20220630 Culture 7

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• 20220630_Culture_1 papers 1-10: 1: 英语笔译 卞王倩 Bian Wangqian 202170081563 Europeanized Chinese and Cultural Factors Behind it, 2: 英语笔译 曹姣 Cao Jiao 202170081564 Research on court culture in the Tang Dynasty from the perspective of poem -- take Changhenge for example, 3 英语笔译 陈路瑶 Chen Luyao 202170081565, 4 英语笔译 崔晓凡 Cui Xiaofan 202170081566, 5 英语笔译 邓阳林 Deng Yanglin 202170081567, 6 英语笔译 高智慧 Gao Zhihui 202170081568, 7 英语笔译 何丽娜 He Lina 202170081569, 8 英语笔译 胡良明 Hu Liangming 202170081570, 9 英语笔译 黄琼 Huang Qiong 202170081571, 10 英语笔译 邝雨琪 Kuang Yuqi 202170081572
• 20220630_Culture_2 papers 11-20: 11 英语笔译 黎溢佳 Li Yijia 202170081573, 12 英语笔译 李思敏 Li Simin 202170081574, 13 英语笔译 李思源 Li Siyuan 202170081575, 14 英语笔译 李婷 Li Ting 202170081576, 15 英语笔译 李欣 Li Xin 202170081577, 16 英语笔译 李颖 Li Ying 202170081578, 17 英语笔译 李媛 Li Yuan 202170081579, 18 英语笔译 李梓婕 Li Zijie 202170081580, 19 英语笔译 梁思婷 Liang Siting 202170081581, 20 英语笔译 廖诗韵 Liao Shiyun 202170081582
• 20220630_Culture_3 papers 21-30: 21 英语笔译 刘唱 Liu Chang 202170081583, 22 英语笔译 刘乐乐 Liu Lele 202170081584, 23 英语笔译 刘双英 Liu Shuangying 202170081585, 24 英语笔译 刘婷 Liu Ting 202170081586, 25 英语笔译 刘瑶 Liu Yao 202170081587, 26 英语笔译 刘珍 Liu Zhen 202170081588, 27 英语笔译 龙翰良 Long Hanliang 202170081589, 28 英语笔译 罗姚林 Luo Yaolin 202170081590, 29 英语笔译 马艳焕 Ma Yanhuan 202170081591, 30 英语笔译 聂薇 Nie Wei 202170081592
• 20220630_Culture_4 papers 31-40: 31 英语笔译 孙丽君 Sun Lijun 202170081593, 32 英语笔译 仝雨梦 Tong Yumeng 202170081594, 33 英语笔译 童略雅 Tong Lueya 202170081595, 34 英语笔译 庹树梅 Tuo Shumei 202170081596, 35 英语笔译 王思琪 Wang Siqi 202170081597, 36 英语笔译 王亚娟 Wang Yajuan 202170081598, 37 英语笔译 肖冬晴 Xiao Dongqing 202170081599, 38 英语笔译 肖佳莉 Xiao Jiali 202170081600, 39 英语笔译 谢晓莹 Xie Xiaoying 202170081601, 40 英语笔译 熊嘉玲 Xiong Jialing 202170081602
• 20220630_Culture_5 papers 41-50: 41 英语笔译 颜媛 Yan Yuan 202170081603, 42 英语笔译 杨心怡 Yang Xinyi 202170081604, 43 英语笔译 杨紫微 Yang Ziwei 202170081605, 44 英语笔译 张国浩 Zhang Guohao 202170081606, 45 英语笔译 张姣玲 Zhang Jiaoling 202170081607, 46 英语笔译 张瑞 Zhang Rui 202170081608, 47 英语笔译 赵宇翔 Zhao Yuxiang 202170081609, 48 英语笔译 郑冬琴 Zheng Dongqin 202170081610, 49 英语笔译 钟青 Zhong Qing 202170081611, 50 英语笔译 周皓熙 Zhou Haoxi 202170081612
• 20220630_Culture_6 papers 51-60: 51 英语笔译 周哲 Zhou Zhe 202170081613, 52 英语笔译 朱丽娟 Zhu Lijuan 202170081614, 53 英语口译 段小蝶 Duan Xiaodie 202170081615, 54 英语口译 方楚晗 Fang Chuhan 202170081616, 55 英语口译 胡雯雯 Hu Wenwen 202170081617, 56 英语口译 黄天琪 Huang Tianqi 202170081618, 57 英语口译 兰绮 Lan Qi 202170081619, 58 英语口译 李丹 Li Dan 202170081620, 59 英语口译 李立飞 Li Lifei 202170081621, 60 英语口译 莫雨婷 Mo Yuting 202170081622
• 20220630_Culture_7 papers 61-70: 61 英语口译 彭慧璇 Peng Huixuan 202170081623, 62 英语口译 时友洁 Shi Youjie 202170081624, 63 英语口译 伍佳惠 Wu Jiahui 202170081625, 64 英语口译 夏晶 Xia Jing 202170081626, 65 英语口译 向师琦 Xiang Shiqi 202170081627, 66 英语口译 向望 Xiang Wang 202170081628, 67 英语口译 徐舞 Xu Wu 202170081629, 68 英语口译 张静芝 Zhang Jingzhi 202170081630, 69 英语口译 张旻丰 Zhang Minfeng 202170081631, 70 日语笔译 曹梦然 Cao Mengran 202170081632
• 20220630_Culture_8 papers 71-80: 71 日语笔译 胡梦琪 Hu Mengqi 202170081633, 72 日语笔译 张白鹭 Zhang Bailu 202170081634, 73 朝鲜语笔译 刘安莉 Liu Anli 202170081635, 74 朝鲜语笔译 王思佳 Wang Sijia 202170081636, 75 朝朝鲜语笔译 徐盖 Xu Gai 202170081638, 76 朝鲜语笔译 徐文慧 Xu Wenhui 202170081639, 77 外国语言文学 Akira Jantarat 202121080009, 78 比较文学与跨文化研究 Mahzad 202021080004, 79 英语语言文学 Mimi 2020GBJ002301

英语口译 彭慧璇 Peng Huixuan 202170081623

Foot Binding in China Peng Huixuan

1. Introduction

Foot binding, a custom of breaking and tightly binding the feet of young girls in order to change their shape and size, persisted in China for a millennium. Feet altered by foot binding were known as lotus feet, and the shoes made for these feet were known as lotus shoes. The different sizes of feet are different levels of "lotus", feet longer than four inches are called “iron lotus”, those about four inches are called “silver lotus”, and those shorter than three inches are “gold lotus”. In late imperial China, bound feet were considered a status symbol and a mark of feminine beauty.

There are various views on when foot binding began, including the Xia dynasty, Shang Dynasty, Spring and Autumn period, Sui dynasty, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, and Song Dynasty. According to the scholar Gao Hongxing’s book “The History of Footbinding”, foot binding began in the late Northern Song Dynasty and entered its heyday in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. (Gao 1995, 1) Later, the popularity of foot-binding spread to women of all social ranks. After the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty, Sun Yat-sen officially banned foot-binding. During the May Fourth Movement, foot-binding became the target of the revolutionary movement, with many denouncing the destruction and oppression of women by foot-binding. After the founding of New China, foot binding was completely abolished, and Chinese women were completely liberated from that.

In this article, the author provides further details on the history and specific process of foot binding. At the same time, the reasons for foot binding will be further discussed in detail, including cultural and social factors. In addition, the paper will describe the impact of foot binding on Chinese women, China, and on the world in general. Finally, the views on foot-binding will be mentioned, as well as traditions similar to foot-binding in other countries, such as the Victorian corset and their impacts.

2. Origin and History of Foot Binding

Sui Dynasty

The saying that foot-binding began in the Sui Dynasty originates from folklore. It is said that when Emperor Yang of Sui traveled east to Jiangdu to select beautiful women as his concubine, a woman named Wu Yueniang (the Moon Lady) was chosen. However, she hated Emperor Yang of Sui’s tyranny, so she asked her father, who was a blacksmith, to make a three-inches knife with a lotus petal, and wrapped the knife under her foot with a long cloth, and also wrapped her foot as small as possible. Then she carved a lotus flower on the sole of the shoe. In this regard, when she was walking, there will be beautiful lotus flowers printed on the floor. Emperor Yang of Sui was very happy to see her and asked her to come close to him, eager to play with her small feet. Wu slowly untied her foot wrapping and suddenly drew out her knife and stabbed Emperor Yang of Sui. He dodged in a hurry, but his arm was stabbed. Seeing that the assassination attempt failed, Wu plunged a suicide. To commemorate Wu Yueniang, many women started to wrap or bind their feet.

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period

The general view is that the practice is likely to have originated in the time of the 10th-century Emperor Li Yu of the Southern Tang, just before the Song dynasty. Li Yu created a 1.8-meter-tall (6 ft) golden lotus decorated with precious stones and pearls, and asked his concubine, Yao Niang, to bind her feet in white silk into the shape of the crescent moon and perform a dance on the points of her feet on the lotus. (Ko 2002, 42) Yao Niang's dance was said to be so graceful that others sought to imitate her. (Taylor 2008, 203) In addition to altering the shape of the foot, the practice also produced a particular sort of gait that relied on the thigh and buttock muscles for support. From the start, foot-binding was imbued with erotic overtones. Gradually, other court ladies—with money, time, and a void to fill—took up foot-binding, making it a status symbol among the elite. And then, the practice became popular.

