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Chapter 10 Translation of Science and Technology in Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China

周俊辉 Zhou Junhui，Hunan Normal University, China

Abstract

Like other countries, the translations of science and technology in China begins with interaction with foreign nations. There is no doubt that there are a large number of technical translation activities in the exchanges between China and foreign countries in the political, economic and cultural fields, which is difficult to verify. The translations of Chinese scientific literature began as a parasitic translation of religious literature. As Christian missionaries entered China, Western science and technology began to enter China. Although the missionaries brought the latest scientific and technological knowledge to the Chinese doctors from the end of the Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty, the strict restrictions were stressed on the dissemination of religious culture in China. Therefore, there were not many Chinese intellectuals who could realized the achievements of Western geography, and the common person was unaffected by the new ideas from across the Atlantic and sticked to the original traditional ideas.It was not until the late Qing Dynasty and early period of the Republic of China that western scientific knowledge was widely disseminated in China, and had a widespread influence on Chinese intellectuals. Chinese intellectuals nourished advanced ideas in the late Qing Dynasty played a leading role in the translations of scientific and technological literature.

Keywords

The translations of science and technology; Chinese translation; organizations of scientific translation; May 4th Movement period; Westernizationists; Reformers

摘要

正如其他的国家那样，中国的科技翻译也是在和别的国家交往的过程中开始。毫无疑问中国和外国在政治、经济、文化领域都有大量的科技翻译活动，但是很难考究证实。中国的科技文学翻译是作为宗教文学翻译的寄生而发展起来的。随着基督教传教士进入中国，西方的科学技术也进入中国。在清末民初，尽管传教士给中国学者带来了最新的科学技术知识，但是在中国宗教传播在中国被严格限制。因此，中国的知识分子还没认识到西方在地理方面的成就，同时普通大众也没有受到来自大西洋彼岸的新思想的影响，并固执于中国传统思想。直到清末民初时期，西方科学知识才在中国大地上广泛传播，并且深深影响了知识分子。中国先进知识分子引领着科技文学的翻译。

关键词

科技翻译；中文翻译；科学翻译组织；五四运动时期；洋务派；维新派

Introduction

With the rapid development of all walks of life in contemporary China, there is a huge demand for professional scientific and technological translation talents in the Chinese translation market, but there is still a gap between professional translators supply and demand in various fields. In the long history of modern Chinese translation, there are three translation climaxes. Western translation in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China was the third climax in the history of Chinese translation, and its scientific and technological translation activities, with its great influence and achievements, added numerous bright spots and scenery to the history of Chinese translation. Its achievements deserve to be ccelebrated. It still has reference value and learning significance for modern scientific and technological translation. It is of great significance to discuss the characteristics of scientific and technological translation in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China to attach importance to scientific and technological translation and its related academic and practical construction. This paper will mainly analyze the third translation climax, that is, science and technology translation activities in the late Qing Dynasty and the early Republic of china, to examine its reference significance for translators in the field of contemporary science and technology.(Gentzler,E. 1993:21)

The Motivation of Translation from the End of the Qing Dynasty to the Early Period of the Republic of China

At the end of the 17th century, many disciplines of western natural science separated from natural philosophy and set up independent branch. By the 19th century, various humanities gradually established its own system. Chinese society was declining and corrupt in the 19th century. only a few people with keen eyes, such as Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and others, began to notice the advantages of Western learning in their contact with westerners. But they still basically didn’t regard Western learning as an academic culture as important as Chinese learning. Wei Yuan's famous saying "learning merits from the foreign to conquer the foreign" can illustrate this point. The failure of the Opium War and the signing of a series of unequal treaties aroused the strong desire of some advanced-minded officials to know the world and thus acquire advanced science and technology in the West. They hope to learn from the West to achieve the goal of "Reform". The failure of the Opium War also prompted the Qing government to launch “Self-Strengthening Movement” in the 1860s, which also led to the re-introduction of Western science and technology to China. As the intercourse with the West deepened, many Chinese officials and intellectuals began to face up to Western studies and regarded it as academic ideas equivalent to Chinese learning, and began to explore the method that western knowledge could be integrated into Chinese learning to help China become rich and powerful. Zhang's "Chinese learning do noumenon, Western learning do use" has become the most typical viewpoint of late fresh intellectuals. “But this group of intellectuals is mainly concerned with the Western advanced weapons and related equipment manufacturing and transportation and other technical fields.”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48) They think that Western studies are superior to Chinese learning in terms of objects and institutions, but they are still inferior to China in basic ideological and moral aspects, so they do not feel it necessary to learn the academic ideas from the West. After the Sino-Japanese War, because China was faced with the fate of the country's destruction, many people of insight began to actively and comprehensively learn from the West. It emerged a group of world-minded thinkers, like Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and so on. They learned a great deal of natural knowledge and social sciences from the West, and they also urged political reform. During this period, a great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China, which had a very wide impact. Many people also study Western studies by translating Western books written by the Japanese.(Hermans,Theo. 1999:56)

