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                                                                                         Contents

1 Final Exam Paper

 1.1 The Mosuo People
     1.1.1 Matrilineal Social Structure
     1.1.2 The “Walking Marriage” System
     1.1.3 The Mosuo Coming-of-Age Ceremony
     1.1.4 Traditional Cultural Customs
     1.1.5 Religious Beliefs
 1.2 Reference
 1.3 Terms
 1.4 Questions
 1.5 Answers
 2.1 摩梭人
     2.1.1 母系社会结构
     2.1.2 “走婚”制度
     2.1.3 摩梭人成年礼
     2.1.4 传统文化习俗
     2.1.5 宗教信仰
 2.2 参考文献
 2.3 术语
 2.4 问题
 2.5 答案

The Mosuo People

Around Lugu Lake at the junction of Yunnan and Sichuan in southwest China, a unique ethnic group has lived for generations - the Mosuo people. Their total population numbers is only around 50,000, primarily concentrated in Ninglang, Yunnan, and Yanyuan, Sichuan. The relatively isolated topography of Lugu Lake, has provided a natural shield for the preservation of the Mosuo’s distinctive culture. The Mosuo people refer to themselves as “Na” “Nari” or “Naru”, where “Na” means “big” or “powerful”, and “ri” or “ru” signifies “person”. While often classified academically as a branch of the Naxi and Mongolian ethnic group (Yang 65), their unique language, customs, and social structure make them a culturally distinct community. For thousands of years, relying on the resources of lakes and mountains to develop agriculture, animal husbandry, and fishing production, the Mosuo people have formed a concept of coexistence with nature and nurtured a matrilineal core within their cultural system, earning them recognition as an important “living fossil” for studying the development of human society.

I. Matrilineal Social Structure

The most prominent cultural characteristic of the Mosuo people lies in their preservation of a complete matrilineal social structure, which is deeply rooted in all aspects of daily life. In this structure, women hold the central position, with family property and authority inherited and maintained through the matrilineal lineage.

The core unit of the Mosuo family is the “Mother House” (i.e. grandmother’s house, where the eldest and most respected matriarch of the family resides). Typically built with earth and wood, it features a huotang (a kind of Chinese fireplace) in the center of the house, symbolizing the continuity and prosperity of the family (Zhao, Yuan 93). Huotang is cared for by a senior female, known as the “Dabu” all year round, and its fire is never extinguished (Zhao, Yuan 102). As the family authority, the Dabu oversees productive activities like farming and grazing, manages resource distribution, and mediates disputes. In arranging meals, she upholds the tradition of respecting the elderly and loving the young, giving priority to the elderly, children, and working members.

Family members form a living community bound by matrilineal kinship. Children belong to their mother’s family, with lineage and property passed down through daughters from generation to generation, and sons assist their sisters in supporting the family rather than inheriting the family business. The central role of men in the family is the “uncle” (mother’s brother). He is responsible for raising his sisters’ children, teaching them productive skills and community ethics, and holds significant influence in matters such as his nephews’ and nieces’ coming-of-age ceremonies and marriages. Although the biological father does not live with his children, he still expresses care and love through gifts and participation in important rituals, maintaining emotional connections.

II. The “Walking Marriage” System

Corresponding to the matrilineal structure, the Mosuo people practice a unique form of marriage known as the “walking marriage” (locally called “Axia marriage”). “Axia” means “intimate companion”. This marital model is based solely on affection, free from legal or societal constraints. Its essence is “men do not marry, women do not wed”, with both parties always belonging to their respective matrilineal households (Sichuan Provincial Local Records Compilation Committee, 2000, p.203). When a man and woman are mutually attracted, they may establish an “Axia” relationship by exchanging tokens such as silver ornaments or embroidered handkerchiefs.

The walking marriage follows a pattern of “night union and morning departure”, guided by unwritten etiquette: the man enters the woman’s house through a side door of the Mother House (commonly called “Mo ru”) at night and must return to his own matrilineal home before dawn (commonly called “Suo chu”); the woman indicates whether she will receive him by the light in her window. Both parties have equal status in the relationship and can freely decide whether to maintain or terminate it. At the end of the relationship, there is no division of property or dispute over child custody. Children are raised by the woman’s family, and the man only bears the responsibility of assistance.

It is important to clarify that walking marriage does not imply casual partner selection. Most Mosuo people maintain a long-term, stable relationship with one “Axia”, and especially place greater emphasis on emotional fidelity after having children. Character, diligence, and sense of family responsibility are key considerations in choosing a mate. Furthermore, “prohibition of marriage within the same matrilineal bloodline” is a strict ethical bottom line. Violators will face condemnation and even ostracism (Zhao 23). Although the biological father does not live with his children, he will present gifts, impart skills, and share family history when they come of age, and the children will visit him during festivals.