Song Dynasty

According to Gao Hongxing’s “History of Footbinding”, numerous historical sources prove that foot-binding originated in the late Northern Song Dynasty, and became trendy in the Southern Song Dynasty. (Gao 1995, 16)

There are many literary verses from the historical period of that time that confirm this point. For example, In the 13th century, scholar Che Ruoshui wrote the first known criticism of the practice: “Little girls not yet four or five years old, who have done nothing wrong, nevertheless are made to suffer unlimited pain to bind their feet small. I do not know what use this is.” Besides, in the earliest extant discourse on the practice of foot-binding, scholar Zhang Bangji wrote that a bound foot should be arch-shaped and small (Ko 2008, 111). He observed that “women’s foot-binding began in recent times; it was not mentioned in any books from previous eras.” (Ian 2011, 424)

The imperial family and the upper class of the Song Dynasty were among the first to start foot-binding. The promotion of Song rulers played a great role in the creation and development of foot binding. In the Song Dynasty, it was common for princesses to have their feet wrapped. At that time, someone claimed to be Princess Roufu, the 10th daughter of Emperor Huizong of Song, but was suspected of impersonation because of her large feet. In a poem by Su Shi, a famous literary scholar of the Song Dynasty, he regarded women's small feet as “palace-like”, and another poet, Cao Yuanchong, also called small feet “official-like” in a lyric, which shows that foot-binding started from the upper class of the Song Dynasty, such as the bureaucratic aristocracy. (Gao 1995, 18) Foot binding was also very popular with the literati of the Song Dynasty, and even Su Shi and Xin Qiji, two famous poets, wrote poems admiring foot binding.

Women in the early Northern Song Dynasty had not yet begun to wrap their feet. The phenomenon of foot-binding began to appear in the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty. According to historical records, the custom of foot-binding was already in place during the Xining period (1068-1077) and Yuanfeng period (1078-1085), but there were still few who did it, so it can also be inferred that the custom of foot-binding did not last long at that time, and the custom of foot-binding roughly emerged in the eleventh century of the Song Dynasty. In the Xuanhe period (1119-1125) of Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty (late Northern Song Dynasty), the custom of foot-binding witnessed rapid development. The Fengchuang Xiaodu, which records the manners, customs, political affairs and arts of the late Northern and early Southern Song Dynasty, records that after the Xuanhe period, there were “embroidered bow shoes” everywhere at boudoirs in Bianjing, a city in east-central Henan province, and there were shoes specially designed for foot-binding at that time. Archaeological discoveries have also led to the frequent discovery of foot-binding shoes for women in the Southern Song Dynasty. For example, six pairs of women’s shoes, 13.3-14 cm long and 4.5-5 cm wide, were unearthed from a Southern Song tomb in Fuzhou, Fujian province. By the end of the Southern Song Dynasty, small feet had become a characteristic of women.

Yuan Dynasty

In the Yuan Dynasty, foot-binding is not popular among the Mongolian noble class, but also they did not oppose it, instead, they held an attitude of appreciation. Thus, the style of foot-binding in the Yuan Dynasty continued to develop. At the end of the Yuan Dynasty, the concept of “not wrapping the feet was a disgrace” emerged. Then, in order to meet the aesthetic and social trends of the time, Yuan Dynasty women bound their feet smaller and smaller.

Ming Dynasty

In the Ming Dynasty, foot-binding entered a period of prevalence. During the Ming Dynasty, men were not allowed to study and women were not allowed to bind their feet in the common people of eastern Zhejiang. Foot-binding became a symbol of social status, which shows that the society at that time respected and admired foot-binding. During the Ming Dynasty, foot binding developed rapidly throughout the country, this development can be seen in the following example: At that time, Datong, Shanxi province and Xuande Residence the northwestern part of Hebei Province became the country's famous foot binding areas, which attracted numerous small-feet freaks, and Zhengde Emperor, the 11th Emperor of the Ming dynasty, often go there to choose concubines. Because foot-binding was popular at this time, Hu Shi, a Chinese literary scholar, listed it as one of the three major diseases of the Ming Dynasty, along with the eight-legged essay and opium.

Qing Dynasty

Foot-binding reached its peak in the Qing Dynasty. At that time, women from all walks of life, rich or poor, had their feet wrapped. By the 19th century, it was estimated that 40–50% of Chinese women had bound feet, and, among upper-class Han Chinese women, the figure was almost 100%. Bound feet became a mark of beauty and were also a prerequisite for finding a husband. They also became an avenue for poorer women to marry up in some areas, such as Sichuan.

In the Qing Dynasty, the ruler initially strongly opposed foot-binding and repeatedly ordered to prohibit it, but at this time the culture of foot-binding is difficult to stop. By the seventh year of the Kangxi period (1668), the ban had to be removed. In the frenzy of the worship of foot-binding, some insightful people in the Qing Dynasty soberly recognized the harm of foot-binding, and they forcefully opposed the harmful effects of foot-binding from different angles. They were the pioneers of the anti-footbinding movement in the late Qing Dynasty.

Opposition to foot-binding had been raised by some Chinese writers in the 18th century. In the mid-19th century, many of the rebel leaders of the Taiping Rebellion were of Hakka background whose women did not bind their feet, and foot-binding was outlawed. (Shi 1968, 27) However, the rebellion failed, and Christian missionaries, who had provided education for girls and actively discouraged what they considered a barbaric practice, then played a part in changing elite opinion on foot-binding through education, pamphleteering, and lobbying of the Qing court, placing emphasis on the fact that no other culture in the world practiced the custom of foot-binding. (Gerry 1996, 999)

The earliest-known Western anti-footbinding society was formed in Amoy (Xiamen) in 1874. Around 60-70 Christian women in Xiamen attended a meeting presided over by a missionary John MacGowan formed the Natural Foot Society (Tianzu Hui, literally Heavenly Foot Society). [11.12] (Dorothy 2007, 14) (Brent 2008, 203) Reform-minded Chinese intellectuals began to consider foot-binding to be an aspect of their culture that needed to be eliminated. In 1883, Kang Youwei, a prominent political thinker and reformer in China, founded the Anti-Footbinding Society near Canton to combat the practice, and anti-footbinding societies sprang up across the country, with membership for the movement claimed to reach 300,000. (Gail 2019, 67) Reformers such as Liang Qichao, influenced by Social Darwinism, also argued that it weakened the nation. In 1906, Zhao Zhiqian wrote in Beijing Women's News to blame women with bound feet for being a national weakness in the eyes of other nations. (Gail 2019, 67) In 1902, Empress Dowager Cixi issued an anti-footbinding edict, but it was soon rescinded.

After 1912

In 1912, the new Republic of China government banned foot-binding, though the ban was not actively implemented, and leading intellectuals of the May Fourth Movement saw foot-binding as a major symbol of China's backwardness. Many provinces engaged in their own sustained campaign against foot-binding or enforced the ban against foot-binding. The campaign against foot-binding was successful in some regions; in one province, a 1929 survey showed that, whereas only 2.3% of girls born before 1910 had unbound feet, 95% of those born after were not bound. (Stewart 2014, 423) In most parts of China, however, the foot-binding practice had virtually disappeared by 1949. (Stewart 2014, 423) The practice was also stigmatized in Communist China, and the last vestiges of foot-binding were stamped out, with the last new case of foot-binding reported in 1957. By the 21st century, only a few elderly women in China still had bound feet. In 1999, the last shoe factory making lotus shoes, the Zhiqiang Shoe Factory in Harbin, closed. (Dorothy 2008,9)

3. Practice of Foot Binding

Binding Method and Process

The process was started before the arch of the foot had a chance to develop fully, usually between the ages of four and nine. Binding usually started during the winter months since the feet were more likely to be numb, and therefore the pain would not be as extreme.

Items to be prepared before foot binding:

1. Six blue cotton bandages. It should be about eight to ten feet or more.

2. Five pairs of flat-soled shoes. Shoes are shaped pointed, and have to be flexible, so that they can be sewed smaller.

3. Two or three pairs of sleeping shoes. Wear when one is sleeping, which can prevent the bandages from loosening.

4. Needle and thread, which will be used to sew up the bandages.

5. Cotton. Wearing shoes with cotton so as to cushion protruding parts of foot bones.

6. Feet-washing basin and hot water. Wash the feet with warm water before wrapping.

7. A small pair of scissors, which will be used to cut the toenails and corns.

First, each foot would be soaked in a warm mixture of herbs and animal blood; this was intended to soften the foot and aid the binding. Then, the toenails were cut back as far as possible to prevent in-growth and subsequent infections, since the toes were to be pressed tightly into the sole of the foot. Cotton bandages were prepared by soaking them in the blood and herb mixture. To enable the size of the feet to be reduced, the toes on each foot were curled under, then pressed with great force downwards and squeezed into the sole of the foot. (Gerry 1996, 999)

Shi Jin

This process is to continue tightening the bandage. When wrapping, people will first wrap the second and fifth toes, wrapped to curl them under the foot, and the third and fourth toes will follow to curl under the foot. This process will also last a few days to about two months. During this time, the bandages will become stiff and the wrinkles of the bandage are punched out by a small hammer so that the foot can get used to the stiffness and tightness of those bandages, and then the bandages can be tightened to a new level.

