History of Translation Studies 8

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History of Translation

A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China 王煜 Wang Yu

摘要

翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。

关键词

翻译史；西方翻译史；中国翻译史

Abstract

Translation is an intercultural communication activity, translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and reduced the communication barriers between people of different countries or nations. With time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the western and eastern countries have gradually formed their own history of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Though there are many differences among the translation histories of western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright unique lights and have an indelible influence and contribution to human translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.

Keywords

Translation history; Translation history of the West; Translation history of China

1. Introduction

No matter in China or in the west, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language, and the history of translation is almost as old as language itself, it is closely related to the changes in today's society. Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the curriculum design of Chinese and western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another including A brief history of Chinese Translation: the part before the May 4th Movement（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Zuyi Ma, A historical manuscript of Chinese translated literature （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Yugang Chen, and also the A Short History of Translation in the West（《西方翻译简史》） the author of which is Zaixi Tan. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and western translation history works.（谢天振，2009） The history of western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and western translation activities and thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.

2. The Translation History of Western Countries Western translation activities are rich in a long history and a multiyear span. The history of western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.

2.1 The First Stage: Translation in the Ancient Times

The translation history of western countries first began in the the 3rd century B.C. "In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic Odyssey translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC.”(谭载喜,2000) At the end of the 4th BC, during this time, the Greece began to decay and the Roman had became stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought it into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid cultural of its own era after Greece. So soon began a large scale translation activities, the activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.（刘军平,2009）Many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas. Started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.

2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)

2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)

2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period

2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ

3. The Translation History of China--Wang Yu (talk) 08:38, 30 November 2020 (UTC)--Wang Yu (talk) 08:43, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao

Abstract:There has a long history and culture Chinese and Western translation, and translation plays an indelible role in promoting cross-cultural communication and cultural communication. This article first discusses the history of translation in China from four stages , then discusses the five stages of western translation history , and finally compares and analyzes the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western translation histories, and puts forward some of the author's own views.

Key words:The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison

摘要：中西方翻译历史文化源远流长，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上承担着不可磨灭的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，再从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。

关键词：中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比

Ⅰ.Introduction

Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.The same as our country, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.

Literal and Free Translation

On the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills from House’s Translation Quality Assessment Model 宋建茹 Song Jianru

Abstract

Translation quality assessment is an integral part of translation criticism. The first TQA model with comprehensive theories and practices Juliane House represented provides a significant reference for translation exercises. A Pale View of Hills, as the first work of Kazuo Ishiguro, possesses a great research value on its narrative styles by virtue of memory and topics about migrants. As of 2011 when its Chinese translation was published, no scholar has evaluated it. This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills with qualitative and quantitative analysis from lexical, syntactic and textual aspects, in a bid to examine validity of the model on novel translation, which turns out that it is an overt and high-quality translation.

Key Words

A Pale View of Hills; House’s TQA model; novel translation

摘 要

翻译质量评估是翻译批评的核心课题。朱莉安·豪斯提出的第一个有完整的理论和实践的翻译质量评估模式，为翻译实践提供了重要参考。《远山淡影》是石黑一雄的处女作，其依托回忆的叙事风格和移民主题具有很高的研究价值。《远山淡影》中译本自2011年出版至今，尚未有学者对其进行评估研究。本文运用豪斯的翻译质量评估模式，采用定性与定量相结合的分析方式，从语场、语旨、语式等三个层面对原文和译文进行分析，开展《远山淡影》中译本的翻译质量评估研究，为豪斯翻译质量评估模式对小说翻译的运用进行进一步的探索和补充。通过分析，得出《远山淡影》中译本为显性翻译，翻译质量较高。Italic text

关键词

《远山淡影》；豪斯质量评估模式；小说翻译

Introduction

Translation criticism refers to the analysis and review of thoughts, activities and works of translation by virtue of relevant theories and views, in a bid to improve the overall quality of translators and translations. It is an integral part of translation studies. (Wang Enmian, 1999: 7) Translation quality assessment, as the integral and key part of translation criticism, plays a significant role in surveillance and promotion of translation quality. Among the extant translation quality assessment models, Juliane House’s A Model for Translation Quality Assessment and Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised, based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis, are systematic, scientific and rational with a relatively complete system of parameters, quantitative methods and steps adhering to specific procedures.

A Pale View of Hills, as Kazuo Ishiguro's first full-length novel, tells the life of the people in Nagasaki after WWII through the memory of protagonist Etsuko and explores recovery of trauma, collision between the old and new ideas, and kinship after war. The first person narrative, memory, humor and satire and international perspectives in the book became his major writing styles in the future. The novel won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society. Its only Chinese translation at present, from Zhang Xiaoyi, is still not analyzed by the scholars. This paper uses House’s translation quality assessment model, with combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, from field, tenor and mode to analyze the mismatches between original and translation in an attempt to assess the Chinese translation quality of A Pale View of Hills and further explore the application of House’s model in novel translation. The aim of the study is to promote scholars to regulate the behaviors of translation, to improve the quality of translation and translation evaluation, and to provide a reasonable way for establishing the interlingual conversion mechanism.

The thesis consists of four chapters.

After the Introduction, Chapter One gives a brief account of A Pale View of Hills and its research status, involving the author, background, content and influence. Chapter Two is a brief introduction of House’s TQA model, including its theoretic basis, parameter setting, operation steps and feasibility. Chapter Three is a detailed analysis of original and translation of A Pale View of Hills based on House’s model. Chapter Four is statement of translation quality assessment. Then we come to the last part, Conclusion.