At the end of the 17th century, many disciplines of western natural science separated from natural philosophy and set up independent branch. By the 19th century, various humanities gradually established its own system. Chinese society was declining and corrupt in the 19th century. Only--Zhou Jiu (talk) 01:33, 14 December 2021 (UTC) a few people with keen eyes, such as Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and others, began to notice the advantages of Western learning in their contact with Westerners--Zhou Jiu (talk) 01:33, 14 December 2021 (UTC). But they still basically didn’t regard Western learning as an academic culture as important as Chinese learning. Wei Yuan's famous saying "learning merits from the foreign to conquer the foreign" can illustrate this point. The failure of the Opium War and the signing of a series of unequal treaties aroused the strong desire of some advanced-minded officials to know the world and thus acquire advanced science and technology in the West. They hope to learn from the West to achieve the goal of "Reform". The failure of the Opium War also prompted the Qing government to launch “Self-Strengthening Movement” in the 1860s, which also led to the re-introduction of Western science and technology to China. As the intercourse with the West deepened, many Chinese officials and intellectuals began to face up to Western studies and regarded it as academic ideas equivalent to Chinese learning, and began to explore the method that western knowledge could be integrated into Chinese learning to help China become rich and powerful. Feng Guifen’s --Zhou Jiu (talk) 01:33, 14 December 2021 (UTC)Chinese learning do noumenon, Western learning do use" has become the most typical viewpoint of late fresh intellectuals. “But this group of intellectuals is mainly concerned with the Western advanced weapons and related equipment manufacturing and transportation and other technical fields.”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48) They think that Western studies are superior to Chinese learning in terms of objects and institutions, but they are still inferior to China in basic ideological and moral aspects, so they do not feel it necessary to learn the academic ideas from the West. After the Sino-Japanese War, because China was faced with the fate of the country's destruction, many people of insight began to actively and comprehensively learn from the West. It emerged a group of world-minded thinkers, like Liang Qichao, Kang Youwei, Tan Sitong and so on. They learned a great deal of natural knowledge and social sciences from the West, and they also urged political reform. During this period, a great deal of Western knowledge was introduced into China, which had a very wide impact. Many people also study Western studies by translating Western books written by the Japanese.(Hermans,Theo. 1999:56)

From the Opium War of 1840 to the eve of the May 4th Movement in 1918, China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society step by step, and the Chinese of this period faced a situation of "survival problems". “When people ended the dream of ‘China is the most powerful country in the world’ and realized the strength of European countries”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48), they began to seek the reasons why European countries became strong. “Chinese's attitude towards Western science presents a process from exclusion to acceptance and finally welcome, as well as a process of Chinese proactive pursuit of the ‘making the country rich and at the same time maintain its military power’.” (Xiong Yuezhi 2000:47) Hence a large-scale Western translation began to produce. If we explain that the scientific and technological translation from the end of the Ming dynasty to the beginning of the Qing Dynasty is only an invasion of Western culture, and that China is passive as the main recipient, then the Western translation from the end of the Qing Dynasty to the early period of the Republic of China is entirely a spontaneous and active act. The motivation of the latter translation is more urgent and the purpose is more clear than the previous one. This urgency determines that Western translation in the duration, in the number of translation works, in the number of people involved in translation activities are much superior to the previous scientific and technological translation.(Nida E. 2003:213)

From the Opium War of 1840 to the eve of the May 4th Movement in 1918, China became a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society step by step, and the Chinese of this period faced a situation of "survival problems". “When people ended the dream of ‘China is the most powerful country in the world’ and realized the strength of European countries”(Xiong Yuezhi 1994:46-48), they began to seek the reasons why European countries became strong. “Chinese's attitude towards Western science presents a process from exclusion to acceptance and finally welcome, as well as a process of Chinese proactive pursuit of the ‘making the country rich and at the same time maintain its military power’.” (Xiong Yuezhi 2000:47) Hence a large-scale Western translation began to produce. If we explain that the scientific and technological translation from the end of the Ming dynasty to the beginning of the Qing Dynasty is only an invasion of Western culture, and that China is passive as the main recipient. Then --Zhou Jiu (talk) 01:33, 14 December 2021 (UTC)the Western translation from the end of the Qing Dynasty to the early period of the Republic of China is entirely a spontaneous and active act. The motivation of the latter translation is more urgent, --Zhou Jiu (talk) 01:33, 14 December 2021 (UTC)and the purpose is more clear than the previous one. This urgency determines that Western translation in the duration, in the number of translation works, in the number of people involved in translation activities are much superior to the previous scientific and technological translation.(Nida E. 2003:213)

Object of Translation from the Late Qing Dynasty to the Early Republic of China

Overview of Translation’s Object

“The scientific and technological translations of the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty were all cooperative translations of foreign missionaries and Chinese doctors”(Du Zezong 1949:11), because Chinese intellectuals at that time knew almost no Western language, and the Chinese language proficiency of missionaries was generally not high. So at that time, the translation of science and technology was basically dictated by the foreign, and written by Chinese intellectuals. “But in this process, ‘missionary instruments play a leading role, Chinese are always in a passive and secondary position.’ Whether it is ‘written’ or ‘polished’ by Chinese, it’s ‘must be examined by western scholar’”(Lan Hongjun 2010:93-94). The translation of Euclid's Elements is an example: the original book contains 15 volumes, Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi worked together for 6 volumes. Xu Guangqi want to finish the remaining volumes, but Ricci believes that the first six volumes’ translation has achieved the purpose of scientific mission, then refused to continue to translate. It can be seen that whether it is translation material selection or translation methods, Chinese have no right to choose by themselves.(Jean-Baptiste Du Halde. 1738:152)