Guo Jian

In this process, the bandages are wrapped as tightly as possible, until the little toe is pressed under the feet and the second toe is pressed under the big toe joint. During the Guo Jian, it is often necessary to twist the toe to the bottom of the foot until it can no longer be bent, and then tighten the bandages. During this process, several sprained joints will suffer a lot of damage, which is very painful. After wrapping, the bandages are sewn up tightly with a needle and thread, and then the foot is squeezed hard into a small and pointed shoe, and the girl is asked to walk around in the small shoe. When walking, the weight of the person will be pressed on the eight toes bent inward, spraining the joints even more. The next morning, the young girl woke up and had to unwind the bandages again and wrap her feet even tighter. Finally, the third, fourth and fifth toe joints had to be severely sprained or even dislocated. When the feet and toes are dislocated, the foot will be very swollen, and the skin turns purple, and it is extremely painful. However, the bandages are tighter and tighter day by day, until the swelling subsides, the all the toes are wrapped to the bottom of the feet, which is considered to have completed the work of Guo Jian, and then one can proceed to Guo Shou.

Guo Shou

After the Guo Jian, the four toes have been rolled under the palm of the foot, but may not be neatly attached to the bottom of the foot. Until the tips of the third, fourth and fifth toes can touch the inner edge of the palm of the foot, the work of Guo Shou is complete. During this process, the little toe bone should be pushed downward, and the four toes should be pushed along to the inner edge of the palm of the foot. After a few days, when the bandages are unwrapped, there are often many places on the foot where the ulcerated part and the bandages are tightly stuck, which is like a bloody mess. This process will take almost six months, and the young girl will have to endure the pain until the toes are rolled to the inside edge of the foot, and the toes can be touched by the inside edge of the foot, so that the process is complete.

Guo Wan

Guo Wan is to wrap the foot until the palm is folded into two sections, so that the front section of the foot is tightly pressed against the heel, the second half of the foot. Besides, the foot should be wrapped until the sole of the foot palm has a deep gap, which sometimes reaches four or five centimeters. Generally speaking, the pain is slightly less during the Guo Wan. However, if the foot is not wrapped hard during the process of Guo Shou, the Guo Wan start in the teenage years, and the length of the foot is required to be particularly short after this process, then it will be very painful at this time. After the Guo Wan, the length of the foot will be significantly shortened.

Regional Differences

The method, age, requirements, and order of foot binding vary from place to place, thus creating different shapes of the feet.

Northern China

Generally speaking, northerners are taller and their feet are longer than those of southerners, so their feet will still be longer than southerners' after foot-binding. However, because of the cold weather in the north, feet that are wrapped for a long time are not easy to ulcerate and do not require frequent washing, so it is easier to wrap harder and tighter. Because the bandages are more tightly wrapped, so the northern feet are more pointed, thinner, and softer.

Southern China

In Southern China, the weather is hot, due to the wrapping and thick shoes, the feet will feel unbearably hot. Foot-binding in Southern China mainly focuses on the process of Guo Wan. In Taiwan or Shunde and Dongguan, Guangdong province, there are often feet that are wrapped to about two inches, which is far from what the northerners can reach. In order to seek smaller feet, some people even bend the back of the foot into a ball shape, which is generally known as the goose head-shaped feet.

Variation of Foot Binding

Manchu women, as well as Mongol and Chinese women in the Eight Banners, did not bind their feet. The most a Manchu woman might do was to wrap the feet tightly to give them a slender appearance. (Mark 2001, 246) The Manchus, wanting to emulate the particular gait that bound feet necessitated, adapted their own form of platform shoes to cause them to walk in a similar swaying manner. These Manchu platform shoes were known as “flower bowl” shoes or “horse-hoof” shoes; they have a platform generally made of wood 5–20 cm (2–6 in) in height and fitted to the middle of the sole, or they have a small central tapered pedestal. Many Han Chinese in the Inner City of Beijing also did not bind their feet, and it was reported in the mid-1800s that around 50–60% of non-banner women had unbound feet. Bound feet nevertheless became a significant differentiating marker between Han women and Manchu or other banner women. (Mark 2001, 246)

4. Reasons of Foot Binding

There are many interpretations of the practice of foot-binding, mainly divided into the following major aspects:

Aesthetic and Erotic Factors

In the ancient Chinese aesthetic concept, the so-called female beauty is to reflect their “feminine” side, that is, small, soft, quiet, and curvy. Before foot-binding was practiced in China, admiration for small feet already existed.

Speaking of “small”, cherry-like small mouths, small and heart-shaped faces, and willow-like slender waist are the qualities of female beauty, and foot is no exception. Before the Song Dynasty, although the custom of foot binding did not appear and there was no frenzy for small feet, there was a concept of beauty in the form of small feet. In the Han Dynasty, there is a line in “The Peacock Flies Southeast” that reads, “The fine step is the fine step, and the exquisite world is no two” which praises the slenderness of the female foot. (Gao 1995, 86)

For more than a thousand years, bound feet were associated with exquisite beauty, therefore enhancing women’s attraction. For women, a pair of perfectly bound feet were considered to be a mark of gentility and refinement. For men, the tiny and fragile appearance of the bound feet had a profound erotic appeal. Numerous studies have given proof of the male attraction to women with bound feet. It is obvious that bound feet aroused in the male a feeling of lust and sexual desire.

The theory that foot-binding was inherently erotic or aesthetic comes from the fact that up until recently, much of the historical information we can glean about the practice of foot-binding comes from texts written by men. Images and accounts of foot-binding are captured in the art and writings of mostly male elites over the centuries and portray women with bound feet as beautiful and sexually appealing.

Even while not much was written on the subject of foot-binding prior to the latter half of the 19th century, the writings which were done on this topic, particularly by educated men, frequently alluded to the erotic nature and appeal of bound feet in their poetry. (Gail 2019, 45)

Economic Factors

Foot-binding persisted for so long because it had a clear economic rationale: It was a way to make sure young girls sat still and helped make goods like yarn, cloth, mats, shoes and fishing nets that families depended upon for income – even if the girls themselves were told it would make them more marriageable.

Some research found that foot-binding endured longest in areas where it still made economic sense to produce goods like cloth at home and began to decline only when cheaper factory-made alternatives became available in these regions. Girls began hand spinning yarn as young as 6 or 7 – roughly the same ages as when their feet were bound.

Foot binding was an instrumental means to reserve women to handwork, and can be seen as a way by mothers to tie their daughters down, train them in handwork, and keep them close at hand.

Foot-binding was common when women could do light industry, but where women were required to do heavy farm work they often did not bind their feet because it hindered physical work. These scholars argued that the coming of the mechanized industry at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, such as the introduction of industrial textile processes, resulted in a loss of light handwork for women, removing a reason to maintain the practice. Mechanization resulted in women who worked at home facing a crisis. (Laurel 2011, 347) Coupled with changes in politics and people's consciousness, the practice of foot binding disappeared in China forever after two generations. (Hill 2001, 130)

Social Factors

Those high and mighty princes and generals were not only afraid of outsiders taking away their power, but also afraid of the people around them seizing power. Therefore, most of the princesses and concubines of the Southern Song Dynasty have wrapped their feet. This is a constant suppression of women, it is the men to let women know that they are born below men and to prevent the idea of seizing power and usurping the throne.

People have taken the foot binding of women in their families as something to show off. The women in the brothels had their feet wrapped and that was a “job requirement”, while the women in the royal palaces and noble families had their feet wrapped purely to satisfy men’s desire for a sense of control. This is a way to suppress the female mind and a manifestation of men’s pathological desire to control. For upholding this tradition for so long, the motive was for men to be able to dominate women.

5. Impacts of Foot Binding

Harms on women

The most direct danger to women from foot-binding is the physical damage it causes. The most common problem with bound feet was infection. Despite the amount of care taken in regularly trimming the toenails, they would often in-grow, becoming infected and causing injuries to the toes. Sometimes, for this reason, the girl's toenails would be peeled back and removed altogether. The tightness of the binding meant that the circulation in the feet was faulty, and the circulation to the toes was almost cut off, so any injuries to the toes were unlikely to heal and were likely to gradually worsen and lead to infected toes and rotting flesh. The necrosis of the flesh would also initially give off a foul odor, and, later, the smell may have come from various microorganisms that colonized the folds. (Fraser 2005, 1) Most of the women receiving treatment did not go out often and were disabled. (Gerry 1996, 999)

At the beginning of the binding, many of the foot bones would remain broken, often for years. However, as the girl grew older, the bones would begin to heal. Even after the foot bones had healed, they were prone to rebreaking repeatedly, especially when the girl was in her teenage years and her feet were still soft. Bones in the girls' feet would often be deliberately broken again in order to further change the size or shape of the feet. This was especially the case with the toes, as small toes were especially desirable. (Cummings 1997, 1677) Older women were more likely to break hips and other bones in falls, since they could not balance securely on their feet, and were less able to rise to their feet from a sitting position. (Cummings 1997, 1678) Other issues that may have arisen from foot binding included paralysis and muscular atrophy. (DeMello 2007, 116)

Foot binding is often seen by feminists as an oppressive practice against women who were victims of a sexist culture. It is also widely seen as a form of violence against women. Foot binding causes women to suffer torture and pain for no reason. It prevents women from participating in social work and interferes with their social activities.

Social Impact

Foot binding not only seriously affects the normal development of women's feet and makes people form a deformed aesthetic mentality. Foot binding also reinforced the concept of male superiority and inferiority of women, which contributed to the stability of the patriarchal feudal system and increased the confinement and bondage of women.