I Overview and Research Status of A Pale View of Hills

A Pale View of Hills is Kazuo Ishiguro's first novel, which laid a solid foundation for the formation of Ishiguro's writing style. The chapter mainly introduces the author, plot, theme and influence of the novel and analyzes its research status, in an attempt to master the material well and seek new perspectives for the paper.

1.1 Overview of A Pale View of Hills

Kazuo Ishguro is a noble contemporary Japanese English writer, whose novels feature first person narrative, detailed depiction of loneliness, depression, self-deception and anxiety of characters’ inner world and dual narrative strategy to deconstruct the narrator's self-identity, as well as discuss postwar trauma and migrant identity. He won Booker Prize, the British top literary prize, in 1989 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 2017. By virtue of his outstanding literary achievements, he is known as one of the Three Masters of English Migrant Literature together with Salman Rushdi and Naipaul.

A Pale View of Hills, published in 1982, is Ishiguro's debut. The story, with postwar Nagasaki as its background, enjoys two clues: one is what happened when Niki (Etsuko’s little daughter) visited her mother after her sister Keiko died; the other is Etsuko’s memory about people and events in Nagasaki after the war. The two lines integrated together during the narrative, forming the illusory and imaginary impression. Many in-depth topics in this work are worth pondering: postwar trauma recovery, the collision between new and old ideas after war and discussion of family relations. Many marks in the work became his own styles: first-person narrative, memory, humor and satire, international perspectives. In addition, it won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society and is still in print thirty years after its publication. This book, with its enormous emotion, unearths the abyss beneath the illusion of our connection to the world, whose artistic value and charm could be time-tested.

1.2 Research Status of A Pale View of Hills

There are 54 papers about A Pale View of Hills in domestic researches. According to the statistics from HowNet (as shown in the figure below), the number of studies on the work has been mounting, especially after Kazuo Ishiguro won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017. The perspectives of these researches are mainly from identity anxiety, unreliable narrative and post-war trauma. In Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills, Wang Fei discusses the identity anxiety of migrants, exploring manifestations, causes and influence of such anxiety on the characters. In Memory and Narrative Unreliability of A Pale View of Hills, He Xiaobing combined with the classical narratology to analyze how unreliable narration method is presented in the work and discussed the inner world of the characters. In Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills, Liu Xiaoya explores the protagonist's trauma by using Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory and trauma theory (including post-freudian psychological trauma theory), contemporary trauma culture theory along with rhetorical narrative theory.

At abroad there are more perspectives about the studies of A Pale View of Hills. In addition to the main research directions of domestic scholars, such as identity anxiety of characters, unreliable narrative research and post-war trauma, cultural displacement, family relationship and the influence of region on personality presented in the works are also analyzed. The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills: An Eco-critical Study co-written by Awla, Yousif Hamad and Azad Sharif, from the perspective of ecocriticism, clarifies the fact that a place is able to define and guide the emotions and thoughts of characters, and analyzes the reasons why geography forms characters of people in order to draw people’s attention to the impact of surrounding environment on them. Ruth Forsythe's article Cultural Displacement and the Mother-daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills focuses more on the relationship between mother and daughter under cultural displacement. However, no scholars have analyzed the language itself from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics.

The Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, Zhang Xiaoyi’s version, was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011, and the bilingual version in 2019. Up to now, there has no translation criticism or discussion about this translation. Since 2011 when it was translated, it came to draw the attention of scholars and readers. Translation is a direct factor that affects the integrity of author’s thought, the reader's perception and the accuracy of the scholar’s study, thus it is indispensable to use the House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to analyze the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills.

On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei

Abstract

Abstract The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the functionalist approach and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on the theory of functionalist approach.

Key words

Key Words: functionalist approach，the Summer Palace，translation strategies

摘要

摘 要 旅游资料的英译作为民族历史文化对外宣传的一道窗口,对地方旅游业的发展有着不可低估的促进作用。颐和园作为中国著名的皇家园林，具有浓厚的中国园林特色及优美的风景，同时也蕴涵着深厚文化内涵。 本篇旅游文本英译的分析以功能派翻译理论作为理论指导，以目的法则为主要原则，从颐和园的园林文化、历史文化和宗教文化三个角度出发对颐和园景点英译中存在的问题进行探讨。目的论认为译文取决于翻译目的，这个目的通常指的是交际目的。为达到这个目的，译者可以选择不同的翻译策略。也就是说，译者的翻译策略必须由译文的预期目的或功能决定，即所谓的“目的法则”。笔者认为景点介绍的汉英翻译的目的就是吸引译文读者以及弘扬传统文化，因此在翻译旅游资料的时候不仅要把当地的文化内涵表达出来，而且要考虑到跨文化的因素。而以功能派翻译理论为指导的景点介绍的汉英翻译，可以使英语读者通过译文产生对旅游景点的期盼，以及对景点文化内涵的理解。以颐和园景区内的翻译文本为例本，依托功能翻译理论，通过“发现问题，指出问题，解决问题”，以期更好地促进中国文化的传播与交流，提高我国现阶段旅游文本翻译的水平。

关键字

关键词：功能翻译；颐和园；翻译目的；翻译策略

Introduction

 Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Outline 1.Introduction 2. Studies on Functionalist Approach 2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach 2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology 2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory 2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action 2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty 2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach 3.C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach 3.1 Garden Culture 3.2 Historical Culture 3.3 Religious Culture 4. Conclusion References

Outline

Outline

Thesis Statement: Based on the main viewpoints of functionalist approaches to translation, this paper aims to give an analysis to C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