“The scientific and technological translations of the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty were all cooperative translations of foreign missionaries and Chinese doctors”(Du Zezong 1949:11). Because Chinese intellectuals at that time knew almost no Western language, and the Chinese language proficiency of missionaries was generally not high, at that time, the translation of science and technology was basically dictated by the foreign, and written by Chinese intellectuals. “But in this process, ‘missionary instruments play a leading role, Chinese are always in a passive and secondary position.’ Whether it is ‘written’ or ‘polished’ by Chinese, it’s ‘must be examined by western scholar’”(Lan Hongjun 2010:93-94). The translation of Euclid's Elements is an example: the original book contains 15 volumes, Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi worked together for 6 volumes. Xu Guangqi want to finish the remaining volumes, but Ricci believes that the first six volumes’ translation has achieved the purpose of scientific mission, then refused to continue to translate. It can be seen that whether it is translation material selection or translation methods, Chinese have no right to choose by themselves.(Jean-Baptiste Du Halde. 1738:152)

In the western translation of the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China, only several translation teams were in the form of cooperation between Westerners and Chinese, like the School of Combined learning organized by Lin Zexu and later founded by the Foreign Affairs School, and the Translation Hall of Jiangnan Manufacturing General Administration. After the Sino-Japanese War, more and more Chinese learned about Western studies, and international students became the backbone of the translation industry. “The representative figures of the Reformists, who advocate ‘improving China with Western studies’, are active figures in the translation circles of this period, and they believe that the fundamental of the reform lies in ‘enlightening the people's intelligence’, and the main way is to introduce and disseminate Western studies widely.”(Ni Qinhe 1988:13-14) For this purpose, bilingual translators choose their own translation of books that they consider to be beneficial to the public, and choose the appropriate translation method according to the characteristics of the target audience. For example, the Reformists explicitly declared that translated books "take political knowledge first and art translate second". Therefore, the focus of translation in this period shifted from natural science and applied science to humanities and social sciences. The translated books cover every sphere including politics, sociology, philosophy, economics, law, education and history. Another feature of translation in this period is the introductory translation of Western literature. The famous translators Yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu all regarded literary translation as a means of educating the people and improving politics and economy of China. The popular novels introduced are more easily accepted by the general public than the more specialized works of the humanities, thus they can spread Western culture more widely in China.(Bassnett S. 2005:87)

In the western translation of the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China, only several translation teams were in the form of cooperation between Westerners and Chinese, like the School of Combined learning organized by Lin Zexu and later founded by the Foreign Affairs School, and the Translation Hall of Jiangnan Manufacturing General Administration. After the Sino-Japanese War, more and more Chinese learned about Western studies, and international students became the backbone of the translation industry. “The representative figures of the Reformists, who advocate ‘improving China with Western studies’, are active figures in the translation circles of this period, and they believe that the fundamental of the reform lies in ‘enlightening the people's intelligence’, and the main way is to introduce and disseminate Western studies widely.”(Ni Qinhe 1988:13-14) For this purpose, bilingual translators choose their own translation of books that they consider to be beneficial to the public, and choose the appropriate translation method according to the characteristics of the target audience. For example, the Reformists explicitly declared that translated books "take political knowledge first and art translate second". Therefore, the focus of translation in this period shifted from natural science and applied science to humanities and social sciences. The translated books cover every sphere including politics, sociology, philosophy, economics, law, education and history. Another feature of translation in this period is the introductory translation of Western literature. The famous translators such as Yan Fu, Liang Qichao and Lin Shu all regarded literary translation as a means of educating the people and improving politics and economy of China. The popular novels introduced are more easily accepted by the general public than the more specialized works of the humanities, thus they can spread Western culture more widely in China.(Bassnett S. 2005:87)

In the second half of the 19th century, in order to enrich the country, a wave of learning and translating Western scientific and technological knowledge was set off in the late Qing Dynast. Under the efforts of Hua Hengfang, Xu Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhao Yuanyi and a Englander, John Fryer, a number of western modern science and technology books have been translated and published. Hua Hengfang plays an important role, the books of which he has participated in the translation and proofreading are A Treatise on Coast Defence, Algebra, Principles of Geology, Deremetal-lica and other 17 kinds. He also introduced systematically knowledge of mathematics (including algebra, triangle, exponential calculus and probability), geology, geo-literature and other fields. John Fryer was born in Hyde, England, and worked in China for more than 20 years, translating 138 kinds of science and technology, including applied science, land and sea military science and technology, as well as historical and other social sciences, which played a positive role in the development of science and technology and social reform in China at the end of the 19th century.(Eugene A. Nida. 1969:94)