In addition, foot-binding has reduced women's motivation to engage in dance and sports. For example, Korea and Japan have continued to develop their dances after the introduction of the art of dance in China. In contrast, the development of dance in China has become more and more stagnant with the development of foot binding.

6. Similar Practice in Other Countries

Brass Coils in Kayan people (Myanmar)

Women of the Kayan tribes identify themselves by their forms of dress. Women of the Kayan Lahwi tribe are well known for wearing neck rings, brass coils that are placed around the neck, appearing to lengthen it. These women who wear the coils have only three chances to take it off in their lifetime: marriage, childbirth, and death. Girls first start to wear rings when they are around 5 years old. Over the years, the coil is replaced by a longer one and more turns are added. The weight of the brass pushes the collar bone down and compresses the rib cage. The neck itself is not lengthened; the appearance of a stretched neck is created by the deformation of the clavicle. (Keshishian 1979, 798) Many ideas regarding why the coils are worn have been suggested. Anthropologists have hypothesized that the rings protected women from becoming slaves, making them less attractive to other tribes. It has also been theorized that the coils originate from the desire to look more attractive by exaggerating sexual dimorphism, as women have more slender necks than men. The coil, once on, is seldom removed, as the coiling and uncoiling is a lengthy procedure. It is usually only removed to be replaced by a new or longer coil. The muscles covered by the coil become weakened. Many women have removed the rings for medical examinations. Most women prefer to wear the rings once their clavicle has been lowered, as the area of the neck and collarbone often becomes bruised and discolored. Additionally, the collar feels like an integral part of the body after ten or more years of continuous wear.

Conclusion

In general, foot binding is a custom that has been passed down in China for many years. Although it may seem far away from us, such a small custom can give us contemporary people an insight into the history of previous times. Although the history of foot-binding is a thing of the past, today it is even more important to learn a lesson from such important history, such as the need to protect women’s rights and maintain a healthy social climate. History brings us experience and lessons, and we need to learn from it, face up to it, reflect on our lives today and make efforts for a better society, or even a better world.

Terms and expressions

iron lotus铁莲

silver lotus银莲

gold lotus金莲

Emperor Yang of Sui 隋炀帝

Wu Yueniang (the Moon Lady) 吴月娘

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period 五代十国

Yao Niang 窅娘

Emperor Li Yu of the Southern Tang 南唐后主李煜

Che Ruoshui 车若水

Zhang Bangji 张邦基

Princess Roufu 柔福帝姬（柔福公主）

Emperor Huizong of Song 宋徽宗

Cao Yuanchong 曹元宠

Xining period (1068-1077) 熙宁年间

Yuanfeng period (1078-1085) 元丰年间

Xuanhe period (1119-1125) 宣和年间

Fengchuang Xiaodu 《枫窗小牍》

Xuande Residence 宣德府

Zhengde Emperor 明武宗

Eight-legged essay八股文

Kangxi period 康熙年间

The anti-footbinding movement 天足运动

Natural Foot Society (Tianzu Hui, literally Heavenly Foot Society) 天足会

Empress Dowager Cixi 慈禧太后

Zhiqiang Shoe Factory 志强鞋厂

Lotus shoes 缠足鞋

Shi Jin 试紧

Shi Chan 试缠

Guo Jian 裹尖

Guo Shou 裹瘦

Guo Wan 裹弯

“Flower bowl” shoes 花盆鞋

“Horse-hoof” shoes 马蹄鞋

Non-banner women 非八旗女子

cherry-like small mouths 樱桃小嘴

small and heart-shaped face 瓜子脸

willow-like slender waist 杨柳细腰

The Peacock Flies Southeast 孔雀东南飞

Kayan people巴东族

Brass Coils 铜圈

Questions

1)According to the size of the foot, how many types of foot binding can be classified?

2)When was the heyday of foot binding?

3)How many major steps are there in foot wrapping?

4)What are the effects of foot binding?

5)What is the similar practice as foot-binding in other countries?

Answers

1)Three. The different sizes of feet are different levels of “lotus”. There are iron lotus (longer than four inches), silver lotus (about four inches), and silver lotus (shorter than three inches).

2)In the Qing Dynasty.

3)Five. They are Shi Chan, Shi Jin, Guo Jian, Guo Shou, and Guo Wan.

4)Foot-binding brings great physical and social harm to women, and also gives rise to aberrant aesthetics in society.

5)Brass Coils in Kayan people (Myanmar)

References

[1] 高洪兴．缠足史：上海文艺出版社，1995:1-2

[2] Dorothy Ko (2002). Every Step a Lotus: Shoes for Bound Feet. University of California Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-520-23284-6.

[3] Victoria Pitts-Taylor, ed. (2008). Cultural Encyclopedia of the Body. Greenwood. p. 203. ISBN 978-0-313-34145-8.

[4] 高洪兴．缠足史：上海文艺出版社，1995:16

[5] Dorothy Ko (2008). Cinderella's Sisters: A Revisionist History of Footbinding. University of California Press. pp. 111–115. ISBN 978-0-520-25390-2.

[6] Morris, Ian (2011). Why the West Rules - For Now: The Patterns of History, and What They Reveal About the Future. McClelland & Stewart. p. 424. ISBN 978-1-55199-581-6.

[7] 高洪兴．缠足史：上海文艺出版社，1995:18

[8] Vincent Yu-Chung Shih; Yu-chung Shi (1968). The Taiping Ideology: Its Sources, Interpretations, and Influences. University of Washington Press. pp. 27–29.

[9] Mackie, Gerry (1996). “Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account”. American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017.

[10] Ko, Dorothy (2007). Cinderella's Sisters: A Revisionist History of Footbinding. University of California Press. pp. 14–17.

[11] Whitefield, Brent (2008). “The Tian Zu Hui (Natural Foot Society): Christian Women in China and the Fight against Footbinding”. Southeast Review of Asian Studies. 30: 203–12.

[12] Hershatter, Gail (2019). Women and China's Revolutions. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 67.

[13] Hershatter, Gail (2019). Women and China's Revolution. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-1-4422-1570-2.

[14] Mary White Stewart (27 January 2014). Ordinary Violence: Everyday Assaults against Women Worldwide. Praeger. pp. 4237–428. ISBN 978-1-4408-2937-6.

[15] Mary White Stewart (27 January 2014). Ordinary Violence: Everyday Assaults against Women Worldwide. Praeger. pp. 4237–428. ISBN 978-1-4408-2937-6.

[16] Ko, Dorothy (2008). Cinderella's Sisters: A Revisionist History of Footbinding. University of California Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-520-25390-2.

[17] Mackie, Gerry (1996). “Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account”. American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017.

[18] Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: the Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 246–249.

[19] Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: the Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. pp. 246–249.

[20] 高洪兴．缠足史：上海文艺出版社，1995：86-89

[21] Hershatter, Gail (2019). Women and China's Revolutions. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 45.

[22] Bossen, Laurel; Xurui, Wang; Brown, Melissa J.; Gates, Hill (2011). “Feet and Fabrication: Footbinding and Early Twentieth-Century Rural Women's Labor in Shaanxi”. Modern China. 37 (4): 347–383

[23] Gates, Hill (2001). “Footloose in Fujian: Economic Correlates of Footbinding”. Comparative Studies in Society and History. 43 (1): 130–148.

[24] Newham, Fraser (21 March 2005). "The ties that bind". The Guardian.

[25] Mackie, Gerry (1996). “Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account”. American Sociological Review. 61 (6): 999–1017.

[26] Cummings, S. R.; Ling, X.; Stone, K. (1997). "Consequences of foot binding among older women in Beijing, China". American Journal of Public Health. 87 (10): 1677–1679.

[27] Cummings, S. & Stone, K. (1997) "Consequences of Foot Binding Among Older Women in Beijing China", in: American Journal of Public Health EBSCO Host. October 1997

[28] Margo DeMello (2007). Encyclopedia of Body Adornment. Greenwood Press. pp. 116–117.

[29] Keshishian, J.M. (1979), Anatomy of a Burmese Beauty Secret (155.6 ed.), Washington: National Geographic, pp. 798–801

[30] 高彦颐, 苗延威. 缠足:“金莲崇拜”盛极而衰的演变[M]. 江苏人民出版社, 2009.

[31] 李凤飞, 暴鸿昌. 中国妇女缠足与反缠足的历史考察[J]. 学习与探索, 1997(3):8.

[32] 徐海燕. 悠悠千载一金莲:中国的缠足文化[M]. 辽宁人民出版社, 2000.

[33] 谢凤华,张学武. 中国妇女缠足放足探析[J]. 社会科学论坛(12):46-48.

