Culture loaded words

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1 羊叶 The Analysis of Culture-loaded Words of English Subtitle Translation in Chinese Movies-Taking Farewell to My Concubine as an Example 电影中英译字幕文化负载词的翻译分析——以《霸王别姬》为例

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Abstract

Nowadays, popular films are increasingly active on the Internet. Confronting such a mass need for film translation, subtitle translation is winning more favor compared with traditional dubbing translation. This paper, taking Farewell My Concubine as an example, analyzes the strategies and methods of translating culture-loaded words. The conclusions are as follows: In terms of translator, translator needs to be super proficient in Chinese and English. In terms of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization are unity of opposites and complement each other, so there is no absolute and pure domestication and foreignization. In terms of translation methods, when translating the culture-loaded words, Linda Jaivin mainly adopted literal translation, free translation, specification, generalization and omission to nearly successfully preserve and convey the essence in Beijing dialect and Beijing Opera in China.

Key Words

Subtitle Translation; Farewell My Concubine; foreignizing method; domesticating method

Introduction

1.1Research Background

Innovation of information technology brings energy for the advancement of broadcasting ways of film and television programs. More and more foreign popular films are increasingly active on the Internet; more and more local films with Chinese elements are also introduced abroad. Researchers on subtitling translation are becoming more and more important. China's Opening-up and Reform facilitates the cultural communication between China and the outer world. In the introduction of foreign films and TV plays, language understanding becomes an obvious barrier for audiences. Two major solutions to solve such a barrier are dubbing and subtitle translation. "Subtitles sometimes referred to as captions are transcriptions of film or TV dialogue presented simultaneously on the screen." Relatively, the latter one is more favorable than the traditional dubbing way because of its cost-effectiveness, short producing cycle and audience-acceptability. With higher educational background and foreign language level, many Chinese audiences expect that films can be displayed with “a natural and original flavor” nowadays. Under such circumstances, subtitle translation seems to be more acceptable to get access to foreign audience. Among so many elements involved in the subtitle translation process, the translator plays the most significant part, thus becoming a key and central element in the subtitle translation system. Therefore, a good subtitle translation with “a natural and original flavor” sets high and strict requirements for the translator.

1.2 Brief Introduction to Farewell My Concubine

Farewell My Concubine, the film version adopted in this thesis is the 1993 one whose heroes and heroines are Duan Xiaolou (acted by Zhang Fengyi), Cheng Dieyi (acted by Zhang Guorong) and Ju Xian (acted by Gong Li) respectively. In the film, Xiaolou and Dieyi are fellow apprentices learning Beijing opera performance together from childhood. Later on, their cooperation in the opera Farewell My Concubine makes them famous overnight throughout Beijing city. Thereafter, they make a promise to each other that they will perform Farewell My Concubine together as long as they are alive. However, their different understandings of the relationship between the opera and life finally lead to their different choices: Until mid-age, Xiaolou deeply knows that the opera isn't his whole life, so he gets married with a famous whore called Juxian; Dieyi, however, becomes totally immersed in the complicated plots and role relationships of the operas, especially Farewell my Concubine. Around such a classic and famous opera, the love and betrayal among them become escalating with the changes of times and eventually develops into a tragedy. It is the first film that won the Golden Palm Prize in mainland China. It has been keeping the highest-grossing record of Chinese melodrama movies in America which also marks the climax of Chinese films in America. Meanwhile, it also got great box-office successes in such countries as Japan, Germany, Korean, France and so on. It should be concluded that Farewell My Concubine has achieved great success both in the art and business. In Farewell My Concubine, Beijing Opera art is the central cultural element. It is a typical representative of classical Chinese literature art. Taking it as a case study, general and concrete subtitle translation strategies can be concluded to improve translation quality of similar subtitle translation works.

1.3 Brief Introduction to translator Linda Javin

Linda Javin, the subtitle translator of Farewell My Concubine, is a suitable and qualified person for both the director and the audiences. Since 1976, Linda has been playing an important and active role in broadcasting, studying and exploring Chinese culture. As an internationally renowned sinologist, translator and writer, Linda Javin has made great efforts in learning, feeling and appreciating Chinese culture. It is really a tough time full of difficulties and hardships under the specific social conditions then. After years of efforts to learn Chinese language, history, literature and many visits to China, Linda has begun to embark on her Chinese literary writing career recently. All these can prove that she is really a competent and qualified subtitle translator of Farewell My Concubine. Her wonderful bi-lingual and bi-cultural competence does give her favorable advantages in translating.

Analysis the Translation of Culture-loaded Words

2.1 Introduction to Culture-loaded Words

Gonzalez Davies and Scott-Tennent (2008, p.783) put forward a definition of cultural references in detail, which is "expressions (audiovisual, verbal, textual, non-verbal) that are concerned with ecological, material, religious, social, emotional, and linguistic manifestation. In addition, these expressions are specific to a particular community, and they are recognized as a particular feature of that community. Such expressions, however, may lead to difficulties in comprehending these words or translating these words." And in China, a scholar defines it as "the words, phrases and idioms that mark the unique things in a culture." These words reflect the unique way of activities gradually accumulated by a specific nation in the long historical process, which is different from other nations.（Liao Qiyi, 2000: 232）

It is more diverse to classify Culture-loaded words because China is an ancient national with a history of more than 5,000 years. In this course, many Culture-loaded words have accumulated continuously. Among all the materials, some scholars divide Culture-loaded words based on specific elements such as language and culture. Since different scholars hold different views on the classification of Culture-loaded words, and hence the fist can go on and on. Here is a well-accepted way by Nida. Nida (1945, p.196) divided language and cultural characteristics into five categories:(1)Ecological culture; (2)Material culture; (3)Social Culture; (4)Religious Culture; (5)Linguistic Culture.

2.2 The Features of Subtitles in Farewell My Concubine

Through comparison and analysis, the main language features of the Chinese lines of Farewell My Concubine are concluded as below: concise but emotional dialogue; strong Beijing Opera and Beijing dialect flavor; sharp but implicative expressions; rich of slang and idioms. All the features are drawn from the corresponding lines in the film and all these analysis in the language following features will be illustrated combining with the specific case interpretation. Thus, different translation strategies at different levels can be generalized and concluded to cater for the different language features.

The film takes place in Beijing and is thus featured with rich local color. The most obvious feature is the use of Beijing dialect. Beijing dialect is the basis of standard Mandarin, but there are some differences that make it easy for Chinese people to recognize which is which. Most prominent difference in phonology is the proliferation of rhotic vowels which results from the non suffix “儿” in vocabulary, Beijing dialect has a lot of words that are considered slangy and therefore occur much less or not at all in standard Mandarin. Some non-Beijing natives find it hard to understand what most of them mean, let alone foreigners. A dialect tells about the user's social class, status, profession, and many more. That is why so many translators are taking pains.

Beijing Opera is exactly a colorful part of the film has depicted. Beijing Opera was formed during the period of Daoguang(1821-1850). At the beginning, actors from Chu Opera such as Wang Honggui and Li Liu came to Beijing to perform in the Drama of Hui School. Later, combined with Erhuang melodies and Xipi melodies, in the same time, actors also absorbed the advantages of Kun, Beijing and Qin tunes from their respective schools. Beijing dialects were adapted to adapt to Beijing customs. Thus, it took shape initially. Gradually Beijing Opera developed into the most influential opera in the country. The characters in the whole film have a strong Beijing accent, and many opera excerpts in the film such as Farewell My Concubine, Peony Pavilion and Drunken Imperial Concubine are presented for many times. So it is inevitable to translate many professional terms.

2.3 Cases for Analysis

2.3.1 Brief Introduction to Translation Strategies

Before the specific analysis, let's have a understanding of two basic concepts of domestication and foreignization, which are important strategies in translating culture-loaded words.

The translation theory of domestication and foreignization was first put forward by Schleier Macher, a famous German translation theorist. In his book published in 1813, he put forward that there are only two ways of Translation: one is to guide the readers to get to know the author as much as possible; the other is to guide the author to get to know the readers as much as possible. In 1995, Lawrence Venuti, an American Italian translator, wrote in his important work The Translator's Invisibility, the first method described by Schleier Macher is called "foreignizing method" and the second method is called "domesticating method". That is to say, domestication is oriented by target language, while foreignization is oriented by source language.

As for Linda Javin, she once mentioned in an interview that in the face of the cultural essences in the lines, she adhered to the strategy of domestication in her translation and did not deliberately maintain the oriental flavor contained in the dialogue. Frankly speaking, she doesn't appreciate the way of retaining Pinyin combinations and then adding a lot of notes to make foreigners understood. If Chinese is pleasant to the ear, don't let the expression heard awkwardly in English. So the simplicity and directness are put above everything else to make it easy for the audience to understand.

2.3.2 Cases of Translation Methods

2.3.2.1 Literal Translation

As one of the common methods of translating culture loaded words, literal translation is to translate the source text according to the literal order or meaning, which can retain the original characteristics of Chinese language and culture.

E.g.1世卿世受国恩

岂敢昧法？

更不敢当众违背天理良心。

The government has always been good to me,

I wouldn't dare deceive the court.

Nor would I betray the laws of Heaven or my own conscience.

“天理”“良心” are terms that are quite commonly-used words in China. From literal works to daily talks, from traditional plays to modern films, such kind of expressions are useful guidelines to arouse Chinese People's self-reflection. They are invisible ethical rules guiding people's behaviors. Since they are so local and traditional, it's not surprising that it is a little complicated for foreign audiences to figure them out. Based on the "literal translation" principle, Linda brings "Heaven" into her translation. In Christian culture, "Heaven" serves as the source of various moral concepts and systems. "Heaven" and "God" are existed to guide and restrict people's behaviors. Linda's translation has wonderfully adapted to the target eco-environment and is really worthy of referencing of the subtitling workers and learners.

E.g.2磨剪子来，镪菜刀

Bring your knives for sharpening? Sharpen your knives.

Sharpening knives is a traditional craftsmanship that is disappearing in China. Their dreich yo-heave-ho can evoke many people's memories of childhood. Such lively lines full of traditional Chinese cultural elements, on the one hand, are not so easy to translate; on the other hand, deserve more efforts for the foreign audiences to figure out. Considering all these factors, Linda pays attention to the retaining of its central meaning. Actually, a more literal translation method "Sharpen your scissors, sharpen your knives" may achieve more active functions here. It's the easiest to understand, and it can save viewing and thinking time as well. As for some complicated cultural terms, the best way, the easiest as well, maybe literal translation, which can avoid misunderstanding and superfluous deducing. Finally, they benefit a lot to saving viewing time.

E.g.3什么时候洞房花烛夜啊？

What’s the time of Candle-lit-night in the Bridal Chamber?

“洞房花烛夜” is a typical expression in ancient times of China, which means the golden night of the new husband and new wife on the day they get married. The night usually is beautiful and memorable and it is the first night the new couple. As for this line, Linda did not specifically explain what is the “洞房花烛夜” , instead she use the literal meaning to depict a picture of the special night, translating “花烛夜” to “Candle-lit-night”, which is so warm and beautiful.

E.g.4横扫一切牛鬼蛇神！

Sweep away all Cow Demons and Snake Spirits!

There is an article titled “Sweep away all Cow Demons and Snake Spirits!” published on the People's Daily on June 1, 1966, which marked the climax of the Proletarian Cultural Revolution. The "Cow Demons and Snake Spirits" represents the old ideas, cultures, customs and habits that have poisoned Chinese people for thousands of years. Under the call of the Party Central Committee and Chairman Mao Zedong, hundreds of millions of workers, peasants and soldiers, revolutionary cadres and intellectuals, swept away a large number old things entrenched in the ideological and cultural position. Its momentum is like a storm, with extraordinary rapidity, breaking the spiritual shackles imposed on them by the exploiting class. Using “Cow Demons” to express “牛鬼”, “Snake Spirits” to express “蛇神” is direct, clear and distinct.

2.3.2.2 Free Translation

Free translation is the translation by meanings. That is to say, the translation is done according to the real meanings of a sentence or even a paragraph, instead of completely word to word.

E.g.1他祖师爷不肯赏饭吃，谁也没辙。

But I have no place for him. What can I do?

“祖师爷” is similar to "forefathers" to some extent in China's history. Without knowledge of the specific historical period, foreign audiences won't understand its exact meaning. Perhaps we can understand it as "destiny" "fate" or "god" of western culture, there are still cultural differences between them. From the plots in the film, we know that Mater does not want to accept Little Bean as his disciple, so he explains that Little Bean is not destined to be an actor. From this perspective, "destiny" is the most ideal choice to express the original meaning. Considering all these factors, Linda uses the strategy of "free translation" to put it as "I have no place for him" to refuse Little Bean's mother. Thus, she makes the lines easier to understand, and meanwhile, to avoid leading to a cultural misunderstanding.

E.g.2今儿个是破题儿，文章还在后头哪！

This is just the beginning. Wait till you see what's in store.

“破题” once appeared in "Romance of the Western Chamber” by Wang Shipu, a playwright of Yuan Dynasty. Since then, it has been widely used in various circumstances to refer to "the first time". From the translated version, it's clear that the translation of “破题” as "beginning" exhibits that the subtitle translator, Linda Javin, is quite familiar with the usage of the old Chinese words.

E.g.3真他妈想当太太奶奶啦你！

做你娘的玻璃梦去吧。

你当出了这门，把脸一抹擦，你还真成了良人了？

So you want to become a rich man's wife!

Go live out this goddamn fantasy' then

Don't think that when you walk out this door, you'll become a lady of virtue.

“太太奶奶” has different meanings in China in different social contexts. Without thinking or checking it, it's easy to translate it as "grandmother" "lady" or something like these. Besides, “良” means "good, kind", but here, “良人” doesn't mean "a good, kind or nice-hearted person", instead, it refers to the woman who has abandoned prostitution and become a traditional honest and good woman. Linda's translation of "a lady of virtue" is quite authentic and loyal to the original text.

E.g.4那么日后踏雪访梅，再谈不迟。

Ah, then we shall exchange poetic thoughts some other day.

“踏雪访梅” extracted from Night Vessel, written by Zhang Dai of Ming Dynasty. Originally, it's used to refer to describe the enjoyment with the beautiful scenery and the pursuit for wonderful poems of the ancient poets. In Farewell My Concubine, Mr Yuan invites Xiaolou and Dieyi to his house to have some wine and chat about certain details of the opera. The latter example is also full of cultural terms, which is said by Nakun when he tries to encourage Dieyi to talk with Xiaolou hurriedly and actively. In both examples, Linda deals with the cultural elements skillfully and flexibly.

E.g.4这武二郎碰上西门庆，不打，不打能成吗？

You know the old story about Pan Jinlian's husband meeting the man who screwed her? Did he have any choice but to fight?

It's an old story about Pan Jinlian and his husband in ancient China. When performing translation, a translator needs to place the specific written text under some relative social and cultural backgrounds. This is useful and meaningful for a better and comprehensive expression of the original meaning. The story of “武二郎”“西门庆” is typically traditional Chinese cultural element, the translated text can't be formed without relative culture knowledge. For some literary allusion, stating its general meaning to offer a general idea is very helpful for the audience to grasp the central meaning.

E.g.5这妞够厉害的呀！

What a dragon lady!

Different cultures have different cultural prototypes. Dragon is a propitious symbol in China. As a Chinese totem, all Chinese people see themselves as the grandsons of the dragons. It's a positive and lucky symbol for Chinese people. However, because of the cultural differences, the "dragon" in Western countries means more evil than good. Its fierceness and grisly outlooks make people feel uncomfortable. Thus, "a dragon lady" here, on the one hand, can show Ju Xian's courage for true love; on the other hand, the image of "dragon" can clearly show to the foreign audiences that Ju Xian is at the bottom of the society and she is despised by the social group. Linda's choice of "dragon" clearly shows her comprehensive consideration for the complicated circumstance then.

E.g.6关师父：各位爷，多捧场了啊!

Master Guan: Ladies and gentlemen, enjoy the show!

“各位爷” is a conventional Chinese way to address the male spectators with respect. However, in English, there is no such a counterpart. Therefore, the translator substitutes it with "Ladies and gentlemen", a conventional way to address the audience of a performance in English. “多捧场了啊” is also conventional in indicating the beginning of a show and literally means "support our show". However, the English convention has it as "enjoy the show." The translator thus conforms to target conventions to avoid deviation from audience's "expectancy norms" which are established by the native text in the receiver target of the translation, by their expectations of what a target language should be like.

E.g.7小石头：嗬，够横的你。

Shitou: You are really something.

“横” in Beijing dialect means harsh and unreasonable, "Be (quite or really) something" is an informal expression referring to a person or a thing is of consequence. In the above example, the replacement of “横” by "be really something" shows that Shitou is impressed by Douzi's arrogance and reveals Shitou's generous nature. Although his kindness to offer a sleep place to Douzi is unappreciated, Shitou does not say something harsh. If it is translated into "You're unreasonable", it would be too straightforward.

2.3.2.3 Generalization

Generalization is defined as the type of modulation in which the dissimilarity between source text and target text transemes is characterized by a shift towards greater generality in target text; as such it contrasts with the opposite phenomenon of specification. Generalization is acceptable if target text has no suitable alternative, or if the omited detail may be gleaned from the target text context or is just not important.

E.g.1不罚，不罚你永远是下三滥。

还想成角？做梦。

And if I don't punish you, you'll always be third-rate.

You want to be a great actor? Dream on!

“下三滥” is a traditional Chinese expression that describes some impuissant and footling people in the lower class status in China. To avoid misunderstanding of it, Linda just translates it as "the third rate", simply and concisely. As for “角”, it's a technical term specially used in dramatic performance referring to leading roles in dramas. But “成角” here means becoming a famous actor or actress. Linda's translation retains the most important and essential meaning.

E.g.2依我看，只要是唱西皮二黄，它就是京戏。

I say if it uses the traditional forms, then it’s the Beijing Opera.

"Xipi Erhuang" is a professional term in drama. "Xipi" and "Erhuang" refer to two different vocal cavities respectively. Xipi originated from Qin opera. Its singing is lively and high pitched, generally being used to express cheerful and excited feelings. Erhuang comes from Anhui. The tone of Erhuang is more stable and serious. In the development of drama, Xipi and Erhuang went through a process of slow integration. If the translator transliterates the tones of "Xipi" and "Erhuang" respectively in the subtitles, on the one hand, the audience without the knowledge of Peking Opera can not understand it completely; on the other hand, the subtitles have space limitations, and the letter translation should not be too long. Here, Linda generally translates it as "the traditional forms" to give the audience an abstract understanding.

E.g.3反正这两杯子也沾上了四旧了

Anyway, jade cups were part of the old society

With abundant political background, on August 8th, 1966, as the film mentioned “in the era of Communist revolution, the on-going Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution will be a revolution that reconstructs people’s mind”. "四旧" as a derogatory word, refers to the collective name and general designation of old ideas, including old culture, old customs and old habits. For a time, streets, factories, communes, time-honored stores and schools were changed into revolutionary names such as "Anti-road Construction", "Dongfeng Store" and "Red Guard War School" , destroying the authority of "bourgeois reactionary academic authorities" such as scholars, writers, artists and scientists. Violence became commonly seen in the streets. Instead of illustrating what is “四旧”, Linda chose “old society” to generally express the real social situation at that time, almost everything should be put out the label of “old, bad” to be accused and criticized.

E.g.4尘世中，男子阳污，女子阴秽

There is foulness in both men and women.

This sentence comes from the mouth of Mr Yuan, a drama addict. The word "尘世" is unique to Chinese. It is used by Buddhists or Taoists to refer to the world, with a deep religious color. However, the main religious belief in western countries is Christianity, and "尘世" has no corresponding word in English. In this sentence, Linda translated the sentence into existential sentence, which is a good way to generalize the meaning of the word. In fact, this sentence means that in the eyes of people who believe in Buddhism or Taoism, men and women on earth are all dirty. If the translator rigidly corresponds "阳污" to "man" and "阴秽" to "woman", the translation will only overlap meaning, resulting the translation not authentic.

E.g.5来给师哥勾勾脸

Will you give me a hand with my make up?

The facial makeup in Peking Opera is a special makeup method. The traditional facial makeup mainly refers to clean facial painting. "勾脸" is one of its painting techniques. In order to let the audience clearly understand the meaning of dialogue, it is literally and generally translated as "make up".

2.3.2.4 Specification

Specification is distinguished from the other type, generalization, in that here the shift which occurs between source text and target text in the direction of a higher level of explicitness. In other words, a shift towards greater specification will produce a transeme the meaning of which is made more precisely, by either the addition of extra words or the use of words with a less general meaning.

E.g.1别介，都是下九流谁嫌弃谁啊

Don’t be foolish. Prostitutes and actors are equally despised by society.

The mother (prostitute) of the little boy (Cheng Dieyi) took him to the troupe and hoped that the master would accept him. After seeing the little boy's sixth finger, the master said he had no gift to sing. So the mother knelt down (sexually) and hinted that the master would benefit as long as he accepted the disciple. So the master said this sentence. There is a saying of "三教九流" in ancient China. The three religions here refer to Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism. The nine religions are divided into upper, middle and lower levels. The translator does not directly translate the "inferior" but translates the contents of the reference, which not only makes the meaning more thorough, but also does not increase the viewing obstacles of the audience.

E.g.2小爷我今儿练的是九转金炉的火丹功。

I have been practicing Kungfu to keep myself warm.

When dealing with those terms with strong cultural meanings, it's proper and wise to conclude some specific tiny terms into a general broader concept. As a result, the translator can save efforts; the audiences can get the general meaning without being entangled in those unimportant tiny details. Kungfu in the translated text, though fails to express the original Taoist cultural meanings, it really saves much screen space and viewing time, thus, it's easier for foreign audiences to understand.

2.3.2.5 Omission

Being opposed to "addition", omission means that some words in the original text do not need to be translated, because although there are no specific words in the translation, potential meaning has been shown. In other words, omission is to delete some unnecessary words, or words that are cumbersome or contrary to the language habits of the translation. But omission does not delete any ideological content of the original text.

E.g.1各位爷都站好甭动。真钱买真货。我小石头今儿个玩儿真的,让爷儿们都开开眼。

I'll give you something to look at.

This scene describes Little Stone and his partners was performing in the street to earn money, but no one gives a reward. In order to attract the audience, Little Stone decided to perform a wonderful show. He decided to hit his head with a brick, so he said the above lines. Because the morpheme of the actor is fast, the picture switches to that he hits his head with a brick as soon as the voice falls, so the translator uses a short sentence to express it. This not only does not affect the audience's viewing of the wonderful picture, but also completely expresses the semantics.

E.g.2他这一亮相,那台底下听戏的人不都吓跑了。

He would scare off the audience

This line is what Master Guan said to Little Bean's mother when he found an extra finger on Little Bean's right hand. While speaking this line, Master Guan stretched out his right hand and made an appearance of being on the stage. Therefore, if the translation of "his appearance" is omitted, this meaningless information vocabulary can be deleted naturally, which does not affect the audience's understanding of the plot at that time, also does not deviate from the meaning of the original lines, and will not cause the audience's confusion. It is a good way to accurately convey the information and let the audience understand the content of the film.

E.g.3陈:唉，袁四爷今儿个来看戏

段:没见我盖着唢呐唱吗？把血都挣出来了

Chen: So, Master Yuan has come to see us tonight.

Duan: I know. I sang so loudly I drowned out the horns.

“今儿个” is a typical time indicator in Beijing dialect. It usually refers to "today". In view of the context, it can also be translated as "tonight". In translating Duan's response, the translator tries to relay its meaning than to represent its form. She omits “把血都挣出来了”，also a typical dialectal expression, which literally means "drive the blood out" and "do very hard" in the real sense. "I sang so loudly" is added to facilitate understanding. The translator also makes efforts to find the most understandable way from the target culture.

Conclusion

3.1 The Conclusion

In terms of translator, translator needs to be super proficient in Chinese and English. In terms of translation strategies, domestication and foreignization are unity of opposites and complement each other, so there is no absolute and pure domestication and foreignization. The translator, the recreator of dialogues in the process of translation, should choose the most appropriate translation strategy to reconstruct the meaning of the original text. In terms of translation methods, when translating the culture-loaded words, Linda Jaivin mainly adopted literal translation, free translation, specification, generalization and omission to nearly successfully preserve and convey the essence in Beijing dialect and Beijing Opera in China.