1. Introduction 2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches 2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach 2.1 Reiss’s Text Typology 2.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory 2.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action 2.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty 2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach 3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach 3.1 Garden Culture 3.2 Historical Culture 3.3 Religious Culture 4. Conclusion

1. Introduction

1. Introduction The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts is a bridge to spread the culture of classical Chinese gardens, so the accuracy of it has a direct impact on foreigners' understanding of the specific history and culture. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation theory emphasizes the function of discourse, and believes that different types of discourse have different functions, so translators should choose appropriate translation strategies according to the type of source text and corresponding functions. Functionalist approach is to take the "skopos rule" as the highest standard, and any translation activity is a purposeful behavior. The ultimate goal and main function of scenic spot translation is to help people understand the main content of the scenic spot. As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches

2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches Functionalism is a theory that advocates reader-centered translation, emphasizing the functions of texts and highlighting the communicative effects. It is believed that many unnecessary mistakes can be avoided and better results can be achieved by applying functionalist approach in Chinese-English translation of tourist text.

2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches

2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches Functionalist Translation Theory, also known as German Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by German scholars in the 1970s. It includes four main theories: Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology, Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action and Christiane Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty. This chapter aims to present the main ideas of this theory.

2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology

2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology In 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism first made text function as a standard of translation criticism, namely‚evaluate the translated text from the relationship between the functions of the original and the translated text. She insists on the original-centered equivalence theory and holds the view that the ideal translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text in terms of ideological content, linguistic form and communicative function. However, translation practice makes her realize that it’s difficult to achieve equivalence sometimes and that sometimes equivalence cannot be pursued. Because of the particularity of translation requirements, the function of the target text is not always the same as that of the source text. Therefore, the translator should give priority to the functional role of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence. Reiss believes that in the normal situation the type of text decides the translator’s choice of a proper translation method (Reiss, 2004). Therefore, she divides text into four types: content-focused text, form-focused text, appeal-focused text and audio-media text. Content-focused text, also known as informative text, includes news reports, commercial correspondence, operating instructions, official documents, patent specifications, essays, treaties, etc. For this text, the main function is to convey information revealed in language itself to readers. The emphasis is on content and topic, so the choice of language and style should serve this function. If both the source text and target text belong to informative text, the translator should represent the content and information of source text accurately and completely (Reiss, 2004) Form-focused text, also known as expressive text, refers to literary works such as novels, poems and so on. “Distinct from ‘content’, which deals with what the author says, ‘form’ is concerned with how an author expresses himself” (Reiss, 2004). For expressive texts, information is only a supplement. What is dominant is the aesthetic factor. When translating such texts, the translator should pay attention to the aesthetic and artistic forms of the original text and to the differences between two cultural habits, trying to achieve the same effect as the source text. In a word, in a form-focused text the linguistic form of the source text determines the form in the target language (Reiss, 2004). Appeal-focused text, also known as operative text, mainly includes notice, instruction manual, advertisement, publicity manual and so on. For operative texts, the primary task for the translator is to provoke a particular reaction on the hearers or readers to incite them to engage in specific actions, while content and form are subordinate. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, the translator need to change the content and stylistic features of the original text, try to keep the potential influential factors of the original text and seek functional equivalence (Reiss, 2004: 38-43). Audio-medial text, also known as multi-media text, refers to radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys and dramatic productions. It is distinctive in its dependence on non-linguistic media and on graphic, acoustic, and visual kinds of expression. Only in combination with them can the whole complex literary form realize its full potential (Reiss, 2004). In conclusion, different texts determine different translation focuses and methods. In many cases, however, a text may have more than one function, which means that translators should integrate different translation strategies skillfully to achieve different functions of texts.

2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory

2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory Reiss’s student Vermeer, who broke the limitation of the theory of equivalent and took skopos to be the first criterion of translation process ‚ proposed the key theory: Skopostheorie. According to Skopos Theory, when translating a text, the translator needs to consider the purpose of translation first and then choose the translation method according to the purpose, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). Vermeer believes that translation, like other human actions, is also a purposeful act. Translation often takes place in cultural backgrounds with different customs and values, so translation is not a simple equivalent transformation between languages. Skopos Theory does not focus on achieving the equivalence between the target text and the original text or the perfection of the target text, but on choosing the best translation strategy based on the analysis of the source text and the intended function of the target text. In a word, translation methods and strategies are determined by the intended purpose or function of the target text. According to Skopos Theory, the first rule that all translators must follow is the Skopos Rule. Translation purpose can be divided into three categories: (1) the purpose of the translator, such as earning a living; (2) the communicative purpose of the translation, such as instructing the reader; (3) the purpose of using a particular translation method, such as the literal translation according to its structure to illustrate the peculiarities of grammatical structure in a language (Nord, 2001). In general, the communicative purpose is more important than the other two. The communicative purpose is usually determined by the initiator of the translation act, but the translator can take part in deciding. The second rule is the Coherence Rule. Coherence Rule requires that the translation conform to the criterion of intratextual coherence, which means that the translation must be accessible to recipients and meaningful in the target culture and in the communicative environment (Nord, 2001). The third rule is the Fidelity Rule. It means that there should be intertextual coherence between the source text and the target text, which means being faithful to the source text. Nevertheless, the degree and form of faithfulness lie in the target text and the degree that the translator understands the original text. Normally “Intertexual coherence is considered subordinate to intratexual coherence and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule” (Nord, 2001).