In the second half of the 19th century, in order to enrich the country, a wave of learning and translating Western scientific and technological knowledge was set off in the late Qing Dynasty’. Under the efforts of Hua Hengfang, Xu Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhao Yuanyi and a Englander, John Fryer, a number of western modern science and technology books have been translated and published. Hua Hengfang plays an important role, the books of which he has participated in the translation and proofreading are A Treatise on Coast Defence, Algebra, Principles of Geology, Deremetal-lica and other 17 kinds. He also introduced systematically knowledge of mathematics (including algebra, triangle, exponential calculus and probability), geology, geo-literature and other fields. John Fryer was born in Hyde, England, and worked in China for more than 20 years, translating 138 kinds of science and technology, including applied science, land and sea military science and technology, as well as historical and other social sciences, which played a positive role in the development of science and technology and social reform in China at the end of the 19th century.(Eugene A. Nida. 1969:94)

At the beginning of the 20th century, the scientific and technological translation activities can be summarized as follows: 1. The translation of science textbooks not only help to implement large-scale scientific education, but also have a great impact on China's social culture. 2. The translation of evolution has dealt a great blow to the stereotype "heaven change not, likewise the Way changeth not"(Yang Jindin 1996:830). New ideas of evolution have been widely disseminated. 3. The translation of works in logic and scientific experimentation contributed to the mature development and application of methodological scientific concepts in the ideological circles at that time. Its representative figures are Yan Fu, Liang Qichao, Du Yaquan, as well as Jiangnan General Administration of Manufacturing Translation Museum, School of Combined Learning, Christian Literature Society for China and other translation agencies. With this scientific and technological translation activity, a large number of words entered into China greatly enriched the Chinese language which was regarded as a cultural carrier, and changed the Chinese's knowledge structure and social concepts. Chinese traditional Confucian culture is also influenced by it, absorbing many advanced western cultures and ideas, which has contributed to the germination of scientific culture in Chinese society.(Daniel G. 2009:237)

Object of Translation Activities after the May 4th Movement

The May 4th New Culture Movement advocated science and democracy. After the May 4th Movement, Chinese translation activities entered a new historical period. In order to introduce western science and technology and textbooks to Chinese people, many progressive intellectuals and overseas students, with the enthusiasm of "science to save the country", actively participated in the translation of foreign new science and new ideas. The quality of scientific books translated by talents who are fluent in foreign languages and have a solid foundation of professional knowledge of the subject has been greatly improved compared with previous translations of relevant books. For example, Ma Junwu (1881-1940), a doctor of engineering who returned from studying in Japan in 1901, translated and published a series of scientific works such as The History of Natural Creation and the Mystery of the Universe by E. Haecke (1834-1919). His translation of Charles Robert Darwin's The Origin of Species (1809-1882) was a best-seller and was reprinted 12 times in 16 years.(Venudi, Lawrence. 2008: 58)

The Government of the Republic of China also followed the old rules of the Qing Dynasty and established the National Compilation and Translation Library under the Ministry of Education of the Beijing government in 1920. At the same time, the government also set up a book compilation agency. After that, “the Nanjing Nationalist government rebuilt and expanded the National Compilation and Translation Library under the Graduate School and the Ministry of Education.”The tasks of the Library included translating and publishing scientific books, compiling textbooks for higher and secondary education, compiling the translation of scientific terms and terms, and compiling dictionaries of various disciplines. But overall, the government-sponsored translation agency's publications account for only a small proportion of the total number of translated books published. (Li Nanqiu 1999:42)

At that time, Chinese scholars established a number of early scientific societies, which played an active role in the translation of foreign scientific books, the unification of translation names and the compilation of disciplinary dictionaries. For example, the Chinese Medical Association, founded in Shanghai in February 1915, held its first conference in the second year for its establishment. The responsibility of the nominating division of the sub-body formed by the resolution of the conference is to participate in the examination of scientific translations. From 1916 to 1926, the Medical Association was represented at the annual conferences of the Medical Terminology Review Committee (changed to scientific Terminology after 1919), Anatomy, chemistry, medicine, bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, biochemistry, organic chemistry, pharmacology, surgery, physiology, internal medicine, pharmacology, etc. Chinese Science Society was founded by Zhao Yuanren, Ren Hongjun and Hu Mingfu in October 1915. At the beginning of the establishment of the society, it clearly declared that it would create a foundation for examining and approving translated names. In the sixth chapter "Administrative organs" of the General Chapter of the Chinese Science Society, there is also a "book translation department". The ministry "manages translated books" and "has a minister in charge of translated books". There was a symposium on nouns in 1916, the results of which were published in the society's monthly Science. Later, the ministry attended the noun examination meeting held by Jiangsu Education Association and Chinese Medical Association for many times. The Science Society organized many translations activities of books and papers, and Science published many scientific translations. The efforts of these civil academic societies to unify the translation of scientific names have attracted the attention of the government. The Kuomintang government changed the Ministry of Education into a graduate school in 1927, and in the following year, the preparatory Committee for the Unification of Graduate School translation names was established. Later, with the joint efforts of civil academic groups and government departments, a series of work on the unification of the translation of scientific nouns was carried out, which has done a lot of work for the unification of Chinese translation names.(Wills,W. 1982:283)