3.2 Advice

Due to the cultural differences behind translation, some films cannot achieve the same effect abroad as at home. It is true that the two important purposes of subtitle translation are to provide the audience with plot information and to convey the cultural connotation contained in the film. Plot information is the premise of cultural connotation. If the audience of target language cannot understand the plot, it is difficult to achieve cultural communication. Therefore, in the face of handling with culture-loaded words in subtitles, the translator should focus on the purpose of information, put letting the audience understand the film content above everything else, and then give consideration to the cultural purpose.

The subtitle translation in Farewell my concubine mainly adopts the domestication strategy rather than foreignization. Truly speaking, foreignization can retain the cultural characteristics of the original language in translation, making the readers of the target language feel the exotic customs and the unique charm of the source culture. Foreignization could be taken as a means of resistance to the cultural colonial policy of the strong culture, break its "domestication" and strive for winning a place for the weak culture in the forest of global culture. Therefore, there is still a long way for Chinese translators to spread Chinese culture to the countries abroad.

References

[1]Xiao Xiang. The Transmission of Peking Opera Culture in the English Subtitle Translation of Farewell, My Concubine[J]. Frontiers in Educational Research, 2020, 3.0(13.0)

[2]Nan Wan. Subtitling and its Acceptability in the Film Farewell, My Concubine: A Multimodal Approach[J]. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 2019, 10(6) : 94.

[3]张凯娟. 电影字幕翻译中的语域对等研究[D].西南大学,2019.

[4]徐敏. 电影《霸王别姬》的汉英影视字幕翻译评析[D].浙江工商大学,2014.

[5]金海娜.从《霸王别姬》到《一代宗师》———电影译者Linda Jaivin访谈录［J］.中国翻译，2013，34（04）.

[6]杜阿晴.目的论视角下电影字幕中文化负载词的翻译——以电影《霸王别姬》《风月》为例[J].福建教育学院学报,2013,14(04):94-97.

2 谢庆琳 The Analysis of the Chinese Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Russian

Cult_Load_Words_EN_2

Abstract

Language is a product of culture, an integral part of it and a condition of its existence, and an important factor in the formation of cultural codes. Since the 21st century, linguistics has actively studied a direction that sees language as a code for understanding the culture of a nation, not just as a tool for communication and cognition. As we all know, there are certain cultural differences among various ethnic groups influenced by factors such as geographical environment, political system, religious beliefs, living habits, moral values and aesthetic interests. These factors together contribute to the creation of culture-loaded words. The translation of culture-loaded words requires the translator to accurately and appropriately understand the beliefs, customs, aesthetics and values of the foreign culture while faithfully conveying the essence and soul of the translated culture to the readers of the translated language to truly communicate with different cultures. The translation of culture-loaded words directly affects the understanding of readers of the translated work, and also influences the readability and literary quality of the work. The study of Chinese translation of Russian culture-loaded words from the perspective of cultural load words not only promotes the communication between Chinese and Russian languages, but also deepens the cultural understanding between Chinese and Russian people.

Key Words

Russian Culture-loaded Words; Translation Principles; Translation Strategies

摘要

语言是文化的产物，是文化的组成部分和存在条件，也是文化密码形成的一个重要因素。 21世纪以来，语言学积极研究一个方向，即把语言看作是了解一个民族文化的密码，而不仅仅是一个交流和认知的工具。众所周知，各民族受地理环境、政治制度、宗教信仰、生活习惯、道德价值、审美情趣等因素影响，其间存在一定的文化差异。这些因素共同促使了文化负载词的产生。文化负载词的翻译要求译者准确恰当地理解异国文化中的信仰、习俗、审美及价值观等的同时，忠实地将译语文化的精髓与灵魂传递到译语读者面前，真正做到不同文化的交流。对文化负载词的翻译会直接影响译文读者对作品的理解，也影响着作品的可读性及文学性。从文化负载词的角度来研究俄语文化负载词的中译不仅推动中俄两国语言的沟通，同时对加深中俄人民之间的文化理解也具有重要意义。

关键词

俄语文化负载词；翻译原则；翻译策略

Introduction

After the 1970s, cultural factors were gradually incorporated into the scope of linguists' studies, and cultural studies became a topic of common concern for linguists and translators. Susan Bassnett (1990), the core representative of the cultural translation concept, believes that translation is an exchange between cultures, and the reciprocity of translation should not only realize the reciprocity of language forms, but also pursue the reciprocity of cultural functions between the original text and the translated text. Therefore, translation is not only an act of purely linguistic conversion, but also a reflection of the cultural meaning of language. Language is a means of communication of human thoughts and feelings, and it is both a carrier and an important part of culture. In the process of historical development, countries around the world have formed large or small cultural differences due to different geographical environments, political rule, religious beliefs, traditional customs, lifestyles, value orientations and aesthetic interests. These factors have together contributed to the creation of a large number of cultural-loaded words. Each language has its own cultural vocabulary with cultural color and connotation, and these words reflect the cultural values of each nation. Because they are loaded with special national cultural connotations, cultural-loaded words often constitute the focus and difficulty of translation as an act of intercultural communication, and even become a barrier to the transmission of information.

Guided by American translator and translation theorist Eugene Nida's theory of functional equivalence, this paper takes the Russian as an example to explore the cultural information carried by the cultural-loaded words in its subtitles and summarize its translation method. The translation of cultural-loaded words requires the translator to accurately and appropriately understand the beliefs, customs, aesthetics and values of the foreign culture, while faithfully transmitting the essence and soul of the translated culture to the readers of the translated language, so as to truly communicate with different cultures. The study of Chinese subtitles of Russian TV series from the perspective of cultural-load words not only promotes the communication between Chinese and Russian languages, but also has great significance in deepening the cultural understanding between Chinese and Russian people.

The paper consists of an introduction, three chapters and concluding remarks. The introductory part firstly describes the feasibility, theoretical significance and practical significance of this research, and then clarifies the novelty of this research. The first chapter briefly outlines the concept of cultural-loaded words, and classifies cultural-loaded words according to Eugene Nida's functional equivalence theory, laying the foundation for the translation study of cultural-loaded words later on. Chapter 2 analyzes in detail the cultural-loaded words appearing in “Intern”, and discusses the translation principles and translation strategies of cultural-loaded words. The third chapter analyzes the causes of mistranslation and difficult-to-understand cultural-loaded words in “Intern”. The concluding remarks summarize the content of the whole text.

Culture-loaded Words

Definition of Culture-loaded Words

Culture-loaded words are also called culturally connotative words. In the language system, culture-loaded words are the vocabulary which can best embody the cultural information that a language carries and they also reflect the social life.

Behind each vocabulary are deeply imprinted the cultural, geographical and historical characteristics of a society. Vocabulary is the basic element of language,and the formation of each vocabulary is inseparable from culture. It carries a largeamount of "national cultural accumulation", that is, cultural connotation. This article is an analysis of Russian cultural-loaded words, reflecting mostly about the Russian national culture.

Language is the carrier of culture, so cultural differences must also be reflected in language. Translation means the spread of culture, and words that carry culture are words that express culture. Therefore, the translator focuses on the cultural-loaded words that appear in the source text, and on this basis. The words containing language and culture reflect the development, progress and change of the language of a country's dynasties, as well as the accumulation of various activities that are completely different from other countries (Liao, 2002). Translating social cultural terms and ecological cultural terms can truly understand the living conditions and social conditions of a country in a specific period.

Classification of Culture-loaded Words

According to Naida's classification of cultural factors, cultural load words are divided into five categories: the first category is ecological cultural load words, which usually refer to words related to plants, animals, climate, etc. of a specific region, for example, a small twisting path is not used in the Russian language environment, such as “羊肠小径”. The second category is material cultural load words. For example, “轿子” refers to a human-powered means of transportation in feudal China, which does not exist in Western countries. The third category is the social cultural load words, which usually involve words of social etiquette, social identity and leisure, such as kneel three times and kowtow nine, the dragon boat festiva, which are unique to Chinese culture and tradition. The fourth category is religious cultural load words, which are generally words reflecting the cultural beliefs of a certain nationality, such as “八字”(horoscopes), “算命先生”(fortune-teller), and so on. The fifth category is language-based cultural load words, which reflect the different ways of speaking and habits of different ethnic groups in terms of phonetics, vocabulary, syntax and so on. For example, the name of a person, the use of idioms, and so on.

Translation Principles and Strategies of Russian Culture-loaded Words

Translation Principles of Russian Culture-loaded Words

The Principle of Faithfulness to the Original Text

Fidelity to the original text is one of the most basic principles and standards of translation. When translating cultural-loaded words, two points should be clear: on the one hand, we can not add some cultural meanings in the translation process based on our own conjecture. On the one hand, it is not possible to attach some cultural meanings to the translation process that are not intended by the author of the original text. For example, the Russian word for rabbit (заяц) has a negative cultural symbolism and is considered to be a symbol of evil and cowardice, while In the passage of «Судьба Человека»: "… а я уже на ничьей земле между воронками петляю не хуже зайца" (李世俊，张永全等: 1999), a soldier tells how he bravely and wisely crossed the German lines. The rabbit is used here only to borrow the positive image of its quick and dexterous movements, not the cultural symbolism described above. If we do not take into account the author's real intention and turn it into "no less than a timid rabbit", we are not being faithful to the original text, but rather making a faux pas. Therefore, this sentence should be translated as "I have reached the middle of the field, and I am not less dexterous than a rabbit in going around in the middle of the crater."

On the other hand, it is important to translate the cultural meaning of the culturally loaded words that are crucial or important to the understanding of the text, as it is easy to misunderstand if only the surface meaning is translated. For example, “сушить сухарь” literally means toast a thousand, but in fact it means to prepare dry food for exile on the road, and now it often refers to eating lawsuits. If there is a scene in Chinese literature where the crane is used to celebrate a long life, it must be translated into Russian with the meaning of longevity in Chinese culture, otherwise the Russians will find it inexplicable.

Contextual Principal

The meaning of words is often multi-layered and multi-faceted, and translators should judge the meaning of specific words according to the context. Therefore, context is the key to determining the true meaning of a word in a specific context and to help the translator correctly translate the original text.

The following are three situations to determine the specific meaning: (1) Words that often have cultural meaning and represent cultural images may not have culturally loaded meaning in a certain context. (2) The same culturally loaded word may have a different cultural meaning in a specific context. For example, the Russian word “ медведь” sometimes means "powerful" and sometimes means "heavy". Sometimes it refers to the strength of the bear, sometimes it refers to the stupidity of the bear, and sometimes it also refers to the maidenhead. Therefore, it is more important to determine the exact meaning according to the context when translating. (3) Common words may become cultural-loaded in specific contexts. (3) Common words may become cultural-loaded words in specific contexts.

Principle of Appropriateness of Explicit and Implicit

The cultural-loaded word serves the text with its cultural meaning, so the translation should be either explicit or implicit according to the needs of the text, to keep the text simple and fluent. For example, due to the limitation of space or style For example, in Russian,“кричать во всю Ивановскую” literally means "shouting at Ivan Square" because in the Tsarist era, decrees and orders were issued on Ivan Square, and people often had to shout to hear them. Therefore, it is not necessary to turn out the meaning of the cultural load when translating into foreign languages, and it can be directly translated as shouting. However, if the translator intends to introduce this historical and cultural phenomenon, it is a different story. In short, the translation of cultural-loaded words should serve the whole text, and be consistent with the context and the author's style, and the translator's purpose.

Translation Strategies of Russian Culture-loaded Words

Translation principles are macro requirements for the translation process, while in the actual translation process, in order to achieve good translation, in addition to following these principles, we must also adopt necessary translation strategies according to the specific characteristics of the vocabulary. The complexity and specificity of cultural factors determine the variability of the meaning and form of culturally loaded terms, as well as the flexibility and adaptability of their translation means. Generally speaking, in order to achieve good translation effect, translators often use such translation strategies as "direct translation (phonetic translation) plus annotation", "direct translation with free translation" and "free translation" for cultural-loaded words and so on.

Direct Translation (Phonetic Translation) plus Annotation

The direct translation mainly refers to the translation that retains the original language form completely, so that it is similar to the original text. The method of translation is similar to the original text and has the same structure. Since this method mainly focuses on the linguistic form of the original text, sometimes the translation cannot fully and accurately express the original text.Sometimes the translation cannot fully express the original language accurately, then the translator can adopt the method of adding. In this case, the translator can adopt the method of adding notes to offset the loss of meaning brought by this translation strategy. Cultural-loaded words contain a large number of national-specific words, such as various proper nouns, historical allusions and these words have no direct counterparts in the translated language. Therefore, it is often necessary to translate them by the strategy of phonetic translation with annotation. For example, many literary works use phonetic translation of the Russian national costume “сарафан”, which is translated as "Sarah A" with a note stating that the sarafan is a traditional Russian folk dress without sleeves.

Direct Translation with Free Translation

Direct translation with paraphrase is a translation method that combines direct translation and translation with meaning, which not only translates the surface meaning of the original text word by word, but also translates the potential meaning beyond the surface meaning of the original text. The direct translation is a method of translating not only the surface meaning of the original text word by word, but also the potential meaning beyond the surface meaning. For the translation of cultural-loaded words, the combination of direct translation and literal translation can better reveal their true meanings in terms of both form and content. The Russian word "колосс на глиняных ногах" from the «Old Testament»It is about the dream of Nebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, who saw a giant statue of a terrible shape, whose feet were half clay and half iron, and the whole statue collapsed due to a stone that happened to hit his feet from the mountain. This dream symbolized the doomed kingdom of Nebuchadnezzar. Thus, the cultural meaning of "giant with feet of clay" refers to a country that is outwardly strong but actually weak and destined to perish. Thus, Lenin said in his speech on November 7, 1919, at the conference commemorating the second anniversary of the October Revolution: "Мы видим, что империализм, который казался таким непреодолимым колосом, казался на глазах у всех колоссом на глиняных ногах." (刘永红：2002) The whole sentence should be translated as "We see that imperialism, which looks like a giant that cannot be served, is actually a giant in the mud with a strong exterior in the eyes of everyone.

Free Translation

The free translation strategy emphasizes the meaning conveyed to the original language words in specific contexts. The first thing is to translate the meaning of the original, not necessarily to preserve the original form, not to achieve the same literal and structural translation as the original. The translation is suitable for the translation of the cultural load words whose cultural meaning does not play a major role in the original text, or the cultural load words whose cultural image is too remote, sometimes also subject to the limitations of the manuscript and style and use this method, a cultural load words, such as culturally significant sayings, proverbs, because for a long time Ba Jing has a conventional translation of foreign, so in the translation can also be used when the original translation method. For example, "китайская грамота" literally means "Chinese word", "Chinese character", but because of the big difference between Russian and Chinese, it is very difficult for Russians to understand Chinese characters, so here it is translated as "heavenly book, incomprehensible, inexplicable thing". “Для него это китайская грамота” translates as "He doesn't know anything about it".

The Translation Difficulties of Russian Culture-loaded Words

Translatability of Culture-loaded Words in Russian

Language is the most important tool for human communication and one of the important carriers of information. The cultural characteristics of a nation's way of thinking, concepts, and systems are bound to leave their mark on language. Vocabulary is one of the most active dimensions of language. Changes in social life, the development of national culture and other changes can be recorded through vocabulary. Culture-loaded words are those words, phrases and idioms that mark things specific to a certain culture, and these words reflect the unique way of activity of a particular people that has gradually accumulated over a long historical process and is distinct from other peoples. Although translation is a transformation of symbols in its manifestation, in its essence it is a cultural exchange activity. The difficulty of translation is not the language itself, but how to convey the cultural content of the original language. The Russian cultural load is an important external expression of Russian culture, which is difficult to find in other national languages, but this does not mean that the cultural load is untranslatable. Firstly, although the differences between languages of different nationalities are determined by their respective nationalities, the similarity of human living conditions and physiological structure determines the similarity of human thinking patterns, therefore, different nationalities have similarities in understanding and understanding things; secondly, translation activities have a long history, and there are numerous cases of translators overcoming cultural gaps and achieving successful translations in the rich translation practice, therefore, the translatability of culture- loaded words is proven by a large number of translation practices. Thus, translators can still use their dynamism in a limited space to preserve and convey the cultural elements contained in the culture-loaded words in Russian.

Factors Affecting the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Russian

The first is the internal factor, i.e., the internal factor of language. In his book «Language and Translation», Balhudarov divides the translation unit into six levels: phonemic level, grapheme level, word level, phrase level, sentence level, and discourse level, in an effort to make the original text and the translated text equivalent. After the 1980s, translation research has taken a new direction - the cultural theory of translation, and Susan Basnett, as one of the representatives of this school, believes that translation should take culture as the basic unit of translation, instead of resting on the previous parts of speech. The original text is the most real and objective existence in translation, and the characteristics of the translation object itself will also affect the translation, and the culture-loaded words have the characteristics of ethnicity, implication and unaccustomedness. When translating culture-loaded words, translators often encounter two bottlenecks: first, the lack of corresponding vocabulary; second, the lack of equivalent cultural meaning, that is, the same word in different cultural contexts expresses different connotations. In ancient Chinese philosophy, it is important to "look at things and take images", and under the influence of traditional Chinese thinking, Chinese tends to use concrete words to express imaginary concepts. The abstract content is expressed by the concrete image. Take the word "jianghu" as an example. "Jianghu" is another new word with changed connotation and extension, which is composed of the concepts of "river" and "lake". The word "jianghu" lacks its semantic and formal equivalents in Russian, so translators need to adopt a flexible translation approach to interpret the semantic and cultural connotations of the word "jianghu".

Second, external factors, including the translator's own body and the purpose of translation, etc. The translator is the most active factor in the translation activity, and is the doer of the whole translation activity, which must be completed by the translator. There is no shortage of excellent translators in China, most of them are concentrated in the field of English studies. Unlike the English translations of Chinese literary and artistic works, the translators of both film and television dramas and Chinese literary and theoretical works are mostly Russians. Unlike the Chinese translators' approach to Chinese culture, foreign translators, when translating, unlike the Chinese translators' approach to Chinese culture, foreign translators may have less sense of mission and enthusiasm for spreading Chinese culture when they translate from Chinese to foreign languages, and they pay more attention to the reading norms and market acceptance of contemporary readers, so they tend to adopt translation strategies such as paraphrasing and naturalizing to facilitate the understanding of readers of the translated language.

Conclusion

There is a growing awareness that language is just an international communication tool and is not restricted to a particular country or nation but as a neutral information medium. This paper analyzed the definition and claasification of culture-loaded words. Then we disscussed the translation principles and strategies of Russian culture-loaded words. Last it discussed the difficulties in the translation of these words, and makes a conclusion that we should use the combination of literal translation and free translation in the translation according to different circumstances.

Translation is a language communicative activity; there are a lot of words with Russian cultural features, so we cannot find the equivalent words to express the same cultural information in the target language. When translating these cultural-loaded words, it needs the help of alienation principles, achieving the conversion between language and cultural information. However, after all, the reader's understanding of Russian culture is limited, so the translator must follow the rules of Russian language and expression, taking the text type, translation factors such as purpose and audience into consideration to acquire the best translation.

To sum up, language, culture and translation are inseparable. Language is also a cultural phenomenon, while culture shapes language. Translation is a tool for exchanging different cultures and human civilizations, and therefore they are closely related. In the process of intercultural communication and translation, culturally loaded words are the main obstacle, but they reveal the cultural characteristics and social customs of a people. Accurate and faithful translation of culture-loaded words plays a crucial role in facilitating cultural exchange. Direct translation and paraphrasing are effective translation strategies to solve the problem of culture-loaded words. Direct translation can help the target language readers understand the translation more easily. It aims to make the target language readers and the source language readers empathize. However, free translation is intended to preserve the cultural style of the source language for the readers. These two approaches may seem to be opposing, but they actually complement each other. It is impossible for a translator to use one translation strategy to complete the translation task, so in translation practice as a translator, he or she should try to make a comprehensive use of the two translation methods to make the translation more relevant and evocative.

References

[1] 从业平. 俄语中反映民族文化特点的词汇. 中国俄语教学. 1988年.

[2] 杜文杰. 俄语的民族文化特征. 对外经济贸易大学学报. 2000年.

[3] 何东燕. 文化负载词与文化差异意识. 西南民族学院学报. 2002年.

[4] 刘重德. 文化语言翻译. 文化与语言. 1992年.

[5] 吴国华. 俄汉文化伴随意义词汇对比研究. 中国俄语教学. 1989年.

3 罗曦 Gary Snyder’s Translation of the Culture-loaded Words in Han Shan’s Poems from the Perspective of the Functionalist Skopos Theory

Cult_Load_Words_EN_3

=Key Words

the Functionalist Skopos Theory； Gary Snyder； Culture-loaded Words；Han Shan

关键词

文化负载词；功能对等理论；华夏集；庞德

Abstract

Since the 1970s, the German functionalist school, represented by Rice, Vermeer, Mantali and Nord school has provided a fresh perspective for translation studies. According to this school of thought, the translation process is governed by various factors. The purpose of the act of translation determines the whole process of the act of translation, and the intended purpose of the translation determines the translator's role in the process of translation. Taking German Functionalist Skopos Theory as the theoretical framework, this paper selects Gary Snyder's translation of Han Shan's poems as the object of study. The study is based on Nida's classification of the cultural factors involved in the translation, namely ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. In this study, a comparative analysis of the cultural factors in the Chinese and English versions of Han Shan's poems is conducted, and the following conclusions are drawn in the translation process. The translators have adopted different strategies and methods of translation for different cultural factors according to different translation purposes. The translation has achieved its intended purpose, for Gary Snyder initiated American people's passion for Han Shan through his translation of Han Shan's works, thus disseminating Han Shan's thinking of the indifference to fame and wealth and persuading American to protect the environment.However, Snyder also partly distorted the image of Han Shan, changing Han Shan's image from a Chinese monk to a representative of hipster.Though it is based on the target of progressing the process of American's acceptance of Han Shan, it has also caused some misunderstanding about Han Shan's culture. The English translation of Han Shan's poems is a successful translation, which proves that the Functionalist Skopos Theory has a practical guiding role in literary translation, and has certain inspirational effects on the "going abroad" of Chinese literature. However, from the distortion of Han Shan's image,we can also find some shortcomings of the Functionalist Skopos Theory.

Introduction

Gary Snyder (1930-) is a contemporary American poet as well as an environmentalist. There are profound ecological awareness and themes in his poems, and he is also well-known as one of the member in “beat generation”，which is a group of people who take an arm against the corrupted and hypocritical American society. In order to save people’s hollow spirit at that time, Gary Snyder resort to other culture. For example, he absorbed the thinking of Zen in Japan, and tried to disseminate the essence of it among American, so he translated Han Shan’s poems, who is a Chinese monk and poet in Tang dynasty showing Zen spirit in his poems. Culture-loaded words can express different ideologies in different countries, and the analysis on Gary Snyder’s translation of the culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems has found that Snyder’s translation is consistent with the idea of Functionalist Skopos Theory. This theory proposes that all the methods and strategies of translating depend on the purpose of the translation，and Gary Snyder didn’t translate the culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems faithfully to meet his own need, which is consistent with the Functionalist Skopos Theory. Through analyzing different strategies used by Gary Snyder in his translation, this paper aims to probe the pros and cons of Functionalist Skopos Theory and the significance of Gary Snyder’s translation in transcultural communication.

Culture-loaded Words

Definition of Culture-loaded Words

Different culture has different histories, and during its historical changes, each country will have its own culture, unique and distinctive. As a result, each country has many unique things, including but not limited to habits, language and rhetoric, religious beliefs, authorities and so on. To a certain extent, the words that describe these things can only be understood by the people who live in that country. The denotations and connotations of these words have been endowed by the indigenous people of different countries，and these words are culture-loaded words. "culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify something specific to a culture" (Liao Qiyi, 2000).The birth of these words inevitably comes from the unique habits of different people in different countries" (Liao Qiyi, 2000: 232). For instance, '鱼服', which appears in a famous Chinese poem '采薇', refers to a kind of bag made from fish skin, and this was a tool used in warfare in ancient China to hold arrows. The tool is unique to China and was created through the experience and simple wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. It is unique to China, and such a tool, obviously,is culture-loaded, which people of other nations do not possess and cannot understand. This is a culture-loaded term that needs explanation in order to be understood by other peoples.