2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action

2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action Following Vermeer, Manttari develops Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and puts forward the Theory of Translational Action. He emphasizes three aspects: the behavior of the translation process, the role of the participants (the initiator, the translator and the target reader, etc.) and the environment (time, place and media) in which the translation process takes places. It views translation as “purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and construes the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds that involve intercultural transfer” (Mundy, 2001). According to Manttari, translation is “ a complex act to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 2001). It is not about translating words, sentences or texts but is about guiding the intended cooperation over cultural barriers and promoting functional communication. Cooperation here means “transcultural communication” by Manttari. The Theory of Translational Action attaches great importance to providing a functional communicative text for the recipient, a text suitable for the target culture in form and style. Functional suitability is determined by the translator. The translator is an expert in translation, whose role is to ensure the successful completion of cultural transformation. In producing the target text, the analysis of the source text is necessary so that the translator can find out its structural and functional characteristics, which can be described by content and form. The need of the recipient is the decisive factor for the target text. In short, “the value of Manttari’s work is the placing of translation (or at least the professional non-literary translation which she describes) within its sociocultural context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution” (Mundy, 2001).

2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty

2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty Though skopos rule changes the focus of translation from the source language text to the target language text and the target receivers, it has some limitations. One is that different readers have different expectations, and the translation purpose cannot satisfy all the expectations of the target reader. Another is that the translation purpose may sometimes be against the intention of the source language. Therefore, based on the skopos rule, Nord introduces the loyalty principle. The principle of loyalty is a supplementary principle proposed by Nord to make up for the deficiency of skopos rule. According to the explanation of Nord, it is not the relationship between the original text and the target text, nor the equivalence between the original text and the form of the target text, but the consistency between the author of the original text, the initiator of the translation, the translator and the reader of the target text, which is the principle of loyalty. The proposal of the loyalty principle makes up for the mistakes that some radical skopos translators usually make, such as omitting and rewriting, which makes skopos theory more perfect and makes skopos theory more likely to guide the translation of literary works. “Function” and “loyalty” are two pillars of Nord’s functionalist approach. “Function” refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the receiver’s point of view”, while “loyalty” means that “target-text purpose should be compatible with the original author’s intention” (Nord,2001). It emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Function plus loyalty enables the translator to avoid the limitations of skopos rule and try to achieve a balance between translation purpose and the source-text author’s intention”(Nord,2001). That is to say, when translating the original text, the translator should take into account the readers' cultural background, knowledge level and expectation of the translation, and choose the corresponding translation strategy according to the translation requirements. If the reader wants to read a word-for-word translation of the article, then the translator must meet the reader's requirements, otherwise he must explain to the reader why he chose his own translation method. The translator's job is to weigh two different cultures instead of imposing one culture on another.

2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.