英语口译 时友洁 Shi Youjie 202170081624

Makeup Revolution in Ancient China Shi Youjie

Introduction

Makeup involves dressing and grooming in terms of its broad sense, while in a narrow sense, it refers to the makeup on one's face. By applying cosmetics, a particular feature of the face will be highlighted to be more charming. In ancient China, makeup is generally called “粉黛（fen dai）”，“打扮（da ban）”，“容妆（rong zhuang）”, and in most circumstances, females tend to makeup more than males. Ancient China has witnessed a clear process of evolution about makeup, in which women's makeup in different dynasties will be mainly displayed and analyzed in this paper. Throughout history, only a few words about makeup has remained owing to the traditional preference of ancient Chinese. On the one hand, the history book prefers to narrate a male with his story of nobility, virtue or great success, or record events of historic importance, leading to a shortage of details about public daily lives, not to mention the makeup. On the other hand, the ancient Chinese artists root for preserving the essence and aroma rather than the details and forms of a painting. This is why modern archaeologists have found it difficult to investigate ancient Chinese makeup. As hard as it may be, some types of makeup in different dynasties can be accessed by a small number of records. Despite a few historical sources, to learn the evolution of make is still significant, for it is not only the aesthetics but also the national context of ancient China that is behind the makeup. Analysis of ancient Chinese in a visual aspect is only scratching the surface, while the economic, political and cultural background that makeup mirrors is worth studying further. Many of the unearthed artifacts about makeup can be traced back to prehistoric times at the earliest, which allow us to study makeup customs such as body painting, tattooing, ear piercing, etc at that period. But it was not until the Western Han and Eastern Han Dynasties that the makeup culture was formed with a standard aesthetic appreciation. Subsequently, distinctive aesthetic preferences were bred in Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Sui and Tang dynasties, and the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties respectively. This paper will focus on makeup preferences in four major times: prehistory, the Western Han and Eastern Han Dynasties, the Sui and Tang dynasties, and the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, with an aim to provide insights about the integration between makeup and historical background.

英语口译 伍佳惠 Wu Jiahui 202170081625

Chinese Dragon Culture Wu Jiahui

Introduction

The Chinese dragon, also known as long, loong, or lung, is a legendary creature in Chinese mythology, Chinese culture, and Chinese folklore as a whole. For thousands of years, the dragon has permeated all aspects of Chinese society, becoming a cultural cohesion and accumulation. The dragon has become a symbol of China, a symbol of the Chinese nation, and a symbol of Chinese culture. To every Chinese descendant, it carries national emotions.

The creature can be found in the mythology of many ancient cultures, but nowhere else in the world is the creature quite so revered as in China. The Chinese dragon is a benevolent creature that delivers fertilizing rain to the earth. Strength, good luck, and awe-inspiring might are the spiritual meanings of the dragon. The oriental dragon is widely regarded as a spiritual or supernatural sign of heavenly power. As a result, it has long served as the emperor’s symbol.

The Chinese dragon is easily identified by its long serpentine body which is usually wingless, and its anthropomorphic face with beards. The dragon is considered the most auspicious year sign, so the image is embroidered on the robes of emperors, portrayed in the most valuable materials, such as gold jewelry and jade sculptures. In addition, it has endless references in performing arts and literature.

Generally speaking, the dragon was everywhere in ancient China and looms as large nowadays in the Chinese psyche as ever.

英语口译 夏晶 Xia Jing 202170081626

On Differences of Table Manners between China and West Xiajing

Introduction

Manners are different in every country. Some manners that we consider are polite in China are not necessarily polite in other countries. We are more familiar with the dining separately in the West and dining together in China. Chinese people advocate the values of collectivism, so Chinese people like to eat together that the table atmosphere in China is lively and harmony. And the Chinese hosts like to serve the dishes for their guests. But in the West, as western philosophy tends to focus on individualism and personal development, individualist values predominate in western countries. So, people just like to eat the food on their plate. What’s more, it is not a mistake although western people can’t understand the way we serving dishes to guests. This is just a cultural difference between China and West. Likewise, table manner culture is a part of the diet culture, and the difference between Chinese and western cultures. Sometimes, different etiquette is an important reason of misunderstandings between different cultures, leading to the failure of intercultural communication. Learning the differences and the origin of table manners between China and the West in the aspect of various religions belief, values and cultural connotations, not only can enhance the understanding of the target language culture, but also can perform well during cross-cultural communication, so as to avoid the misunderstanding caused by improper behavior or manner. In addition, communication etiquette becomes more and more important as the bridge and ties to link communication among people. Avoiding abruptness and rudeness, which ensure the activities of diplomacy can successfully. Therefore, understanding table manners habits and characteristics is of great importance to promote the development of Chinese diplomacy.

References

Sizhi Xiong. The Mystery of Chinese Diet. [M] Henan. Henan people press. 2014.

英语口译 向师琦 Xiang Shiqi 202170081627

The Collision between Confucian Culture and Chinese Modernist Literature Xiang Shiqi

Abstract

As the traditional political culture of China, Confucianism permeates all aspects of Chinese national thought, behavior and political life. While influencing Chinese political culture, Confucianism is also constantly being combined with the most popular culture of the times. As the most dominant culture in China today, Chinese modernist literature is merging and colliding with Confucian culture. This paper aims to examine the connotations of Confucianism and Chinese modernist literature in political culture and to analyze the positive and negative influences of Confucianism on the fusion of Chinese modernist literature. It is hoped that the study will enable people to understand, inherit and carry forward the excellent Confucian culture, thereby further improving the overall quality of the nation and enhancing the effectiveness of ideological and political education.

In Chinese history, Confucianism has been the official guiding ideology of feudal society since Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty adopted Dong Zhongshu's advice to "dismiss a hundred schools and revere only Confucianism". As the mainstream of traditional Chinese culture, Confucianism has played a pivotal role in the history of feudal China for over 2,000 years and has had an immeasurable impact on shaping the national character and spirit of the nation. Exploring the collision between Confucianism and modern Chinese culture is of great theoretical and practical significance to the development and construction of modern Chinese culture.

As the backbone of ancient Chinese thought and culture, traditional Confucianism has always occupied a dominant ideological position from the two Han dynasties to the Ming and Qing dynasties. At the same time, the values advocated by Confucianism became the core values of traditional society. It is therefore of great importance to study the collision between Confucian culture and modern Chinese culture.

Key words

Confucian culture; Chinese modernist literature; political culture; national comprehensive quality; ideological and political education

Introduction

Confucian culture is a cultural school with Confucianism as its guiding ideology. Confucianism was created by Confucius in the Spring and Autumn Period, who advocated blood relations, social achievements, self-cultivation and moral rationality. Its central ideas are forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, fraternal respect, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faithfulness. In the new era of socialism with Chinese characteristics, inheriting the essence of Confucian culture plays an important role in promoting China's socialist modernization. The inheritance of Confucian culture can effectively promote the five-pronged construction of China's political, economic, cultural, social and ecological civilization. Each of us should be the disseminator of excellent traditional culture and contribute to the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation.

In the course of the development of Confucian culture, how to integrate modern Chinese literature with it is significant. Based on this, a large number of scholars and research institutions have carried out research and analysis on it. The earliest scholars who studied the integration of Confucian culture and contemporary modern culture were Japanese scholars. Japanese scholars believed that the role of traditional Confucianism itself was limited and that it should be interrelated with the culture related to modernization. Korean scholars believed that Confucianism lies in the development of contemporary culture. The influence of Confucianism on politics and the corresponding political spirit should be fully considered. American scholars made a full study and analysis of the integration of Confucianism and modern culture, mainly from the past, modern and corresponding values, pointing out the profound connotation of Confucianism and Confucianism. Want to change in the evolution of modern society and its corresponding role.

As China's traditional political culture, Confucian culture runs through all aspects of China's national thinking, behavior and political life. Confucian culture influences Chinese political culture while it is also constantly combined with the most popular culture of the times. As the most mainstream culture in China today, Chinese modernist literature is blending and colliding with Confucian culture. The purpose of this paper is to study the connotation of Confucian culture and Chinese modernist literature in political culture and to analyze the positive and negative effects of Confucian culture on the integration of Chinese modernist literature. Through this study, we hope that we can make the people understand, inherit and carry forward the excellent Confucian culture, so as to further improve the overall quality of the people and enhance the effectiveness of Ideological and political education.

This essay aims to explore the collision between Confucianism and modern Chinese culture. The structure of this paper is as follows: The second section of this paper will specifically analyze the contemporary value of Confucianism. In the third section of this paper, I will introduce the combination of Confucianism and modern Chinese literature. In the third section, I will give some ways to realize the value of excellent Confucian culture in Chinese modernist culture. The next part will illustrate the contemporary insights from Confucian culture. And in the final part, I will make a brief summary of this paper.

The Contemporary Values of Confucianism

For our country, Confucianism is the hallmark of Chinese culture, as well as the unique spiritual symbol and soul of China, which under its own characteristics can make China stand among the nations of the world. In the current multicultural context, various cultures are flooding into China and impacting Chinese culture. If China does not have its own culture, especially Confucianism, then China will have lost its soul. For this reason The leaders of the country also attach great importance to culture and have been close to Confucianism three times in one year, considering the study of Confucius and Confucianism to be "an important way to understand the historical origins of the spiritual world of Chinese people today".

For schools, Confucian culture is conducive to the realization of the ideological and political education objectives of universities, as Confucian culture advocates such moral cultivation methods as "self-reflection" and "prudence", which are in line with the standards of socialist successors required to be cultivated by the ideological and political education objectives of universities. At the same time, Confucian culture is also conducive to the formation of a correct worldview, and outlook on life and values, helping university students to fully understand their responsibilities and missions; secondly, Confucian culture can enrich the content of ideological and political education in universities, combining Confucian culture with ideological and political education in universities, allowing university students to achieve the purpose of patriotic education through the understanding, appreciation and analysis of Confucian culture, and enhancing Finally, Confucianism culture has certain significance for the teaching concept of colleges and universities. Teachers should respect students, pay attention to them, try to explore the bright spots in their bodies, and at the same time constantly promote students' self-education so that they can see their own value.