Classification of Culture-loaded Words

A number of scholars, both nationally and internationally, have classified culture-loaded words. Given that Eugene A. Nida’s classification of culture- loaded words has been influential, who is a distinguished American linguist and translator，and his five categories of texts are relatively parallel. This paper classifies the culture-loaded words in Gary Snyder's translation of Han Shan's poems according to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words. According to Naida's classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into five categories: ecocultural-loaded words,physical material culture-loaded words, sociocultural-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, and linguistic culture-loaded words(Nida,1993)

The Translation methods of culture-loaded words

By its very nature, translation is an intercultural activity, and as such the aim of translation is to transmit what is expressed in the culture of the original language to the culture of the target language. In fact, there is no strictly fixed formula for this process of cultural transmission. However, after many years of translation activity, there are broad categories of translation methods that people use. These classifications can help translators to clarify their thinking and to translate better. Therefore, some of the translation methods used by Gary Snyder are listed here as follows. Firstly, A direct translation, as the name suggests, is a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence translation. The direct translation method is a way that can best preserve the meaning of the original text among all translation methods, and it is also the method that is most frequently used in translation. Due to differences in culture, lifestyle and other aspects, there may not be many identical correspondences between Chinese and English, but if possible, using a direct translation is literally the best strategy. For instance, the Chinese phrase "大锅飯" can be translated directly as "big pot system"; Chinese readers also mostly understand the English phrase "black horse "in English.Secondly,Substitution,the replacement of culture-loaded words in the original language with words from the target language, is a method with mixed advantages and disadvantages The advantage of the substitution method is that it makes it easier for readers of the target language to understand the meaning of the original text by using words that are familiar to them.However, the disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult to find a proper relevant cultural expressions in the culture of the target language, making it difficult to disseminate the culture of the original country, and even causing the readers of the target language to misunderstand the culture of the original country and believe that the cultural habits of the two countries are the same.Thirdly,Phonetic translation means using words with a similar or identical pronunciation to the original language instead of the words used in the original language in order to achieve the translation effect desired by the translator. The use of phonetic translations can actually help a country's culture to reach out, but they are not easily understood by readers in the target language. This is why transliteration is often used in conjunction with an annotation, while it is not always necessary. For example, '沙发' in Chinese is a phonetic translation of the English word,and the Chinese word '粽子‘ can also be directly translated as “zongzi” in English. Fourthly，Paraphrasing refers to the use of the target language to explain the original text. Paraphrasing can, to the greatest extent， possible preserve the meaning of the original language. The paraphrase, however, has its disadvantage that it is difficult to preserve the structure of the poem in its lucidity and elegance. This includes the difficulty of preserving some of the rhythmic and prosodic forms, so sometimes lucidity and elegance need to be sacrificed to preserve expressiveness. For example, the Chinese phrase "八寶粽子", when translated into English, is translated as "Glutinous Rice Dumpling with Eight-Treasure".Fifth,Creative rebellion refers to the process of translation in which the translator consciously 'distorts' the meaning of the original language so the translation can become more understandable to the reader or can be more easily expressed by the translator himself. For example, Zhai Lisi（Herbert Allen Giles）In his translation of Early Spring in the East of the City, he translates the word '新春' as 'early May'.This seems to be a 'mistranslation' of the original text, but the fact that the chronology is different in Central Europe makes this translation more helpful to Western readers. Thus, although such a translation "distorts" the apparent meaning of the original, it is a better way of conveying the true meaning of the text.Sixth, In literary translation, 'annotation' is a common method of translation because it is difficult to translate the 'quotations' of Chinese and Western cultures in just a few words. The translator will therefore often add annotations in their translations. For example, in the beginning, when Chinese readers were not aware of cloning technology,the term clone was translated as "cloning (a method of asexual reproduction)" ,which is a combination of "phonetic" and "apostrophe". Seventh, Generalisation refers to a method of translation in which a more refined range of things is translated to encompass a wider range of meanings. Generally speaking, such translations lose the nuance and precision of the original. However, it can be used when necessary. For example, the translator translates "lily" as "flower",which is a kind of "generalisation".Eighth,Omission is not a very common translation technique,However, when translating from Chinese to English, in order to make the translation more concise and easier for Western readers to read, translators will choose to use omission.

the Functionalist Skopos Theory

Definition

the Functionalist Skopos Theory is the founding theory and mainstream of German functionalism. It was proposed by the famous German translation theorist Hans Vermeer in the 1970s on the basis of behavioural theory. the Functionalist Skopos Theory holds that the act of translation and the nature of translation is a purposeful intercultural communication with its purposive, communicative and intercultural nature.

Three Principles of the Functionalist Skopos Theory

the Functionalist Skopos Theory consists of three principles: the principle of purpose, the law of coherence and the law of fidelity. The principle of purpose means that the translation should work in the context and culture of the language into which it is translated The purpose principle means that the translation should function in the way that the recipient of the translation expects it to function. The principle of coherence means that the translation must be internally coherent, so that the translation is readable, meaningful and relevant in the culture and communication of the target language. The principle of fidelity means that the translation must be faithful to the original, that it must be interlingually consistent with the original, and that the translation must be faithful to the extent and in the way that the recipient understands it. The degree of fidelity and the form of fidelity are determined by the purpose of the translation. The principle of purpose is the primary principle of all translations.

4 何芩 The Translation of Cultural-loaded words in Jiu Zhang in Chu Ci Translated by Xu Yuanchong 《九章》许渊冲译本文化负载词的翻译

Cult_Load_Words_EN_4

5 孙雅诗 Study on cultural loaded word translation under the ecological translation horizon——Take the English translation of Dou'e injustice as an example

Cult_Load_Words_EN_5

Abstract

Based on the ecological translation theory, this article take the translation of cultural loaded words in Dou’e injustice, one Yuan Dynasty drama, as the research object, and analyze how the translators deliver the cultural information to the target audiences in terms of language dimension, culture dimension and communication dimension to promote the valid dissemination of drama culture in English-speaking countries. Also this article hopes to provide an effective reference for the current drama translation so as to make more foreign audiences appreciate Chinese drama and promote Chinese drama culture to go out better.

Key Words

Culture-loaded Words；Ecological translation；Chinese Classics

摘要

本文基于生态翻译学理论，以元代戏剧《窦娥冤》文化负载词的翻译为研究对象，探究译者如何从语言维、文化维和交际维对戏剧中文化负载词进行翻译，并把这些词所承载的文化信息有效地传递给目标受众，促进元代杂剧文化在英语国家的有效传播，从而为当前戏剧的外宣翻译提供有效借鉴，促进中国戏剧文化更好地走出去，为外国受众欣赏。

关键词

文化负载词；生态翻译学；戏剧；翻译

Introduction

Research Background

Chinese drama is the artistic treasure of Chinese classical culture and an important part of Chinese culture. In order to make the Chinese drama culture go out and let more foreign audiences understand and appreciate it, translation plays a very key role as a communicating bridge. However, due to the complexity of drama language and its historical culture, drama translation is difficult. To convey its original cultural connotations as much as possible, an appropriate translation strategy is required. At present, there are many theories of translation, this article chose to study Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie’s translation of Dou’e injustice based on the ecological translation theory for two reasons. First, drama translation readers are not only the text readers, but also the directors, actors and audiences, so the translator needs to consider how to properly deal with the drama translation elements in the ecological environment. Second, in terms of domestic research situation, there is not much translation research on Dou'e injustice. We search the theme "Dou’e injustice translation" on CNKI, only to find 13 related papers. And there is only one paper related to the ecological translation. However, it just does the research in terms of cultural dimension and doesn’t fully use the ecological translation, so the study on English translation of Dou’e injustice based on ecological translation theory has a value of reference in some degree.

Relevant basic concepts

1. Cultural loaded word

Cultural loaded words, also known as unique cultural words and cultural connotation words, are the words or phrases that indicates things and concepts which belong to a certain culture. It "only exists in a certain culture, while in another culture, it is blank ".According to the cultural classification of Eugene A. Nida, cultural loaded words can be roughly divided into five types, which are the ecological words, material words, social words, religious words and linguistic cultural words.

2. Ecological translation

Ecological translation was put forward by Professor Hu Gengshen of Tsinghua University. He combined Darwin's basic principles of "natural selection" with the translation research work, and creatively put forward the view that "translators should adapt to the translation ecological environment and accept the control of the translation ecological environment". He believes that "translation is an activity in which translators should adapt to and select the translation ecological environment". This definition of the translation makes the translators be in the center during the translating process. He also advocates that translators should give full play to their subjective initiative and focus on the three dimensions, which are language, culture and communication. Here are the detailed introduction of these three important dimensions in ecological translation.

2.1 Language adaptability

The language dimension translation of cultural loaded words requires the real translation environment to be included into the target translation text. Translators should make effective conversions between the word pronunciation and semantic, word collocation, grammar structure and discourse layout to ensure that the translation can accurately convey the real meaning of the culture loaded words from the source language, and make them adapt to the expression habits of the target language utmost。

2.2 Cultural adaptability

The cultural dimension translation of cultural loaded words requires the translator to compare and analyze the cultural backgrounds and connotations of the source language and target language to realize the effective conversions between cultural connotations which are from different cultural backgrounds and to prevent the occurrence of cultural misunderstanding or cultural ambiguity phenomenon.

2.3 Communication adaptability

The communication dimension translation of cultural loaded words requires the translator to translate in terms of objective, true and accurate translation principles and effectively convey what the original author or discourse speaker intends to express emotional attitude and communication information to achieve the real communication utility. From the introduction above, we can see that ecological translation requires the translator, also the center, to make a comprehensive analysis of translation adaptation conditions and conduct valid conversions between the three dimensions to achieve a good effect in translation[1 ], which is challenging but meaningful.

3. Dou'e injustice

Dou 'e injustice is a representative Yuan miscellaneous drama written by Guan Hanqing, and it’s also a model of Yuan miscellaneous drama tragedies. It is based on the folk story of "Filial Women in the East China Sea" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. And it is of high value in the cultural aspect with a broad mass base. About 86 dramas have adapted and performed it. In the aspect of art, it reflects the integration of realism and romantic style. With rich imagination, bold exaggeration and the design of the surreal plot, it shows the huge power of justice, embodies the author's distinct love and hate, and reflects the people’s desire to punish the evildoers and fulfill the justice.

Structure of the Research

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Body

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References

阳赟.适应与选择——《窦娥冤》英译文化维适应性探究[J].辽宁医学院学报(社会科学版),2012,10(04):128-130.

亢连连,刘思齐,姜华.浅析生态翻译学视角下陕西文化负载词的翻译策略[J].英语广场,2020(30):26-28.

曹雅琴,李延林 .生态翻译学视角下文化负载词口译——基于译者的适应与选择[J].青年时代,2020(4):17-18.

蒋晓萍,罗云 .生态翻译学视域下中国饮食文化负载词翻译研究——以《世说新语》英译本为例[J].广州大学学报(社会科学版),2020,19(5):54-61.

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6 杜莉娜 On the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Tourism Texts from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication—Exemplified by Zhangjiajie

Cult_Load_Words_EN_6

Abstract

Culture-loaded words are special in vocabulary for all kinds of language. Being different from general words, the strong local traits of these words are concealed behind the language form, which leads to the untranslatability and difficulties of translating. The translation of culture-loaded words is a big challenge for a translator since he/she needs to master both the source language and the target language as well as be familiar with the local culture. The translator needs to keep the translation accurate and advoids to lose cultural identities of a term. A study of translating culture-loaded from an international communication perspective is practical for that taking communication as purpose it focuses on culture behind a language and tries to find an alternative expression, which makes the recievers fully understand the target language and its culture. In the light of intercultural communication, this paper takes tourism texts published in the official site of Zhangjiajie as example to analyze the translation principles and strategies of culture-loaded in tourism texts, deeply discussing some problems in the translation of tourism texts and providing some practical solutions for it.

Key Words

Intercultural Communication; Tourism;Culture-loaded words;Translation

摘要

对于任何一种语言来说，文化负载词都是词汇中一种特殊存在形式。与普通词汇不同，它借用语言外形将自己浓厚的当地色彩包裹起来，使其不可译或难以翻译。文化负载词的翻译是对译者对源语和译入语精通度和当地文化熟悉度的一种高挑战，这不仅需要译者考虑翻译的准确性，还不能丧失词汇本身的文化烙印。从跨文化交际的角度来翻译文化负载词不失为一种可行的办法，跨文化交际以交际为目的，注重保留语言的文化性，试图找到一种合适的替代性表达让语言接受者完全理解源语言以及其背后的文化因素。本文从跨文化交际角度出发，以张家界旅游官网公布的旅游文本为例，分析其中文化负载词的翻译原则和翻译策略，进而分析旅游文本翻译存在的某些问题，并提供一些较为可行的解决办法。

关键词

跨文化交际，旅游，文化负载词，翻译

Introduction

中华上下五千年，文化源远流长。随着中国综合国力不断提高，中国在世界上的地位举足轻重，从一带一路、和平共处五项原则到中国特色社会主义无一不体现着儒家、道家哲学思想，因此，在当今的文化交流中，保留中华火种、弘扬中国文化是非常必要的。文化负载词翻译研究便是一种重要的本土文化保护方式。文化负载词指那些富有一定文化背景或者深刻文化意蕴的词语，在一定的历史阶段沉淀后，产生的带有文化性质的词语、谚语、典故、特殊的人物名称的表达，除此之外，它还包括现行的熟语和习语（方梦之2011）。

New Mark（2001）将文化负载词分为生态学、物质文化、社会文化、社会、政治、经济、行政机构以及声势语言学这几类。由此可见，文化负载词涉及范围广泛，且随着时间的推移层出不穷，语言交流中这类词语也是最能体现某一社会文化信息、社会价值以及反映本土生活的表达。旅游文本涉及的文化词语范围广泛，从山川河流、博物馆、建筑、特色美食到动植物应有尽有，为文化负载词的研究提供了丰富且合适的资源。他国人了解本国文化时采用的最直接的方式便是旅游，我国山川壮阔、风景秀丽、美食众多，各国游客慕名前来。在中国，基本上各大景点都设有英文翻译，目前，多数景点也已设日文、韩文等翻译。它不仅是文化负载词研究的重点语料，也是跨文化交际的重要途径，因为它塑造了他国对我国文化的第一印象，在弘扬我国文化方面发挥着重要作用。因此，旅游文本的重要性可见一斑。本文选用跨文化交际为视角来分析旅游文本中文化负载词的翻译原则和翻译策略，以此来看语言、文化和翻译之间的相互关系。

Chinese culture runs a long history about 5,000 years. With the overall national strength is improving, China plays an important role in the whole world. Confucianism and Taoism is embodied in such political ideas as Belt and Road Initiative, Five Principles of Peaceful Coeixstence, socialism with Chinese characteristics and so on. Therefore, it is quite necessary to preserve Chinese culture heritage and carry forward Chinese culture in the current culture communication. Research on translation of culture-loaded words is such a important way culture topromote the indigenous cultrue. Culture-loaded words refers to some items that implies cultural background and connotations, and passing through the long-term historical precipitation these expression with culture character like words, proverbs, allusions and name of special figures have been produced. And the existing common phrases and idioms are part of culture-loaded words( Fang Mengzhi,2011).

New Mark (2001)classified culture-loaded words as all kinds of types in ecology, material culture, social culture, society, politics, economy, administrative institutions and gesture. It is therefore of wide range of cultural expression, and these items have emerged endlessly with the changes of the times.In the communication, these words can best embody cultural information and social values and reflect the social life of human.Tourism texts relate to a variety of areas among mountains and rivers, museums, architecture,delicious food, animals and plants, which provide abundant and propor data for reaserch on culture-loaded words. The most direct way to realize domestic culture is travel for foreigners. Especially, there are magnificent mountains and rivers, splendid scenery and numerous delicious food, attracting many travelers around the whole world. In China, scenic spots essentially provide English translation, and now many of them also have Japanese, Korean and others translation. Tourism is crucial in making the first Chinese impression to foreigners and carrying on Chinese culture. It is the key language data in studying culture-loaded words as well as the critical way in cross-communication.So the importance of tourism texts is obvious. This paper chooses the intercultural communication perspective to analyze the English translation principles and strategies in tourism texts, deeply discussing the interrelations among language, culture and translation.

Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Tourism texts from the Perspective of Intercultural Communication

Principles of Tourism Translation in the Light of Intercultural Perspective

跨文化交际的根本目的在于语言和文化交流，在旅游文本的文化负载词的翻译中，首先应该保证意思准确，不能歪曲文化词汇的词意，在文化负载词的理解上应结合文化来理解，所以要求译者本身要有良好的中文素养；其次，保证简单、清晰。旅游文本的翻译应该简单明了，让游客一目了然，很快能够抓住中心；在把握住这两方面的基础上，再同时兼顾其中的文化和美学表达。

The fundamental aim of cross-communication is language and cultural exchanges. In the translation of culture-loaded in tourism texts, the first is keeping the meaning accurate without misunderstanding the meaning of cultural words. Translators should grasp the meaning of a culture-loade term combining with the native culture, which requires their Chinese literary at a high level.Secondly, keeping clear and simple. The translation of tourism should be so brief and clear that people can grasp the key point at a glance; then based on the two aspects, giving consideration to cultural transmission and aesthetic expression.

Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words in Tourism texts

由于这类词背景的复杂性，此类翻译对译者来说也并非易事，这是对译者对两种语言精通程度的考验，同时也是对两种文化认识程度的考验，这两方面缺一便会误导读者对该文化的误解。一般在文化类词语的翻译上，主要采取的两种翻译策略是韦努蒂的异化译法和归化译法。异化翻译，又称 “小众化翻译”或 “少数化翻译”，指的生成目标文本时会通过保留原文中某些异国情调的东西来故意打破目的语惯例的翻译类型（方梦之2001），即 “译者尽量不惊动原作者，让读者向他靠近”。归化译法指的是译者采用透明、流畅的风格，以最大限度地淡化目的语读者对外来文本的陌生感（Venuti 1995）。

Given the complexity of backgrounds of these words, the translation of them is not easy for translators who probably face challenges of well mastering two languages as well as understanding two cultures. Readers may misunderstand the text without one of the two aspects. Generally, two main strategies are foreignization and domestication put forward by Lawrence Venuti(1995) are employed in the translation of words containing culture. Foreignization translation also called “minoritizing translation” refers to a translation type that in producing the target texts one keeps some exotic information of the original texts to deliberately break the conventions of the target language(Fang Mengzhi 2001), so that the translator leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the readers towards them. Domesticating translation refers to the style of transparency and fluency, and the translator makes effort to reduce readers’ strange feeling to foreign texts（Venuti 1995）.

Foreignizatiom Strategy

对于文化负载词的异化译法，大体来说采取三种方式—直译、音译、引申义。源语中某些文化性词语在符合语言条件的基础上可以直接翻译；当目标语中缺少某一文化词语的对应项，且直译又难以充分揭示这类词包含的文化意义时，可以采取音译；如直译和音译都行不通，可以引申其意义。异化翻译是跨文化交际的主要手段之一，让读者接受外语文本的语言及文化差异，把读者带入外国情景，这对弘扬本国传统文化大有益处。

In the foreignization strategy, three ways of literal translation, transliteration, amplification are broadly used. Under the rules of language, some culture-loaded words in the source language can be translated literally; when no corresponding words existing in the target language, literal translation cannot fully reveal the information of culture that contained in the words of the source language, so transliteration might be taken; if both literal translation and transliteration does not work, amplifying the meaning of a culture-loaded word is also feasible. Foreignization is one of main methods of intercultural communication and makes people accept diverse language and culture and integrate into exotic situation, greatly contributing to carry forward Chinese traditional culture.

Literal Translation

文化负载词的直译并不是字对字的翻译，而是在符合目的语语言规则的情况下，保留源语的语言结构，表达目的语的文化信息，这种方法一方面可以创造出目的语读者读得懂的译文，另一方面又不至于失去源语的文化背景。

Conclusion

Bla, bla, bla

References

[1]许国璋.CULTURALLY LOADED WORDS AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING[J].现代外语,1980(04):21-27. [2]Xiang, Chunyan. "On Translation Strategies of Chinese Culture-Loaded Words." Canadian Social Science 12.6 (2016): 69-74. [4]旅游英语的语言特点与翻译[M]. 上海交通大学出版社 , 丁大刚, 2008 [5]旅游翻译与涉外导游[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 , 陈刚著, 2004 [6]畅游张家界[M]. 湖南地图出版社 , 欧衡丰,（美）卡尔·史密特（CarlSchmidt）翻译, 2004 [7]张家界[M]. 中国旅游出版社 , 田贵君,常振国主编, 1998 [8]跨文化交际学[M]. 福建人民出版社 , 林大津,谢朝群著, 2005 [9]文化语境与语言翻译[M]. 中国对外翻译出版公司 , 包惠南著, 2001 [10]旅游与中国文化[M]. 旅游教育出版社 , 沈祖祥主编, 1996 [11]Travelling Toward True Translation[J] . James St André. The Translator . 2006 (2) [12]李丽萍.跨文化视角下旅游外宣翻译研究[J].海外英语,2018(18):27-28+31. [13]Venuti, Lawrence. The translator's invisibility: A history of translation[M]. London and New York: Routledge,1995. [14]廖启一. 当代西方翻译理论探索[M].

7 宫博雅 An analysis of the Chinese translation of culture-loaded words in Russian Idioms

Cult_Load_Words_EN_7

Abstract

Language is the carrier of culture, and the characteristics of language also reflect the characteristics of culture. Culture is closely related to language. In-depth understanding and exploration of culture is conducive to language learning and better use of language for communication. Idiom as a fixed structure in language expression, with profound cultural connotation, is an important part of a national culture. Russian idioms are the concentration of the essence of Russian national culture, including Russian history, religion, national thinking, cultural customs, local customs and other unique national characteristics. In the process of language development, each nation has accumulated its own unique culture-loaded words. These words are loaded with the unique cultural connotation of this nation and express the rich cultural color of this nation. Due to different cultural backgrounds and historical development tracks, Russian contains many words, phrases and idioms that represent unique things in Russian culture. From the perspective of Nida's cultural classification, this paper analyzes the Chinese translation of culture-loaded words in Russian idioms, which is helpful to promote the study of Russian language and deepen the understanding of Russian traditional culture and Russian national psychology.

Key words

Culture-loaded Words; Russian idioms; Russian culture

题目

俄语成语中文化负载词的中文翻译分析

摘要

语言是文化的载体，语言的特性同时也体现了文化的特性，文化与语言紧密相关。对文化的深入了解和探究有助于语言的学习和更好的运用语言进行交际。成语作为固定的结构存在于语言表达中，具有深刻的文化内涵，是一个民族文化的重要表现部分。俄语成语是俄罗斯民族文化精华的浓缩，其中包含俄罗斯历史、宗教、民族思维、文化习俗、风土人情等特有的民族特点。语言发展的进程中，每个民族都积累了本民族特有的文化负载词。这些词语负载着本民族独特的文化内涵，表现本民族丰富的文化色彩。由于不同的文化背景和历史发展轨迹，俄语中包含许多代表俄罗斯文化中特有事物的词、词组和习语。本文以奈达的文化分类为视角，分析俄罗斯成语中文化负载词的中文翻译，有助于促进对俄罗斯语言的学习，进一步加深对俄罗斯传统文化及俄罗斯民族心理的了解。

关键词

文化负载词；俄语成语；俄罗斯文化

Introduction

Nowadays, with the sound development of relations between China and Russia and the deepening of exchanges in all aspects, a better understanding of Russian culture can further strengthen bilateral exchanges and cooperation. Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that mark the unique things in a certain culture. They directly reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. At the lexical level, cultural differences between the two countries are reflected in culture-loaded words. Idioms, as the essence of language, contain rich cultural connotations, reflect national character and reflect social changes. The analysis of the Chinese translation of culture-loaded words in Russian idioms can help us trace the origin of Russian culture, go deep into the core of Russian culture, and explore the significance of Russian culture. According to Nida's classification of language and cultural characteristics, this paper tries to have a deep understanding of Russian culture and make tiny contributions to cross-cultural communication and translation through the analysis of Chinese translation of culture-loaded words.

1.The meaning of culture-loaded words

Culture-loaded words are the cultural labels of a nation, which have distinct cultural characteristics and play an important role in the development and dissemination of culture. Liao Qiyi said, "Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases and idioms that mark things unique to a certain culture. These words reflect the unique activities of a particular ethnic group that have gradually accumulated in the long course of history and are different from other ethnic groups."When some foreign words are translated into Chinese, they cannot find their exact corresponding or equivalent words, thus forming culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words are also called culture-unique words and culture-connotation words. They are deeply marked by the region and times of a certain language society, and are words (phrases) expressing the things and concepts peculiar to a certain culture. Such words not only carry rich cultural connotations, but also "exist only in one culture and are blank in another culture". Just because I have characteristics that you do not have, they are often obstacles to cross-cultural communication and translation.

