaded words

According to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words include words related to clothing, food, housing and transport. There are many material culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems, and Snyder used different kinds of ways of translation to achieve his different goals. On the one hand, in order to make American easier to understand the original meanings, Snyder used a way of domestication. For instance, in the following sentence of the second translated poem, the original writer has showed that he himself is a man who stays away from the fame and wealth, which is literally the value emphasized by Snyder: 寄语钟鼎家，虚名定无益。 Go tellfamilies with silverware and cars

"What'sthe use of all that noise and money?" In this poem，“钟鼎” originally comes from the ancient rich Chinese families，and “钟鼎家”thus means those Chinese rich people. Gary Snyder used the way of substitution, that is to replace “钟鼎” with “silverware and cars”, which is closer to the modern society. Snyder changed the image to let American better understand the meanings of the poem, thus achieving his target, which is to extricate people from the money-grubbing society. In the following poem, Snyder also showed his will of domestication: 手把两卷书，一道将一德。 住不安釜灶，行不赍衣裓。 His handholds two book scrolls, One the Wayand one its Power. His shack'sgot no pots or oven, He goes fora long walk with his shirt and pants askew. “一道将一德” alludes to the classical book Tao Te Ching. Here Snyder didn’t use phonetic translation or annotation to reserve its exotic meaning, instead, he substitutes it with the American translated version the Way and one its Power published in 1934. Gary Snyder did this based on his culture confidence. Moreover, he substitute “釜灶” with “pots or oven”. “釜” is ancient cooking utensils, equivalent to today's pots and pans，and the character of “灶”is first found in the Golden Texts of the Spring and Autumn Period, and is explained in Shuowen Jiezi as "from cave and drab (cù, meaning toad) to save the sound." Later on, the word "zao" (灶) was coined as a common character, which is a synonym for "fire". The original meaning of zao is a device for cooking food over a fire. The derivation is that of a device for burning or forging. Here，in order to let people quickly know the meaning，Snyder used common materials in American society to replace the ancient Chinese materials. With a modernized tone, Snyder further changed the meaning of the sentence “行不赍衣裓”,which originally means without bringing any clothes when travelling into “with his shirt and pants askew”, forming an image of hippies. Here, Snyder adopted the way of creative rebellion to popularize his translation in American society, for there is a popular stream of “hippies culture” in American society against the dominating American social value at that time. In general, we can infer that Gary Snyder mostly used substitution so as to meet his own target of getting his translations easier accepted.

According to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words include words related to clothing, food, housing and transport. There are many material culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems, and Snyder used different kinds of ways of translation to achieve his different goals. On the one hand, in order to make American easier to understand the original meanings, Snyder used a way of domestication. For instance, in the following sentence of the second translated poem, the original writer has showed that he himself is a man who stays away from the fame and wealth, which is literally the value emphasized by Snyder:

 寄语钟鼎家，虚名定无益。
 Go tell families with silverware and cars
 "What's the use of all that noise and money?"

In this poem，“钟鼎” originally comes from the ancient rich Chinese families，and “钟鼎家”thus means those Chinese rich people. Gary Snyder used the way of substitution, that is to replace “钟鼎” with “silverware and cars”, which is closer to the modern society. Snyder changed the image to let American better understand the meanings of the poem, thus achieving his target, which is to extricate people from the money-grubbing society.

In the following poem, Snyder also showed his will of domestication:

 手把两卷书，一道将一德。
 住不安釜灶，行不赍衣裓。
 His handholds two book scrolls,
 One the Wayand one its Power.
 His shack'sgot no pots or oven,
 He goes fora long walk with his shirt and pants askew.

“一道将一德” alludes to the classical book Tao Te Ching. Here Snyder didn’t use phonetic translation or annotation to reserve its exotic meaning, instead, he substitutes it with the American translated version the Way and one its Power published in 1934. Gary Snyder did this based on his culture confidence.

Moreover, he substitute “釜灶” with “pots or oven”. “釜” is ancient cooking utensils, equivalent to today's pots and pans，and the character of “灶”is first found in the Golden Texts of the Spring and Autumn Period, and is explained in Shuowen Jiezi as "from cave and drab (cù, meaning toad) to save the sound." Later on, the word "zao" (灶) was coined as a common character, which is a synonym for "fire". The original meaning of zao is a device for cooking food over a fire. The derivation is that of a device for burning or forging. Here，in order to let people quickly know the meaning，Snyder used common materials in American society to replace the ancient Chinese materials.