Personally, society as a whole is gradually modernizing, but at the same time this has brought about some problems for mankind. In addition to the often mentioned environmental problems between man and nature, there are also problems between man and man, such as the alienation of man, the lack of morality and the confusion of life. Confucian culture is an excellent culture with rich connotations and abundant wisdom, which can give full play to its own characteristics and provide valuable guidance and direction to solve these problems of people.

The Combination of Confucianism And Chinese Modernist Culture

The Confucian culture was combined with political systems, political relations and certain economic bases within a certain period, which in turn led to the formation of the corresponding political culture. In the course of its historical development, Confucianism has been the dominant ideology of traditional Chinese political culture. We can see that Confucian culture has changed in connotation accordingly from ancient times to the present day, but its corresponding development has a historical inheritance. Confucian culture followed the idea of "harmony" in its early emergence, followed the idea of putting people first and emphasizing "people" in the course of its historical development, and in its later years, it emphasized the idea of "applying knowledge to the world and learning from it", stressing the unity of knowledge and practice. In terms of political culture, Confucianism emphasizes the idea of integrity in politics. It emphasizes that the moral quality of politicians and the ability of saints should be raised to a certain level. It emphasizes that the upper class of the state should have the awareness of the people. In the course of its continuous development, Confucianism has continued to merge with contemporary culture. Its corresponding basic characteristics are mainly manifested in the following three points. As the dominant culture of modern Chinese culture, modern Chinese literature represents contemporary Chinese thought and influences, to a certain extent, people's daily behavior and habits. In some important cultural and literary works, it even represents the dominant thought of the era. Contemporary mainstream modern Chinese literary culture emphasizes the same core values as Confucianism. The values of benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and trust permeate people's daily lives while guiding their habits and daily behavior. The collision between contemporary Chinese modernist literature and Confucianism is conducive to the better dissemination and development of Chinese political culture in three main ways, corresponding to the following: 1) Promoting education in worldview The integration of ideas is conducive to a better grasp of Marxism, further promoting people's worldview education and helping them to establish a correct worldview. The integrated Confucian culture embodies simple materialism and dialectics, which has much in common with the core ideas of Marxism.

2) It is conducive to improving life outlook education It is conducive to helping educators to develop a correct outlook on life and helping people to develop a "selfless" outlook on life, as well as a view of life in the service of the people.

3) Promotes education on collectivism It is conducive to helping people develop a sense of family and country, a sense of subordination of individual interests to national, social and collective interests, and a collective consciousness that "the rise and fall of the world is the responsibility of the individual".

Ways to Realize the Values of Excellent Confucian Culture in Chinese modernist Culture

In terms of the integration and collision of excellent Confucian thought with contemporary Chinese literature, the methods and relevant details of realizing the value of excellent Confucian thought in Chinese modernist culture are as follows.

(1) Consciously accepting the influence of excellent Confucian culture and improving personal moral cultivation The corresponding details are mainly reflected in the need to improve the ability to discriminate, cope with the impact of cultural diversity, practice excellent culture, achieve the unity of knowledge and action, internalize the value connotation of culture in the heart, to externalize the value connotation of excellent Confucian culture in action, and to advocate the practice of Confucian cultural thought in study, life and work. I would like to combine it with contemporary Chinese culture.

2) Emphasis on school education, allowing Confucian culture to enter schools Its concrete measures are mainly reflected in entering primary school campuses to play an enlightening role, entering secondary school campuses to play an inculcating role, and entering university campuses to play a guiding role.

3) Use social power to create an educational atmosphere Adhere to academic taste, classics to the masses and popularize Confucian culture. Enterprises should incorporate excellent Confucian culture and promote a correct view of interests. Enterprises should combine Confucian culture with contemporary cultural products and integrate relevant Confucian culture into the institutional and spiritual culture of the enterprise. In terms of cultural popularization, the power of parks and grassroots mass organizations can be used to popularize Confucian culture.

Contemporary Insights from Confucian Culture

(1) Incorporate the essence of Confucian culture into the ideological and political education of university students

Confucian culture has important inspirations for the ideological and political education of contemporary university students. The Confucian culture emphasizes the need to establish ambitious aspirations. Confucius said: "The three armies can be more handsome, but a man cannot take away his will. During university studies, students should set up ambitious ideals, study diligently, strive to build a solid foundation of theoretical knowledge, enrich their skills in practical exercises, improve their skills to serve the people and strive for the communist cause for the rest of their lives. At the same time, students should pay attention to cultivating the quality of being helpful to others, and be good at helping their classmates to answer questions and solve problems in their studies. The excellent Confucianism, such as "loving people with benevolence" and "restoring rituals to oneself", should be introduced into the ideological and political education of students, and we should practice them in our study life. To become a good youth of the new era. Finally, contemporary students should also adhere to the principle of honesty, as no one can be established without trust. There are many other essences in Confucian culture, which should be incorporated into the ideological and political education of students.

(2) Promote the integration of excellent Confucian culture into the contemporary economic development of China

Confucian culture advocates faith, and in contemporary society, faith means being honest and trustworthy and not deceiving others. Only in this way can we create a good business and consumer environment and implement the concept of honesty in all aspects of production, management, exchange and consumption, so as to speed up the healthy flow of economic activities and create more wealth for the people. In reality, all major merchandising platforms must operate in good faith, abide by their principles, put consumers first and provide them with the best services to achieve steady and rapid economic growth. In reality, all major merchandising platforms should operate with integrity, abide by their principles, put consumers first and provide them with the best services, achieve steady and rapid economic growth and realize common prosperity for all people at an early date. As for Confucianism, we should remove the essence of the culture, remove the falsehoods and preserve the truth, effectively promote the integration of good Confucian culture into the construction of the contemporary Chinese economy, and contribute to the achievement of high-quality and sustainable development of the Chinese economy.

(3) Promote the core values of socialism and disseminate the essence of Confucian culture

The core values of socialism in the new era are "wealth and strength, democracy, civilization, harmony, freedom, equality, justice, rule of law, patriotism, respect for work, honesty and friendliness". There are many similarities with the Confucian culture, for example, there are also similarities between "the people are precious" and "democracy", as Mencius also emphasized: "The people are precious, the community is second, and the ruler is light. There is a degree of similarity, albeit a difference in degree, with today's emphasis on full respect for the subjectivity of the people and the promotion of their democracy. "Ritual" is consistent with civilization in that it emphasizes the need for people to live in peace and be courteous in dealing with others and building a harmonious socialist society. It requires people to treat each other with honesty and integrity in daily life and to exercise self-discipline. "Justice" and "rule of law" are a transcendence of "benevolence" and "righteousness", and it can be seen that the core values of socialism are similar to the essence of Confucianism. In promoting the core values of socialism, we should combine them with the essence of Confucian culture, promote advanced socialist culture and advance the construction of socialist modernization in China.

(4) Strengthen education on gratitude and build a harmonious socialist society

Education on gratitude is very important for the development of society. Thanksgiving education mainly includes: "filial respect for parents, respect for teachers, love for others, love for the motherland, and gratitude for nature." Respect for teachers means respecting teachers in academic life, humbly accepting their advice and striving to improve oneself to become even better. Loving others means having a loving heart and treating those around you with kindness. We should also love our country, which is a great land in which we are growing up healthy and strong, and cherish it and be grateful to it. Learn to be grateful to nature, live in harmony with nature, respect the laws of nature, act in accordance with objective laws, and strive to build a harmonious socialist society. The ideas of filial piety and fraternal brotherhood emphasized in Confucian culture are similar to gratitude education. In contemporary society, only when a person learns to be grateful can he or she go farther and higher. If we all learn to be grateful, then society will certainly become more harmonious.

(5) Advance the ecological conservation and build a beautiful China

The ancient sages of China emphasized the "unity of heaven and man", which means that the relationship between man and nature should be well coordinated to achieve a harmonious co-existence between man and nature. In Confucianism, man and nature as a whole must be in a relatively stable state, and both "too much" and "not enough" will result in an ecological imbalance, thus disrupting both. In Confucianism, man and nature as a whole must be in a relatively stable state. Without ecological balance, the evolution of life and mankind would be unsupported. If ecology flourishes, civilization will flourish; if ecology fails, civilization will fail. To build an ecological civilization, we must take the carrying capacity of the resources and environment as the basis, the laws of nature as the guideline, sustainable development and harmony between man and nature as the goal, and firmly follow the path of civilized development with development in production, prosperity in life and good ecology, so as to build a beautiful China.

Conclusions

Generally speaking, Confucian cultural values have existed for thousands of years and have been the source of their longevity in the construction of family and state culture into a dualistic structure of family and state, shaping the Chinese people's traditional virtues of hard work, and respect for the elderly and love for the young. This is constructive and the path to the construction of core socialist values. The Chinese people's traditional virtues of hard work, respect for the old and love for the young have been shaped by the dual structure of the family and the state. Therefore, a sound institutional mechanism for the construction of core socialist values should be established to ensure that the core socialist values are The Chinese people's traditional virtues of hard work, respect for the elderly and love for children has inspired the construction of socialist core values. The core values of socialism should play a leading role in the construction of culture in China.

The transmission of traditional Confucian culture needs to be passed on and innovated from generation to generation. And a nation without innovation and change can hardly stand in the forest of the world's nations. Confucianism is not only the source of strength of contemporary Chinese culture, but also the core of the traditional culture and national spirit of the Chinese nation, and an important basis for our next generation to establish themselves in the world and build socialism. The development of individuals and nations needs to be rooted in the soil of culture and draw on its nourishment.