2. Classification of culture-loaded words

According to Nida's classification of cultural factors, culture-loaded words can be divided into five categories. The first category is ecological culture-loaded words, which usually refer to the plants and animals, geographical environment, climate change and other related words in a specific region. The second category is material culture-loaded words, which refer to the specific material products in different cultures. Generally, they refer to words including food, clothing, housing and transportation. The third category is the social culture-loaded words, which usually involve the words of social etiquette, social identity, leisure and entertainment, such as local conditions and practices, traditions, social rules, religious moral standards, historical background, ideology and so on. For example, different cultures have different festivals and celebration customs, and people give different meanings to color words. The fourth category is religious culture-loaded words, which generally reflect the cultural beliefs of a certain nation. The fifth category is language culture-loaded words. Different nations have different speaking ways and habits, which are reflected in pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax and other aspects.

3. Translation methods of culture-loaded words

1. Substitution Substitution method is a translation method that converts the cultural images in the source language into the cultural images familiar to the target readers. When the cultural images of the source language words are quite different from those familiar to the target readers, it is difficult for the target readers to understand, so the alternative translation method can be adopted. 2. Interpretation Interpretation is a method of interpretative translation of words. Some words exist in both Chinese and Japanese languages, but due to the change of national culture, such words have different connotations in the two nations and are easily confused by translators and readers. At this point, the real meaning of the source words is supplemented by interpretation. 3. Annotation Annotation is a translation method that is faithful to the source language. When the cultural information contained in a word is relatively simple, the translation method of in-text annotation can be adopted. When the cultural information contained in the vocabulary is long, the method of footnote can be adopted.

4. Culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

No matter in Chinese or Russian, there are many words with rich cultural characteristics, especially in many idioms, speech, slang and dialects, with rich cultural connotations. Russian idiom is a language unit composed of two or more stress components with fixed structure and integral meaning. Generalized Russian idioms include proverbs, sayings, idioms, fixed phrases of parole or called idiomatic phrases; In the narrow sense, Russian idioms only include idioms and idiomatic fixed phrases. This paper analyzes the Chinese translation of culture-loaded words in Russian idioms from a broad perspective. Russian can reflect the culture and way of thinking of a nation, with rich cultural connotation and distinctive national characteristics. As the essence of Russian traditional culture, Russian idioms can fully reflect the vivid and vivid Russian national culture, fully reflect the Russian nation's daily life behavior habits, value orientation and traditional customs. As the concentration and essence of Russian national language, Russian idioms are of great significance to the study of Russian and Russian national culture. It can reflect the lifestyle of the Russian nation, the character of the Russian people and cultural connotation. The research on the characteristics and translation methods of Russian idioms can help us understand Russian language and culture in a deeper level. It also gives us a unique glimpse of the world's brilliant culture.

General translation methods of Russian idioms (1) Translation of equivalent idioms There are some idioms that are basically the same in terms of literal meaning, inner meaning, word image, and implied philosophy in Russian and Chinese. We can use the corresponding translation method to translate these idioms, that is, the formal word-by-word translation. When translating these counterparts, the context can be ignored, as long as the translator keeps in mind the corresponding equivalents. This type of idioms can be translated using literal translation, that is, a translation method that maintains the content of the original idiom without changing the rhetorical characteristics. E.g: 　　1.Беда не приходит одна-祸不单行. Among them, "беда", "не", and "приходит одна" respectively have the same literal meaning and image of words as "祸", "不" and "单行" in Chinese, and their philosophical meanings are also the same. 　　2. Куй железо, пока горячо-趁热打铁. Among them, "куй", "железо", and "пока горячо" correspond to the Chinese words "打", "铁", and "趁热" respectively. 　　3. Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать — 百闻不如一见. 　　4. Век живи, век учись — 活到老，学到老. (2) Translation of similar idioms approximate idioms are also called semi-equivalence idioms, which refer to the same literal meaning, inner meaning, and philosophical meaning of the Russian and Chinese idioms, but the image of the words is partly the same, and partly different. Free translation is usually used when dealing with the translation of such idioms. The so-called free translation method is to convert the image of an idiom in one language into another language as much as possible without losing its meaning. For example: Правда глаза колет-忠言逆耳. "Правда" and "колет" in Russian are the same as "忠言" and "刺痛" in Chinese; however, "глаза" (眼睛) in Russian is not the same as "耳朵" in Chinese. The image needs to be changed when translating. Similar idioms are: как грибы после дождя-如雨后春笋. When грибы (蘑菇) is translated into Chinese, it becomes "春笋". (3)Translation of non-equivalent idioms Non-equivalent idiom refers to the national culture contained in the Russian idiom that is unique to the Russian nation and is unfamiliar to the Han nation. This kind of idioms are usually translated using creative methods, that is, without changing the meaning of one language idiom, using the most appropriate interpretation of another language for translation. There are generally two ways of creativity: literal translation + free translation, such as мало каши ел (喝很少的粥)-经验不足, use "каша" to refer to experience; выжимать соки (挤果汁)-榨取血汗, use "сок" refers to blood and sweat, labor; literal translation + comment, such as червонный валет (红桃 "J")-花花公子, using playing cards to refer to the macaroni（纨绔子弟）; мелкая сошка (小木犁)-无名小卒, using small things to refer to Little people. The paraphrase and annotations here are equivalent. ездят в тулу со своим самоваром (带着茶炊去图拉)-没有必要，多此一举, it involves the cultural and national conditions, Tula is a place rich in teapots, so it is unnecessary to take a samovar to Tula.

4.1 Ecological culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

As we all know, Russia is a vast country with vast resources. The unique vast land area has created a unique geographical environment in Russia, while breeding a variety of animals and plants on the Russian land.

Crows have a bad connotation in the eyes of the Russian people and are often seen as a bad omen. "белая ворона -白乌鸦" refers to a person who is out of place(特立独行的人), and this idiom is used in Russian with a sense of disapproval. Crows are usually black, but white crows are very strange. "ворон считать - 数乌鸦" means eating the bread of idleness(游手好闲). Usually people with nothing to do have time to count crows. "ворона в павлиньих перьях - 伪装成孔雀的乌鸦" is a person who adorn oneself with borrowed plumes(装腔作势的人). Sparrows are also common in Russian idioms. Sparrow action speed is very fast, in "слово не воробей, вылетит - не поймаешь - 话语如麻雀，出口追不回"as a metaphor of a gentleman's word can't be chased(君子一言驷马难追). There are also "стреляный воробей" refer in particular to sophisticated man (老于世故的人，老油条). Similar words for " старого воробья на мякине не проведёшь посл -秕糠捉不住老鸟"are refers to the sophisticated people are not easily deceived(久经世故之人不易受骗).

In Chinese and Russian idioms, different animals and plants are often used to describe the same phenomenon due to different historical and cultural backgrounds. In Russian, the word "Брать быка за рога (抓住牛角)" has a similar meaning with the Chinese word "抓住牛鼻子", which means destroying the leader and the gang will collapse(擒贼先擒王). "Метать бисер перед свиньями(猪前撒珠)" is like "对牛弹琴". It means speaking truth to unreasonable people and speaking elegance to those who do not understand beauty.

Crocodile tears - "крокодиловы слёзы" refers to false compassion假慈悲. According to ancient Western legends, crocodiles are both ferocious and cruel as well as cunning and crafty. When it peeps into people, livestock, animal fish and other prey objects, often will first shed tears, like mercy, so that you were paralyzed by the illusion of its sudden attack to lose vigilance, in a state of no defense by it fiercely swallowed. Another said, is the crocodile will be captured after the prey, greedily swallowed at the same time, will shed crocodile tears. In short, it's a metaphor for false tears, fake sympathy. Later, it is conventionally extended to satirize those insidious and crafty people who harm others while pretending to be compassionate and kind.

4.2 Material culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

Russia has its own unique cultural material products, these cultural characteristics reflected in all aspects of clothing, food, housing and transportation.

"первый блин всегда комом - 第一张薄饼是一团" means all things are difficult before they are easy(万事开头难). "блин - 薄饼" is a kind of unique Russian food. It is round in shape, symbolizing the bright sun and heralding the coming of spring and the lengthening days. "блин - 薄饼" is also a staple in the traditional Slavic festival - Maslenitsa. To "ездят в тулу со своим самоваром - 带着茶炊去图拉" is to make a waste of time(多此一举). Tula is a place name in Russia, where the samovar is abundant, so it is unnecessary to take the samovar to Tula."за семь вёрст киселя хлебать - 跑七里路去喝一口羹(没有必要)" and "седьмая вода на киселе - 羹里的第七滴水(八竿子打不着的亲戚)". Among them "кисель(甜羹)" is also native food to the Russian nation. It can be made from almost any kind of fruit and berries, fresh and dried, fruit and pulp juices, syrups, jams, and milk with potato starch or corn starch. There are also non-sweet-tasting ones made from vegetables like peas. "по ерёме колпак кафтан - 捉襟见肘" and "тришкин кафтан - 什么样的人就戴什么样的帽子(恰如其分)". "кафтан(男长衣)" in this idiom is a kind of long coat with belted waist and floor-length sleeves worn by Russian men in the old days, which was very popular in Russia before the 20th century. "садиться не в свои сани - 坐在别人的雪橇上(不称职、对职务不能胜任)", the word "сани(雪橇)" in this idiom is one of the most common means of transport for Russians in winter.

4.3 Religious culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

Most people in Russia are religious, but most of the Idioms in Russian with religious cultural overtones are derived from Western Christianity.

"Дорого яичко к Христову дню - 送红鸡蛋要赶复活节" refers to do not send umbrellas after rain, refers to do good deeds must be timely(不要雨后送伞、做好事必须及时), Easter is a very important traditional Festival in Russia, is to commemorate the resurrection of Jesus after the death. Easter eggs to prepare cooked eggs (Easter eggs), boiled eggs coated with red, yellow, blue, coffee, green, purple and other colors, when the guests come, the host gives an egg, to symbolize the prosperity of life.

"не все коту масленица - 不是全年都是谢肉节" means that the good times will not last long and the feast will not come again(好景不长、盛宴难再). This idiom comes from the Maslenitsa culture of Russian national religion. The festival of Maslenitsa originated in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Meat and entertainment are forbidden during the 40-day Maslenitsa period. Thus, in the week before the start of Ramadan, people indulge in orgies and families eat meat to make up for the ascetic lifestyle of fasting. Hence the name of the Festival.

"козёл отпущения" refers to a scapegoat(替罪羊). At that time, the ancient Jews had such a ritual in life. When the day of confession came, the highest priest would put his hands on the head of the live goat, which indicated that the sin of all mankind would be transferred to the goat, and the goat would be banished to the desert. In Russian national and religious culture, this idiom is usually used to mean that people take the blame for others.

The Influence of Christianity on Russian idioms is very profound. Pushkin, the great Russian writer and poet, pointed out that the birth of Christianity was the greatest spiritual and political turning point on our earth, and the world died and was born in this sacred environment. It can be said that Christianity has played an extremely important role in human history, especially in western social life and cultural development. Since 988, when The Archduke of Kievan Rus established Christianity as the state religion, most Of the Russian people believe in Christianity, and there are about 200 idioms and fixed words from the Bible. A large number of Idioms in Russian derive from the Bible. The Bible is a Christian classic, including the Old Testament and the New Testament in 66 volumes. With the development of history and the evolution of language, idioms derived from the myths and legends of the Bible and the teachings and precepts of the Gospels have entered the Russian standard language and acquired new meanings. Now, through the study of Russian idioms from the Bible, analysis of their source text interpretation, use characteristics, we can see the influence of the Bible on Russian from the side.

"в поте лица - 汗流满面" From "Old Testament·Genesis" (Chapter 3, Section 19), God says to Adam, the father of mankind, when he sinned and drove him out of the Garden of Eden for eating from the tree of good and evil: "В поле лица твоего будешь есть хлеб, доколе не возвратишься в землю, из которой ты взят, ибо прах ты и в прах возвратишься.” - 你必须汗流满面才有饭吃，直到你归于尘土，因为你是由土而来的；你即是灰土，还要归于灰土." "Волк в овечьей шкуре 或 волк (напялил) на себя овечью шкуру - 披着羊皮的 狼" from "New Testament Gospel of Matthew" (Chapter 7, Section 15), "Берегитесь лжепророков, которые приходят к вам в овечьей одежде, а внутри суть волки хищные - 你们要提防假先知! 他们来 到你们跟前,外披羊皮,内心却是凶残的豺狼." "Кто не работает, тот не ест - 不劳动者不得食" originally derived from "The New Testament·2 Thessalonians": "Ибо когда мы были у вас, то завещевали вам сие: если кто не хочет трудиться, тот не ест. - 当我们在你们那里的时候，早已吩咐过你们：谁若不愿意工作就不应当吃饭." "продать (предать) за тридцать сребреников(кого) - 为三十块银币而出卖某人" from "the New Testament Gospel of Matthew". The story tells that judas, one of The twelve disciples of Jesus, got thirty pieces of silver from the priest and sold Jesus to the Jewish authority. Then he took the opportunity to bring many people with knives and clubs to the house of Jesus and his disciples and arrested Jesus. As a result, Jesus was crucified. According to the statistics of the Dictionary of Russian Idiom etymology, there are more than 1400 Russian idioms in the book, among which 161 are derived from the Bible or related to them, accounting for 11.5%. It can be seen that the Bible has a deep influence on Russian.

4.4 CultureSocial culture-loaded words in Russian idioms

Russia has a long history and diverse social customs. Many unique Russian cultural phenomena are reflected in Russian idioms.

During the Soviet Union, some words and languages produced under the background of The Times had unique meanings and connotations of the society at that time. The "Красный уголок (红角)" was a place for cultural and educational activities in the Soviet Union. Russian idioms also reflect their national cultural characteristics through their lexical composition. Some words in these idioms are not equivalent words. "Фертом стоять (смотреть, ходить, глядеть, выглядеть. . . ) - 趾高气扬、威武自负、洋洋自得的样子" The word is an ancient name of the Russian letter "ф", which resembles a man standing erect with his hands akimbo, so the meaning of the whole idiom is to place his hands between the waist in a confident, aggressive posture. Other similar Russian idioms include "На ять - 顶呱呱，呱呱叫" and "Лезть на рожон - 铤而走险". The idiom "Чувство локтя - 站队时保持一肘距离的习惯" is used in the spirit of supporting friendly troops and helping each other(支持友军的精神，互助精神). The word "Белый - 白色的" in idioms sometimes conveys a negative meaning. The idiom "Показать белое перо - 展示白羽毛" comes from a cockfight. In fights between roosters of different colors, red, red, and black roosters were found to be more aggressive, biting off the tail feathers of timid white roosters. So this idiom means to be defeated and laughed at(被打败，被嘲笑). "Белый - 白色的" in this idiom means "cowardice, cowardice, and submission."

Conclusion

Culture-loaded words, as their name implies, carry the culture of a particular nation or country, which are closely related to the culture they carry. This sets up difficulties for translators when translating such expressions. If the translation only stays on the surface and ignores the cultural connotation of the words, it will lead to the loss of culture. In addition, another point worth the translator's attention is that the conceptual meaning and connotative meaning of culture-loaded words are often inconsistent. This requires us to flexibly choose appropriate translation strategies in translation to convey the connotation and meaning of culture-loaded words as far as possible, so as to ensure the readability of the translated text and retain the flavor of the original text to facilitate cultural exchange and communication.

Differences in cultural systems and language systems, and difficulties in translation, lead to misunderstandings in the translation of culturally loaded words, and it is difficult to deeply grasp the core of culture and make it fully presented in front of us. There are several situations in the translation and translation effect of culturally loaded words: 1) Omission-complete lack of cultural connotation; 2) Simple transliteration-whether the cultural connotation is transmitted or not depends on the degree of communication of the word and the cultural level of the target language reader; 3) Transliteration plus annotations-cultural information is conveyed, but it is likely to damage the readability of the story or cause the translation to be cumbersome; 4) Replacement imagery and even complete domestication-the cultural connotation of the original word disappears, but it is easy for readers of the target language to understand. It can be seen that several translation strategies are not superior in the absolute sense. For the translation of culturally loaded words, the translator must not only have a deep language foundation, but also an encyclopedia-like knowledge structure, and must be careful and patient in the translation process. Culture-loaded words belong to micro-culture, and their distinctive and strong cultural color is an indispensable part of Russian culture. Although they will inevitably "make a facelift" in the process of translation, resulting in the loss of some information, translators should still work hard to understand the cultural connotations of the original language and the target language in order to build a bridge for communication and understanding between the two sides.

To sum up, Russian idioms are an important part of Russian national culture, which fully reflect the Russian nation's daily lifestyle, beliefs, customs and psychological characteristics. Russian idioms content is rich and colorful characteristics, by strengthening the study of Russian idiom learning, can help us deeply understand the master to the traditional customs of ethnic russians, and correct use of Russian language, add more glory for language expression, and to avoid in the process of Russian social expression appeared a slip of the tongue, affect each other on both sides of the normal communication smoothly.

Reference

[1]于建华.俄语成语与俄罗斯民族文化研究[J].散文百家,2019(11):222. [2]王发金.俄语成语文化的研究[J].旅游纵览(下半月),2017(22):237. [3]袁顺芝.俄汉翻译中的语言文化现象及其处理方法[J].中国俄语教学,2014,33(04):40-44. [4]司道权.浅析俄语成语的特点及翻译方法[J].品牌,2015(03):113. [5]裴晓明.俄语成语翻译中的几个问题[J].科技信息,2012(30):212. [6]王金凤.俄语成语的意义及其翻译[J].中国翻译,2008,29(05):72-74. [7]张莹.俄语成语翻译中的文化伴随意义[J].佳木斯大学社会科学学报,2006(02):157-158.\ [8]鞠海娜.俄汉成语蕴含的民族文化比较研究[J].黑河学院学报,2021,12(04):174-175. [9]廖七一 .当代西方翻译理论探索 [M]. 南京 :译林出版社 , 2000 [10]王淑杰.不同宗教信仰影响下的俄汉成语[J].科技信息,2009(07):531+553. [11]张家丰.俄语成语颜色词的象征意义[J].黑河学院学报,2021,12(02):169-171. [12]王青.中国文化负载词的英译研究[J].校园英语,2020(24):243-244.

8周小雪 The Translation of Culture Loaded Words in English and Japanese Versions of Medicine

Cult_Load_Words_EN_8

Abstract

Translation of culture-loaded words has been a difficult problem for translators.The culture behind culture-loaded words made translator hard to find words that are coherent to the sauce text. For the same culture-loaded word, different languages have different translation methods. This paper takes the novel Medicine as an example exploring the contrast of English and Japanese translation of culture-loaded words in the same text.

Key words

Culture-loaded Words; Medicine; English and Japanese Translation

题目

《药》英日译本中文化负载词的翻译对比研究

摘要

文化负载词的翻译一直是译者面临的一个难题。文化负载词背后的文化因素使得译者很难找到与之对应的词句。对于同一文化负载词，不同的语言有不同的翻译方法。本文以鲁迅的小说《药》为例，探讨同一文本中文化负载词的英、日翻译对比。

关键词

文化负载词；《药》；英日翻译

1.Introduction of Culture-Loaded Words

Translation is not the direct conversion of two languages. In the process of translating from one language to another, we should not only get faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance, but also understand the culture concepts behind each word in the original. Culture-loaded words have always been a difficult problem in translation. Due to cultural differences, it is difficult for translators to find words that are coherent to the sauce text. In the process of translation, if the translation work in a comparatively mechanical manner, it is hard for us to understand the true meaning of the original. Therefore, it is very important to do a good job in translating culture-loaded words.

1.1 The Definition of Culture Loaded Words

Before now, scholars abroad and home had paid attention to culture-loaded words. Different people have different definitions of culture loaded words. Mona Baker put forward the the concept of “culture-specific” (Baker 1992:222). The meaning of a word in the source language is often different in the target language, which often makes readers from the target language culture at a loss. Culture-loaded words are sometimes abstract, involving religious beliefs or cultural customs, and sometimes they are specific.Spanish translator Javier Franco Aixela put forward the definition of "cultural-specific item). It tells us that "There are some items in the text, and the translation difficulties will occur when its function and meaning are transferred from the source language to the target language. There is no coherent item in the cultural system of the target language.In China, He Yuanjian put forward the concept of “indegineuous information”, which refers to the unique concept bred by a language in the development of its own history, culture, society and way of thinking. It is alien to another language.Bao Huinan viewed culture-loaded words as a kind of vocabulary vacancy,means that the cultural information carried by the source language vocabulary has no counterpart in the target language. (Bao Huinan, 2004:10) He think that"Every language is the product of the cultural development of a country and nation, and has its long historical background and rich cultural connotation. Every country and nation has its unique development history, social system, ecological environment, religious belief and national customs. Therefore, each language has its own specific vocabulary, idioms and allusions "Culture loaded words" reflect these concepts and things. "(Bao Huinan 2004:10) Liao Qiyi, a famous translation expert in China, summarized the above two parts of the discussion on culture loaded words, he thought that culture loaded words are "Words, phrases and idioms that mark the unique things in a culture. These words reflect the unique activity mode gradually accumulated by a specific nation in the long historical process, which is different from other nations."(Liao qiyi 2000:230)

1.2 The Classificationof Culture-loaded Words

Nida once pointed out: "As a translator, if he wants to be successful in cross-cultural communication, he must clearly remember these five cultural categories: (1) ecological culture; (2) Language culture; (3) Religious culture; (4) Material culture; (5) Social culture." (Nida 1993-91) According to the above point of view, culture loaded words in this paper can be divided into five categories: ecological culture loaded words, material culture loaded words, socioculture loaded words, religious culture loaded words, and linguistic culture loaded words. This study will also draw lessons from Nida's ideas and first classify culture loaded words in Medicine from the above five angles, so as to provide a clear context for the comparison of the following English and Russian versions.

2. Introduction of Medicine

The novel Medicine is a short story written by lu Xun, a famous Chinese writer. Through the story of the teahouse owner Hua Lao Shuan and his wife buying human blood steamed bread for their son Xiao Shuan to cure diseases, the novel Medicine exposes the numbness and ignorance caused by the long-term feudal rule, praises the brave and unconquerable spirit of the revolutionary Xia Yu, and points out the limitations of the 1911 revolution in not getting close to the masses. In the structure of the work, hua Lao Shuan and his wife curing their son as the open line, to the revolutionary Xia Yu was killed by a warlord as the dark line, two lines intertwined, exquisite conception; In the characterization of characters, good at the use of line drawing technique, the performance of the character's psychology and personality, vivid image, superb skills The important figure in the novel is the national democratic revolutionary Xia Yu, the author is through the side description to show, but his image is still very clear. Xia Yu was a young revolutionary. He had lofty ideals and strong fighting will. He loved truth and showed infinite loyalty to the revolutionary cause. When the revolution suffered setbacks and he was sent to prison, he remained confident of victory and showed optimism. In the enemy's prison, he persisted in the struggle, carried out revolutionary propaganda and "persuaded the prisoners to rebel". When the guard began to talk to him, he began to speak loudly and forcefully, "The whole clear world belongs to all of us." Red eyes ah yi mercilessly "give him two mouth", he is "not afraid of hitting, but also say poor poor li", poor ah Yi not consciousness. Finally, he laid down his young life for the revolutionary cause. This shows the revolutionaries fearless, righteously heroic spirit.

9 付诗雨 On Translating Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Cultural Relics Commentaries into Japanese——A Case Study of Hunan Museum

Cult_Load_Words_EN_9

Abstract

Museum has served as an indispensable platform for cross-cultural communication. The commentaries translation of cultural relics provided by museums, affecting the acceptability of the target text receiver directly, has a crucial impact on the inter-cultural understanding and communication. In the process of cultural relics commentaries translation, it is still an important academic subject needing further research that how to deal with the incompatibility of linguistic signs and cultural concepts between the source language and the target language, and how to accurately convey the characteristics, meanings and cultural implications of culturally-loaded words inside. Nevertheless, the academic studies on the translation of cultural relics commentaries in Chinese museums started relatively late, among which especially the researches focused on the Japanese version are not abundant enough both in quantity and content, and the intelligibility and acceptability need to be strengthened.Therefore, this thesis takes the Japanese version of the cultural relics commentaries from Hunan museum’s basic display as the research objects, adopting Eugene Nina’s translation equivalence theory as the theoretical guidance. In this thesis, culturally-loaded words with different cultural meanings are analyzed through comparing with the source text, and then the translation skills are concluded, expecting to provide some reference for future translation of cultural relics commentaries. 