From 1916 to 1926, the Medical Association was represented at the annual conferences of the Medical Terminology Review Committee (changed to scientific Terminology after 1919), Anatomy, chemistry, medicine, bacteriology, pathology, parasitology, biochemistry, organic chemistry, pharmacology, surgery, physiology, internal medicine, pharmacology, etc. Chinese Science Society was founded by Zhao Yuanren, Ren Hongjun and Hu Mingfu in October 1915. At the beginning of the establishment of the society, it clearly declared that it would create a foundation for examining and approving translated names. In the sixth chapter "Administrative organs" of the General Chapter of the Chinese Science Society, there is also a "book translation department". The ministry "manages translated books" and "has a minister in charge of translated books". There was a symposium on nouns in 1916, the results of which were published in the society's monthly Science. Later, the ministry attended the noun examination meeting held by Jiangsu Education Association and Chinese Medical Association for many times. The Science Society organized many translations activities of books and papers, and Science published many scientific translations. The efforts of these civil academic societies to unify the translation of scientific names have attracted the attention of the government. The Kuomintang government changed the Ministry of Education into a graduate school in 1927, and in the following year, the preparatory Committee for the Unification of Graduate School translation names was established. Later, with the joint efforts of civil academic groups and government departments, a series of work on the unification of the translation of scientific nouns was carried out, which has done a lot of work for the unification of Chinese translation names.(Wills,W. 1982:283)At the beginning of the founding of new China, China mainly relied on the former Soviet Union to introduce various advanced scientific and technological information. Under the planned economy system, a large number of Spanish translators quickly changed to Russian translators, and many scientific research and higher education personnel actively joined the group of amateur translators. At the same time, many national and local publishing houses also actively engaged in the translation and publication of Russian scientific materials. A large number of Russian translated materials played an important role in scientific research, education and economic construction at that time. Publications such as Translation Bulletin, Russian Teaching and Translation and Research on Russian Teaching have become important publishing fields of Research on Russian translation methods.

Pioneers and Important Organizations of Scientific Translation

Pioneers

Lin Zexu (1785--1850), an official of Fujian Province, was appointed as imperial envoy to go to Guangdong to ban smoking with great success in 1838. In order to grasp enemys' information, he set up a special translation institution to organizing timely the translation of Western books and newspapers, and actively collecting the information of Western society. Lin Zexu publicly destroyed opium confiscated from British, American and other merchants in June 1839, while actively preparing for the sea defense, repeatedly fighting back against the armed provocations of the British army. During his time as Governor, great attention was paid to collecting information on a wide range of Chinese and foreign warships and absorbing foreign technology in order to strengthen the navy. He was tightly guarded in the southern sea During the Opium War, which force the British to go north. “Lin Zexu advocated ‘surpass foreigners by learning from them’ on the issue of foreign aggression, demanding resistance to aggression, and does not exclude learning from the west's strengths.”During the smoking ban, Lin Zexu wanted to know about the global situation, so he had people translate The Encyclopedia of Geography and pro-polish it personally. This book, briefly introducing to Chinese in late Qing dynasty the geographies, histories and political status of the four continents in the world, is the first complete and systematic geography book in modern China. But The Encyclopedia of Geography can not be published for various reasons at that time. According to the relevant scholars, the book introduced the world's five continents including more than 30 countries geography and history, rich in content, which is the most complete and the most innovative book. Many of the contents of this works were cited by Wei Yuan's Records and Maps of the World. (Ma Zuyi 1998:53)

Wei Yuan (1794-1856) is a good friend of Lin Zexu, who, like Lin Zexu, advocates pragmatism. He finished 50 volumes of the first draft of Records and Maps of the World in 1843, which introduced a large number of foreign natural, geographical, economic, scientific, cultural and other materials, including The Encyclopedia of Geography compiled by Lin Zexu. “Information on foreign ship-making, mine warfare, telescopes, firearms and mines was added and the length of the book was expanded to 60 volumes in 1847. It was compiled and revised to add information on democracies in capitalist countries such as the United States and Turkey, and published in 100 volumes in 1852.”When launching the Modernization Movement, Kang Youwei used Records and Maps of the World as the basic material for teaching Western studies. Then this book gradually attracted people's attention. (Zou Zhenhuan 2007:349)