III. The Mosuo Coming-of-Age Ceremony

When a Mosuo child turns 13 years old, the family will hold a grand coming-of-age ceremony: for girls, it is the “Skirt-Wearing Ceremony”, and for boys, the “Trouser-Wearing Ceremony”. The ritual takes place at dawn on the first day of the Lunar New Year. The boy stands under the left pillar of the Mother House, the girl under the right pillar, each foot resting on a piece of cured pork and a bag of grain, symbolizing a life free from want of food and clothing.

During the dressing segment, the girl’s mother helps her remove the old linen gown and attire her in a gold-rimmed jacket, pleated skirt, and embroidered belt, arranging her hair and adorning her with necklaces, earrings, and other ornaments. The boy’s uncle assists him in changing out of his old gown into new jacket and trousers, fastening his belt and adorning him with a waist knife. During the ceremony, the child must call a dog into the house and feed it rice and pork.

This custom originates from a Mosuo myth: In ancient times, humans and animals had no fixed lifespans. The deity governing destinies decided to allot lifespans to all beings at midnight on Lunar New Year’s Eve, granting the stated age to whoever responded. The deity called out 1000 years old, 100 years old, and 60 years old, which were claimed by the responses of the white crane, the teal, and the dog, respectively. When 13 years old was called out, humans finally awoke and answered. Humans felt that their lifespans were too short, so they begged the god to exchange ages with the dog and they were granted. Since then, humans prepare three meals a day for dogs, and the feeding of the dog during the coming-of-age ceremony serves to express gratitude for this exchange of longevity.

After the ceremony, the elders will take the child to parade around the village to receive blessings and congratulatory gifts from the villagers. This formally announces that the child, having completed one cycle of the twelve zodiac animals, is now an adult and may participate in various social activities. Mosuo ancestors believed that children under 12 lacked a soul, did not enjoy clan rights or bear obligations, could not participate in formal social activities, and could not be buried in the clan’s communal cemetery. Only after reaching the age of 12 and undergoing the coming-of-age ceremony to “bind the soul” do they become formal members of the clan.

IV. Traditional Cultural Customs

Mosuo cultural customs are deeply rooted in the matrilineal society and the lake-mountain environment, covering diet, festivals, singing and dancing, etc., and carrying the historical memory and wisdom of the community.

The cuisine centers on plateau products, combining practical value with cultural symbolism. Fish from Lugu Lake are important ingredients, with “sour fish”, made through salting and fermentation, being a delicacy for guests. Zhubiao Rou (Whole Cure Pork), also known as Pipa Rou (Lute-Shaped Pork) due to its resemblance to the Chinese lute (pipa), is made through salting and air-drying and is an essential dish for festivals. Cured pork, cured and air-dried with salt, is essential for festivals. Staples include corn, potatoes, and highland barley, often accompanied by buckwheat pancakes and tsampa.

Among numerous festivals, the Mosuo Mountain Pilgrimage Festival is the most grand, held annually on the 25th day of the seventh lunar month. It honors the supreme guardian deity, Goddess Gemu, to pray for favorable weather, the well-being of people and livestock, and the prosperity of families. The festival originates from the Mosuo people’s ancient nature worship and goddess belief. Legend holds that Goddess Gemu incarnated as the mountain range to protect this land and safeguard all beings. Main customs include mountain-front rituals presided over by Daba priests, communal pilgrimages around the mountain for blessings, traditional competitions like horse racing and wrestling, and all-night feasting, drinking, and dancing the Jiacuo dance. These practices collectively embody the Mosuo people’s cultural core of reverence for nature, veneration of ancestors, and communal solidarity.

Singing and dancing are indispensable parts of the life of the Mosuo people, of which the “Jiacuo Dance” is the most representative, serving as a vivid imprint of the ethnic culture. In the Mosuo language, “Jia” means “beautiful” or “fine”, and “cuo” means “to dance”. Thus, Jiacuo Dance is a dance form embodying the good wishes of the Mosuo people (Lu, Chen 225).

According to legend, in ancient times, whenever foreign enemies invaded, the tribal leader would gather the community to light a great fire at the village entrance. Everyone would circle the fire, stomping and shouting to boost morale and encourage the warriors. After defeating the invaders, people would gather around the fire again, celebrating victory throughout the night. This highly contagious custom was passed down through generations, gradually shedding its military function and evolving into a folk collective dance that is both ritualistic and entertaining — the Jiacuo Dance.