Key words

Cultural Relics Commentaries; Culturally-loaded Words;Translation Equivalence;Chinese-Japanese Translation Skills;

题目

文物解说词中的文化负载词的日译研究——以湖南博物馆为例

摘要

博物馆是跨文化交际的重要窗口。其所藏文物解说词的翻译质量直接影响着目标受众对译文的接受度，制约着异文化的理解和交流。在文物解说词的翻译过程中，如何对待和处理源语言和目标语言在语言符号和文化观念不对等问题，怎样才能使其中的文化负载词的特点、含义和文化意蕴得以准确的传达，是一个亟待深入研究的重要课题。然而，中国国内博物馆文物解说词的翻译研究起步较晚，特别是日译研究在数量和内容上都不够丰富，可读性和接受性等诸多方面还亟待加强。本文选取湖南省博物馆基本陈列的文物解说词作为考察对象，以尤金·奈达的翻译等值论为理论指导，逐一对具有不同文化含义的词汇进行原、译文对照分析与改进，归纳出这类文化负载词的翻译技巧，以期为文物解说词日译提供些许参考。

关键词

文物解说词;文化负载词;翻译等值论;日译技巧;

Introduction

Under the background of globalization, translation has become an important bridge of cross-cultural communication and transmission, rather than merely a simple conversion of language signs. With the further development of China's opening up, Chinese museums have gradually become one of the main channels for foreign tourists to know about Chinese culture, among which the translation of cultural relics commentaries play an indispensable role. Owing to their own characteristics, the cultural relics commentaries often contains numerous vocabularies carrying abundant information of history, culture, customs, habits and so on, what is called culturally-loaded words. The translation quality of culturally-loaded words directly affects the target text receiver’s acceptability of Chinese culture, influencing the intercultural communication. In order to make a better use of translation versions of cultural relics commentaries and better display Chinese culture, it is crucial to take further studies on the translation and introduction of culturally relics commentaries, especially culturally-loaded words inside. 

In recent years, foreign translations of cultural relics commentaries have appeared successively in museums at different levels in China, on which more and more academic studies have been made. Whereas researches on Japanese version have a relatively later start comparing with English version, so outcomes are not abundant enough both in quantity and content. However, Japan belongs to the cultural circle of Chinese characters as well, whose culture has been also deeply influenced by Chinese traditional culture since ancient times, so there must be its own uniqueness in the translation skills of cultural-loaded words. So as to improve the display of Chinese culture to Japanese tourists, the expression selected is supposed to be understood and accepted by them, especially the Japanese translation quality of culturally-loaded words. The translation equivalence theory represented by Eugene A. Nida holds that the seek of translation is rather than the mechanical correspondence on the text superficially, but the relationship between the target text receiver and the target text information be basically the same as that in the source text. This theory is in line with the fundamental mission of commentaries translation as external propaganda, which has a practical guiding significance for the research and practice of Japanese translation of cultural relics commentaries. Therefore, based on the similarities and differences between Chinese and Japanese languages and cultural values under the background of cross-cultural communication, this thesis discusses the Japanese translation skills of Chinese culturally-loaded words in cultural relics commentaries under the guidance of translation equivalence theory and the reference of specific translation skills.

在全球化语境下，翻译不仅是语言符号的简单转换 , 更是文化交流和传播的重要手段。随着中国对外开放的深入发展，博物馆逐渐成为了外国游客了解中国文化的主要平台之一，其中文物解说词的翻译便发挥着不可或缺的作用。文物解说词因自身特性，包含着众多承载了丰富历史、文化和风俗习惯等信息的词汇，即所谓的“文化负载词”(culturally- loaded words)。文化负载词的翻译质量直接影响着目标受众对中国文化的理解程度，影响着异文化间的交流。为了更好地发挥文物解说词翻译文本的作用，更好地介绍中国文化，对文物解说词、特别是其中文化负载词的译介研究则显得尤为重要。

近年来，文物的外文解说词在中国各个级别的博物馆内接连出现，关于翻译文本的研究也是层出不穷。但相较于英译研究，日译研究方面起步较晚，在数量上和内容上都还不够丰富。而中日同属汉字文化圈，日本文化更是深受中国传统文化的影响，因此有关文化信息的翻译技巧必然存在着其特殊之处。为了更好向日本游客介绍中国文化，应该选取日本游客能理解和接受的语言，特别是提高其中文化负载词的日译质量。以尤金·奈达(Eugene A. Nida)为代表的翻译等值论认为翻译时不求文字表面的机械的对应，而要求译文读者与译文信息之间的关系基本上与原文接受者和原文信息之间的关系相同。该理论与解说词外宣翻译的重要使命相契合，对文物解说词的日译研究与实践具有现实的指导意义。本文以文物解说词中的文化负载词为切入点，在翻译等值论的指导下结合具体的翻译技巧，立足跨文化交际背景下中日两国在语言和文化价值观之间的异同，进而探讨中国文化的日语翻译技巧。

1. The Theory of Translation Equivalence and Specific Translation Skills

Translation theories before the 20th century focused on the conversion of linguistic signs. With the increasingly frequent exchanges among different countries under the background of globalization, cultural differences have inevitably had a considerable impact on translation, leading to a cultural turn in translation theories, among which the translation equivalence theory represented by Eugene A. Nida is best-known. In 1969，the famous American translation theorist Eugene A. Nida put forward the definition of functional equivalence (dynamic equivalence) (Nida E.A.,Taber C.R. 2004:). Unlike the traditional translation theories that mainly stress the correspondence between the source language and target language, Nida‘s functional equivalence theory focus on reader's response, opening up a new perspective to translation studies. Nida further perfect his theory in the 1990s. In his book Language, Culture and Translating, he divided functional equivalence into different degrees of adequacy from minimal to maximal effectiveness on the basis of both cognitive and experiential factors, holding that the readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they call conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it, and the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did (Nida E.A. 2001:87). Therefore, in the process of translation, it is necessary to screen and process the cultural information in the source text, especially the translation of culturally-loaded words, taking into account the similarities and differences in the historical and cultural factors, and the values between the source language and the target language, so as to make the translation more in line with the linguistic norms and habits of the target text receiver.

Equivalence translation theory has exerted significant influence on Chinese translation studies since it was introduced into China. Chinese translation researchers have discussed not only the relationship between culture and translation from a macroscopic point of view, but also the translation skills of culturally-loaded words in detail, which provides important guidance for practical translation activities. In terms of specific translation skills, there are various opinions in academic circles, which can be roughly summarized as the following four types, namely literal translation, amplification, substitution and free translation, or the two kinds succinctly, namely domesticating translation and foreignization translation (Wang Enke 2002:83). Accordingly, corresponding translation skills are supposed to be applied based on different kinds of textual content and structure, distinct culturally-loaded words, to make a better achievement of translation equivalence.

1、 翻译等值论及具体的翻译技巧

二十世纪以前的翻译理论看重语言符号的转换。随着全球化背景下各民族交往的日益频繁，文化差异对翻译的影响愈发明显，出现了翻译理论的文化转向，其中以尤金·奈达为代表的“翻译等值论” 尤为著名。奈达在1969年明确提出了功能对等（动态对等）的概念(尤金·奈达,查尔斯·泰伯 2004:)。比起更注重语言形式一致性的传统翻译理论，功能对等理论更强调读者的反应，为翻译研究提供了一个全新的视角。奈达在90年代进一步完善了其理论，基于认知和经验因素，他认为功能对等具有不同的适合程度，提出了功能对等的两个层次：最低层次的对等和最高层次的对等。主张“译文读者对译文的理解应当达到能够想象出原文作者是怎样理解和领会原文的程度，并基本上能按照原文读者理解和领会原文的方式来理解译文”(尤金·奈达 2001:87)。因此，在翻译过程中，特别是有关文化负载词的翻译，必须对原文中的文化信息进行筛选和加工，兼顾源语言和目标语言的历史文化和价值观念的异同点，使译文更加符合目标受众的语言表达的规范和习惯。

翻译等值论在传入中国后，给中国的翻译研究也带来了很大的影响。中国翻译研究者们，不仅从宏观上论述了文化与翻译的关系，还具体地探讨了文化负载词的翻译技巧，对实际的翻译实践活动提供了重要的指导。其中有关具体的翻译技巧方面，学界意见各有千秋，大致可以归纳为如下四类：直译法、增词法、代换法、意译法，或概括成归化法和异化法(王恩科 2002:83)。要根据不同的文本内容和结构、不同的文化负载词，选取相应的翻译技巧，以更好地实现翻译的“等值”。

2. The Definition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words

Culturally-loaded words are the vocabulary in the language system, which can best embody the cultural knowledge that a language carries and reflect the social information of human life. Culturally-loaded words refer to those words or phrases which convey a certain kind of cultural connotations rooted in their own society, which may not be found in other languages. In other words, it is difficult to find ready-made equivalent words in the target language, leading to the phenomenon of lexical gaps (Hu Jie 2018:235). Accordingly, culturally-loaded words in cultural relics commentaries can be defined as words or phrases embodying unique cultural information rooted in Chinese society.

The formation of culture-loaded words is influenced by many factors: under various geographical, historical and social environments, different nations have formed their own lifestyles, ideologies, religious beliefs, customs and habits, literature and art, etc., resulting in numerous cultural differences. The essential differences between eastern and western cultures make the processing of cultural information a key problem in translation activities. Whereas Japan, as a close neighbor of China belonging to the same Chinese character circle, has had continual exchanges with China since ancient times, whose culture is profoundly influenced by traditional Chinese culture. Therefore, the research on the Japanese translation of culturally-loaded words would be inevitably different from that of other languages (Zhang Li,Wu Linan 2021:43). It should not be generalized, or limited to the single direction of Chinese culturally-loaded words, but based on the similarities and differences between Chinese and Japanese language and cultural values under the trends of cross-cultural communication.

On the classification of culturally-loaded words, opinions varies in the academic circles. In this thesis, taking the classification of Zhang (2002:60) as reference, culturally-loaded words in cultural relics commentaries are divided into four categories according to their contributing factors: culture-loaded Words related to material culture, social culture, religious culture, and linguistic culture, on which the translation skills are analyzed and summarized by comparing the source text and the translated version detail by detail.

2、 文化负载词的定义和分类

文化负载词是指在语言系统中，最能体现语言承载的文化信息、反映人类的社会生活的词汇。因为文化负载词反映的是本民族文化中特有的概念，所以往往在另一种语言中无法找到对译的词语，或者说是在译语中很难找到现成的完全对应的“等值词语”，也就形成了词汇空缺(胡洁 2018:235)。因此，文物解说词中的文化负载词可以定义为包含中国独特文化信息的词语。

文化负载词的形成受到诸多因素的影响‚。各民族在不同的地理、历史、社会环境下，形成了各自不同的生活方式、意识形态、宗教信仰、风俗习惯和文学艺术等，从而造成了各种文化差异。特别是东西方文化之间有着本质的不同，使文化信息的处理成为翻译活动中的重点难题。而中日两国一衣带水，自古以来交流密切，日本不仅同属于汉字圈，日本文化更是深受中国传统文化的影响(张丽,吴丽楠 2021:43)。因此，关于文化负载词的日译研究必然有着不同于其他语言的特别之处，不能一概而论，更不能仅局限于汉语文化负载词的单方向，应立足于跨文化交际背景下中日两国在语言和文化价值观之间的异同。

关于文化负载词的分类，学术界各抒己见。本文在参考张（2002:60）分类标准的基础上，把文物解说词中的文化负载词根据其成因，大致分为物质文化类、制度习俗文化类、宗教道德文化类以及文学艺术文化类的四大类，逐一对照源文和译本，进行翻译技巧的分析和归纳。

3. Approaches Applied in Translating Chinese Culture-loaded Words in Cultural Relics Commentaries into Japanese

The research data in this thesis are the Chinese-Japanese translated texts that come from the cultural relics commentaries of Basic Display in Hunan Museum’s exhibition hall, totally 10145 characters. On the whole, the Chinese commentary texts do not translated to Japanese one-to-one correspondence. Among them, some introductions in Chinese do not appear in the Japanese version,  meanwhile, there are also some parts in the Japanese version that are not in the Chinese text. This reflects the distinguishing feature of the commentaries translation for foreign tourists in museums as external propaganda, that it is necessary to make a choice on the content to translate according to the target text receiver, rather than the simple text translation. In view of this, a small number of Chinese culture-loaded words untranslated do not be took into account in the thesis, and according to the four categories of culturally-loaded words that related to material culture, social culture,  religious  culture, and linguistic culture, the representative ones are selected to be analyzed in their translation skills.

3.本文数据来源于湖南博物馆展厅中“基本陈列”中的文物解说词，中日对译文本共计10145字。从整体上来说，解说词的日语译本并非与中文原文一一对应。其中，中文解说中的一些介绍在日语译本中并未出现，相反日语译本里也存在着一些中文解说中没有的部分。这体现了博物馆针对国外游客的解说词译本作为外宣翻译的独特之处，即不仅是简单的文本翻译，更要根据目标对象进行译本内容的取舍。鉴于此，本文将不考虑小部分未译的汉语文化负载词，基于物质文化类、制度习俗文化类、宗教道德文化类以及文学艺术文化类的四种类别，选取其中具有代表性的文化负载词进行翻译技巧方面的分析。

3.1 Culture-loaded Words Related to Material Culture

There are differences in the material entities produced and used by different nations. For example, national costume, architecture, cuisine, etc. the highly traditional culture the social life closely linked, the names of which would indispensably become lexical gaps in other languages. Even the same name often carries different concepts among different nations. The names of the cultural relics, as the most representative example, can convey the information of the object intuitively.

For example, the name of “彩绘双层九子漆奁” (Two-tiered Cosmetic Box Containing Nine Small Boxes )excavated from the Han Tomb 1 at Mawangdui, in which “彩绘”and “漆”(coloured drawing or pattern and lacquer) mean its outer surface feature, “双层”and “九子”(two tires and nine small boxes) mean its internal structure, and the central part “奁”(cosmetic box) means its main application, that containing the dressing articles and other personal articles. It was translated into “彩絵二重九子漆製化粧箱” in Japanese, of which the characteristics and uses could be understood intuitively by the target readers, so that the information received by the target readers and the original readers could be  equivalent, in line with the principle of "formal equivalence" in translation equivalence theory. However, it is worth noting that the concept of "奁" was translated into "化粧箱" in Japanese, which generally refers to the storage box for cosmetics (Kojien6 2008), whereas in Chinese, besides cosmetics, some daily articles are also placed. Consequently, there is an additional explanation in the Japanese version of the detail commentary, that “化粧用具と日用品の物入れである”(the box to contain cosmetics and daily articles), and an introduction of the social custom at that time as well, that “中国の古代には男女問わず、みんな髪を伸ばすので、化粧具も用意する必要がある”(Both men and women in ancient China wore their hair long and possessed dressing articles). It is so complete that the target readers could know about the cultural relic fully. 

In addition, in the commentary of “素纱单衣”(Plain Gauze Gown), the concept of "右衽" (a jacket) of Hanfu, meaning the front part covering to the right, which has been the very characteristic of Hanfu and also considered as one of the symbols of the Han nationality (Zuo Na 2011:30). However, it was translated into “右衽” in Japanese directly. Although Japan's national costume Kimono also has the reference concept of "衽", for the  historical connection that Japanese Kimono originated from Chinese Hanfu, the concrete part referred by “衽” is different, and "右" refers to the directionality of "covering to the right" in Chinese, while "右" may be mistaken for the orientation of "right" in Japanese. Consequently, it is obvious that literal translation is untenable,  thus "前おくみ" is added to the translation to help the target readers understand it. Besides, the cultural connotations contained in "右衽", such as the philosophical view of "harmony between nature and man", and the etiquette thought of "good things is on the left" (Sun Lingling 2018:81), are also hard for the target readers to understand. The characteristics of culturally-loaded words are also convincingly demonstrated by this.

3.1物质文化类

不同民族生产和使用的物质实体存在着差异，例如一些民族特有的服饰、建筑、食物等，这些名称到了其他民族的语言中就会成为“缺项”。 即使是同一名称，在不同民族中所包含的概念也往往不同。而文物的名称就是其中最具代表性的例子，这些名称通常能直观地传达物体的信息。

例如辛追墓出土的文物“彩绘双层九子漆奁”，“彩绘”“漆”说明了其外表特征，“双层”“九子”说明了其内部结构，最重要的主体“奁”说明了其用途，即“古代女子梳妆用的镜匣”。日语译成了“彩絵二重九子漆製化粧箱”，便于译文读者直观地了解该文物的特征和用途，使译文读者和原文读者接收到的信息对等，符合翻译等值论中的“形式对等”原则。但是值得注意的是“奁”这个概念，日语中译成了“化粧箱”，指化妆用品的收纳箱(広辞苑第6版 2008)，而汉语中除化妆用品外，还放置一些日常用品。因此，在详细的文物介绍中，日语译文中另外增加了“化粧用具と日用品の物入れである”的解释，还配有“中国の古代には男女問わず、みんな髪を伸ばすので、化粧具も用意する必要がある”的社会习俗说明。可谓之十分完备，便于译文读者充分了解该文物。

此外，还有关于著名的“素纱单衣”的解说中，涉及到了关于汉服的“右衽”的概念，指前襟向右掩，是汉服始终保留的特点，被认为是汉族的象征符号之一(左娜 2011:30)。而日语译文中直译成了“右衽”，虽然日本的民族服装和服中也有“衽”的参照概念，源于日本和服起源于中国汉服的历史联系。但“衽”在汉服和和服中所指的具体部位是不同的，且“右”在汉语里指“向右掩”的方向性，日语中容易理解为单纯的“右边的”的方位性，因此显然直译是难以成立的。所以译文添加了“前おくみ”的解释，能够助于读者理解。此外，“右衽”所蕴藏的文化内涵，如“天人合一”的哲学观，“吉事尚左”的礼法思想，传统医学的“阴阳观”等(孙玲玲 2018:81)，也是目标读者很难领会到的。这也正充分体现了文化负载词的特性。

3.2 Culture-loaded Words Related to Social Culture

Different nations have different historical development and political evolution, and also have experienced corresponding social system and traditional customs in different periods, thus producing a large quantity of words with era characteristics. Commentary concerned with the time or historical background of cultural relics often involve such words. 

For example, “辛追墓非衣帛画”(T-Shaped Painting On Silk), unearthed from Mawangdui Han Tomb No.1, “非衣”(flying garment), namely “魂幡”，was the banner carried in the funeral procession and then buried in the tomb for the purpose of calling back the spirit of the deceased, which is one of the funeral customs etiquette in ancient China. Banded on the shape of the painting, it was translated into “T形帛画”, obviously neglecting the the concept of “魂幡”, which is not mentioned in the detail commentary as well. However, in the commentary of “人物龙凤帛画”(Silk Painting with Female Figure, Dragon and Phoenix Patterns”, “魂幡” was translated into “霊幡”, with an explanation additionally that “魂を引いて昇天する「霊幡」”(the banner calling back the spirit of the deceased), which could prevent the target readers from misinterpreting it literally as “the flag calling for gods" for there is no such funeral custom etiquette in Japan.

Also, in the commentary of “凤鸟纹’戈’提梁铜卣”(Bronze You with Swinging Handle and Phoenix Design and Inscription “Ge”), the inscription “Ge” on the cover and inner, is “族徽“(the emblem of “Ge” clan), which was translated into “家徽”. Nevertheless, there was a similar concept “家紋” in ancient Japan, referring to the symbol of one clan (Kojien6 2008), thus this paper holds that the latter translation is more appropriate in Japanese. However, in the detail introduction, a historical explanation about the "Ge" clan was added to the Japanese translation text, which could help the target readers understand the social background at that time.

3.2制度习俗文化类

不同民族的历史发展和政治演变各有不同，在不同时期也有与之相应的社会制度和生活习俗，由此产生了许多具有时代特色的词汇。而关于文物的时代和历史背景的介绍往往会涉及到这类词汇。 例如辛追墓出土的“非衣”帛画，“非衣”即“魂幡”，指古代招引亡魂的旗子，出殡前引作前导，入葬时放置在内棺盖上，属于中国古代的丧葬习俗。日语中基于其形状，译成了“T形帛画”，显然直接舍弃“魂幡”这一概念，且在具体的介绍中也并未提及。而在“人物龙凤帛画”的解说词中，也涉及到了“魂幡”的概念，日语译成了“霊幡”，并稍作了“魂を引いて昇天する「霊幡」”的加释，因为日本没有这一丧葬习俗，防止读者从字面误解为“召唤神灵的旗子”等。

又如风鸟纹“戈”提梁铜卣的介绍中，其上铸有“戈”字的族徽。日语译为了“家徽”，但日本古代有“家紋”这一概念，指就是“一个家族的标志”(広辞苑第6版 2008)，所以笔者认为译为“家紋”更符合日语表达习惯。但详细的介绍中，日语译文中另添加了关于“戈族”的历史说明，这可以帮助读者理解当时的社会背景。

3.3 Culture-loaded Words Related to Religious Culture

Religious beliefs and traditional virtues have a profound impact on people's daily production mode and life style, among which some particular concepts created which play an important part of national culture. Such words will inevitably appear in the commentary of cultural relics related to religious and sacrificial activities. 

For instance, the outside painting of “黑地彩绘漆棺”(Coffin with Painted Designs an Black Lacquer Coating, unearthed from XinZhui’s Tomb), indicates that “死者灵魂进入受神灵保护的地府”(the deceased is entering a realm that is under the earth), was translated into “死者の魂は神様の保護で暗い地獄に入ること”, referring to “the deceased is entering the dark hell under the protection of the gods”, which obviously made a different  comprehending to the meaning. Besides, the concept of "地府" originated from the Yin and Yang theory in ancient China, and only after the introduction of Buddhism in Han Dynasty did the system of "地狱"(hell) come into being (Pu Wenqi 2021:12). The concept of "地府" is greater than that of "地狱", which refers to the place where the spirits of the deceased who have sinned deeply during their lifetime are imprisoned and punished. The translation "暗い地獄" is easy to cause the target readers to misunderstand the deviation, thus, “黄泉”“冥土”“あの世”etc.are suggested. 

3.3宗教道德文化类

宗教信仰和传统道德深刻影响着人们日常的生产和生活方式，其中出现的一些专用的概念，是民族文化的重要组成部分。而与宗教、祭祀等活动相关的文物介绍中不可避免地会出现该类词汇。

例如辛追墓出土的“黑地彩绘漆棺”其上绘制的“死者灵魂进入受神灵保护的地府”的形象，日语中译成了“死者の魂は神様の保護で暗い地獄に入ること”。首先，日语译文所表达的意思是“死者灵魂在神灵的保护下进入了黑暗的地狱”，显然在理解上有一定的偏差。其次“地府”这一概念，源于中国古代的阴阳学说，汉代佛教传入后才有了系统的“地狱”体系(濮文起 2021:12)，“地府”的概念大于“地狱”，后者特指囚禁和惩罚生前罪孽深重的亡灵之地。因此，译文“暗い地獄”易造成读者理解偏差，笔者建议译为例如“黄泉”“冥土”“あの世”等会更贴切。

3.4 Culture-loaded Words Related to Linguistic Culture

Speech activities are the products of human spiritual activities, which produce some words concerned with historical allusions or legends. Some words have been gradually given new meanings due to folklore and usually appear in literary works. Such words are likely to be used in the commentary of cultural relics containing with idioms or proverbs. 

For example, in the commentary of the ancient instrument “竽”(Reed Mouth Organ Yu), the idiom “滥竽充数”(pretend to play the Yu to make up the number for an orchestra, or in other words, to fill a post without real qualifications) indicates the popularity of the Yu at that time. Although the Japanese translation “員に備わるのみ”(to fill a post without real qualifications), a Japanese idiom with the same meaning, is in line with the principle of equivalence, the meaning of the idiom “滥竽充数” in this very context has been mainly functioned by its original fable, which is supposed to be explained additionally. Such as “『語源』斉の宣王は竽の音を聞くのが好きで、竽のできる人を300人雇ったところ、竽の吹けない南郭先生が混じって俸給をもらっていたという故事から”.

In addition, the word “凤鸟乘云”(phoenixes riding on clouds), was translated into “雲に乗る鳳鳥”in Japanese literally. The concept of "凤鸟"(phoenix) originated from the ancient Chinese legend, which is a kind of auspicious animal, and "phoenixes riding on the clouds" means good luck. Although Japan has been influenced by Sinology since ancient times and the four Rui animals that "Dragon, Phoenix, Kylin and Turtle" has had some effects on Japanese literature and culture,  an additional explanation "祥瑞を寓意する" could be more easily understood by the target readers.