Lin Zexu (1785--1850), an official of Fujian Province, was appointed as imperial envoy to go to Guangdong to ban smoking with great success in 1838. In order to grasp enemys' information, he set up a special translation institution to organizing timely the translation of Western books and newspapers, and actively collecting the information of Western society. Lin Zexu publicly destroyed opium confiscated from British, American and other merchants in June 1839, while actively preparing for the sea defense, repeatedly fighting back against the armed provocations of the British army. During his time as Governor, great attention was paid to collecting information on a wide range of Chinese and foreign warships and absorbing foreign technology in order to strengthen the navy. He was tightly guarded in the southern sea During the Opium War, which force the British to go north. “Lin Zexu advocated ‘surpass foreigners by learning from them’ on the issue of foreign aggression, demanding resistance to aggression, and does not exclude learning from the west's strengths.”During the smoking ban, Lin Zexu wanted to know about the global situation, so he had people translate The Encyclopedia of Geography and pro-polish it personally. In the late Qing dynasty, this book, briefly introducing to Chinese geographies, histories and political status of the four continents in the world, is the first complete and systematic geography book in modern China. But The Encyclopedia of Geography can not be published for various reasons at that time. According to the relevant scholars, the book introduced the world's five continents including more than 30 countries geography and history, rich in content, which is the most complete and the most innovative book. Many of the contents of this works were cited by Wei Yuan's Records and Maps of the World. (Ma Zuyi 1998:53) Wei Yuan (1794-1856) is a good friend of Lin Zexu, who, like Lin Zexu, advocates pragmatism. He finished 50 volumes of the first draft of Records and Maps of the World in 1843, which introduced a large number of foreign natural, geographical, economic, scientific, cultural and other materials, including The Encyclopedia of Geography compiled by Lin Zexu. “Information on foreign ship-making, mine warfare, telescopes, firearms and mines was added and the length of the book was expanded to 60 volumes in 1847. It was compiled and revised to add information on democracies in capitalist countries such as the United States and Turkey, and published in 100 volumes in 1852.”When launching the Modernization Movement, Kang Youwei used Records and Maps of the World as the basic material for teaching Western studies. Then this book gradually attracted people's attention. (Zou Zhenhuan 2007:349)

Xu Jishe (1795-1893) was also a patriotic official who paid attention to the collection of foreign translations during the Opium War. Referring to the collection of foreign historical books (including translated books), he recorded the dictation of foreign books by foreigners, and completed the first draft of Geography of the World, the first Chinese a comprehensive introduction to world geography in 1844. Many patriotic people who sought truth from the West, such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao at the end of the Qing Dynasty, learned about the world through this book.

Although Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and Xu Jishe didn’t understand foreign languages, they organized the translation of foreign materials earlier, and contributed to the understanding of the outside world by their contemporary at that time. They were also pioneers in the translation of scientific literature at the end of the Qing Dynasty, and had a great impact on China's modern history.(Hermans,Theo. 1999:175) Xu Jishe (1795-1893) was also a patriotic official who paid attention to the collection of foreign translations during the Opium War. Referring to the collection of foreign historical books (including translated books), he recorded the dictation of foreign books by foreigners, and completed the first draft of Geography of the World, the first Chinese a comprehensive introduction to world geography in 1844. Many patriotic people who sought truth from the West, such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao at the end of the Qing Dynasty, learned about the world through this book. Although Lin Zexu, Wei Yuan and Xu Jishe didn’t understand foreign languages, they attached importance to and organized the translation of foreign materials earlier, and contributed to the understanding of the outside world by their contemporary at that time. They were also pioneers in the translation of scientific literature at the end of the Qing Dynasty, and had a great impact on China's modern history.(Hermans,Theo. 1999:175)

Translation and Publishing Institution Established by Westernizationists

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, advocates of the westernization mouvement, such as Li Hongzhang, Zeng Guofan, Zuo Zongtang, Zhang Zhidong, etc., actively promoted the creation of modern schools and modern military industry, and established a number of translation and publishing institutions. The Sino-British Treaty of Tianjin was renewed in 1858 to provide that "subsequent English instruments were written in English". In order not to be fooled into dealing with foreigners who appeared as victors, the Chinese government had to find ways to reserve its own translation talents, establishing the Jingshi Tongwen Guan in Beijing in 1862 to train foreign language talents, and appointing Xu Jishe the general manager purser of this institution. An English-language department was opened in the same year, and an additional Russian and French department was established in the following year, each with 10 students. The government of Qing dynasty set up a science museum to organize students to study arithmetic and astronomy in 1866. The Buwen (German) department was added in 1872, and the East (Japanese) department was added in 1895. These foreign language department have invited foreign teachers to give courses with better conditions for textbooks and materials. Textbooks cover many aspects, including chemistry, medicine, grammatology, geography, agriculture, military law, dictionaries, poetry and history. In the field of foreign language teaching, in addition to the use of the above-mentioned original textbooks, there are some teaching materials in the courses were translated and compiled by the Chinese teachers. The general teacher of the Jingshi Tongwen Guan, Ding Yuliang, organized teachers and excellent students to translate Western books beginning in 1874. The number of books have been compiled and published by the Jingshi Tongwen Guan has not yet been able to make accurate statistics, and its translations include Chinese and Western books, manuscripts of scientific and technological publications, diplomatic documents of the Prime Minister's affairs in various countries, telegrams and so on. The first translators in the history of China have been trained in Tongwen Guan.(Newmark P.A. 2001:36)

In 1863, Li Hongzhang applied to his superiors to imitate the Jing Shi Tongwen Guan in Beijing to open the wide dialect school in Shanghai, originally named "Shanghai Institute of Foreign Languages and Characters", later fixed "Tongwen Guan of learning foreign languages", referred to as "Shanghai Tongwen Guan", then changed its name in 1867 to "Shanghai Wide Dialect School." “Students also take foreign languages as their major course, and take historical and natural sciences as their minor course.” Many excellent translators have been cultivated in Shanghai Wide Dialect school. In 1864, Guangzhou imitated Shanghai Wide Dialect School and also set up a institution of foreign languages and characters, called Guangdong Tongwen Guan or Guangzhou Tongwen Guan. Although the institutions in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangdong were established in different time and they are independent mutually, they possess the obvious common ground at the aspect of , purpose for founding, teaching methods, curriculum settings, employment of the teachers and student selection. At the same time as the Tongwen Guan cultivate foreign language talents, it has also been translated a large number of western scientific works of higher quality. (Li Nanqiu 1996:96)