As a traditional group dance, the Jiacuo Dance has structured segments, primarily covering scenarios like welcoming guests, offering wine, and bidding farewell. Besides the Jiacuo Dance, the Mosuo also enjoy the free-spirited and joyous “Guozhuang Dance”, in which men, women, and children can participate, showing the open-minded character of the ethnic group while dancing and singing. Accompanied by this, Mosuo music is centered on folk songs covering themes like kinship and nature. The tune is melodious and gentle, mostly sung a cappella, occasionally accompanied by flutes or cucurbit flutes. Among these, “Axia Love Song” is a classic piece conveying the sincere emotions of the Mosuo people (Lu, Chen 225).

V. Religious Beliefs

The Mosuo belief system is centered on the indigenous Daba religion, incorporating animistic concepts and ancestor worship. The Daba religion does not have unified doctrines, scriptures, or places of worship, and its priests “Daba” transmit religious knowledge and ritual procedures orally (Chen 157).

Animism is a core tenet of the Daba religion. The Mosuo people revere nature and abide by the laws of living with nature. They regard Lugu Lake as the “Mother Lake”, strictly prohibit pollution and overfishing, and hold annual sacrificial ceremonies to pray for clear waters and abundant fish. Ancestor worship is equally important. Each Mother House has an ancestral tablet, and the Daba regularly presides over sacrificial rites to pray for the safety of the house. The Daba also conducts corresponding ceremonies at key life stages such as birth, coming of age, and death, imbuing these processes with a sense of sanctity.

Centered on the matrilineal social structure, the Mosuo people have nurtured unique institutions like the walking marriage, coming-of-age rituals, and Daba religious beliefs. These cultural imprints are deeply rooted in the landscape of Lugu Lake, serving as the spiritual heritage passed down through generations. For thousands of years, the Mosuo people have steadfastly maintained their traditions, allowing this culture, which possesses both historical value and humanistic warmth, to endure. In the new era, this culture not only requires protection and transmission from generation to generation but also needs to be appropriately promoted on the basis of preserving its authenticity. By revitalizing folk experiences and passing on traditional skills, more people can come to understand its unique charm, allowing it to become a precious cultural symbol connecting tradition and modernity and showcasing ethnic diversity.

References

[1]陈柳 (Chen Liu). 摩梭人达巴经及其文化内涵[J]. 民族文学研究,2011,(02):156-163.

[2]卢国文 (Lu Guowen)、陈思思 (Chen Sisi). 论摩梭人“打跳”音乐中的交融性——以云南摩梭人“打跳”音乐为例[J]. 中国音乐,2012,(03):225-229.

[3]四川省地方志编纂委员会. 四川省志·民族志[M]. 成都：四川民族出版，2000.

[4]杨福泉 (Yang Fuquan). 多元因素影响下的纳族群称谓与认同[J]. 民族研究,2013,(05):65-74+125.

[5]赵经纬 (Zhao Jingwei)、袁同凯 (Yuan Tongkai). 泸沽湖摩梭人家屋空间重构及其文化逻辑[J]. 民族研究,2025,(02):88-105+149.

[6]赵心愚 (Zhao Xinyu). 中国西南扎巴人、摩梭人“走婚”的范围与界限——兼论其对母系家庭形态存续的影响[J]. 民族学刊,2018,9(01):19-24+102-106.

Terms

摩梭人 the Mosuo People

泸沽湖 Lugu Lake

母系社会结构 matrilineal social structure

母屋 the Mother House

走婚制度 the walking marriage system

成年礼 a coming-of-age ceremony

穿裙礼 the Skirt-Wearing Ceremony

穿裤礼 the Trouser-Wearing Ceremony

猪膘肉 Zhubiao Rou (Whole Cure Pork)

琵琶肉 Pipa Rou (Lute-Shaped Pork)

高原产物 plateau products

青稞 highland barley

荞麦饼 buckwheat pancake

糌粑 tsampa

转山节 the Mosuo Mountain Pilgrimage Festival

甲搓舞 Jiacuo Dance

锅庄舞 Guozhuang Dance

《阿夏情歌》 Axia Love Song

达巴教 Daba religion

万物有灵观念 animistic concepts

Questions

1. Where are the Mosuo people primarily distributed?

2. What is the most distinctive cultural feature of the Mosuo people? What is the core unit of a Mosuo family?

3. What type of marriage system does the Mosuo people practice?

4. At what age do the Mosuo people come of age?

5. What are the most important festivals of the Mosuo people? What is their most representative dance?

6. What religion do the Mosuo people believe in, and what is its core belief?

Answers

1. They are mainly concentrated in Ninglang, Yunnan Province, and Yanyuan, Sichuan Province.

2. The most distinctive cultural feature is the matrilineal social structure, and the core unit of the family is the Mother House.