3.4语言文化类

语言活动是人类精神活动的产物，其中产生了一些隐含着历史典故或人物传说的词汇。一些词语因为民间传说而逐渐被赋予了新的指代含义，多出现在文学作品中。而与文物涉及到相关的成语和谚语等的介绍中，很有可能会使用到此种词汇。

例如，关于古代乐器“竽”的解说中，提到了“滥竽充数”这一成语的出现来说明当时竽的流行程度。日语译成了相同意思的谚语“員に備わるのみ”，虽然在含义上做到了“功能对等”，且符合目标语习惯，但“滥竽充数”在这个特定的语境中，主要以其出典的寓言故事发挥意义功能的，所以笔者认为注解其成语故事更为妥当，例如“『語源』斉の宣王は竽の音を聞くのが好きで、竽のできる人を300人雇ったところ、竽の吹けない南郭先生が混じって俸給をもらっていたという故事から。”

另外，如“凤鸟乘云”这一词语，日语译为“雲に乗る鳳鳥”，在形式上实现了对等。“凤鸟”这一概念起源于中国古代传说，是一种吉祥的动物，“凤鸟乘云”寓意着吉祥。虽然日本自古以来受到汉学的影响，“龙凤麟龟”的四瑞概念也在日本文学文化中有一定的影响，但是笔者认为加注“祥瑞を寓意する”等会更易于译文读者理解其中的文化概念。

Conclusion

In this thesis, taking the Japanese version of the cultural relics commentaries from Hunan museum’s basic display as the research objects, adopting Eugene Nina’s translation equivalence theory as the theoretical guidance, the translation skills of culturally-loaded words with different cultural meanings are analyzed through comparing with the source text, and some suggestions for perfection are provided. In the translation of commentary on cultural relics, more emphasis is placed on the reading needs of target readers and the purpose of displaying national culture than on literal translation, and there is no strict requirement for one-to-one correspondence in translation form, with great flexibility and freedom. Especially, the translation of culturally-loaded words in the cultural relics commentaries, is supposed to take both the external literal information and the internal cultural information into consideration. Take the translation equivalence equivalence theory as the theoretical guidance, adopt literal translation and free translation as the specific translation techniques, add explanation and interpretation when necessary, and tag the difficult Chinese words with Japanese Hiragana, so that the target readers' could understand the texts easily, improving the intelligibility and acceptability of the translation. In addition, the translation of culturally-loaded words should also consider the certain text and the concrete context, according to the pragmatic principles. The most appropriate meaning of the text should be selected from the numerous cultural information contained therein to translate, along with additional annotation or explanation necessarily. Language and culture’s association are so closed that the translation of the cultural relics commentaries has to focus attention on the culturally-loaded words embodying numerous cultural information. It is suggested that commentary translation skills should be studied from multiple perspectives, and the Japanese tourists’ acceptability of the translated commentaries should be researched through the actual surveys, so as to improve the quality of commentary translation, and provide some experience for other external propaganda translation, realizing a better display of the splendid and time-honored Chinese culture.

本文选取湖南省博物馆基本陈列的文物解说词作为考察对象，以尤金·奈达的翻译等值论为理论指导，逐一对具有不同文化含义的词汇进行原、译文对照分析，并提出了部分改进建议。在文物解说词的翻译中，比起单纯的字面对译，更强调目标读者的阅读需求和展示民族文化的目的，因此在翻译形式上不严格要求一一对应，具有很大的灵活性和自由度。特别是关于介在其中的文化负载词的翻译，应兼顾表面上的文字信息和隐藏在内部的文化信息两个层面，以翻译等值论为指导，具体翻译技巧上以直译和意译为主，必要时添加注释和解释，还可以给难读的汉字标注假名，以便于目标读者的理解，提高译文的接受度和可读性。此外，文化负载词的翻译还要考虑使用的实际文本和特定语境，即考虑语用原则，从其所蕴含的丰富的文化信息中，选取最贴合文本的含义，进行注解或者加释。语言与文化密切关联，文物解说词的翻译要考虑到这些包含大量的文化负载词的文化信息的翻译，今后可以从多个角度分析日译解说词的翻译技巧，并对日本游客对译本的理解度进行实际的调查，从而提高解说词翻译的质量，为其他外宣翻译提供一定的经验，更好地传播灿烂悠久的中国文化。

References

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10 丁旋 从纽马克翻译理论看林语堂版《扬州瘦马》中文化负载词的翻译 Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in The Concubine Market of Yangchow ofLin Yutang's version from the perspective of Newmark’s translation theory

Cult_Load_Words_EN_10

Abstract

The theme of this paper is to analyze culture-loaded words in The Concubine Market of Yangchow based on Newmark’s translation theory. Surrounding this theme, much background information was discussed, such as the introduction of Zhang Dai and The Concubine Market of Yangchow, the definition and categories of culture-loaded words according to Nida and Newmark’s translation theories and so on. Lin Yutang’s English version to The Concubine Market of Yangchow-- an essay written in Ming dynasty, contributes a lot to disseminating Chinese traditional culture all over the world. The question--how to translate culture-loaded words for better transmission of Chinese culture has been probed in this paper.

Key words

Newmark’s Translation Theory; Culture-Loaded Words; The Concubine Market of Yangchow; Lin Yutang

Introduction

The Concubine Market of Yangchow, a masterpiece of Zhang Dai, vividly describes the industry of bringing up and selling girls in Yangchow of Ming dynasty. This phenomenon was rare and immoral in Chinese history, which is worthwhile to be probed and discussed. This essay is written in Ming dynasty and we all know that Chinese culture is broad and profound especially in ancient Chinese culture. Therefore, there must be some culture-loaded words in it. When Lin Yutang translated it into English version, how could him deal with these culture-loaded words? We may want to know that what translation theories and methods he used for translating culture-loaded words. This paper combined Lin Yutang’s translation with Newmark’s theory and used Newmark’s theory to deconstruct the methods used by Lin Yutang to translate culture-loaded words. This paper is divided into four chapters which are logically connected and clearly displayed, which helps all readers of The Concubine Market of Yangchow to better understand this work.

1. Introduction of Zhang Dai and The Concubine Market of Yangchow

1.1 Introducation of Zhang Dai

Zhang Dai (1597-1684), ci poet and historian of the late Ming dynasty and early Qing dynasty, born in Shaoxing city, Zhejiang province. He came from a scholarly family for three generations of successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations in his family. In the first half of his life, he indulged in entertainments, living in an extravagant life and doing himself proud for his well-to-do family. He described himself as “I was a dude in early times and I liked prosperity, delicate houses, beautiful maids, clever children, new clothes and delicious food, fine horses, colorful lanterns, fireworks...... (卜正民, 2005:43)”. When Zhang Dai was 48 years old, Ming dynasty fell and his hometown destructed. He lost everything, went to a mountain temple and lived in a poor life. Because of this huge contrast, he wrote a lot of classical works such as Pottery Recall by Buddhist Nunnery Dreams and Seeking Dreams in West Lake. Besides, he also went to a lot of brothels and Chinese theatrical places in Jiangnan region. However, he acted as a spectator in these places, observing the scene and situation carefully. Especially The Concubine Market of Yangchow discussed here, he accompanied his friends to select and buy “lean horse” many times so that he could write a passage about it, which won universal praise. (Zhang Zetong, 2021:19).

1.2 Introduction of The Concubine Market of Yangchow

“Concubine market” refers to some people bought beautiful girls from poor family, taught them skills of women and courtesy, cultivated them how to be good wives and sold them to the rich as concubine. “Lean horse” refers to these girls. In the dialect of Yangzhou, “marry a horse” means “marry a wife”, which is the origin of the call of “breed lean horse” (Wang Yuanhua, 1994:80). “Horse” is a humiliating word to women and “lean” manifests the low status of women in ancient time.

Ancient Yangchow, a crucial harbor for canal transportation of salt, is a prosperous city which attracts a large number of scholars and businessmen to come. As a city of Jiangnan region, the weather here is suitable and scenery is beautiful. The green willows, warm breeze, bright moon, delicate buildings and colorful lighting were very attractive with songs and music throughout the night. The laughter and sound of wine glasses spread over the city and lasted all night. The wandering scholars often indulged in this prosperity and went to the entertaining places such as brothels, however, the rich businessmen despised these places. But they also had the requirement of beauties so that the “lean horse” industry began to operate to satisfy this need. This is the origin and history of “concubine market”.

The Concubine Market of Yangchow is written by Zhang Dai after observing the transaction of “lean horse” many times. So he wrote this transaction in detail which is regarded as a classical work in later time.

2. Introduction of Culture-Loaded Words

2.1 Definition of Culture-Loaded Words

In Linguistics, Spair-Whorf Hypothesis puts forward that the relationship between language and culture. Language molds our thinking patterns and expresses the unique ways of understanding the world. It is divided into two versions: strong version and weak version. Strong version refers to that language determines our thinking patterns but weak version thinks that the similarities of language are relative. The greater the structural differentiation is, the more divers the conceptualization of the world will be. Therefore, culture is encoded and transmitted by the language which influences the way of thinking and viewing of the world and embodies cultural realities. On the contrary, language is the product of culture which influences language and makes language change to fit the development of culture. Language loads a large amount of culture such as political system, living condition, religion belief and social custom and so on. Culture-loaded words are some terms, idioms and collocations full of national culture. Many masters put forward the definition of culture-loaded words. It was initially put forward in Culturally Loaded Words and English Language Teaching by Xu Guozhang in 1980. There are some other statements: “Culture-loaded words are words within a specific cultural range, and are a direct and indirect reflection of national culture in language vocabulary (Hu Wenzhong, 1999:64)”; “Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases, and idioms that mark a particular cultural thing. These words reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that are gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations (Liao Qiyi, 2000:232)”. We can see that culture-loaded words as a language carrier are the specific words of one nation, which loads rich national information of culture.

2.2 Categorization of Culture-Loaded Words

Nida E.A. mentioned five cultural categories of translation in his famous book—Language, Cultural and Translation (Nida, 1993:91). They are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. There five culture categories can be used into the concept of culture-loaded words so that the classification of culture-loaded words came out. Further, Newmark P. put forward five kinds of culture words: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, custom and religion and gesture and habit in A Text of Translation (Newmark, 2001:94). They have many similarities in culture or culture words categories. This paper mainly focuses on Nida’s theory of classification of culture-loaded words.

2.2.1 Ecological Culture-Loaded Words

Ecological culture-loaded words are related with natural geographical environment, weather change, animals and plants in a certain community. For instance, in the perspective of geographical position, China is a land country but England is a water country. If we describe someone spends money without restrictions, Chinese is “挥金如土”but English is “spend money like water”. We use “土”to describe the degree of money but in English, they use “water” to express this image. In addition, “羊肠小径”can be translated into “a small twisting path”(Mei Yanhong, 2016:137). In Chinese, the conception of “羊肠”can be collocated with “小径”. However, in English, “羊肠”cannot be collocated with “小径”so that the literal meaning of “羊肠”cannot be translated directly but translated to “small twisting” to collocated “path”. The other example is “走水”. This word is loaded with Chinese culture, which means fire rather than water. So we translate it as “fire” in English rather than water.

2.2.2 Material Culture-Loaded Words

Material culture-loaded words refer to the special material objects in different cultures (Chen Linlin, 2011:144). These words include food, clothes, buildings, vehicles and so on. For example, some Chinese food like “饺子”、“馄饨”、“包子”, some Chinese clothes like “旗袍”、“中山装” , some Chinese buildings like “长城”“故宫” and some Chinese vehicles like “黄包车”“轿子”. These objects only exist in China and other countries do not have such objects. So such words as material objects loaded with national culture are called Material culture-loaded words.

2.2.3 Social Culture-Loaded Words

Social culture is inclusive of tradition, custom, social rules, moral principles, history backgrounds and ideology and so on (Chen Linlin, 2011:144). Besides, some words connected with social decorum, social status and some entertaining activities are also regarded as social culture-loaded words. In a word, if some words engage in society and load the special culture of one certain country, they are social culture-loaded words. For example, from the perspective of Chinese culture, “三跪九叩”—this kind of social decorum in ancient China. Some Chinese traditional festivals like “七夕节”“端午节”and so on (Mei Yanhong, 2016:137). Some ancient Chinese political status like “状元”“举人”“榜眼”“探花”and so on .

2.2.4 Religious Culture-Loaded Words

Religious culture-loaded words refer to some words loaded with some ideas, beliefs and ceremony related to religions. As to religion, oriental countries have much difference with western countries. Even in western countries, they also have different religious beliefs. For example, from the perspective of Chinese religion, we have the special culture religion called “八字”“算命先生”“看风水”(Mei Yanhong, 2016:137). These things do not exist in western countries. Some “八字先生” can forecast one’s life fortune with the birth date, which is critical miraculous. So we call “八字先生” fortune-teller. Other instances are “观音菩萨”“如来佛祖”“法师”and so on.

2.2.5 Linguistic Culture-Loaded Words

Linguistic culture-loaded words refer to that different spoken manner and habits in different ethnics, which are manifested in phonological, lexical and syntax levels ((Mei Yanhong, 2016:137). The examples are naming and the use of idioms. Linguistic culture-loaded words treat words from the perspective of language characteristics. For example, Chinese and English have much difference in perspective of the two languages. Chinese is made up of many short sentences and lack of structure but English are long sentences made up of a lot of clauses and have strict structures. Chinese uses many verbs while there are many stative words like nouns, prepositions and adjectives in English. In a word, there are so many linguistic differences in Chinese and English. For example, the translation of“二月二，龙抬头，大仓满，小仓流”is “When dragon raises its head, abundant harvests of crops are promised ahead”.

3. The Translation Theory of Mewmark

3.1 Semantic Translation

Semantic translation, similar to foreignization, struggles to keep the linguistic characteristics and original expressive manner of original works and transmit the thought process of the author. It should be initially faithful to the author and transmit the correct meaning of the original work with the permission of words and phrases structures (Zhang Jianhui, 2008:143). The focus of semantic translation is the original work and author, which tries to achieve the original text’s effect. In other words, on the basis of not undermining the meaning of original text, translators should keep the original text’s grammatical rules, semantical and syntactic structures as much as possible. Semantic translation preserves the cultural characteristics of the original works to achieve the transmission of social culture.

The art value generated by translation is as eternal as original work. For example, when Wen Xianliang translated Li Bai’s The Trader’s Wife—“Lang rides a bamboo horse and makes green plums around the bed” （郎骑竹马来，绕床弄青梅）, he translated “青梅”into “green plums”, which uses semantic translation to preserve the unique expression of the original text (Zhang Jianhui, 2008: 143). The other example is put forward by Feng Jiajia-- Lu Xun’s novel.

The True Story of Ah Q: “所以不敢僭称,便从不入三教九流的小说家所谓“闲话休提言归正传”这一句套话里,取出“正传”两个字来,作为名目”。

I will take as my title the last two words of stock phrase of the novelist, who are not reckoned among the Three Cults and Nine Schools. ——Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie tranlasted. From that we can see, they translated “三教九流”into “Three Cults and Nine Schools”, which uses the method of semantic translation. “三教九流”is an saying in Chinese, foreigners cannot understand its true meaning, but Yang Xianyi also uses an annotation to interpret it. It is one method to make expression more clear when using semantic translation (Feng Jiajia, 2010:109).

3.2 Communicative Translation

Communicative translation, similar to domestication, focuses on the target readers rather than the original author. The translator moves closer to the target language by adjusting syntactic structures and logical relationship without destroying the original text. As to the national culture, the translator should fully understand the culture of target language so that the target readers can understand the work better. It focuses on the meaning and content rather than the text form itself any more, which transmits the information for reader to think, feel and act (Zhang Jianhui, 2008: 143). It is used in the non-literary text, technical text and textbooks and so on.

There is an advertisement example of alcohol put forward by Zhang Jianhui for us to understand what communicative translation is——

"爽口顺喉，和醇耐味，名贵高尚"——Sensuously Smooth; Mysteriously Mellow; Gloriously Golden. The consonant “s” imitates a lot of oohs and aahs after drinking, the consonant “M” symbolizes the expression of wine-tasting and the explosive “G” manifests the deep exaltation from wine-tasters. This advertisement uses the method of communicative translation to transmit a kind of elegance.

4.1 Semantic Translation Theory in The Concubine Market of Yangchow

The Concubine Market of Yangchow is an essay in classical writing style belonging to the category of literature. In Newmark’s opinion, literary works should use the method of semantic translation to show the exotic custom and flavor to readers. The original linguistic characteristics and custom should be preserved. In order to disseminate Chinese culture around the world, a lot of culture-loaded words in semantic translation can be discovered in Lin Yutang’s translation version.

(1) 扬州人日饮食于瘦马之身者数十百人。(Line 1) At Yangchow, there were hundreds of people making a living from activities connected with the “lean horses”. (Line 1) In classical style of writing, “饮食”cannot be translated into “eating and drinking” in modern Chinese. Here, “饮食”means “make a living” in classical style of writing and Lin Yutang translated it properly. “瘦马”in this passage does not refer to the lean horse in literal meaning but the thin girls brought up to be the nobles and the rich’s concubines. But Lin Yutang translated “瘦马”according its literal meaning rather than “concubines”, which reflects the ancient Chinese cultural characteristic. Readers may be confused when reading this word but they can understand its meaning after looking through the whole passage or the content below.

(2)牙婆驵侩，咸集其门，如蝇附膻，撩扑不去。(Line 2) The professional agents and go-betweens, both men and women, would swarm about his house or hotel like flies, and there was no way of keeping them off. (Line 4) Here, “如蝇附膻”is translated semantically. Lin uses a metaphor to compare professional agents and go-betweens with flies crazy about the flavor of mutton, reflecting their snobbishness and worship of money. The interpretation of “如蝇附膻”in deep meaning is to describe that people serve the time and seek fame and fortune. But Lin does not translate the connotative meaning but the denotative meaning because the image of “flies” is the same in all culture and foreigners can understand in that context. This measure keeps the original feature and makes read understand easily.

(3) 牙婆扶瘦马出，曰：“姑娘拜客。”下拜。曰：“姑娘往上走。”走。(Line 4) At once the woman agent would come out with a girl and announce, “Kuniang (mademoiselle), curtsy!” The girl curtsied. Next was said, “Kuniang, walk forward!” She walked forward. （Line 11） Here, “姑娘”is translated into “Kuniang” in transliteration rather than “girl”, but Lin adds an annotation in the follow for interpretation. So transliteration with an annotation is one resort to semantic translation. In Chinese, we often use Kuniang to refer to a girl, which is our tradition since the ancient China and loads a long historical culture. Actually, the meaning of“上”in “姑娘往上走”is not walking upward but forward because “上”in ancient Chinses means “forward” in modern Chinese. I think Lin uses the semantic translation here to preserve Chinese culture.

(4) 高系其裙，人未出者而趾先出者，必小。（Line 9） But if she wears her skirts relatively high and reveals her feet as she takes a step forward, you already know that she has a pair of small feet that she is proud of. (Line23) In Chinese historical and cultural tradition, from ancient times to 1911, women should bind their feet because men regarded three- inch “golden lotuses (woman’s bound feet in feudal age) was beautiful. It was Sun Yat-sen who overthrew this system in his revolution and women were free from their feet. So in The Concubine of Market in which the story happened in Ming dynasty, women were still need to bind their feet. Lin translates “必小”into “a pair of small feet” with an annotation “she is proud of”, which helps foreigners to better understand the tradition of small feet of women in ancient China.

(5)看中者，用金簪或钗一股插其鬓，曰“插带”。（Line 12） If the gentleman decided he would take a certain girl, he would put a gold hairpin or ornament on her hair, this was called tsatai. (Line 18) As for the translation of “插带”, Lin translated it into “tsatai”by means of transliteration. This a special call used by people of Ming dynasty. “带”refers to a gold hairpin or ornament. The action of “插带”refers to put a gold hairpin or ornament on one girl’s hair. Lin preserves the pinyin of “插带”because he has interpreted this before. From that, readers can know more about ancient Chinese culture.

(6)用笔蘸墨，送客点阅。（Line 18） The owner would dip the brush in ink and hold it ready for the customer to check and make any amendments he might wish.(Line 48) “笔”here refers to “毛笔”which is used by Chinese and there is no “毛笔”in western countries. So Lin translated it according to our own object rather than finding some similar object to equalize it.

(7)礼币糕果俱齐。（Line 21） Ceremonial papers, fruit and pastry also arrived.(Line 52) “礼币”of the wedding in foreign countries means the gifts or money offered by guests or relatives. In China, it also has this meaning but there is a special action in ancient China or even today that hosts will record the name of gifts and givers on the papers. So Lin translated “礼币” into “ceremonial papers”, which preserves the unique Chinese wedding characteristic.

(8)而花轿花灯、擎燎火把、山人傧相、纸烛供果牲醴之属，门前环视。（Line 21） There came back with the band, floral sedan chair, floral lanterns, torches, handled torches, sedan chair carriers, bridesmaids, candles, more fruit and roasts. (Line 54) “花轿”is a special sedan chair used to carry the bride in Chinese traditional wedding. It is always decorated gorgeously and made in red to symbolize the celebration and auspiciousness. “花灯”, a traditional folk art, is made up by paper outside, candles inside and bamboos as the lantern bone. When at wedding, it is usually in red because red is the symbol of Chinese wedding. Lin translated the two words according to each Chinese words like “花”and “轿”, “花”and “灯”.

4.2 Communicative Translation Theory in The Concubine Market of Yangchow

If the translator uses communicative translation, he must stands on the side of readers for the purpose that readers can better understand the text. The translator must think deeply and try to find some equivalent words in other cultures. Then he uses these equivalent words which could be understood by readers to replace the original words. In Lin Yutang’s translation version of The Concubine Market of Yangchow, he used communicative translation many times.

(1) 牙婆驵侩，咸集其门，如蝇附膻，撩扑不去。(Line 2) The professional agents and go-betweens, both men and women, would swarm about his house or hotel like flies, and there was no way of keeping them off. (Line 4) “牙婆”refers to the women making profits from selling young girls. The original meaning of “驵侩”is go-betweens in horse sales and it refers to the between businessmen introducing the deals later. So Lin translated these in “the professional agents and go-betweens” so that English readers can understand Chinese special appellations in their thinking patterns.

(2) 牙婆扶瘦马出，曰：“姑娘拜客。”(Line4) At once the woman agent would come out with a girl and announce, “Kuniang (mademoiselle), curtsy!”(Line11) “拜客”, one kind of Chinese etiquette, refers to kneel on the ground and kowtow. It is not the meaning in western countries of visiting guests. So Lin translated it into “curtsy” accurate to its original meaning.

(3) 用金簪或钗一股插其鬓。(Line 12) He would put a gold hairpin or ornament on her hair. (Line 18) Lin used semantic translation to interpret“金簪”into “gold hairpin”. But as for “钗”, he did not find the equivalent in western culture but used “ornament” to replace it. “钗”is indeed an hair ornament used by ancient women to make their hair beautiful.

(4) 出钱数百文，赏牙婆或赏其家侍俾。(Line12) A tip of several hundred cash was given the woman agent or the maids of the house. “文”is the unit of money in Ming dynasty. But Lin translated “文”into cash, which uses the communicative translation so that readers can understand the meaning of “文钱”(Zhao Huihui, 2019:37).

(5) 心与目谋，毫无把柄，不得不聊且迁就，定其一人。（Line 16） One does not know what to decide or which to take, and eventually makes his choice on one of them. (Line 40) “心与目谋” means the customer is tired of watching and selecting the girls and“毫无把柄” means the customer has no thought and cannot make the decision. Lin translated these difficult phrases in their connotative meaning which can be easily understood by readers.

(6) 归未抵寓，而鼓乐盘担，红绿羊酒在其门久矣。（Line 20） Before he arrived at his own place, drummers and musicians and carrier-loads of lamb and all kinds of wines were already here. (Line 50) “鼓乐” means drum and song sound. “盘担” refers to huge boxes loading the precious food. “红绿”is not to replace the color of red and green but to describe the color of food especially wine are various rather than only red and green. So Lin use “盘担”to describe “羊”and “红绿”to describe wine. Besides, metonymy is used by translating“鼓乐”into “drummers and musicians”. Such adjustment and change can make the original sentence clearer.