Zeng Guofan founded Jiangnan Machine Manufacturing Bureau in Shanghai in 1865, which recruited talents and gradually developed into a large-scale factory group engaged in military production. “For the needs of factory production and manufacturing, xu Shou (1818-1884) and Hua Hengfang (1833-1902) founded the Translation institution in 1867, and presided over the translation and publication of a large number of scientific and technological books.”(Li Yashu, Li Nanqiu 2000:106-107) Xu Shou participated in the systematic translation of books on general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, chemical quantitative analysis and chemical qualitative analysis, and promoted the diffusion of Western chemistry knowledge, which is recognized as “the enlightenment of modern chemistry in China”. Hua Hengfang’s translated books cover a wide range of subjects, because he like mathematics since childhood, his translation focus mainly on mathematics. His translation of the Microcomputer Traceability introduced the new knowledge of mathematics calculus, Decisive Mathematics for the first time introduced to the Chinese people the knowledge of probability theory. Through the translation of books, he improved his level of mathematical research, become a well-known mathematician and scientific and technological literature translator at the end of the Qing Dynasty. Zhao Yuanyi (1840-1902) is another outstanding translator of Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau Translation Museum. Knowledgeable, he widely translated Western books, especially good at translating Western modern medical books, such as The Law of Internal Medicine, Western Medicine Denton, Confucian Medicine, General Theories of Medicine and so on. The quantity and quality of the medical books he translated were among the best at that time. (Du Shiran 1982:251)

At the end of the Qing Dynasty, many translation institutions were set up in Beijing, Shanghai and Fujian, such as the Military Engineering Secondary School (Shanghai, 1869), the Strong School Of Books (Beijing, 1895), the Nanyang Institute of Public Studies (Shanghai, 1895), the Agricultural Society (Shanghai, 1896), and the Translation Association (1897), Shanghai), Jingshi University Hall Translation Museum (Beijing, 1901), Jiang chu Compilation Bureau (1901, Wuchang), Business Press Library Compilation Institute (1905, Beijing) and Fujian Ship Administration School ( 1866, Fuzhou). These translation agencies have translated and published a large number of scientific and technical documents and textbooks.

Compilation and Publishing Organization of Foreign Missionaries in China

A number of translation and publishing institutions were also founded by Christian missionary who came to China in the late Qing Dynasty, which, although serving missionary activities, objectively translated a number of Western natural science books. One of the earliest was founded in 1843, the Mohai Library. It is not very large that the number of western modern science books translated and published by Mohai Library. These books introduced the knowledge of Western modern calculus, astronomy, botany, symbolic algebra, mechanics and optics to our country earlier.(Gentzler, E. 1993:21)

A number of translation and publishing institutions were also founded by Christian missionary who came to China in the late Qing Dynasty, which, although serving missionary activities, objectively translated a number of Western natural science books. One of the earliest was founded in 1843, the Mohai Library. The number of western modern science books translated and published by Mohai Library is not very large. These books introduced the knowledge of Western modern calculus, astronomy, botany, symbolic algebra, mechanics and optics to our country earlier.(Gentzler, E. 1993:21)

In addition to western missionaries, there are also some Chinese scholars, such as Wang Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhang Fuxuan and so on. Among them, Li Shanlan (1811-1882) was a famous mathematician in the Qing Dynasty and a pioneer of modern Chinese science. He has known mathematics since he was a child, and he learned Elements at the age of 15. During his stay in Shanghai in 1852, he met Alexander Wylie, an Englishman, and others, discussed Chinese and Western scholarship with them, and collaborated with Vera Toure on the last nine volumes of Element, which were translated in 1856 and published the following year, culminating in Xu Guangqi's unfinished business. He has also collaborated with Westerners on a variety of scientific books, including Botany, About Sky, Algebra, Generation Micro-Accumulation, etc. Since then, a number of Christians have set up printing and publishing institutions. Such as the American-Chinese Library was set up by the American Presbyterian in Shanghai in 1860, which printed and published science and technology books. “In 1875, the British missionary John Fryer opened The Chinese Scientific BookDepot in Shanghai.” In addition to selling scientific instruments and foreign books, he translated independently and printed a variety of science books, including the most famous books "knowledge series", which covering mining, geosciences, astronomy, geography, animals, plants, mathematics, acoustics, mechanics, hydrology, optics, chemistry and Western history, humanities and social etiquette and other aspects. (Sun Shangsun 1996:124-125)