Questions

1. What are the central ideas of Confucian culture?

2. When was Confucianism created?

3. Where did the earliest scholars who studied the integration of Confucian culture and contemporary modern culture come from?

Answers

1. Forgiveness, loyalty, filial piety, fraternal respect, courage, benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom and faithfulness.

2. Japan.

3. The Spring and Autumn Period.

References

• [1]张奇.儒家文化的传承及其当代启示[J].边疆经济与文化,2021(05):110-112.
• [2]徐茜妍.试论传统儒家文化的现代价值[J].汉字文化,2021(11):194-195.DOI:10.14014/j.cnki.cn11-2597/g2.2021.11.086.
• [3]勾宇威.论新时代育人理念对优秀儒家文化的借鉴与发展[J].高校马克思主义理论教育研究,2021(04):122-128.
• [4]董雅华.论儒家文化的价值重估与传承[J].天津师范大学学报(社会科学版),2016(02):27-32.
• [5]邓雨巍,陈立勇.从传统到当代:儒家文化与铁人精神的时代关联[J].长江丛刊,2020(32):1+10.
• [6]张珊.儒家文化价值观的构建路径及其当代启示[J].现代交际,2020(19):218-220.
• [7]邹广胜.儒家文化的当代反思[J].中央社会主义学院学报,2019(02):81-88.

英语口译 向望 Xiang Wang 202170081628

Fandom Culture in China Xiang Wang

Introduction

A fandom is a subculture composed of fans characterized by a feeling of empathy and camaraderie with others who share a common interest. It can grow around any area of human interest or activity. Fandom culture, or the so-called "fanquan" culture, refers to online youth communities that coalesce around shared obsessions with celebrity idols. Fanquan, literally meaning "fan circles," are highly organized groups of passionate, loyal fans who voluntarily use their time, money and expertise to make their idols, usually budding pop singers or actors, as popular and influential as possible. China has seen a meteoric rise in fandom culture in recent years.

英语口译 徐舞 Xu Wu 202170081629

The Analysis Of "Chi+O" Xu Wu

Abstract

The structure of "Chi + object" widely exists in Chinese, and studies on this kind of phenomenon emerge in an endless stream. The word "Chi" ranks 105th in the top 8000 words and 77th in the 4000 words commonly used in daily life. Therefore, it is of typical significance to choose the verb "Chi" with object as the research object. Based on the research results, this paper attempts to make a comprehensive and multi angle investigation and research on the phenomenon of "eat" with object through corpus data statistics. This paper mainly discusses the phonetic distribution, semantic types and deep semantic structure of the object after "Chi". Finally, it comes to the conclusion: from the phonetic point of view, the object is mostly monosyllabic and disyllabic; From the perspective of word meaning, food objects are the first; From the perspective of deep semantic structure, patient object is still the most typical type of object. Secondly, by summarizing the diachronic changes of "Chi" with object, we find that the types of object increase after "Chi". The reasons include the change of word meanings, cultural influence, network development and so on.

Key words

Chi; Object

Introduction

"Chi"(eating) has a crucial impact on human life. Its purpose is not only to maintain life, but also to meet people's spiritual needs, and it has become a manifestation of people's enriching life. In Chinese, there are multiple "Chi" structures to describe people's experiences, expressing their inner feelings and thoughts, the semantic and syntactic features of which can always be predicted from the constituent terms. This phenomenon has attracted many scholars to conduct a lot of research on the structure of "Chi" from different perspectives. In modern Chinese, "Chi", as a transitive verb, appears frequently, and it is usually followed by objects, which is also very complicated. Therefore, it has certain scientific value to choose this topic for research.

Literature Review

Through extensive reading and material analysis, the following research directions can be summarized.

1.Analysis from the Perspective of Verb-Object Semantic Relationship Classification

Different scholars hold different views on the semantic relationship of verb-object collocation. Xu Wenhong (2001) believes that verbs, nouns and adjectives usually appear after "Chi". At the same time, he divided the "O" in the "Chi+O" structure into abstract and concrete nouns, and then divided concrete nouns into categories such as place, object, method, and tool. Guo Jimao (1998) believes that in order to carry out the semantic analysis of the verb-object relationship, we should firstly distinguish between the definite object and the non-specified object. Fan Xiao (2006) believes that typical objects and atypical objects should be distinguished. Typical objects often appear in verb-object phrases, such as subject objects and result objects. The relationship between these verb-object phrases is the relationship between the verb and the following object. relationship, such as "Chi" and "He"(drink), while atypical objects such as manner objects and instrumental objects are not common.

2.Analysis from the perspective of cultural linguistics

Wen Suolin (1994) believes that many things and concepts in Chinese are used with "Chi", which reflects the characteristics of traditional Chinese culture and psychology. Xie Xiaoming and Xiong Jinxing (2006) studied the cultural characteristics of common verbs such as "Chi" and "He" with objects based on the differences of national civilization, local products, and characteristics of folk culture.

3. Analysis from the perspective of English and Chinese

Wang Yingxue (2009) expounded the metaphors related to the action of "Chi" in Chinese and English, and compared the similarities and differences between "Chi" and "He" in English and Chinese. Hao Ran (2010) compared the differences of eating and drinking verbs at the cultural level, listed 21 eating and drinking verbs and their corresponding English vocabulary, and summed up the cultural similarities and differences of Chinese and English eating and drinking verbs. Ding Xiaoyu (2015) analyzed the syntactic structure and characteristics of "Chi" in English and Chinese in terms of syntactic generation, and came to the conclusion that English expressions adopt a grammatical passive structure.

4. From the perspective of teaching Chinese as a foreign language

Liu Hongyun (2013) proposed corresponding teaching strategies by analyzing the structure of "Chi+ O". However, since the article focuses on analyzing "Chi + O" from a cultural point of view, and regards this collocation as an idiom for teaching, the teaching plan proposed on this basis is debatable. Li Liye (2017) explained the reasons for choosing "Chi" and "He" verbs as the research objects, and also classified the verbs while conducting etymological analysis respectively.

5. From the perspective of metaphor and metonymy

Xie Xiaoming (2002) took "Chi" and "He" as a case study from the perspectives of dialect, Putonghua and classical Chinese. It mainly discusses the influence of metaphor and metonymy on the change of verb meaning from the perspective of cognition. Jia Yanzi and Wu Fuxiang (2017) conducted lexicalization and categorization research on the concepts of "Chi" and "He" in Chinese, and explained the motivation from the perspective of metaphor and metonymy. The phenomenon of "Chi" and "He" followed by unconventional objects is regarded as the semantic extension of "Chi" and "He".

Research Significance and Corpus Sources

"Chi" is the most basic way of human behavior, and it is a high frequency verb in modern Chinese. Therefore, it is typical to choose the situation of "Chi + O" as the research object. Based on the research results, this paper hopes to pave the way for the overall research by examining the situation of "Chi + O", and bring some new inspirations to the research in this direction. At the same time, in the process of research, the necessary research and discussion are carried out on the theoretical issues involved, and efforts are made to obtain theoretical gains. The final conclusions can make the research of modern Chinese characters develop in a deeper and updated direction. This paper uses the Media Language Corpus of Communication University of China. Through the statistics of the Media Language Corpus of the Communication University of China, 25,429 corpora were obtained, and 13,096 corpora that met the requirements were obtained after screening.

The syllable distribution of "Chi" with object in modern Chinese

1.Syllables Voice is ubiquitous, and people are inseparable from voice in the process of daily oral communication. Voice is the material shell of language symbols, a product formed by the development of human society, and a convention. Speech includes several units of different sizes such as phonemes, syllables, etc. Among them, the unit of speech that is most easily perceived by the human ear is the syllable. Syllable is the most natural structural unit in speech, to be precise, syllable is the smallest unit that can be freely combined segment structure unit [1]. In Chinese, a syllable often corresponds to a Chinese character. According to the number of syllables, words can be divided into single-syllable words, two-syllable words, three-syllable words and so on. The following will count and analyze the syllable distribution of the object after "Chi" according to the corpus data.

2.Statistics Enter the word "Chi" in the corpus and we will find 25429 records. Among them, there are 13,096 records with the object of "Chi". After summarizing, it is found that the syllables with the object after "Chi" are more diverse, such as the one-syllable object "difficulty", "suffering", "melon", etc.; "breakfast", etc.; objects with three syllables such as "ice cream", etc.; and even objects with four or more syllables, as shown in the following table:

Syllable Type Total Percentage Monosyllable 7128 54.43% Two-syllable 4736 36.16% Three-syllable 1006 7.68% Four-syllable 144 1.24% Four or more syllables 58 0.49%<math>Insert formula here</math>

3.Conclusion There are various types of objects after "Chi", including monosyllabic, two-syllable, three-syllable, four-syllable and even five-syllable and so on. Among them, the frequency with single syllable is the highest, accounting for more than 54% of the total. Specifically, The more commonly used collocations include "Chi Ku"(endure hardship), "Chi Gua"(eat melon) etc., most of which are abstract nouns that are subject objects and express results. The two-syllable object ranks second, accounting for 36% of the total. The more commonly used collocations include "Chi Da Can"(eat a substantial meal), "Chi Huo Guo"(eat a hot pot), "Chi Di Bao"(receive a subsistence allowance), etc. , which covers more than monosyllabic objects, and involves the phenomenon of using tools as objects. The proportion of objects with three syllables and above is relatively low, and the total is less than 10% of the total. Most of these objects are proper nouns or common sayings, with three syllables such as "Chi Banlangen"(take a medicine), "Chi Qiaokeli"(eat chocolate). In addition, there are objects with four syllables and above, such as "Chi Da Yu Da Rou"(eat a substantial meat); five syllables such as "Chi Fan Shi Zhi Fang Suan"(eat trans fatty acids) and so on. According to this rule, the syllables of the object after "Chi" can be expanded infinitely according to its name, such as "Chi Qiaokeli Bingjilin"(eat chocolate ice cream) with a six-syllable object.