With a modernized tone, Snyder further changed the meaning of the sentence “行不赍衣裓”,which originally means without bringing any clothes when travelling into “with his shirt and pants askew”, forming an image of hippies. Here, Snyder adopted the way of creative rebellion to popularize his translation in American society, for there is a popular stream of “hippies culture” in American society against the dominating American social value at that time.

In general, we can infer that Gary Snyder mostly used substitution so as to meet his own target of getting his translations easier accepted. --He Qin (talk) 14:12, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

sociocultural-loaded words

According to Nida's classification, socio-cultural load words refer to the socio-cultural aspects of socio-cultural load words. The socio-cultural load words include titles, social rules, social customs, etc. In Han Shan’s poems, there are many culture-loaded words expressing Chinese social customs, while Snyder changed some terms to meet his own needs. For instance, the following translated poem has shown Snyder’s translation skills: 不学田舍翁，广置牛庄宅。 I've got nouse for the kulak With hisbig barn and pasture – “田舍翁”is a traditional Chinese title, which refers to old farmers, usually signifies aged farmers with a collection of fortune when appearing in traditional Chinese culture. And the whole sentence listed above can be understood as follows: I don’t want to learn from those rich farmers, who ambitiously collect cattle, lands and houses. Gary Snyder replaced this Chinese ancient term with kulak, which is a term borrowed from Russian language. And it has been widely used by American referring to those rich farmers. Gary Snyder domesticated the term so as to express his ideas of staying away from those greedy men more accurately. And he replaced “牛庄宅“ with barn and pasture. Here we can see Snyder merged his own childhood experience to his translation, because he used to stay in the farm in Oregon when he was a child. In his translated poem《山中何太冷》，Snyder also comply with domestication to let target text better accepted by target text reader: 草生芒种后，叶落立秋前 Grass isstill sprouting at the end of June, Leavesbegin to fall in early August. In this translation，“芒种”，the ninth of the twenty-four solar terms is translated into “the end of June”，while in China，the time referred by “芒种” is the early June in Gregorian calendar. Gary Snyder adopted the method of creative rebellion to let the term “芒种” fit for the chronology in America，which is different from Chinese chronology. In the following poem，in order to create a kind of hippies image，Snyder also creatively changed the original meaning of the text： 炼药空求仙，读书兼咏史。 Trieddrugs, but couldn't make Immortal; Read booksand wrote poems on history. In the original text，“炼药“ is a professional term in Chinese Buddhism, which means spoiling some selected materials in a big pot to purify the substance inside them thus creating a kind of medicine for special usage. For example, the immortal pill is to extend one’s life expense. If it is taken, one can shun death and acquire immortality. In Snyder’s translation, which has totally changed the original meaning, he substituted it with “tried drugs”，which can be usually seen in the group of hippies. They tried drugs to extricated themselves from the secular pain, similar to the deed “炼药“. Gary Snyder’s rebellious translation has created a kind of cynical hippies image, quite different from the original monk image of Han Shan. Though it to some extent, had distorted Han Shan’s image, he successfully won the popularity for his translation among American society. Some people even called Gary Snyder “American Han Shan”.

According to Nida's classification, socio-cultural load words refer to the socio-cultural aspects of socio-cultural load words. The socio-cultural load words include titles, social rules, social customs, etc. In Han Shan’s poems, there are many culture-loaded words expressing Chinese social customs, while Snyder changed some terms to meet his own needs.

For instance, the following translated poem has shown Snyder’s translation skills:

 不学田舍翁，广置牛庄宅。
 I've got nouse for the kulak
 With hisbig barn and pasture –

“田舍翁”is a traditional Chinese title, which refers to old farmers, usually signifies aged farmers with a collection of fortune when appearing in traditional Chinese culture. And the whole sentence listed above can be understood as follows: I don’t want to learn from those rich farmers, who ambitiously collect cattle, lands and houses. Gary Snyder replaced this Chinese ancient term with kulak, which is a term borrowed from Russian language. And it has been widely used by American referring to those rich farmers. Gary Snyder domesticated the term so as to express his ideas of staying away from those greedy men more accurately. And he replaced “牛庄宅“ with barn and pasture. Here we can see Snyder merged his own childhood experience to his translation, because he used to stay in the farm in Oregon when he was a child.