3. They practice a unique form of marriage known as the “walking marriage” or “Axia marriage”.

4. At the age of 13.

5. The most significant festivals include the Mosuo Mountain Pilgrimage Festival, and the most representative dance is the Jiacuo Dance.

6.The Mosuo primarily follow the Daba religion, whose core beliefs are animism and ancestor worship.

摩梭人

在中国西南滇川交界的泸沽湖周边，世代居住着一个独具特色的族群——摩梭人。他们总人口仅五万左右，主要聚居在云南宁蒗(níng làng)、四川盐源两地。泸沽湖“高原明珠”般的封闭地貌，为摩梭人独特文化的留存提供了天然屏障。摩梭人自称“纳”“纳日”或“纳汝”，“纳”为“大”“强大”之意，“日”和“汝”皆为“人”的意思。学界多将其归为纳西族和蒙古族分支（杨 65），但独特的语言、习俗与社会结构，使其成为极具文化个性的群体。千百年来，摩梭人依托湖山资源发展农牧渔生产，形成与自然共生的理念，孕育出以母系为核心的文化体系，成为研究人类社会发展的重要“活化石”。

一、母系社会结构

摩梭人最鲜明的文化特征在于其保留了完整的母系社会结构，这一结构深植于日常生活的方方面面。在这一结构中，女性居于核心地位，家庭财产与权力皆依母系血缘传承与维系。

摩梭家庭的核心单位为“母屋”（即祖母屋，由家族中最年长、地位最高的祖母居住），一般为土木结构，屋内中央设火塘，象征家庭延续兴旺（赵，袁 93）。火塘由年长女性“达布”常年照料，火种永不熄灭（赵，袁 102）。作为家庭权威，达布统筹农耕、放牧等生产活动，分配物资、调解矛盾。在饮食安排上，遵循尊老爱幼的传统，优先保障老人、孩子与劳作成员。

家庭成员以母系血缘为纽带构成生活共同体。子女归属母亲家庭，世系与财产均由女儿代代继承，儿子则协助姐妹支撑家庭，而非继承家业。男性在家庭中的核心角色是“舅舅”，负责抚养姐妹的子女、传授生产技艺与族群伦理，并在外甥成年礼、婚嫁等事务中拥有重要话语权。生父虽不子女共居，但仍通过赠礼、参与重要仪式等方式表达关爱、维系情感。

二、“走婚”制度

与母系结构相适应，摩梭人实行独特的“走婚”制度（当地称“阿夏婚”）。“阿夏”意为“亲密伴侣”。这种婚姻模式以情感为唯一基础，不受法律或世俗约束，其核心是“男不娶、女不嫁”，男女双方始终归属各自母系家庭(四川省地方志编纂委员会，2000：203)。男女若情投意合，可通过互赠银饰、刺绣手帕等信物确立“阿夏”关系。

走婚遵循“夜合晨离”模式，且有不成文礼仪：男性需从母屋侧门进入女方家（俗称“摩入”），并于清晨前返回自己的母系家庭（俗称“梭出”）；女性则以窗口灯光示意是否接待。双方在关系中地位平等，可自由决定关系的维系或终止。关系结束时，无需处理财产分割与子女抚养问题，子女由女方家庭抚养，男方仅承担协助责任。

需明确的是，走婚并非随意择偶，多数摩梭人会与一位“阿夏”保持长期稳定关系，尤其在生育子女后，更注重情感的专一。择偶时，人品、勤劳程度与家庭责任感是重要考量。同时，“禁止同一母系血缘通婚”是严格伦理底线，违者将受谴责甚至驱逐（赵 23）。生父虽不子女共同生活，仍会在其成年时赠礼、传授技艺、讲述族史，子女亦会节庆时前往探望。

三、摩梭人成年礼

摩梭孩子年满13岁时，家人会为其举行隆重的成年礼：女孩称“穿裙礼”，男孩称“穿裤礼”。仪式于农历正月初一清晨举行，男孩站在正房左柱下，女孩站在右柱下，双脚分别踩着猪膘肉与粮食口袋，象征终生衣食无忧。

更衣环节，女孩由母亲脱去旧麻布长衫，换上金边衣、百褶裙，系绣花腰带，盘发并佩戴项链、耳环等饰物；男孩则由舅舅为其脱去旧长衫，换上新衣长裤，扎腰带、佩腰刀。仪式中，孩子需唤狗进屋，喂食饭团与猪肉。