The word meaning distribution of "Chi" with object in modern Chinese

1.Word meaning

"Word meaning" can be divided into two categories, one is conceptual meaning, the other is color meaning, which is divided from the perspective of content. Conceptual meaning reflects the content of objective things, which is objective and cannot be changed according to people's subjective guesses; on the contrary, color meaning is more subjective, such as emotional meaning [2]. From a conceptual point of view, word sense types include food, place, tool, and so on. In the following, from the perspective of conceptual meaning, statistics and analysis of the object after "Chi" will be carried out.

2.Statistics

According to the corpus data statistics, the word sense types of the object after "Chi" are mainly concentrated into five categories, namely tools, food, places, abstract nouns and common sayings. Here is a special description of the category of abstract nouns, which mainly includes four types: one is typical abstract nouns such as "power" and "bitter"; the second is adjective words such as "fragrance" and "spicy"; the third is Words with symbolic meanings such as "soft rice", "free rice"; fourth, some phenomena and activities, such as "subsistence allowances" and so on. The above is the author's classification criteria, and the specific distribution is shown in the following table:

Word Meaning type Total Percentage Tool 440 3.37% Food 10736 81.99% Place 24 0.19% Abstract noun 1680 12.84% Colloquialism 210 1.61%<math>Insert formula here</math>

3.Conclusion

There are many types of word meanings with objects after "Chi", especially with the development of the times, the scope of which has been expanded. By summarizing and summarizing, according to the different meanings of words, its objects can be divided into the above categories. According to the chart, it can be seen that the object of food is the most frequently used, accounting for more than 80% of the total. The second is the use of abstract nouns, accounting for more than 12% of the total. Specifically, it includes four types: one is typical abstract nouns as objects, such as "difficulty", "hardship", etc.; the other is some adjective objects, including"eat spicy"; The third is some symbolic words, such as "Chi Ruan Fan"(live relying on one’s wife); the fourth is some social activities or phenomena as objects, including "Chi Di Bao"(live by receiving a subsistence allowance), "Chi Fang Zu"(make life by rent). The third is the object of tools, which accounts for only 3.37%, including "Chi Zhuo"(people eat around a table). From here we The evolution of language can already be seen. The least proportion of the total is the location noun, which is less than 1%, but it has obvious characteristics of the times, such as "Chi Can Guan"(eat at restaurant) and so on. There is also a category of "Chi" with an object, which has cultural characteristics and is different from the previous categories, so it is classified as a common saying, such as "Chi Ding Xin Wan"(feel relieved), etc. The frequency of use is not high in comparison, only accounting for the total number of 1.61 percent.

The semantic structure of "Chi" with object in modern Chinese

1.Semantic structure

According to Xing Fuyi, the meaning of language is semantics. People will have a certain understanding of external objective things, and semantics is the result of expressing this understanding formed in the mind in the form of language. From this, we can deduce that the semantic structure refers to the semantic relationship between the language units hidden in the structure [3]. Starting from the semantic relationship of verb-object, objects can be divided into receiver objects, result objects, source objects, instrumental objects, source objects, location objects and so on. The following will stand in this perspective, classify and summarize the objects after "Chi".

2.Statistics

As mentioned above, from the perspective of deep semantic structure, the objects after “Chi” in the corpus can be divided into many types, such as subject objects, location objects, result objects, source objects, reason objects, and tool objects. Among them, there are four major categories of objects in terms of statistics, including objects of reception, objects of location, objects of results and objects of tools. The specific distribution of these four categories of objects is shown in the following table:

Object type Total Percentage Recipient object 10792 82.41% Object of place 212 1.62% Result object 1472 11.24% Instrumental object 836 4.73%<math>Insert formula here</math>

(3)Conclusion

According to the statistical data, it can be found that the frequency of use of the subject object after "Chi" is the highest, accounting for more than 80% of the total. The classification situation is consistent. The second is the result object, that is, some words that express the result, and some also have the part of speech of adjectives, such as "Chi Jin"(be surprised or shocked), "Chi Ku"(suffer) and so on. The proportion of place object and tool object is relatively low, at 1.62% and 4.73% respectively. Some typical collocations include "Chi Shi Tang"(eating in the cafeteria). To sum up, from the perspective of the phonetic distribution of objects after "Chi", monosyllabic words are the most frequently used, followed by two-syllable objects, and objects with three or more syllables are relatively low; From the perspective of lexical type, food objects are the most frequently used, followed by abstract nouns, tool objects are the third, and place nouns are the least frequently used. From the deep semantic structure analysis, the use frequency of the subject object after "Chi" is the highest, the most typical of which is the food object, followed by the result object, and the proportion of the location object and the tool object is relatively low.

Reasons

Among the diachronic changes of "Chi" with objects, one of the most notable features is that the number of object types has increased, from the original subject object to other types such as tool object, location object and so on. The reasons include cultural influence, network development and changes in word meaning. From the point of view of the development of word meaning, under the circumstance of the dual effects of internal and external factors, the expansion of word meaning is a necessary stage of language development; from the point of view of cultural influence, the Han people attach great importance to the problem of eating, so they prefer to use "Chi" various expressions to express inner feelings and evaluation of objective things, which also promotes the diversified development of the "Chi + O" structure; from the perspective of network development, the development of online buzzwords has also penetrated into the “Chi+O", thus promoting the evolution of "Chi +O".

Conclusion

The culture of the Han nationality is rich and colorful, and "Chi + O" is one of the language structures widely used in society. On the basis of the existing research results, through the statistical corpus data, this paper makes an all-round and multi-angle sorting and analysis of the phenomenon of "Chi" with an object.

First of all, from the perspective of the phonetic distribution of the objects after "Chi", monosyllabic words are used most frequently, accounting for more than 54%; disyllabic objects are the second, accounting for 3%. Sixteenth, it covers more than monosyllabic objects, and involves the phenomenon of using tools as objects. The proportion of objects with three syllables and above is relatively low, and the total is less than 10% of the total. Most of these objects are proper nouns or common sayings, and according to this rule, the syllable of the object after "Chi" can be expanded infinitely according to its name.

Secondly, from the perspective of the lexical type of the object after "Chi", the object of food is the most frequently used, followed by the use of abstract nouns. The third is the object of tools, and the least is the noun of place. We can see from these two categories but have obvious characteristics of the times, such as "Chi Shi Tang"( eat at canteen) . There is also a category of "Chi" with an object, which has cultural characteristics and is different from the previous categories, so it is classified as a common saying, and the frequency of use is not high in comparison, accounting for only 1.61%. It can be seen that the word meaning of the object after "Chi" is diverse, and it has exceeded the type of object that the original meaning of "Chi" can bring, reflecting the flexibility of language.

Finally, from the deep semantic structure analysis, the use frequency of the subject object after “Chi” is the highest, and the most typical one is the food object. The second is the result object, the proportion of place object and tool object is relatively low. By summarizing the above conclusions, and comparing the characteristics of objects with objects after "Chi" in different periods, we have drawn a significant conclusion that the number of types of objects after "Chi" has increased. The analysis shows that the reasons include cultural influence, network development and word meaning changes.

From the point of view of the development of word meaning, under the circumstance of the dual effects of internal and external factors, the expansion of word meaning is a necessary stage of language development; from the point of view of cultural influence, the Han people attach great importance to the problem of eating, so they prefer to use "Chi" It also promotes the diversified development of the "Chi + O" structure; from the perspective of network development, the development of network buzzwords has also penetrated into the "Chi + O" structure, thus promoting the evolution of "Chi +O".

References

[1]Shi Feng石锋, Liu Zhangcai刘掌才.汉语作为第二语言的语音教学问题[Problems in Phonetics Teaching of Chinese as a Second Language][J].天津师范大学学报(社会科学版),2021(02):1-9.

[2]Wang Xinqing王新清.从文化和认知视角看汉语“吃”的隐喻[The Chinese metaphor of "eat" from the perspective of culture and cognition][J].湖南广播电视大学学报，2014(02):22-25.

[3]Cao Xianghua曹向华.论汉语动宾类惯用语语义认知机制与类型[On the Semantic Cognitive Mechanism and Types of Chinese Verb-Object Idioms][J].河北科技大学学报(社会科学版),2020,(01):77-83.

Terms ans Expressions

Chi+O 吃+宾语 phonetic distribution 音节分布 semantic types 词语义类型 deep semantic structure 深层语义结构 recipient object 受事宾语   metaphor 隐喻

metonymy 转喻 Media Language Corpus of Communication University of China中国传媒大学媒体语言语料库 conceptual meaning 概念义 color meaning 色彩义

Questions

Where does the word "Chi" rank in the top 8000 words that are used most frequently?

How many types can word meaning be divided into and what are they?

What’s the main reasons why the number of object types after “Chi” increased?

Answers

It ranks 77th.

Two types. They are conceptual meaning and color meaning.

They are cultural influence, network development and changes in word meaning.