In addition to western missionaries, there are also some Chinese scholars, such as Wang Tao, Li Shanlan, Zhang Fuxuan and so on. Among them, Li Shanlan (1811-1882) was a famous mathematician in the Qing Dynasty and a pioneer of modern Chinese science. He has known mathematics since he was a child, and he learned Elements at the age of 15. During his stay in Shanghai in 1852, he met Alexander Wylie, an Englishman, and others, discussed Chinese and Western scholarship with them, and collaborated with Vera Toure on the last nine volumes of Element, which were translated in 1856 and published the following year, culminating in Xu Guangqi's unfinished business. He has also collaborated with Westerners on a variety of scientific books, including Botany, About Sky, Algebra, Generation Micro-Accumulation, etc. Since then, a number of Christians have set up printing and publishing institutions. Such as the American-Chinese Library was set up by the American Presbyterian in Shanghai in 1860, which printed and published science and technology books. “In 1875, the British missionary John Fryer opened The Chinese Scientific BookDepot in Shanghai.” In addition to selling scientific instruments and foreign books, he translated independently and printed a variety of science books, including the most famous books "Knowledge Series"--Zhou Jiu (talk) 01:53, 14 December 2021 (UTC), which covering mining, geosciences, astronomy, geography, animals, plants, mathematics, acoustics, mechanics, hydrology, optics, chemistry and Western history, humanities and social etiquette and other aspects. (Sun Shangsun 1996:124-125)

Church Hospital Guangzhou Boji Hospital also has an attached translation agency. In order to compile teaching materials for the attached South China Medical School, Boji Hospital has compiled and published a large number of medical books since 1859, such as "The Pox Book", "Western Medicine", "Cutting Book", "Phlegmonosis", "Chemical Primary Order", "Internal Medicine", "Ten Chapters of Physical Use", "Western Medical Encyclopedia" and dozens of other books, early dissemination of Western medical knowledge. Its attached medical school for our country to train a batch of early Western medical talent.Foreign missionaries held a conference in Shanghai and decided to create a school textbook committee in 1877, later known as the Puzzle Book Club, to publish textbooks for church schools in many cities in China, especially coastal ports, and to compile and publish 104 textbooks in the 10 years from 1877 to 1886. At that time, China's own profane schools also used these textbooks, which promoted the development of modern modern schools in the late Qing Dynasty.(Bassnett S. 2005:58)

In addition, the more influential translation and publishing institutions are the British, American, German and other countries composed of missionaries of the Broad Society, the agency to translate and publish a variety of social science books mainly. Foreign missionaries set up these translation and publishing institutions of course for the purpose of missionary and colonial, but objectively they still introduced a lot of advanced Western scientific knowledge to China at that time.

In addition, an increasing number of influential translation and publishing institutions are the British, American, German and other countries composed of missionaries of the Broad Society. The translate agency mainly published a variety of social science books. Foreign missionaries set up these translation and publishing institutions of course for the purpose of missionary and colonial, but objectively they still introduced a lot of advanced Western scientific knowledge to China at that time.

Conclusion

Throughout China's translation achievements of science and technology , it seems that we go with the tide. Though occasionally we have some own views, the science that we are now in contact with is the view of Westerners. This can also provides some enlightenment from our modern education: it seems we have been western and internationalised, in fact, remain in a lack of the influence of the technology in the Chinese intrinsic culture. For quite a long time, we regard scientific translation as a pure translation in oral to express meaning. It demands a strictly functional equivalence. Translators were completely anonymous, absolutely invisible. Translation of science and technology with a great sanctity and authority, there have been a domestic famous scholar was opposed to the view that translation should have the artistry. In fact, scholarship is a matter, academic education is another matter. In academic research, our ancients were earnest and sincere in educating people by virtue. To put it in modern terms, it means to cultivate EQ as well as IQ of people. But throughout our education, we are producing a lot of people with high IQ but low EQ.“The translators of modern science and technology are generally invisible for fear of revealing any ‘translation traces’.”(Wang Hongzhi 2000:38) Although this can also be regarded as rigorous scholarship, but in view of the international development trend, scientific and technological literary style also began to pay attention to a certain artistic and aesthetic value. A technical article of literary or aesthetic value will continue to live on even when the technology described has become obsolete. “For scientific and technological translation, the same is true, if we want to make our translation vitality for a long time, we must also emphasize artistic and aesthetic value.”(Tan Suqin 2008:61)

The translation of science and technology in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China adopted the mode of mutual cooperation between Chinese scholar-officials and missionaries in China, among which the more famous ones were William Elias and John Fryer from England and Li Shanlan and Xu Shou from China. After the Opium War, the Translation institute of Jiangnan General Bureau of Manufacturing, The Jingshi Tongwen Guan, and the Guanghui Society all produced many cooperative translations. This model can be used for reference by many single-handed and independent workers in the field of scientific and technological translation. Scientific translation itself requires the translator to have a deep knowledge of English and Chinese, as well as professional knowledge of science and technology, which is multidisciplinary. If a translator should possess these abilities at the same time and be able to complete the translation work well, it is self-evident that it is difficult. And if it is given to those who have these abilities separately, they will do their best and take their responsibilities together, and their efficiency and quality will be improved a lot.

In the history of Chinese translation, the 20th century was a climax period with many translation activities. There is no other period that can be compared with the number of translated works, the wide range of subjects covered, and the great influence on Chinese society. In particular, the tide of translation at the beginning of the century is even more brilliant. It can be said that the large-scale multi-disciplinary translation activities in the new century have begun at this time, and its important position at the beginning can not be underestimated.

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