2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts. In the 1990s, Functionalist Translation Theory was introduced to China, and since then it has been applied to translation studies by Chinese translation scholars. In his article published in 1995, Zhang Nanfeng briefly introduces Skopos theory to China for the first time, and considers that Skopos theory is referential (Zhang Nanfeng, 1995). German Functionalist Translation Theory, a paper released in1999, is the first article in China which systematically introduces German Functionalist Translation Theory (Zhong Weihe & Zhong Yu, 1999). Based on an overview of Functionalist Translation Theory, Zhang Meifang focuses on introducing Nord’s theory, especially on the detailed analysis of Nord’s principle of loyalty (Zhang Meifang, 2005). Famous domestic scholars, such as Liu Junping (2009), Liu Miqing (2012) and Li Wenge (2004), also introduce this theory in their books. With the rise of Functionalist Translation Theory in China, someone has compared it with other theories. Zhu Haotong compares Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence Theory to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and further reveals that Functionalist Translation Theory inherits the reasonable part of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory, which is an important breakthrough and supplement to solve the problems that Functional Equivalence Theory leaves (Zhu Haotong, 2006). Some scholars also combine theory with translation practice to explore the application of Functionalist Translation Theory to translation practice. Jia Yanli and Wang Hongjun point out that Skopos Theory has its limitations, but it is still of instruction and reference value for non-literary translation texts, such as advertisements and tourism materials (Jia Yanli & Wang Hongjun, 2012). Li Liangchen selects several famous tourist attractions in China to translate the on-site tour-guide commentary into English. Then he improves them under the guidance of Skopos Theory and sends out questionnaires to overseas tourists for further analysis. He argues that the translation of on-site tour-guide commentary which is guided by Skopos Theory is more favorable to conveying information to foreign visitors, to promoting cultural exchanges and to improving the image of China’s tourist destinations (Li Liangchen, 2013). In Pragmatic Translation: Theory & Practice, Wu Feng and He Qingji introduce Functionalist Translation Theory (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008) and the characteristics of tourism text and translation skills (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008). In this book, they also discuss the controversy over the Chinese name of Functionalist Translation Theory, and holds that “功能派翻译理论” is the most appropriate Chinese translation (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008).Based on his own translation practice and under the guidance of Functionalist Translation Theory, Wu Zixuan probes into some special phenomena in the English translation of CNN newsreels. The author believes that in the translation of external publicity, we should not stick to the standard of faithfulness to the original text, but should deal with the original text properly from the perspective of achieving the purpose of translation, such as rewriting, abridging. (Wu Zixuan, 2005). Functionalist approach establishes a theoretical system of diversified translation standards dominated by skopos rule. From the definition of Functionalist approach, it can be seen that the advantage of it is that the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original text, study the translation process with "translation purpose" as the starting point, and determine the translation strategies and methods. This can give full play to the translator's own initiative, flexible processing of the original text, in order to achieve the translation of the communicative function. In addition, functionalist approach requires the translation to be examined in the cultural context of the reader. The reader can accept the translation and understand the meaning of the original text through the translation, so the translation can realize the communicative function. On the basis of such advantages, functionalist approach can be used to guide the English translation of garden scenic spots, and the translator can choose a wider range of translation strategies and break out of the constraints of the original text. Only by clarifying the purpose of translation can we avoid these limitations in the English translation of garden attractions. When using functionalist approach to guide the English translation of Chinese classical garden scenic spots, it is necessary to flexibly choose translation strategies and methods, give full play to the advantages of skopos theory, and achieve the balance between "principle of purpose" and "principle of fidelity" as far as possible. With the deepening of globalization and cross-cultural communication, tourismis becoming a major industry in the 21st century. The development of tourism can not only promote the economic development of a country but also promote the external dissemination of national culture. Therefore, tourism translation deserves attention. Tourism text is a typical informative and operational text, and the language is unique. It is full of gorgeous words, such as four-character expressions, verses, proper nouns and so on. Tourism text materials include tourism advertising, tourism brochures, scenic spots signs and so on. In this paper, we focus on the introduction of Chinese gardens’ scenic spots, which is usually colorful in language and rich in literary style. Tourism text translation belongs to applied translation, which should play a series of practical functions to publicize the image and resources of the country or place and attract overseas tourists. Therefore, the translator of tourism text must be clear about the type and function of tourism text, and to grasp the ultimate purpose of the translation. On tourism text translation, the communicative purpose of the translation should be placed in a central position. Furthermore, the tourism text has both the information function and the calling function. The information function and the calling function complement each other. Only when the target language readers acquire the expected tourism information and cultural knowledge can the calling function be realized and the purpose of tourism text translation be achieved. With different translation strategies, the translated version should both expressed contains basic information, and make the tourists feel the profound of the Chinese culture from the beautiful scenery. Cultural tourism has long been the focus of international tourism, and understanding Chinese culture is the main purpose of inbound tourists, so the translation of tourism texts bears the mission of cultural transmission and cultural publicity. However, due to the great differences between Chinese and English culture and language, there are many difficulties in cultural transmission in tourism text translation. China has a long and splendid history and culture. When introducing the scenic spots of cultural relics and historic sites, we usually associate with many historical figures and stories. These terms are cultural blank for most foreign tourists, but this kind of cultural experience is also the most attractive place for foreign tourists. It is of great importance to pay attention to cultural differences in tourism translation and carry out cultural transmission effectively. Chinese and English languages have different logic views, and Chinese expressions in tourism texts value decoration. English expressions tend to be clear, concise and to the point. For example, Chinese tourism texts often use a four-character lattice, which is symmetrical, while there is no corresponding four-character lattice expression in English. Therefore, in Chinese-English translation of tourism texts with frequent use of four-character phrases, it is necessary to keep in mind the objective principle of functionalist approach and give priority to cultural communication instead of rigidly adhering to form.

3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach

3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English. The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.

3.1 Garden culture.

3.1 Garden culture. The Summer Palace is a classical garden famous for its magnificence and beauty. There are many temples in the garden, and the green waves of kunming lake ripple. Landscape and humanities complement each other, containing rich natural and cultural information, reflecting the characteristics of Chinese classical gardens. The garden cultural features of the three scenic spots, namely, the hall of clouds, the foxiang pavilion and the Wenchang courtyard, are particularly outstanding. Therefore, this paper takes these three scenic spots as examples to discuss the Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace. (1) 排云殿、佛香阁景区是颐和园内建筑布局最完整、建筑形式最丰富的中轴建筑群体，殿、阁、廊、亭、桥、坊、碑等建筑约两万平方米。从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海、层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。 Translation：This scenic spot covers an area of 20,000 square meters with an assortment of buildings such as palaces, towers, corridors, pavilions, walkways, bridges, archways and inscribed stone steles. It comprises a well-arranged group of structures, all diverse in style, located in the center of the Summer Palace garden. This complex of structures, ranging from the Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway on the waterside, the Gate that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall of Moral Glory, and the Tower of the Fragrance of the Buddha, to the Realm of Popular Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple, were built in an orderly manner running from the foot of the hill to its top, with gardens, temples and palaces harmoniously integrated into the whole。 Analysis：As we all know, the design style of ancient Chinese buildings is beautiful with "symmetry". The "axis" in hall of clouds scenic spot refers to the layout of the Summer Palace from far to near and from top to bottom, which cannot be simply understood as the center. Simply translating "axis" as "center" cannot express accurately the meaning of "symmetry". Comparatively speaking, "axis" can better reflect the architectural style of the scenic spot. (2) 从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海，层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。 Translation：These structures，including Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway at lake side，the Gate of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of moral Glory，and the Tower of Buddhist Incense，the Realm of Multitudinous Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple，were built in an orderly manner ranging up the hill with gardens，temples and palaces harmoniously integrated. This manifests beauty，grace and splendor，reminiscent of the loftingness and grandeur of a once mighty empire. Analysis：In terms of the characteristics of language, Chinese emphasizes parataxis and four-word antithesis. When describing and naming scenes, gorgeous words and poetic words are generally chosen in Chinese. But, English emphasizes hypotaxis, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on reproducing the original appearance of things, using simple and natural words and preferring direct description. In sign translation, the English translation pays more attention to accurate, concise and lively. In the above paragraph, "层层升高，排列有序，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体" is an introduction to the architectural features of foxiang pavilion, in order to make tourists have a clear understanding of the overall layout and architectural features of the scenic spot. This information is essential and can be translated into detail. However, "气势巍峨，金碧辉煌" focuses on the subjective description, and its explicit translation needs more complicated words. If this paragraph is translated in detail, it is easy to drag the content and make the key information vague. Therefore, the deletion of the English translation of this sentence will not affect the basic information of the original text. (3) 主阁（文昌阁）两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜骑。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。 Translation: A bronze statue of the God Wenchang, statues of gaeries, and a bronze steed were placed in the two-story pavilion. This tower is pared with the Tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves, located to the west of the Longevity Hill, in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The God Wenchang and the Martial God together symbolize reining of the emperor supported by scholars and warriors. Analysis: Two questions arise in Chinese-English translation. First, there are two translations of wenchang pavilion in the translation: pavilion and tower, which appear in the same sign. Two different translations of the same scenic spot name tend to make foreign tourists think that it refers to different scenic spots, which may cause difficulty in understanding. Second, the translation of Wenchang pavilion into "Wenchang Tower" is against the actual architectural characteristics. In fact, the meanings of "pavilion" and "tower" have both similarities and differences. According to the Oxford dictionary, Tower means "a tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle", mainly referring to the tower-shaped part of a building, usually a tall and slender structure, such as the Eiffel Tower. "Pavilion" means "a building that is meant to be more beautiful than usual, built as a shelter in a park or used for concerts and dances". The top structure of the pavilion usually has rectangles, triangles, hexagons, etc. The common feature of them is that the top is supported by columns without walls. From the external structure of Wenchang pavilion, its bottom is solid and its top is supported by columns. Therefore, the pavilion can accurately reflect the architectural characteristics of Wenchang pavilion, so I think it should be translated as Wenchang pavilion.