In his translated poem《山中何太冷》，Snyder also comply with domestication to let target text better accepted by target text reader:

 草生芒种后，叶落立秋前
 Grass isstill sprouting at the end of June,
 Leavesbegin to fall in early August.

In this translation，“芒种”，the ninth of the twenty-four solar terms is translated into “the end of June”，while in China，the time referred by “芒种” is the early June in Gregorian calendar. Gary Snyder adopted the method of creative rebellion to let the term “芒种” fit for the chronology in America，which is different from Chinese chronology.

In the following poem，in order to create a kind of hippies image，Snyder also creatively changed the original meaning of the text：

 炼药空求仙，读书兼咏史。
 Trieddrugs, but couldn't make Immortal;
 Read booksand wrote poems on history.

In the original text，“炼药“ is a professional term in Chinese Buddhism, which means spoiling some selected materials in a big pot to purify the substance inside them thus creating a kind of medicine for special usage. For example, the immortal pill is to extend one’s life expense. If it is taken, one can shun death and acquire immortality. In Snyder’s translation, which has totally changed the original meaning, he substituted it with “tried drugs”，which can be usually seen in the group of hippies. They tried drugs to extricated themselves from the secular pain, similar to the deed “炼药“. Gary Snyder’s rebellious translation has created a kind of cynical hippies image, quite different from the original monk image of Han Shan. Though it to some extent, had distorted Han Shan’s image, he successfully won the popularity for his translation among American society. Some people even called Gary Snyder “American Han Shan”.--He Qin (talk) 14:25, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

religious culture-loaded words

According to Naida's classification, religious culture-loaded words are those that have cultural loadings about Buddhism and Taoism. Gary Snyder has a profound thinking of Zen because his travel and learning experience in Japan. And because Zen is an essential branch in Buddhism, Gary Snyder also admires the Buddhist culture of China. Han Shan, who is a Chinese monk and hermit, also merged many Buddhist terms to his poems. By analyzing Snyder’s translation of these religious term, we can discern some of his translation target according to the Functionalist Skopos Theory. In the following poem, Snyder used direct translation to restore the original meaning of the Buddhist term: 可贵天然无价宝，埋在五阴溺身躯。 Honor thispriceless natural treasure

Concealedin five shadows, sunk deep in the flesh. “五阴” , a Buddhist term, of which the word "阴" means "to cover up". There are five kinds of things (the five kinds of things are respectively lust, suffering, thought, action, and consciousness) that obscure one's true nature and cause one's mind to become confused and create all kinds of karma. So those five things are called the "五阴“. Gary Snyder directly translated it into “five shadows”, because in English, the word “shadow” also embodies a kind of gloomy meaning. In the dictionary, the plural form “shadows” have a meaning correlated to “阴”——a source of gloom or unhappiness. Thus, the direct translation didn’t distort the original meaning of “五阴”，and can make the target text readers fully understand the Buddhist term. This translation achieved three basic principles of the Functionalist Skopos Theory: Firstly, it satisfied the need for persuading people not to indulge themselves in the secular sufferings by introducing Buddhist thinking. Secondly, it achieved the second principle of Coherence, that is to say, it can fit for the culture of the target language, and can be fully accepted by the readers. Thirdly, it achieved the principle of fidelity. It didn’t distort the meaning by directly translate it. This kind of translation case is rare, because the third principle is the hardest to achieve, whose success is demanding because it is based on the condition that there is a corresponding meaning in the culture of the target language. Given the situation mentioned above, the following Buddhist terms showed in two cases have lost its original meanings because there is not a corresponding term in English: 饥餐一粒伽陀药，心地调和倚石头。 Hungry, Ieat one grain of Immortal medicine Mind solidand sharp; leaning on a stone. In this case, “伽陀药” is known in Buddhism as the medicine of immortality. According to Buddhist thought, this medicine is spiritual and wondrous, of immense value, and can be taken to remove all diseases. It is also a true remedy in Chinese medicine that can cure many diseases. As there is no such a corresponding object in western culture, Gary Snyder chose to sacrifice the third principle of fidelity to protect his purpose. He adopted the method of paraphrasing, as he translated it into “immortal medicine” to explain the function of “伽陀药”. 尽作地狱业，一入何曾极。 He justsets up a prison for himself. Once in hecan't get out. And in this case, Snyder used the method of substitution to modernize and clarify the original Buddhist term “地狱业”, which in Buddhism means the sins conducted by people, who will be dumped to the eighteenth hell and suffer from the hell’s fire. Snyder modernized the original meaning, that is to say, he substituted hell with prison, which is a kind of modern institution. Even though Snyder removed its religious meaning, he still expressed the meanings of the necessity of being kind to modern people. Snyder used a method of substation, though steering away from the third principle of fidelity, he means to achieve his purpose, that is to bring about an easier sentence for American to understand.