(7)而花轿花灯、擎燎火把、山人傧相、纸烛供果牲醴之属，门前环视。（Line 21） There came back with the band, floral sedan chair, floral lanterns, torches, handled torches, sedan chair carriers, bridesmaids, candles, more fruit and roasts. (Line 54) “擎燎” means holding the torch in hand. “傧相”means bridesmaids in modern Chinese and Lin also translated in its modern meaning so that readers can better understand. The wedding supplies of “纸烛供果牲醴”, which are special in Chinese traditional wedding because there are some unique wedding ceremonies in ancient China such as “bowing to the groom and guests” and “entering the bridal chamber” and so on. Though Lin cannot translate its full meaning, he also find some equivalent words in English.

(8)未去半里（Line 21） Before they had gone a quarter mile.(Line 54) “半里”, one method of calculating distance, refers to 250 meters. Lin used “mile” , this call often used by English people, to refer to “半里”(Zhao Huihui, 2019:37).

(9)则蔬果、肴馔汤点、花棚糖饼、酒壶杯箸、龙虎寿星。（Line 23） Vegetables, meats and sweets, followed by awnings, table service, longevity stars. (Line 58) Though “肴馔”“糖饼”does not manifest their full meaning by “meats and sweets, westerns countries can understand this appellation. The original meaning of“酒壶杯箸”is that wine pots, cups and chopsticks. But Lin translated it into table service because these are tools for eating and drinking. “龙虎”in Chinese means longevity but in western culture, they are bad things and have inauspicious meaning so that Lin just translated them in “longevity star” (Zhao Huihui, 2019:37)

(10)新人拜堂。(Line 26) The bride came up and performed the wedding ceremony (by bowing to the groom and guests). (Line 64) “新人”cannot be translated into “new men” because “新人”means “bride” here. “拜堂” is a Chinese traditional wedding ceremony rather than visiting a house(Zhao Huihui,2019:38). Lin interpreted these words with new words rather than translating their meaning word by word.

Conclusion

The Concubine Market of Yangchow, an essay written by Zhang Dai, helps Chinese know more details about “lean horse” industry in Ming dynasty and Lin Yutang’s translation version helps western people know more about Chinese traditional culture. As for the question, how Lin Yutang translated such passage full of Chinese culture for English readers and achieved the successful cross-culture communication is probed in this paper. I used Newmark’s translation theory inclusive of semantic translation and communicative translation to analyze Lin Yutang’s translation for culture-loaded words. This paper made some contributions to analysis of culture-loaded words and enriched the realm of culture-words research.

References

[1] Nida, E. Language, Cultural and Translation[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993: 91.

[2] Newmark, P. A Textbook of Translation[M]. New York:Prentice Hall, 1988: 94.

[3] 卜正民. 《为权力祈祷：佛教与晚明中国士绅社会的形成》[M]. 南京：江苏人民出版社, 2005: 43.

[4] 冯家佳, 黄建凤. 纽马克翻译理论与汉语文化负载词的翻译[J]. 《东南亚纵横》, 2010(07): 109.

[5] 胡文仲. 《跨文化交际学概论》[M]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 1999: 64.

[6] 廖七一. 《当代西方翻译理论探索》[M]. 南京：译林出版社, 2002: 232.

[7] 梅艳红, 南华. 目的论视角下语言类文化负载词的英译——以巴金《家》为例[J]. 《广西教育》, 2016(07): 137.

[8] 王元华. 扬州“瘦马”的由来[J]. 《古典文学知识》, 1994(02): 80.

[9] 许国璋. Culturally Loaded Words and English Language Teaching[J].《现代外语》, 1980(04): 19-25.

[10] 张建辉, 陈凯. 彼得·纽马克翻译理论浅析[J]. 《河北师范大学学报》, 2008(06): 143.

[11] 张则桐. 买妾程式中的热闹和苍凉[J]. 《寻根》, 2021(5): 19.

[12] 赵慧慧. 浅析林语堂《扬州瘦马》中文化负载词的英译——从归化与异化的角度[J]. 《青年文学家》, 2019(27): 36-37.

11 高蜜On the Translation of Culture-loaded Words in The Travels of Lao Ts'an from the Perspective of Cultural Schema Theory

Cult_Load_Words_EN_11

Key words

The Travels of Lao Ts'an; Cultural Schema Theory; Culture-Loaded Words;

12 殷慧珍 A study on the English Translation of Culture-loaded Words in The Spring Festival written by Fang Wenhua Based on Domestication and Foreignization Strategies

Cult_Load_Words_EN_12

Abstract

Culture-loaded words refer to words with unique cultural connotations, which are powerful tools to promote cultural communication. Due to the great differences between eastern and western cultural backgrounds, the translation of culture-loaded words is a difficult task. Therefore, this essay studies the English translation of Chinese culture-loaded words in The Spring Festival, which is a prose written by Chinese Writer and translator Fang Huawen, introducing many Chinese customs and activities containing Chinese culture-loaded words. According to the Nida’s classification of culture, this essay classifies culture-loaded words into ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words. Based on the domestication and foreignization translation strategies proposed by Venuti, this essay analyzes the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Fang Huawen’s essay The Spring Festival and its translation, and summarizes the translation of culture-loaded words based on domestication and foreignization strategies.

Key Words

Culture-loaded Words, The Spring Festival, Domestication and Foreignization Strategies, Fang Huawen

1. Introduction

Since the development of China’s reform and opening up, China's economy has improved rapidly. Culture, as a manifestation of the soft power of national development, playing an increasing role in the country. And Chinese culture is becoming more and more popular among foreign readers. As a carrier of culture, book is a powerful tool for cultural communication. Meanwhile, translation is a bridge connected different languages and different cultures and the main task of translation is to translate the content of the source language into the target language. Therefore, in China, more and more books, such as poetry collections, novels, essays and so on, are translated into foreign languages and then widely spread all over the world. However, due to the huge differences in economic system, language structure and cultural customs between China and the West, many culture-loaded words with unique characteristics of the Chinese nation, such as some idioms, sayings and idiomatic expressions, are difficult to translate. Those who do not understand the Chinese cultural background cannot fully understand the meaning of these culture-loaded words. Therefore, the translation of culture-loaded words is key to the whole translation which is well worth our research. The Spring Festival is a prose written by Fang Huawen, a famous Chinese literary translator. It talks about the Spring Festival, the most important traditional Chinese festival, and gives a detailed description of the activities during this traditional festival. Many culture-loaded words appeared in the prose represent Chinese culture, people can understand the profound Chinese culture through the authentic translation. Based on the translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, this essay explores the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Fang Huawen’s The Spring Festival.

2. Fang Wenhua and The Spring Festival

Fang Huawen was born in 1955, who is a famous Chinese literary translator and translation theorist. He plays an important role in literary translation in China and he was elected as a representative in the field of literary translation in China. He has translated many literary works such as Oliver Twist and David Copperfield written by Charles Dickens, Tess of the d'Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure written by Thomas Hardy, Jane Eyre and Pride and Prejudice written by Jane Austen and so on. Also, he wrote books of Chinese Culture of Editions Series such as Chinese Garden, Chinese Folk Customs, Famous Historical Cities in China and so on, which introduce Chinese culture in all areas. His representative translated work is History of Chinese Translation in the 20th Century, which elaborately introduce the Chinsese Translation theories and translators, covering more than ten million words. His translated works have made great contributions to the spread of Chinese culture, and his translation views are well known both at home and abroad. He was named "the most productive literary translator in contemporary China” by the UNESCO International Federation of Translators and his translation theories were publish in Babel, the academic journal of the International Federation of Translators, which enabled the world to know the general situation of Translation in China and the characteristics of translation. In this essay, The Spring Festival is selected as the text of analysis, which is one of the prose collected in the book Translation and Appreciation of Chinese and Foreign Selected Famous Proses and Poems, whose author is also Fang Huawen, selecting and translating famous Chinese and foreign proses and poetry. The Spring Festival is written by Fang Huawen and he selcets his own translation version in the book. The essay introduces the Spring Festival, the most important traditional festival of the China. The essay introduces the customs and activities of the Spring Festival in detail, which have been passed down from the ancient time. With the changes of the times, the words and customs have their own distinctiveness. Taking the traditional activity “post picture” as an example in the essay, Chinese people posted pictures of Shen Shu and Yu Lu with the wish of getting good luck and happiness in Nan Dynasty. While in Tang Dynasty, they posted the photos of Qin Shubao and Yuchi Jingde. If you don't know the culture background of Chinese culture, you can hardly know the connotaion of the words. For example, the names of firecrackers are of various kinds, like "Rockets", "Rolling Mines", "Fairy Scattering Flowers", "Knights in Red" and so on. The author elaborately introduces all kinds of customs and activities from the first day of the first lunar month to the 15th day of the first lunar month, among which culture-loaded words are unique to Chinese culture, and the translation of these culture-loaded words will greatly promote the spread of Chinese culture.

3. Culture and Culture-loaded Words

3.1 The brief introduction of Culture

Compared with the economic and political field, culture refers to the spiritual activities of human beings and the products they produce. Culture is a set of customs, traditions and values formed by people living in a specific community over a long period of time, such as the culture of a nation or country. There are various cultures in the world, and each culture has its own characteristics, including its own ethnic values, such as religious belief, world outlook, etc. It also includes spiritual products produced by specific ethnic groups, such as some artistic and scientific spiritual products. Besides, the manners and behaviors of a nation such as folk customs, spirits and so on. Chinese contemporary writer and scholar Yu Qiuyu gave a detailed interpretation of culture. He gave a definition of culture with a concise and simple sentence in What is Culture, that is, culture is a kind of spiritual value and life style called habit, and its final result is collective personality. (Yu qiuyu, 3) The first key word is spiritual value, which means that culture is not only a cultural phenomenon, but also has cultural value. Therefore, it can be explained that culture is a spiritual symbol of human beings compared with the primitive state. The second key word is lifestyle. This is the concrete realization of spiritual value. In most cases, culture, it should be concrete and acessible. The third key word is collective personality. This shows that culture not only affects people, but also concentrates on personality precipitation to maintain some stability. That is to say, the unique spiritual value and way of life developed by a particular nation is the culture of this nation, such as Confucianism, ancestral hall culture in Chinese culture and so on. Specifically, Culture covers nearly all kinds of fields in social life. There are many classifications of culture from different perspectives. For example, from the geographical aspect, there are local culture and foreign culture, urban culture and rural culture, Eastern culture and Western culture and so on. Also, from the perspective of time, there are primitive culture, slavery culture, feudal culture, capitalist culture, socialist culture and so on. According to Nida, he divided culture into five categories in his book Language, Cultural and Translation:(1) ecological culture, (2) material culture, (3) social culture, (4) religious culture, (5) language culture. (Nida, 1993: 91)

3.2 The brief introduction of Culture Loaded Words

Culture-loaded words refer to the words or phrases carrying the unique cultural connotations of a certain nation, which are different from other nations. Chinese scholar Hu Wenzhong defined culture-loaded words as follows: "Culture-loaded words are words within the scope of a specific culture, and are the direct and indirect reflection of national culture in the language vocabulary" (Hu Wenzhong 1999:64). When these culture-loaded words are translated into the target language, it is not easy to find corresponding words in the target language. Therefore, the wide use of culture-loaded words can transmit national cultural values and promote national communication. Based on the classification of culture of Nida, culture-loaded words also can be divided into five catergories accordingly. The first is ecological culture-loaded words, which refer to the words that reflect the unique local ecology, such as climate, lgeomorphology, natural environment, mountains, rivers, vegetation and so on. Different geographical environments breed different cultures, such as the Chinese idiom “稳如泰山”, which translates into English as stable as Mount Tai, meaning as firm as a rock, "Mount Tai" is a unique ecological environment in China. Mount Tai is very majestic in the hearts of the Chinese people, and it is worshipped by the people and enjoys a high status. Therefore, people use this idiom to praise people as stable and unshakable as Mount Tai. For English phrase, "a big fish" is literally translated into Chinese “一条大鱼”, but in English culture, it means "Great man", because Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea, which reflects the influence of the sea on British culture. The second is material culture-loaded words, which refer to words produced in daily life to meet the development of people's material life, that is, words with cultural connotations such as clothing, food and household goods that people need in daily life. In different cultures, people have different associations with different objects. For example, in Chinese culture, since the ancient time, people have divided the universe into five kinds of things, namely are Wood (木), Fire (火), Earth (土), Metal (金), and Water (水), and called them "Wu Xing(五行)"also known as the Five Elements or Five Phases. The system of five phases was used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. The third social culture-loaded words refer to words that reflect various aspects of the society according to different social backgrounds, such as unique festivals, customs, local conditions and practices, as well as the way of address and greeting. For example, "aunt" in English refers to different people in Chinese, that is, maternal aunt, paternal aunt, wife of mother's brother, wife of father's brother. The fourth religious culture-loaded words refer to some words related to religious beliefs and concepts, reflecting the influence of religion o.n people's lives. For example, Chinese culture is deeply influenced by Buddhism. Some common sayings contain the influence of Buddhism on people's life, such as the Chinese proverb "菩萨心肠"，which refers to the people with a great kind heart. Cram at the eleventh hour. "菩萨"is Bodhisattvas, who embrace qualities like self-sacrifice and morality. The Image of bodhisattva in Buddhism is different from that of Jesus in Christianity. The last one language culture-loaded words are the reflection of different languages characteristics in speech, lexical, syntax and other linguistic aspects, usually found in dialogue, ancient poetry and colloquialisms, idioms, and so on. Chinese sentences attach importance to the connection of meaning, and clauses are often connected by meaning, while English sentences are connected by connectives. For example, the famous Chinese proverb,"经得广，知得多"，the whole sentence is very concise, only with six words, and there is no conjunction to connect the sentence. However, the English translation cannot completely translate the format, but need to use a conjunction to connect the sentences in English grammar, that is if you experience more, you can know more things.

4. Domestication and Foreignization Strategies

Domestication and foreignization are two different translation strategies proposed by Venuti in The Translator's Invisibility A History of Translation from the perspective of culture in 1995. According to Venuti, Domestication refers to the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for target language readers.(Shulttleworth , Cowie 1997 : 43~ 44) This was based on the Germanphilosopher Schleiermacher's famous notion of the translation that don’t disturb the reader, as much as possible, and then lead the author towards the meaning that author want to convey. That is to say, using the tanslation strategie of domestication is to localize the translated text. And translator should first consider the target language readers but not the loyalty to the author. Therefore, when translating, the translator should choose the plain and familiar words and expressions in the target language that would not be a barrier to reading for readers, so that the translation can be read nativly and vividly but do not make the readers feel stiff or unfamiliar, and it would not be like a text has been translated but an original book. When translating, he also created many plots that cater to the public’s preferences, making the novel interesting and easy to understand. Because of the cultural differences between the East and the west, some specific words in the source language have no corresponding meanings in the target language. Therefore, especially when translating idioms and allusions, domestication is often used in order to maintain their unique simplicity and expressiveness. For example, cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头卖狗肉)/ live a dog's life(过牛马一样的生活)/seek a hare in hen's nest（缘木求鱼）（Fang Mengzhi 2004: 3） Foreignization refers to the translation strategy that a target text is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. (Shulttleworth , Cowie 1997 : 58~ 59) Foreignization refers to the translation strategy that the translator first considers his loyalty to the author and the original text, so the translation will preserve the language characteristics and cultural customs of the original text. The use of foreignization translation strategy will not only make readers have "exotic" reading experience so as to help them better understand cultural differences，at the same time，it also enrich the target language. Many foreign words and expressions have been well integrated into the target language and used in people's daily life. The example of foreignization in Fang Mengzhi's a dictionary of translation studies, such as "time is money", comes from the foreignization of "time is money" in English. Many foreign words have been widely spread and used in Chinese. （Fang Mengzhi, 3） Domestication and foreignization are indispensable translation methods in cross-cultural translation. Domestication can invisibly introduce foreign cultural ideas into the country without causing exotic reading experience or bringing reading barriers to target language readers, thus increasing the readability of the text. However, with the advent of globalization, blindly domesticating other languages is a way of showing ethnocentrism, which is actually a kind of cultural aggression of other country. Venuti believes that the domestication is to use smooth translation strategy to hide the domestication in the transparency of the translation. This is not a cultural exchange but an act of culuture violence under the cover of domestication strategy with ethnocentric ideas, that is, tampering and cultural appropriation. (Fang Mengzhi, 96）Therefore, foreignization has become an increasingly important translation strategy in the process of translation. For culture-loaded words, adopting foreignization translation strategy can not only accurately express the meaning of the sentence, but also promote the spread of Chinese culture, so as to promote the mutual understanding and communication between the East and the West. Therefore, foreignization is more and more accepted by the world.

5. A study on the English Translation of Culture Loaded Words in The Spring Festival written by Fang Huawen Based on Domestication and Foreignization Strategies

The prose The Spring Festival contains many traditional Chinese festival culture-loaded words such as poems, idioms, proverb and so on, so in the process of translation, appropriate methods and strategies should be selected. For these Chinese culture-loaded words, the English translation is not completely corresponding to the original text. For example, some Chinese culture-loaded words have Chinese cultural connotations but are not reflected in the translation, and the sentence format in the original text is not completely corresponding in the translation. Based on the classification of culture-loaded words mentioned above, this essay analyzes the ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words in Fang Huawen's The Spring Festival on the theoretical basis of domestication and foreignization translation strategies.

5.1 Ecological Culture-loaded Words

Some words describing nature, environment, animals and plants are called ecological culture-loaded words. In the prose, the author used nature words "火树银花" to describe the scene of the Lantern Festival with bright lights. Literally, "火树" means the fire trees, "银花" means the silver flowers. If the translator uses the foreignization translation strategy to transliterate the sentence, the foreign readers who don't know the Chinese culture may not understand the meaning of the sentence, and will be confused. This is not a tree or flower, but a scene of bright lights. Therefore, the translator adopts the domestication translation strategy and translates it into "fireworks and laterns were everywhere to be seen", "火树" refer to the trees are covered with colorful lights, and "银花" refer to brightly lit scene.

5.2 Material Culture-loaded Words

Material culture-loaded words refer to some words used for material production, such as medicinal wine, units of weights and measures mentioned in the prose. Example 1: "爆竹声中一岁除，春风送暖入屠苏。" Translation: Firecrackers are sending the old year away; People are toasting in warm breeze. The sentence quoted the famous poem New Year's Day by Song Dynasty poet Wang Anshi, which depicted a lively scene during the Spring Festival. The word "Tusu"(屠苏) has great cultural connotation. "Tusu" is a kind of medicinal wine, called Tusu wine. According to Chinese legend, Tusu wine was first invented by hua Tuo, a famous doctor in the Eastern Han Dynasty. It is generally drunk on the first day of the first month, which plays a role in strengthening the body and defeating diseases. Therefore, drinking it on the first day of the New Year also conveys people's best wishes for the New Year that everyone can stay away from diseases and be healthy. It implied a wish, just as people in the western culture also toast on festivals, so the translator replaced the literal translation of Tusu with the familiar word toasting. Example 2: 曾架起一座二十丈的灯山。 Translation: ...was built up a mountain of lanterns to celebrate the festival, nearly 70 meters high. In the sentence, "二十丈", that is twenty Zhang. Zhang is a unit of length used in ancient China. The use of Chinese length units has evolved with the changes of history. The units of measurement are closely related to life, they have appeared since the beginning of human beings. The primitive people used fingers as inches, palms as feet, and stretching elbows as feet. Then Qin Shihuang unified the measurement and till now the appearance of modern measurement technology today, the evolution of ancient measurement system reflects the changes of history. In English, there is no length unit of Zhang. Therefore the translator used the domestication translation strategy that converted 20 Zhang into 70 meters.

5.3 Social Culture-loaded Words

The use of social culture-loaded words reflects the specific social background of the certain period. For example, the appellation or title of people is a significant part of social culture-loaded words. In this prose, the titles of the two ancient emperors "汉武帝" and "唐睿宗" are mentioned. The translator's translation of the ruler is as follows: Example 1：自从汉武帝以来...。 Ever since the Emperor Wu's Reign of Han Dynasty. Example 2：唐睿宗时，长安的皇宫外庆贺元宵节 During Emperor Ruizong's Reign in Tang Dynasty there just outside the royal palace in Changan. In Chinese history, from the Han Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty, the posthumous title of the emperor is generally used, which summarized the deeds and morality of the deceased. For example, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, whose posthumous title is "Wu", praised the moral character of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. From the Tang and Song Dynasties to the Yuan Dynasty, the temple name of the emperor was used as the appellation. Temple name is the name given by later generations when they worship in the temple after the death of the ancient emperor. For example, the temple name of the founding emperor is Gaozu or Taizu, such as song Taizu. For the successor, the last word is always Zong, which means to maintain the achievements of the predecessors. For example, Tang Ruizong's temple name is "Rui", which praises his wise. In English translation, the translator uses foreignization to translate the posthumous title "Wu" of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty and the temple name "Rui" of Ruizong of the Tang Dynasty. Although the title of emperor is different from that of Di and Zong in Chinese, translator all uses the word emperor. Example 3: 其外形有"哪吒闹海""孙悟空""猪八戒"和"沙僧"。 Translation: lanterns in forms of Nazha's Adventure in East Sea, Monkey King, Pigsy, Sha Wujing. The words in historical allusions and legends have great social and cultural connotation. "哪吒闹海"is an ancient Chinese legend."孙悟空", "猪八戒" and "沙僧" are main characters in Journey to the West, one of China's four greatest master pieces. Chinese people have watched TV dramas or books about these characters since childhood, so they are familiar with them. However, for foreign readers, they are not familiar with these characters or plots, so it may perplex them if you don't explain the culture background here. The translator adopted the foreignization translation strategy to directly translate "孙悟空" into "Na Zha's adventure in the East Sea", "孙悟空"into the well-known Monkey King, "猪八戒" into Pigsy, and "沙僧" into his name Sha Wujing. Literal translation may confuse readers who do not understand these legends and stories, so notes can be added, that is, Nazha (a divine warrior in Chinese mythology). And Monkey King, Pigsy, Sha Wujing (main characters in Chinese classics pilgrimage to the West).

5.4 Regilious Culture-loaded Words

Example 1：死后玉皇大帝封他为"斩祟将军" And was appointed "ghost-killler general" by God of all gods after his death. In the translation, the translator uses domestication translation theory to translate "玉皇大帝" into God of All Gods. In Chinese culture, people believe that there are ruler and gods in heaven, and "玉皇大帝" is the leader of the gods in Chinese Taoist mythology. In addition to ruling all gods, "玉皇大帝" also governs the affairs of the universe. People regard "玉皇大帝" as the "emperor" in heaven, the supreme ruler of the world of all gods. In western culture, religions are numerous and varied. Ancient Greece is the land of pantheism, the ancient Greeks advocated many gods. Zeus is regarded as God of all gods and the supreme ruler of the gods in the Greek mythology. Several popular Western religions, such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam are monotheism, holding the belief that God is the only creator of the world. God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. So the use of domestication can not only express the same meaning of the sentence, but also adapt to the religious culture in the west. Example 2: 旧岁的最后一天叫"大年三十”，因"除旧岁”而得名除夕。 Translation: The last day of the old year, Danianshanshi in Chinese, is called Farewell Day, as the old year is sent away this day. The phrase "旧岁”, "岁”is not only refers to the age, but also means year. "旧岁" refers to the past year. The last day of the year, called "岁除", and the night of the day is called "除夕". 除夕, the original meaning of "New Year's Eve", refers to the end of the year to usher in the new. New Year's Eve is a time for family reunion. Like Tomb-sweeping Day, Ghost Festival and the Double Ninth Festival, New Year’s Eve is a traditional Chinese festival for ancestor worship. This sentence uses the combination of domestication and foreignization. The use of foreignization preserves the cultural image and promotes the culture exchange.

5.5 Language Culture-loaded Words

Chinese idioms usually contain the essence of language and have Chinese characteristics. Many of them use figures of speech such as metaphor. A metaphor is a comparison of something you want to say with something that has similar characteristics. In idioms, metaphors are used to describe the characteristics of something to make it vivid, so as to trigger the association of readers. The idiom in the prose like "像箭一般冲出去了", means that the children rush out quickly, but also shows that the children eager to go outside. In Chinese culture, the arrow(箭) is often used to describe high speed. For example, the idiom "离弦之箭" is used to describe high speed. "离弦之箭" refers to Time flies quikly. But there is no equivalent like arrow in English. In English, words like "bullet" or "cheetah" or "rocket ship" are used for things that are fast. Therefore, in order for readers to better understand the meaning of the sentence, the translator uses the domestication method to paraphrase as "dash out", "dash" is an act of running or moving very quickly or hastily, Although the cultural connotation of the source language is sacrificed in this way, the translator faithfully expresses the meaning of the source language.