3.2 Historical culture.

3.2 Historical culture. The accurate Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace not only enables foreign tourists to understand the characteristics of Chinese gardens, but also enables foreign tourists to understand the historical knowledge of a specific period of China. However, the Chinese-English translation of the Summer Palace still has problems in accurately conveying the historical background of the scenic spots, such as the English translation of Wenchang pavilion scenic spot: (4) 此景区始建于清乾隆十五年，一八六零年被英法联军烧毁，光绪时按原样重建。阁结构为八面三层四重檐，通高36.44米，耸立于20米高的石造台基上，气势雄伟，是颐和园全园的构图中心。阁内供奉有铜铸金裹千手观世音菩萨站像。像高五米，重万斤，为明代万历年间所造，在八根贯通全阁上下的承重铁梨木擎天柱的衬托下，美妙庄严，熠熠生辉，有极高的文物和艺术价值。 Translation: The Wenchang tower was first built in 1750 and rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu after the Anglo-French Allied Forces builted it down in 1860. The octahedral tower has three stories with four-layered eaves, altogether 36.44 meters high. Standing upright on a 20 meter-high stone foundation, it constitutes the center of the Summer Palace landscape and serves to accentuate its magnificence. A statue of the thousand-handed Guanshiyin Buddha, cast in bronze and gilded with gold, stands inside the tower. The statue, five meters high and five tons in weight, was cast during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty. Set off by the eight imposing pillars which support the tower, it glows with beauty, grandeur and brilliance. Its historical, cultural and artistic value can hardly be overstated. Analysis: “始建于乾隆十五年”only was translated into “was first built in 1750” and the “光绪年间重建” was translated into “rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu”.The first sentence does not show that 1750 was the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor Qianlong, and the second sentence does not give foreign visitors the exact date of the reign of emperor Guangxu. The change of time concept and the disunity of expression easily make foreign tourists feel confused. Therefore, the translation of the time and the historical dynasties should be accurate and meticulous, and the supplementary method should be used to not only describe the dynasties clearly, but also supplement the corresponding years, so as to achieve the standardization of the translation. In this way, foreign tourists can not only be clear about the time of the event, but also understand the Chinese historical dynasties. Consider as follows: the Wenchang Pavilion was first built in 1750 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign（1735- 1795）and rebuilt in 1886 under Emperor Guangxu（1875- 1908）after the Anglo- French Allied Forces burned it down in 1860.

3.3 Religious culture.

3.3 Religious culture. Many scenic spots in the Summer Palace have a strong buddhist atmosphere. While visiting the scenic spots, foreign tourists can understand the profound buddhist culture. Wenchang pavilion in the Summer Palace is the representative of Chinese religious culture. (5) 主阁两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜特。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。 Translation: A bronze statue of the god，Wenchang，and statues of two followers，the celestial boy，and the bronze steed，were placed in the two- storey pavilion. This tower is pared with the tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves，located to the west of the Longevity Hill，in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The two towers symbolize the support by both scholars and warriors to the ruling emperor. Analysis: It is well known that westerners believe in theism, which refers to god as supreme . In Chinese religious culture, people believe in atheism and do not believe in the existence of god. Therefore, it is inappropriate to translate "文昌帝军" and "武圣" into "the god, Wenchang" and "the Martial god" in the translation. In fact, the "文昌帝军" was Zhang yu, an emperor of Shu of Ning kang (374). And "武圣" refers to Guan yu in history. Therefore, the simple translation of "God" is not in line with the traditional Chinese culture, which will not only cause western tourists to misunderstand that Chinese religious tradition also believes in God, but also fail to convey Chinese historical allusions and relevant historical figures. In contrast, if "文昌帝军" is translated as "the emperor, Wenchang" and "武圣" is translated as "the Martial Master (Guanyu)", it can more faithfully convey the history and religious culture contained in the source language.