According to Naida's classification, religious culture-loaded words are those that have cultural loadings about Buddhism and Taoism. Gary Snyder has a profound thinking of Zen because his travel and learning experience in Japan. And because Zen is an essential branch in Buddhism, Gary Snyder also admires the Buddhist culture of China. Han Shan, who is a Chinese monk and hermit, also merged many Buddhist terms to his poems. By analyzing Snyder’s translation of these religious term, we can discern some of his translation target according to the Functionalist Skopos Theory.

In the following poem, Snyder used direct translation to restore the original meaning of the Buddhist term:

 可贵天然无价宝，埋在五阴溺身躯。
 Honor thispriceless natural treasure
 Concealedin five shadows, sunk deep in the flesh.

“五阴” , a Buddhist term, of which the word "阴" means "to cover up". There are five kinds of things (the five kinds of things are respectively lust, suffering, thought, action, and consciousness) that obscure one's true nature and cause one's mind to become confused and create all kinds of karma. So those five things are called the "五阴“. Gary Snyder directly translated it into “five shadows”, because in English, the word “shadow” also embodies a kind of gloomy meaning. In the dictionary, the plural form “shadows” have a meaning correlated to “阴”——a source of gloom or unhappiness. Thus, the direct translation didn’t distort the original meaning of “五阴”，and can make the target text readers fully understand the Buddhist term.

This translation achieved three basic principles of the Functionalist Skopos Theory: Firstly, it satisfied the need for persuading people not to indulge themselves in the secular sufferings by introducing Buddhist thinking. Secondly, it achieved the second principle of Coherence, that is to say, it can fit for the culture of the target language, and can be fully accepted by the readers. Thirdly, it achieved the principle of fidelity. It didn’t distort the meaning by directly translate it. This kind of translation case is rare, because the third principle is the hardest to achieve, whose success is demanding because it is based on the condition that there is a corresponding meaning in the culture of the target language.

Given the situation mentioned above, the following Buddhist terms showed in two cases have lost its original meanings because there is not a corresponding term in English:

 饥餐一粒伽陀药，心地调和倚石头。
 Hungry, Ieat one grain of Immortal medicine
 Mind solidand sharp; leaning on a stone.

In this case, “伽陀药” is known in Buddhism as the medicine of immortality. According to Buddhist thought, this medicine is spiritual and wondrous, of immense value, and can be taken to remove all diseases. It is also a true remedy in Chinese medicine that can cure many diseases. As there is no such a corresponding object in western culture, Gary Snyder chose to sacrifice the third principle of fidelity to protect his purpose. He adopted the method of paraphrasing, as he translated it into “immortal medicine” to explain the function of “伽陀药”.

 尽作地狱业，一入何曾极。
 He justsets up a prison for himself.
 Once in hecan't get out.

And in this case, Snyder used the method of substitution to modernize and clarify the original Buddhist term “地狱业”, which in Buddhism means the sins conducted by people, who will be dumped to the eighteenth hell and suffer from the hell’s fire. Snyder modernized the original meaning, that is to say, he substituted hell with prison, which is a kind of modern institution.