Conclusion

This essay finds that the prose includes plenty of culture-loaded words, which contains extensive and profound meaning about traditional Chinese culture and customs. This essay introduces the Spring Festival, the most important traditional festival in China, as well as various activities prepared by Chinese people for the Festival and customs they adhere to, which largely spread Chinese culture, promote cultural exchanges in the world, and greatly enhancing the strength of Chinese culture. For this essay, using Fang Huawen's translation text as the analysis object, analyze the translation strategies of translator used about different kinds of culture-loaded words, that is, ecological culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words, social culture-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words and language culture-loaded words. According to Venuti's translation theory, he advocates that translators should more use foreignization to preserve the cultural connotation of the source language. However, the translator Fang Huawen adopts the domestication translation strategy more frequently, choosing the cultural images familiar to the target language readers in order to resonate with the target language readers and make the target language readers get roughly the same reading effect like the source language readers. At the smae time, culture-loaded words have complex cultural images, if the target language readers do not understand the cultural connotation behind the words, they will not be able to get the real meaning of the text, and may even misunderstand the text mistakenly. When using domestication strategies, translators most commonly use free translation, in which they replace culture-loaded words in the original text with words and expressions more familiar to the target language readers, so as to improve the readability of the translated text and reduce readers' reading barriers. For example he translates the character of Chinese legend "玉皇大帝”into"God of the gods”that are more familiar to the target language readers. However, with the development of globalization, foreignization is increasingly used in translation. When the translator encountered some characteristic culture-loaded words, he chose literal translation, such as "Danianshanshi". Although the translator uses foreignization translation strategy to bring strangeness to the target language readers, it not only retains the traditional image of Chinese culture, but also meets the needs of cultural communication in the world. Foreignization can not only express the meaning of the source language, but also retain the characteristics of the national language. Domestication and foreignization are interactive and not completely opposite. Translators can combine foreignization and domestication in translating culture-loaded words. When translating culture-loaded words, the translator can not only use foreignization translation strategy to retain the cultural image and language connotation of the original text, but also use domestication translation strategy to make the translated text easy to understand and readable.

References

1.Yu Qiuyu. What is Culture [M]. Wuhan: Changjiang Literature and Art Press, 2012

2.Venuti, L. The Transltor’s Invisibility [M]. London&Newyork:Routledge, 1995

3.Nida Eugene, A. Language,culture,and Translating [M].Shanghai:Foreign Language Education Press, 1993

4.Shulttleworth, Cowie. The Dictionary of Translation Studies [M]. St. Jerome Publishing, 1997

5.Fang Mengzhi. The Dictionary of Translation Studies in China [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2011

6.Fang Huawen. Translation and Appreciation of Chinese& Foreign Selected Famous Proses and Poems [M]. Hefei: anhui science & technology press, 2014

13 程杨 《边城》中文化负载词的翻译—以戴乃迭英译本为例 Translation of Cultural-loaded Words in Border Town:A Case Study of Dai Naidie’s English translation

Cult_Load_Words_EN_13

Key Words

Culture-loaded words; Border Town; Dai Naidie; Translator behavior criticism

1.Introduction of Border Town

1.1 Background of Border Town

Border Town was written in the 1930s, when the society was in turmoil and the development of urban civilization collided violently with the traditional agricultural civilization. The whole traditional civilization has been challenged and impacted unprecedentedly, and the traditional society has become fragmented, but on the whole it still exists peacefully. In China at that time, conscientious and thoughtful men of letters had a strong sense of responsibility and perception for the society. They did not want to see the whole nation degenerate in the violent civilization of cities, nor did they want people to lose their way in the vanity of cities. Mr. Shen as a member of the advanced intellectuals, he hoped that through Border Town this work for the impression of Xiangxi, which is similar to the Peach Blossom Land, to the confused people in cities shows the simplicity and purity of traditional culture, but also indicate the direction for them to move forward: there is a pure and natural love in life, and life needs to be converted to the nature of natural life.

1.2 Introduction of the Author Shen Congwen

The 1930s was the time when Shen Congwen had a good harvest in love and career, and his wife Zhang Zhaohe had the greatest influence on his creation. After their marriage, Shen Congwen wrote to his wife: "I have crossed many bridges, seen many clouds and tasted many kinds of alchohol, but I have only ever loved a man of the best age." Zhang's comely appearance and dark complexion are traits Mr. Shen used repeatedly in his works. Cuicui in Border Town was also based on her. At the same time, the Border Town also carries Shen Congwen's strong feelings for Xiangxi. Although his description of the stones, water plants, boatmen and other things in the Border Town is almost plain description, a close reading can feel his love for Xiangxi from the heart. Border Town is not only about the life of young men and girls born and raised in this small town, but also a beautiful, healthy, natural and human life form, which is also the original intention of Shen Congwen's creation.

Shen Congwen's style inclines to romanticism, he asked the poetic novel of effect, integrating realism, recording, symbolism be in harmony an organic whole. He also asked the language style of primitive simplicity, sentence of simple forms, and thick and pure style with rich local color. He highlighted the country unique charm with a twinkle in human nature. Shen Congwen's novels are typical rural culture novels, which not only compare with the modern civilization of the city on the whole, but also pay attention to the way of living, the footprint of life and the historical destiny of the villagers, which are determined by the collision of different cultures during the transformation of the Xiangxi Area to the modern era. The whole work is full of worries about life and philosophical thinking about life, just like his real and tenacious life, giving people lessons and enlightenment.

Shen Congwen is the main expressor and introspector of the rural world with special significance. He believed that "beauty lies in life". Although he was in a hypocritical, selfish and indifferent city, he was infatuated with the beauty of human nature. He said, "In this world, there may be people who build great pavilions on sand or water, but that is not me, I just wanted to build a small Greek temple. Choose a small ground for a foundation and pile it with hard stones. Delicate, solid, symmetrical, small but not slender, it is my ideal building. It is dedicated to humanity." Therefore, it can be said that the "Greek temple" symbolizes a spiritual space full of human beauty and divine love, which transcends the "secular heart and eyes" and radiates the light of holiness. This "small Greek temple" lived those beautification, by the divinity of the ordinary women, such as Cuicui, Yao Yao, they are beautiful, healthy, vigorous, vibrant, natural harmony, simple nature, they are "the life form of the border city".

2. Cultural-loaded Words

2.1 Definition of Cultural-loaded Words

As a complex social phenomenon, culture carries a nation's knowledge, experience, hierarchy, religion and concept of time and space. As a part of culture, language embodies the uniqueness and nationality of culture. Language is created in a nation's long-term productive labor and social practice and serves the society. As the core of language, vocabulary inevitably reflects and is influenced and restricted by national characteristics. At the same time, language can truly reflect the ecological region, material culture, religious belief, customs and habits of a country or a nation. Different languages determine the different ways of thinking, behavior and language expression of different nations. Therefore, there are inevitably huge cultural differences in languages, which produce a certain number of culture-loaded words.

Culture-loaded words are the concentrated expression of a nation's geographical environment, living habits, ideas, perceptions and national psychology in language level. It not only carries profound cultural connotation, but also closely links culture with language. In the language system, culture-loaded words are the words that can best reflect the cultural information carried by language and the social life of human beings. Language is not only a tool for the expression and communication of human thoughts and feelings, but also a carrier and an important part of culture. Therefore, culture-loaded words can best reflect the strong national color and bright cultural personality in language. The translation of culture-loaded words requires translators to accurately and appropriately understand the beliefs, customs, aesthetic values and other aspects of other cultures while faithfully conveying the essence and soul of their own cultures, so as to truly achieve the exchange of different cultures.

2.2 The Necessity of Cultural-loaded Words Study

In 1980, Professor Xu Guozhang published Culturally Loaded Words and English Language Teaching in Modern Foreign Languages, initiating the study of culture-loaded Words. At the same time, more and more attention has been paid to the study of culture-loaded words. Culture-loaded words, as the main bearing object of a national culture, are the embodiment of the most distinctive personality of culture. However, such words reflecting cultural differences have brought great obstacles to cultural communication and translation. The differences in language and culture between ethnic groups contribute to the diversity of ethnic communication, but at the same time bring great difficulties. Due to the incomplete equivalence of the functions and contents of words among different nationalities, many errors or even major errors in translation process are caused, which will not only cause a certain loss to the cultural or commercial activities at that time, but even cause a certain negative impact on the subsequent cultural exchanges. The generation and use of vocabulary is a unique way of activities accumulated by a nation in the long historical process, which is different from other nations. The translation of culture-loaded words is quite difficult. If the translation is improper, cultural loss will occur, that is, cultural differences will be mistaken for cultural common core, and the target language will be forced to adopt the cultural model of the source language, resulting in communication failure; or replacing the cultural image of the source language with the cultural image of the target language. Communication succeeds, but the regret is the cultural loss of the source language.

Culture-loaded words usually appear in literary works with ethnic characteristics. The Border Town, Shen Congwen's representative work, is praised as "the purest novel text in the history of modern literature" and "the peak work in the pastoral legend of modern Chinese literature". It shows readers the harmonious life form of the Xiangxi Area. There are a large number of words which reflect the traditional customs and culture and dialect characteristics of the rural areas of Hunan, China. These culture-loaded words increase the difficulty of translation. In Dai Naidie’s translation, the translator also tries to reproduce the cultural characteristics of the original text in a variety of ways, so that the target readers can feel the local characteristics and charm of the Border Town more truly and appropriately.

3. Analysis of Translation of Cultural-loaded Words in Border Town:A Case Study of Dai Naidie’s English translation

3.1 The Introduction to Dai Naidie

Dai Naidie (1919-1999) was born Gladys B.Tayler in 1919 to a British missionary family in Beijing. At the age of seven, she returned to England to receive education. She initially studied French language and literature, but in the later switched to Chinese language and literature because of her love for traditional Chinese culture. After marrying Yang Yixian in 1940, she settled down in China, where she and her husband hosted and translated many Chinese classics. The translated works range from pre-Qin prose to A Dream of red Mansions of more than 100 kinds. In their early works, Yang Yixian presided over the completion of the first draft, while Dai Naidie was responsible for proofreading and correcting the English expression. "Yang Yixian actually translated the Chinese into English, and I turned it into a narrative antithesis," she later recalled. With the continuous improvement of her Chinese and English translation skills, she began to try to independently translate Chinese literary works into English books, and contributed a large number of classic English translation literary works. The Border Town is one of the representative translations of Diana's independent translation period. The translation of Chinese classic literature works by Dai Naidie and her husband Yang Yixian not only promoted the cultural exchange between China and English-speaking countries, but also promoted the development of literary translation, promoted the translation process of Chinese classical novels, and contributed a huge force that cannot be ignored for Chinese culture to go out.

In the process of translating Border Town, Diana was inevitably influenced by the social ideology of China at that time. As a foreigner herself, she was restricted and oppressed to a large extent, so her translation works mainly catered to the mainstream ideas of Chinese society at that time. At the same time, the powerful cultural countries represented by Britain and the United States at that time generally preferred the stereotyped works that fit their imagination in the weak culture. However, Shen Congwen's description of the backwardness and occlusion of the small town in Xiangxi was just in line with the imagination of the British and American society for the distant China, so it was once very popular in The British and American countries.

14 胡舒情 浅谈中医典籍中文化负载词的翻译策略——以《伤寒论》为例Discussion on Translation Strategies of Culture-loaded Words in Traditional Chinese Medical Classics: A Case Study of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold

Cult_Load_Words_EN_ 14

Abstract

Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold, written by Zhang Zhongjing in the late Eastern Han Dynasty, is one of the "four Classics" of Traditional Chinese medicine which uses six channels as guiding principles of syndrome differentiation and treatment. The book concentrates the traditional Chinese medical wisdom, which is both scientific and literary. The writing is smooth and simple, and the language is straightforward and vivid. A large number of rhetorical devices such as reduplication of words are used to reflect the beauty of Classical Chinese. Its multiple values have led more and more scholars to devote themselves to research, study and even translation and promotion, and a number of outstanding scholars have emerged at home and abroad to devote themselves to the translation work of this book. However, it is not easy to translate this book. China has an excellent history and profound culture, and the book contains many culture-loaded words. The translation quality of such words directly affects the translation quality, so it is necessary to adopt appropriate translation strategies. Therefore, the author chooses the version translated by Professor Luo Xiwen as the research blueprint to study the translation strategy of culture-loaded words in traditional Chinese medicine classics, in order to promote the translation of this book to a higher level.

Key Words

cultrue-loaded words; Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold; Tranditional Chinese medicine classics; translation strategies

摘要

《伤寒论》为东汉末年的张仲景所著，是以六经作为辩证论治的纲领，荣列为中医“四大经典”之一。该书浓缩了中国传统医学智慧，兼具科学性与文学性，行文流畅朴素，语言直白形象，其中大量运用叠词等修辞手法，体现了中国文言文之美。其多重价值致使越来越多的学者致力于研究、学习、甚至是翻译推广，国内外皆涌现出一批优秀学者投身该书的翻译工作中。但翻译此书并非易事，中国历史优秀、文化精深，书中包含众多文化负载词，这类词的翻译质量直接影响译文质量，采取合适的翻译策略必不可缺。因此，笔者选择了罗希文教授所翻译的版本，作为中医典籍文化负载词翻译策略的研究蓝本，以期推进该书翻译工作更上一层楼。

关键词

文化负载词，《伤寒论》，中医典籍，翻译策略

1. Introduction

In recent years, China's international influence and national soft power have gradually improved, and the country has consciously pushed Chinese culture to all over the world. Traditional Chinese medicine culture, as an indispensable part of the excellent traditional culture of the Chinese nation, has a long historical tradition and unique theories and technical methods. Rich classic materials and humanistic spirit of TCM are amazing, and the external dissemination of traditional Chinese medicine culture is becoming more and more important. Under this background, the translation of traditional Chinese medicine in China has been gradually carried out, and the culture-loaded words in the classics of traditional Chinese medicine are important features that reflect their rich cultural color and humanistic connotation, and the translation of culture-loaded words is the key to the translation of traditional Chinese medicine. Culture-loaded words are parts of the construction of traditional Chinese medicine culture and have basic research value. They cannot be unilaterally regarded as completely untranslatable because of the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Facing the problems of translation, it is particularly important to put forward feasible translation strategies. A large number of translators of traditional Chinese medicine classics have also emerged in China, facing difficulties and striving to show the world the classics’ cultural accumulation and research results. Among them, the translator Luo Xiwen has translated a series of traditional Chinese medicine classics such as Condensed Compendium of Materia Medica, Synopsis of Prescriptions of the Golden Chamber, Huangdi Neijing, and Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold. As one of China's historical medical works, Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold is a classic work of traditional Chinese medicine written by Zhang Zhongjing in the Eastern Han Dynasty. It plays an important role in the development of medical history in the cultural biography of traditional Chinese medicine. This article will discuss the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in traditional Chinese medicine classics through Luo's translation of Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold.

2. TheDefinition and Classification of Culture-loaded Words in Chinese Medical Classics

2.1 The Definition

Different scholars have different interpretations of culturally loaded words, but a widely accepted definition is that words, phrases and idioms which mark the unique things in a certain culture. These words are deeply imprinted by the region and times of a language society. They only exist in one culture but are blank in another culture. In recent years, many scholars have begun to pay attention to culture-loaded words in traditional Chinese medicine classics. Some scholars have tried to give a definition of traditional Chinese medicine culture-loaded words, but there is no clear definition yet. However, scholars Zhang Miao and others put forward a recognition step and word selection standard for traditional Chinese medicine culture-loaded words. First of all, read through the full text and divide the semantic groups. Secondly, judge whether the semantic group belongs to the shared vocabulary of all human culture, that is, to express one concept of things as a vocabulary in the context of one language and culture, and words that indicate the corresponding concept in another language and culture background. For example, the words "apple", "pear" and "fire" in Chinese express the same concept and corresponding words in English. If it does not belong to part of speech, then determine whether each semantic group belongs to the following three categories. First, the basic terminology of traditional Chinese medicine. Such terms are usually divided into basic theories of traditional Chinese medicine, diagnosis of traditional Chinese medicine, diseases of traditional Chinese medicine, treatment of traditional Chinese medicine, acupuncture and moxibustion, and prescriptions of traditional Chinese medicine. Second, words unique to Chinese material culture, such as unique characters and things. Third, the unique language phenomenon of ancient Chinese. Such as ancient and modern synonymous words, common false words, word polysemy, etc. If it belongs to, and there is no obvious English corresponding word in the above semantic group, it is a culturally loaded word. According to this method, this paper selects the culture-loaded words in Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold in the following article for analysis.

2.2 The Classification

After framed the culture-loaded words of traditional Chinese medicine, it is often necessary to classify and discuss them. Different scholars have different classification methods. Xu Xueyuan divided the culture-loaded words in the Yellow Emperor's Internal Classics into basic philosophical concepts of traditional Chinese medicine, place names, traditional Chinese medicine medical terms and organs. Zhang Xuan divided the culture-loaded words in Su Wen into people's names, traditional Chinese medicine terminology, traditional Chinese medicine-related philosophical concepts, and other descriptive cultural load parts of speech. Song Conghui and others divided the words of cultural load into: symptoms of traditional Chinese medicine, symptoms of traditional Chinese medicine, etiology and pathogenesis of traditional Chinese medicine, treatment of traditional Chinese medicine, basic philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine, etc. Chen Zinuo and others divide the culture-loaded words of traditional Chinese medicine into five categories: syndrome, symptom, prescription, philosophy and rhetoric. The latter includes the classification mentioned in the first three, and also opens up a rhetorical class to make the classification more detailed and clear. Therefore, this paper adopts Chen's classification method.

3. Translation Strategies Used for Culture-loaded Words in Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold

3.1 Translation Strategy of Culture-loaded Words of Syndrome

The translation of the disease name affects the readability of the whole translation. Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold has been written for a long time, and the simple structure of disease name carries a lot of information, so there are few modern terms that can be matched with ancient disease names. According to the methods mentioned above, most of the terms of traditional Chinese medicine diseases belong to culture-loaded words. The author selected the disease-type cultural load words in Treatise on Febrile Caused by Cold translated by Professor Luo Xiwen to study the translation strategies of these words.

15 陈静 The Translation of Culture-loaded Words From the Perspective of Skopos Theory: A Case Study of Xi Jinping: The Governance of China

Cult_Load_Words_EN_15

1. Introduction

1.1 Research Backgrounds

Culture refers to all the activities of a nation, including clothes, food, production, education, law, politics, customs, historical allusions, temperament and emotion, modes of thinking, values, religious mentality and many other factors. Language is one of the most fundamental systems of culture, with the function of storing, describing, expressing and spreading cultural information. Vocabulary, as the basic unit of language, is the most direct reflection of the cultural factors. Culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify things unique to a certain culture. These vocabularies reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that have been gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations. Culture-load words have strong national colors and distinctive cultural personalities, and in the language system they can best reflect the cultural information carried and inherited by language and the social life of human beings. Culture-loaded words are important carriers to reflect national culture, and they are a special kind of information text, which has both textual meaning and rich cultural connotation. Cultural differences lead to difficulties in translation, so how to manage cultural differences has become the focus of many researchers. Aixela (1996) proposed a translation classification strategy for culture-specific items. Culture-loaded words are defined as words that have no equivalents in the target culture, hence difficulties in translation emerged. Wang (1997:55) defined cultural default as “the emitted part as shared cultural background by both sides” and summarized five approaches to deal with cultural default. The following year, Qiu (1998) proposed seven methods of cultural equivalence. The year 2021 is the 100th anniversary of the founding of the Communist Party of China. At this critical moment, Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III) was published. This is a major event in the historical and political development of China and the ruling party. In the third version, Xi Jinping’s political vision is further expanded. Many comments on China’s exchanges with other countries, including China, the BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, African countries, and ASEAN countries, are included in the book. This book is a window for foreign readers to understand China’s leadership and insight into China’s unique governance. Therefore, the book plays a crucial role in helping foreigners understand China’s political position in domestic affairs and international relations. This article aims to study the translation strategies of culture-loaded words in Xi Jinping: The Governance of China (Volume III) and analyze them through the framework of the skopos theory.

2. Literature Review

2.2 The Skopos Theory

Skopos Theory, the core of Functionalist Translation Theory, was put forward by Vermeer who is Reiss's student. “Skopos”in Skopos Theory is a Greek word which means “purpose”. Skopos Theory holds that the purpose of translation activities is the primary principle deciding the translation process. According to Vermeer, there are three possible types of purposes. Firstly, a general purpose that a translator strives for, such as translating as a source of professional income. Secondly, a communicative purpose of a target text in a target circumstance, such as to instruct the audience. Thirdly, the purpose of a translation strategy or approach, such as to exhibit the structural traits of the source language. In the case of the term ‘skopo’ in skopos theory, it refers to the second type of purpose. The theory treats the source text as an "offer of information in a target culture" and this view is seen as a consequence of constructivist comprehension theories.

There are three terms associated with skopos(purpose): aim, function and intention. “Aim" means the final result that an agent intends to achieve through an action (Vermeer,1986:239). “Purpose”is defined as a temporary stage in the process of achieving an aim (Nord,2001:28). “Function” refers to what the meaning or intention of the text is from the perspective of the receiver, while the aim is the purpose for which it is needed or supposed to be needed ( Vermeer, 1989:95). “Intention” is understood as “aim-oriented action plan” (Vermeer, 1983:4), which points to an appropriate way in both sender and receiver to produce or understand text. It is also synonymous with the function of action (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 98).

According to the Skopos Theory, there are three basic rules:

First of all, the skopos rule. It represents the top-ranking rule for any translation which means that translation activities are decided by the translation purpose. Vermeer(1989)'s explanation of this rule is as follows. Each text is written for a specific purpose and should be served for that purpose. In this sense, the skopos rule thus reads as follows: “translate/interpret/speak/write in a way that enables your text/translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function”(Nord, 2001:29). Nonetheless,the skopos rule does not provide any general principles or strategies that can be applied to guide any certain translation process. Instead, they can only be determined in accordance with the specific purpose that the translation is prepared to reach. Translation behavior is determined by the translation purpose, so the skopos rule is the principal rule for all kinds of translation.

The second one is the coherence rule. This rule states that target text must be coherent enough to be comprehensible, given the background and context of the intended receivers. The starting point for translation is the text as part of the word continuum, written in the source language. The word continuum embodied in the source language should be inherited into the target language. At the very least, the translator should make sure that the translation makes sense to recipients of the target culture. Furthermore, only when the target text conforms to the standard of being intratextually coherent can it play a presupposed role in the communicative situation and culture in which it is received and the audience will have no trouble understanding it. A communicative interaction is successful only if receivers think it is compatible enough with their situation. Hence,as another significant rule of Skopos Theory，the “coherence rule” stipulates that translation should be acceptable,and in a sense, it is consistent with the situation of receivers(Nord, 2001:32).

The third one is the fidelity rule. Vermeer (1989) refers to the relationship between translation and the corresponding source text “intertextual coherence” or “fidelity” which is another hypothetical principle known as the “fidelity rule”. This rule focuses on the intertextual coherence between the translation and the original text,which is not the same as intertextual coherence. The former is thought to be subordinate to the latter, and both are subordinate to the skopos rule. When the purpose needs to change the function, the standard will no longer be intertextual coherence with source language, but the adequacy or appropriateness regarding the purpose (Reiss and Vermeer,1984). It is important that intertextual coherence in translation should exist between the source text and the target text, and its form depends on both the translator's understanding of the original text and the translator's translation purpose. Maximum fidelity to the original text is only one possible intertextual coherence.

Finally, the three basic rules of Skopos Theory are designed to guide the translator in the whole translating process. In most situations, the translation cannot meet these three rules at the same time, for doing so often makes it deviate from the original intention of the source text.. Generally speaking, the hierarchical order of abidance of the three rules should be the skopos rule first, the coherence rule second and last comes the fidelity rule, or in another way, the need for loyalty is considered to be subject to intratextual coherence,both are subject to the skopos rule. When a translation that is faithful to the original text cannot be effectively understood by receivers of the target text, the translator should abandon the fidelity rule and follow the coherence rule, that is, to make the translation meaningful in the communicative context and culture of the target language. If the purpose needs to change the function, the required standard will no longer be intertextual consistence with ST,but the adequacy or appropriateness in terms of the purpose (Nord, 2001).If the purpose requires intratextual incoherence, the criterion of intratextual coherence is no longer valid.