4. Conclusion

4. Conclusion To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should have a cross-cultural awareness, fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.

The importance of the translation of the Summer Palace lies in the profound garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. The English translation is not only helpful for international friends to know more about the garden characteristics of the Summer Palace, but also helpful for spreading the long history and profound culture of China. In order to attract target readers and promote traditional Chinese culture, it is not only necessary to carefully explore Chinese culture and history, but also to use the fuctionalist approach appropriately. 

Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse, the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.

References

References Hans Vermmer, “Skopos and Commission in Translation Action”, in the Translation Studies Reader,ed. Chesterman, London and Network:Routledge,p.221-232. 2000. Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge publishing.2001. Mason, “Textual Practices and Audience Design: and Interactive View of the Tourist Brrochure”. In Navarro et al.(eds.). Pragmatics at Work: The Translation of Tourist Literature. Bern: Perter Lang. 157-176.2004. Nord, Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2006. Nord, Translating as a purposeful activity. Shanghai: SFLE PRESS, 2001:27,30,32,65,245. Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials & Limitations. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Shanghai. 2004. Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History Translation. Routledge.1995. 方梦之、毛忠明， 英汉—汉英应用翻译教程，上海: 上海外语教育出版社，2004. 金惠康，跨文化旅游翻译，中国对外翻译出版公司，2004. 贾文波，应用翻译功能论，北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004 孙艺风，文化翻译的困惑与挑战，中国翻译，2016年第3期. 王宏志，翻译与创作，北京大学出版社，2000. 吴自选，德国功能派翻译理论与 CNN 新闻短片英译，中国科技翻译, 2005. 谢天振，当代国外翻译理论，天津：南开大学出版社，2005. 张南峰，走出死胡同建立翻译学. 中国翻译, 1995. 仲伟合，钟钰. 德国的功能派翻译理论. 中国翻译, 1999. 张美芳，功能加忠诚—介评克里丝汀· 诺德的功能翻译理论.上海外国语大学学报, 2005.

Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi

Abstract：

The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed problem in translation studies. To compare these two translation methods, the basic point is to understand the purpose of translation. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people who speak different languages can understand each other’s cultures. Due to the differences in social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, how to choose between the two translation strategies of literal translation and free translation requires translators to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of these two methods. This essay mainly compares literal translation and free translation between Chinese and Russian to help students and translators translate better.

Key words：

Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation

摘要：

直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。想要将这两种翻译方法进行对比，最基本的一点就是要明白翻译的目的是什么。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，如何在直译和意译这两种翻译策略中做出选择，就需要译者衡量两种方法的利弊。本文主要对汉语和俄语间直译和意译进行比较，以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。

关键词：

翻译策略，直译，意译

1.Introduction

The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believed: “Translation is an activity that expresses what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barr Hudarov also wrote: "Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning." To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect. In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived, of which literal translation and free translation are the most commonly used.

Russian idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of the wisdom of the Russian nation and the immortal fossils in the Russian language, are one of the best materials for the Chinese to understand and learn Russian history, culture, and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, the Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have formed different cultural backgrounds. These distinctive backgrounds and characteristics have caused great difficulties for Chinese learning Russian to further understand Russia. This essay studies the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their respective advantages and disadvantages and their mutual relations, and strive to solve how to use the translation methods of literal and free translation to properly translate Russian idioms and proverbs, and how to reflect the cultural background and language characteristics of Russian idioms and proverbs in the translation .

2.Different views of "literal translation" and "free translation"

In different periods and different countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate about literal translation and free translation has always existed.

In China, the contradiction between literal translation and free translation may initially be due to the different understanding of these two translation methods. The translator Sun Guiding believes that: literal translation is stuck to the structure of the original text and does not consider whether the Chinese is fluent and natural; while free translation is to use the inherent Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as much as possible to achieve the effect of conveying the meaning of the original text. Former President of Wuhan University, Du Zuozhou, believes that literal translation means translating word by word according to the original text; free translation means translating according to the meaning of the original text, and the translation is more suitable for the common grammar of the translated language. The educator Meng Xiancheng believes that literal translation is a translation technology with different degrees of correctness. Literal translation is a translation that is faithful and correct according to the original text; free translation is a translation that summarizes the original meaning. Zhu Guangqian said: "The so-called 'literal translation' refers to the literal translation based on the original text. Every word and sentence are translated word by word, and the order of the words and sentences is not changed. The so-called ‘paraphrasing’ is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, and it does not have to be completely based on the literal and order of the original text. " The principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard "faithfulness and expressiveness" as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating. In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. In addition, there are many differences between the original language and the target language in the word order, grammar, variants and rhetoric in the translation process. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. This requires the translator to consider the actual semantics, background and other factors. On the basis of the original meaning of the sentence, use an appropriate method to convey the content of the original work and reproduce the language style of the original work.

In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work "Summary of Translation Theory", which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. Fedorov’s view was refuted by the literary translation school represented by Ivan Alexandrovich Kashikin. The literary translation school believes that aesthetic issues are the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art. In fact, the literary translation school emphasizes the translation of literary and artistic works, which belongs to the specific translation theory; while the research of the linguistic translation school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of all thematic works including literary works. The dispute between the two major translation theory schools of Russia and the Soviet Union provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.

3.The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms

The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. Due to the great differences in geographical locations and living customs between China and Russia, the national cultures reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its imagery. When translating idioms, both the meaning and the image must be considered. Although the Chinese and Russian cultures are very different, many of the commonalities of mankind, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.