Even though Snyder removed its religious meaning, he still expressed the meanings of the necessity of being kind to modern people. Snyder used a method of substation, though steering away from the third principle of fidelity, he means to achieve his purpose, that is to bring about an easier sentence for American to understand. --He Qin (talk) 14:20, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

linguistic culture-loaded words

According to Nida's classification, linguistic and cultural load words are words that have characteristics about the Chinese language and culture. They include some idioms, historical allusions, literary works and so on, besides, the unique structure and style of different languages formed by different culture also count. Because the genre of poem and the characteristics of Chinese language, there are numerable reduplicative words in Han Shan’s poem: 杳杳寒山道，落落冷涧滨。 啾啾常有鸟，寂寂更无人。 淅淅风吹面，纷纷雪积身。 朝朝不见日，岁岁不知春。 Rough anddark - the Cold Mountain trail, Sharpcobbles - the icy creek bank. Yammering,chirping - always birds Bleak,alone, not even a lone hiker. Whip, whip- the wind slaps my face Whirled andtumbled - snow piles on my back. Morningafter morning I don't see the sun Year after year,not a sign of spring. This poem is a paradigm for Han Shan’s usage of reduplicative words, so through analyzing Snyder’s translation of this poem, we can observe his translation attitude of the linguistic culture-loaded words. In this poem, Snyder used the ways of paraphrasing、direct translation、creative rebellion respectively. In the first sentence, he translated “杳杳” into “Rough anddark”，sacrificing the beauty of the poetic musicality and the poetic form but clearly explaining the darkness of the trail of Han Shan for the target text readers. However, the meaning of “落落” is wrongly paraphrased by Snyder in his following translation. The original meaning of it is to describe the loneliness of a place, but Snyder mistranslated an adjective into an object——Sharpcobbles, which has distorted the original meaning. In the second sentence, both the translations of “啾啾”and “寂寂” have reserved the original meaning perfectly, while the former is translated by direct translation, and the latter paraphrasing. The former also reserves the musicality of the poem by onomatopoeia. In the third sentence, Snyder used creative rebellion to translate the image of the strong wind and the heavy snow. Though translated words are different from the form of the original text, the meanings of them have been fully expressed. And in the last sentence, Gary Snyder both reserved the forms of the original text and the meaning of it by direct translation.

According to Nida's classification, linguistic and cultural load words are words that have characteristics about the Chinese language and culture. They include some idioms, historical allusions, literary works and so on, besides, the unique structure and style of different languages formed by different culture also count. Because the genre of poem and the characteristics of Chinese language, there are numerable reduplicative words in Han Shan's poem:

 杳杳寒山道，落落冷涧滨。
 啾啾常有鸟，寂寂更无人。
 淅淅风吹面，纷纷雪积身。
 朝朝不见日，岁岁不知春。
 Rough anddark - the Cold Mountain trail,
 Sharpcobbles - the icy creek bank.
 Yammering,chirping - always birds
 Bleak,alone, not even a lone hiker.
 Whip, whip- the wind slaps my face
 Whirled andtumbled - snow piles on my back.
 Morningafter morning I don't see the sun
 Year after year,not a sign of spring.

This poem is a paradigm for Han Shan's usage of reduplicative words, so through analyzing Snyder’s translation of this poem, we can observe his translation attitude of the linguistic culture-loaded words.

In this poem, Snyder used the ways of paraphrasing、direct translation、creative rebellion respectively. In the first sentence, he translated “杳杳” into “Rough anddark”，sacrificing the beauty of the poetic musicality and the poetic form but clearly explaining the darkness of the trail of Han Shan for the target text readers. However, the meaning of “落落” is wrongly paraphrased by Snyder in his following translation. The original meaning of it is to describe the loneliness of a place, but Snyder mistranslated an adjective into an object——Sharpcobbles, which has distorted the original meaning. In the second sentence, both the translations of “啾啾”and “寂寂” have reserved the original meaning perfectly, while the former is translated by direct translation, and the latter paraphrasing. The former also reserves the musicality of the poem by onomatopoeia. In the third sentence, Snyder used creative rebellion to translate the image of the strong wind and the heavy snow. Though translated words are different from the form of the original text, the meanings of them have been fully expressed. And in the last sentence, Gary Snyder both reserved the forms of the original text and the meaning of it by direct translation.--He Qin (talk) 14:23, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Conclusion