这一习俗源自摩梭神话：远古时期，人与动物无固定寿命，司命神拟在大年三十午夜为万物定寿，谁应答便得对应岁数。天神依次喊出1000岁、100岁、60岁，分别被白鹤、水鸭、狗应答领受；喊到13岁时，人类才惊醒应答。人类因觉得寿命太短，恳求天神与狗交换岁数，并获得准许。此后，人类每日为狗备三餐，成年礼中喂狗便是为感念这份换岁之恩。

仪式结束后，长辈会带孩子在村中巡游，接受村民的祝福与贺礼，正式宣告其历经一轮十二生肖，已长大成人，可参与各类社交活动。摩梭先民认为，未满12岁的孩子尚无灵魂，不享有氏族权利、不承担义务，不能参与正式社交，死后也不能葬入氏族公共墓地；年满12岁经成年礼“拴系灵魂”后，成为氏族正式成员。

四、传统文化习俗

摩梭人文化习俗植根于母系社会与湖山环境，涵盖饮食、节庆、歌舞等方面，承载着族群的历史记忆与生活智慧。

饮食以高原物产为核心，兼具实用价值与文化寓意。泸沽湖鱼类是重要食材，其中经腌制发酵制成的“酸鱼”是待客佳品；“猪膘肉”，因其形似琵琶，又称琵琶肉，通过盐腌风干制作而成，是节庆必备。主食则以玉米、土豆、青稞为主，常搭配荞麦饼、糌粑食用。

众多节庆中，转山节最为隆重，于每年农历七月二十五日举行，旨在祭祀其最高保护神——格姆女神，以祈求风调雨顺、人畜安康与家族繁盛。节日源于摩梭人古老的自然崇拜与女神信仰，相传格姆女神化身山脉守护此地，护佑众生。主要习俗包括由达巴祭司主持山前祭祀、众人绕山巡礼祈福、举行赛马摔跤等传统竞赛，以及全族聚餐饮酒、欢跳甲搓舞直至通宵，集中体现了摩梭人敬畏自然、敬奉祖先、团结社群的文化内核。

歌舞是摩梭人生活中不可或缺的部分，其中“甲搓舞”最具代表性，是族群文化的鲜明印记。“甲”在摩梭语中意为“美好”，“搓”即“跳舞”，“甲搓舞”便是承载着摩梭人美好祈愿的舞蹈形式（卢，陈 225）。

相传远古时期，每当有外敌入侵，部落首领会组织族人在村口燃起熊熊大火，众人围火踩脚呐喊，以壮军威、鼓舞士气；待入侵者被击败后，大家又围聚火堆通宵欢庆胜利。这一极具感染力的习俗代代相传，逐渐褪去军事属性，演变为兼具仪式感与娱乐性的民间集体歌舞，即甲搓舞。

作为传统集体舞，甲搓舞有着严谨的段落划分，核心涵盖迎宾、敬酒、送别等场景。除甲搓舞外，摩梭人也盛行自由欢快的“锅庄舞”，男女老少皆可参与，边跳边唱间尽显族群豁达性格。与之相伴的摩梭音乐以民歌为核心，主题涵盖亲情、自然等，曲调悠扬婉转，多为清唱，偶尔搭配笛子、葫芦丝伴奏，其中《阿夏情歌》是传递摩梭人真挚情感的经典曲目（卢，陈 225）。

五、宗教信仰

摩梭人信仰体系以本土达巴教为核心，融合了万物有灵观念与祖先崇拜。达巴教无统一教义、经典与宗教场所，其祭司“达巴”通过口传心授传承宗教知识与仪式规程（陈 157）。

万物有灵是达巴教的核心思想，摩梭人敬畏自然，恪守与自然相处的规律。他们将泸沽湖奉为“母亲湖”，严禁污染与过度捕捞，并每年举行祭祀，祈求湖清渔丰。祖先崇拜同样重要，每家母屋均设祖先牌位，达巴定期主持祭祀，祈求家宅平安。在出生、成年、死亡等人生节点，达巴也会主持相应仪式，赋予过程神圣感。

摩梭人以母系社会结构为核心，孕育了独特的走婚制度、成年礼习俗与达巴教信仰，这些文化印记深深植根于泸沽湖的山水之间，是族群世代相传的精神财富。千百年来，摩梭人坚守传统，让这份兼具历史价值与人文温度的文化得以留存。进入新时代，这份文化不仅需要代代守护传承，更需在保护本真的基础上合理发扬。通过活化民俗体验、传承传统技艺等方式，让更多人了解其独特魅力，成为连接传统与现代、彰显民族多样性的珍贵文化符号。

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