3.1 Literal translation

Generally speaking, the literal translation method refers to a translation method that directly translates the original text without changing the language characteristics and style of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. Chinese translation of Russian idioms by literal translation method has the advantage of being able to intuitively and faithfully express the meaning of the idiom, maintaining the unique style and imagery of the original text: the disadvantage is that the translated idiom may not be understood by the Chinese because of China and Russia have different historical, cultural backgrounds, grammatical structures, and language world landscapes, which can easily form obstacles in the process of understanding.

Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.

Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast. E.g:

(1)домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防

(2)знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌

(3)подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油

(4)как рыба в воде 如鱼得水

(5)как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割

(6)как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳

(7)на добро отвечают добром 善有善报

(8)копейка рубль бережет 财从细起

(9)мечты сбываются 梦想成真

(10)курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡

(11)чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)

(12)изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒

(13)сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡

(14)действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩

(15)зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才

(16)висеть на волоске 千钧一发

(17)лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨

The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation.

In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g:

настоять на своем 坚持自己

камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地

связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连

быть на голову 高出一头

вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌

блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过

с мизинец 小拇指这么大

It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.

3.2 Free translation

Another method commonly used in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. Free translation is to readjust the structure of the original text on the basis of keeping the original meaning of the idiom unchanged, and then reconstruct the Russian idiom with the way of thinking and expression in Chinese. This is because the figurative images used in many Russian idioms are inconsistent with those used in Chinese. If the original image is used in translation, it will cause a barrier to understanding. The advantage of free translation of Russian idioms is that it eliminates obstacles to understanding, but the disadvantage is that it cannot completely retain the original style and cultural characteristics. E.g:

(1)В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят. 直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。 意译：多此一举

(2)Честь лучше бесчестья. 直译：尊重比不尊重好。 意译：礼多人不怪。

(3)словно горя с плеч 直译：把山从肩膀下卸下 意译：如释重负

(4)выеденного яйца не стоит 直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱 意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值

(5)чужими руками жар загребать 直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆 意译：坐享其成，不劳而获

(6)ни рыба, ни мясо 直译：没有鱼也没有肉 意译：不三不四，不伦不类

(7)лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе 直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀 意译：远亲不如近邻

(8)На языке мед, а под лед 直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰 意译：笑里藏刀

(9)И на солнце есть пятна 直译：太阳上也有黑点 意译：人无完人

(10)семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь 直译：测量了七次后再剪裁 意译：三思而后行

Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.

4.The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs

There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.

4.1 Literal translation

In Russian and Chinese languages, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implicit meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express a certain kind of the same semantics, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of synonymous Chinese proverbs can convey the information contained in the original image, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables the reader to perfectly understand the original text. E.g:

(1)Куй железо, пока горячо. 趁热打铁。

(2)Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。

(3)Сытый голодного не разумеет. 饱汉不知饿汉饥。

(4)Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。

(5)Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。

(6)Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。

(7)Нет дыма без огня. 无火不生烟。

(8)Шила в мешке не утаишь. 口袋藏不住锥子。

(9)Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。

(10)Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。

(11)Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。

(12)Как Новый год встретишь, так его и проведешь. 怎么迎新年，就怎么过一年。

(13)Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。

(14)Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。

По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。

Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu

Abstract

 As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and excessive free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also the profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.--Gan Fengyu (talk) 07:46, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

Key words

literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites

摘要

 作为翻译方法，直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)怎样使用的问题一直是一个争论中西方翻译界不休的焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在概念定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中。所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现。--Gan Fengyu (talk) 07:50, 10 November 2020 (UTC)

关键字

直译； 意译； 死译； 过度意译； 对立统一

Introduction

 Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

Document Translation

On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai

On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--Wu Kai (talk) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

Abstract

As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.

Key words

official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea

摘要

自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。

关键词

公文翻译 苍南县 对外开放 日本 韩国

I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.

In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.

To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.

The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:

First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.

Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.

Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively. Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.

II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County

Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.

1. Details and Accurate

As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.

For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”

2. Precise and Compact

The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.

For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”

3. Programmed and Standardized

The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.

For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”. Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.

III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language

Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.

If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:

1. Detailed Comparison of Types

In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other. For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.

2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters

There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.

For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.

For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”

There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.

Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language

Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.

Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:

1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul

Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.

For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号 王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號 王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.

2. The Usage of Refined Language

In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.

For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.

For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”

Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County

Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .

The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.

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--Wu Kai (talk) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong

key words

News headlines; Skopos theory; translation

摘要

社会的飞速发展使得人们的阅读方式发生了巨大的改变, 通过阅 读新闻标题来获取消息和了解事实, 成为大多数人的不二之选, 新闻标题 翻译也就越来越具有其必要性。 新闻标题的重要性堪比一部使人印象深刻 的电影名, 一则响亮的广告语, 一本撩人心弦的书名。 较之娱乐新闻, 时 政新闻略显严肃客观, 又因当今科技物质的飞速发展, 时政新闻的点阅数 量明显少于以消遣娱乐为目的的娱乐新闻。 怎样提高时政新闻的阅读量, 怎样使得时政新闻如同娱乐新闻一般深受广大人民的喜爱, 这不仅是新闻 编辑者们的挑战, 也是新闻翻译界的难题。 本文以德国功能派翻译目的论 为理论指导, 结合新闻学及编辑学的相关学科知识, 通过对中英时政新闻 标题的对比分析, 旨在对时政新闻标题的汉译英提出翻译策略, 让国外读者正确客观无误的了解中国的时事政策。