From the text translation analysis presented above, we can find that Gary Snyder has used the methodology embodied by the Functionalist Skopos Theory by finding that Gary Snyder changed his translation methods when encountering different linguistic culture-loaded words. When there was a corresponding word in the target language, he used direct translation, and when there is not, he sacrificed the principle of fidelity to let the target text smoothly merged to the target culture by using paraphrasing、creative rebellion、substitution and so on, all of which is based on his purpose of disseminating the thinking of staying away from the fame and wealth and nature protection. It has been proved that his translation of Han Shan’s poems enjoyed a great popularity among American, especially those hippies. In his translation, he creatively merged western culture and his own thinking derived from his own experience to build a different image of Han Shan，who is rebellious against the secular desires and love nature. After his translation was published in America in 1965, there was a popular stream of “The hit of Han Shan” in America. The exotic culture blended with the domesticated culture in his translation, desperately absorbing American and other westerners to read. Though some revisions of the original text distorted the image of the Chinese monk, Han Shan, and generated some misunderstandings at that time, the publication of Gary Snyder’s Riprap and Cold Mountain Poems still has a good impact on the transcultural communication between America and China and is good for Chinese culture’s going-out. Since its publication, it has been a hit. Professor Zhong Ling described in her book: From 1960s to 1970s, if you run into any Hippie-like college student with long hair and hare fee when wander on campus, you can ask him or her if he or she has ever read Cold Mountain Poetry. The answer would be affirmative. Moreover, you will be told how much they appreciate the “Hippie” characteristics in the poems and how much they worship Han Shan. (钟玲 .2002, 248-265). We can find that the Functionalist Skopos Theory is beneficial to Gary Snyder’s creative rebellion, because the principle of fidelity is inferior to the coherence and the purpose. Thus, Gary Snyder can extricate himself from the translation limitation, that is to say, he can changed both the forms and the meanings of the original text to achieve his targets. Only in this way can Han Shan’s poems be transmitted to America and arise many people’s attention in another country.

From the text translation analysis presented above, we can find that Gary Snyder has used the methodology embodied by the Functionalist Skopos Theory by finding that Gary Snyder changed his translation methods when encountering different linguistic culture-loaded words. When there was a corresponding word in the target language, he used direct translation, and when there is not, he sacrificed the principle of fidelity to let the target text smoothly merged to the target culture by using paraphrasing、creative rebellion、substitution and so on, all of which is based on his purpose of disseminating the thinking of staying away from the fame and wealth and nature protection.

It has been proved that his translation of Han Shan’s poems enjoyed a great popularity among American, especially those hippies. In his translation, he creatively merged western culture and his own thinking derived from his own experience to build a different image of Han Shan，who is rebellious against the secular desires and love nature. After his translation was published in America in 1965, there was a popular stream of “The hit of Han Shan” in America. The exotic culture was blended with the domesticated culture in his translation, desperately absorbing American and other westerners to read. Though some revisions of the original text distorted the image of the Chinese monk, Han Shan, and generated some misunderstandings at that time, the publication of Gary Snyder's Riprap and Cold Mountain Poems still has a good impact on the transcultural communication between America and China and is good for Chinese culture’s going-out.

Since its publication, it has been a hit. Professor Zhong Ling described in her book: From 1960s to 1970s, if you run into any Hippie-like college student with long hair and hare fee when wander on campus, you can ask him or her if he or she has ever read Cold Mountain Poetry. The answer would be affirmative. Moreover, you will be told how much they appreciate the “Hippie” characteristics in the poems and how much they worship Han Shan. (钟玲 .2002, 248-265).

We can find that the Functionalist Skopos Theory is beneficial to Gary Snyder’s creative rebellion, because the principle of fidelity is inferior to the coherence and the purpose. Thus, Gary Snyder can extricate himself from the translation limitation, that is to say, he can changed both the forms and the meanings of the original text to achieve his targets. Only in this way can Han Shan’s poems be transmitted to America and arise many people’s attention in another country.--He Qin (talk) 14:18, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Reference

SnyderGary. 1965. Riprap and Cold Mountain Poems. 无出版地 : Shoemaker & Hoard, 1965.

郭小春. 2015. 寒山诗在美国的接受和变异研究. 无出版地 : 西南交通大学, 2015.

赵渭绒. 2011. 从变异学的角度看寒山诗在中美的接受差异［Ｊ］. 中外文化与文论. 2011年, 2.

钟玲. 2002. 寒山诗的流传［Ａ］，香港中国古典文学研究论文（１９５０－２０００）［Ｃ］．. 无出版地 : 南京：凤凰出版社, 2002.

—. 2008. 寒山与美国诗歌作品，１９８０至２００７［Ｊ］．. 无出版地 : 学术论坛, 2008.

周晓琳，胡安江. 2008. 寒山诗在美国的传布与接受［Ｊ］. 西南政法大学学报. 2008年, 2.