Difference between revisions of "20220630 Culture 10"
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==英语笔译 周皓熙 Zhou Haoxi 202170081612== | ==英语笔译 周皓熙 Zhou Haoxi 202170081612== | ||
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| + | <center>'''Rhetorics in China'''</center> | ||
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| + | <center>'''Zhou Haoxi'''</center> | ||
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| + | ===Abstract=== | ||
| + | Rhetorics is widely used in every language, aiming to get the best possible expression. The research on Rhetorics is wide worldwide but to go down to the Rhetorics in China, we can name too many. Prior to the early twentieth century, people studied mainly various social sciences, which can be basically grouped into two main categories: The handling of human relationships; Practical problem solving. Rhetoric belongs to the handling of human relationships, which is an important part of general education, a study that determines the ability to communicate efficiently, and a knowledge that is common to the majority of famous historical figures. The text is mainly on introducing the Rhetorics in China in specific ways. | ||
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| + | ===Keywords:=== | ||
| + | Rhetorics China Language Communication | ||
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| + | '''1. What is Xiuci (Rhetoric)''' | ||
| + | Rhetoric is a discipline of linguistics. | ||
| + | "Xiu" originally meant to modify and "Ci" meant words used in arguments, and later "Xiuci" was extended to all words. | ||
| + | Therefore, the original meaning of rhetoric (Xiuci) is to modify speech. | ||
| + | It is also a linguistic activity in the process of using language, using a variety of means to receive the best possible expression. | ||
| + | In fact, since the emergence of language, human beings have had the need for rhetoric. | ||
| + | For example, it is a way to decorate one's writing and language, to attract the attention of others, to deepen their impressions and to express emotions. | ||
| + | Rhetoric, on the other hand, is the art of increasing one's persuasiveness and influence through effective speech and writing. | ||
| + | Prior to the early twentieth century, people studied mainly various social sciences, which can be basically grouped into two main categories: | ||
| + | The handling of human relationships. | ||
| + | Practical problem solving. | ||
| + | Rhetoric belongs to the handling of human relationships, which is an important part of general education, a study that determines the ability to communicate efficiently, and a knowledge that is common to the majority of famous historical figures. | ||
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| + | ===2. What is Rhetorics=== | ||
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| + | Rhetorics is the study of rhetoric, which is an artistic technique to enhance the effect of words or sentences | ||
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| + | '''2.1 The traditional view of rhetoric: rhetoric is the modification of words and the beautification of language.''' | ||
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| + | The so-called "rhetoric", according to its literal meaning, means "modify words". For thousands of years before the establishment of modern Chinese rhetoric, "rhetoric" has always expressed such a meaning, and the study of rhetoric is the study of the means and techniques of decorating and beautifying literature. | ||
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| + | '''2.2 Modern view of rhetoric: rhetoric is the adjustment of rhetoric or the choice of synonymous forms.''' | ||
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| + | The publication of Fa Fan 《修辞学发凡》marked the establishment of the modern view of rhetoric in China, which added scientific connotations to rhetoric on the basis of inheriting the traditional view of rhetoric. Mr. Chen Wangdao(陈望道) points out that "rhetoric is originally a means of conveying meaning and sentiment, mainly for the purpose of meaning and sentiment... It is merely an effort to adjust the language and rhetoric to make it appropriate for conveying meaning and sentiment". Here are two points worth noting: one is that rhetoric is the adjustment of "language", while "language" is the opposite of "rhetoric", and emphasize "rhetoric" was to make it appropriate to convey the meaning and sentiment, which means that rhetoric pursues an appropriate language expression that is in line with the meaning of the situation, rather than the pursuit of flamboyance, which corrects the traditional view that rhetoric. This corrects the traditional one-sided idea that rhetoric is the pursuit of magnificent algae. On the basis of this definition, Chen put forward the concept of positive rhetoric, which corresponds to the traditional rhetorical style of rhetoric, and negative rhetoric, which corresponds to the plain rhetorical style of seeking "quality" as opposed to rhetoric. | ||
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| + | ===3. Introduction to the development of rhetoric=== | ||
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| + | '''3.1 Development of Rhetoric in China''' | ||
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| + | From ancient times to modern times, the study of Chinese rhetoric has ignored the rhetorical phenomena in oral language and popular literature, and the object of study has been the written poems, words, chapters, which was the so-called "elegant words" in the historical canon. The two most influential works are: Liuxie's "Wenxin Diao Long" (刘勰的《文心雕龙》), which was written in the early 6th century AD, at the end of the Qi Dynasty and the beginning of the Liang Dynasty(南朝齐末梁初), and consists of 10 volumes with 50 articles. The 5 essays in volume 1 are a general discussion of the origin and basic principles of rhetoric and chapters, and play on the basic ideas of "The Quality of the Text and the Phase of the Capital"(《质文相资》). The 20 articles in volumes 2~5 list 20 literary genres, including poetry, fu and other literary genres, as well as historical biographies, treatises, and even practical genres such as imperial edicts, memorial to the throne, etc. Each genre not only describes its origin, but also evaluates the works of its predecessors. The 15 books in volumes 6 to 8 deal with style and technique, including, as we now call it, diction. The following two volumes contain 10 articles on the identification of diction, including a chapter on the relationship between diction and society in the "Preface to the Times"(《时序》). This is a masterpiece that carries on from the past to the future. It is the summary of the study of rhetoric and chapter since the pre-Qin dynasty, and the first to study the study of rhetoric and chapter for more than 1000 years afterwards. | ||
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| + | 3.1.1 Ancient China | ||
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| + | Chen Yi's Wen Ze (陈骙的《文则》) was written in the sixth year of Qian Dao in the Southern Song Dynasty (1170). It subdivides metaphors into 10 categories: direct metaphors, metaphors, analogies, interrogative metaphors, pairs of metaphors, wide metaphors, simple metaphors, detailed metaphors, quoted metaphors, and virtual metaphors(直喻、隐喻、类喻、诘喻、对喻、博喻、简喻、详喻、引喻、虛喻), which is the most detailed of ancient rhetorical works. | ||
| + | It does not only talk about what should be, but also what should not be, or what should be in what situation. It also talks about the rhetorical effect of words that are used in the rhetorical sense. These are important additions to the various works on rhetoric sinnce the "Wenxin Diao Long", and they have influenced later generations to modern times. It is believed that the Wenzhi is the first monograph on rhetoric in history that is worthy of the name. | ||
| + | Beginning with Ouyang Xiu's "Liuyi Poetic Discourse"(欧阳修的《六一诗话》) in the Northern Song Dynasty, a large number of works on poetry, words, and literary discourse and works on essay composition appeared one after another through the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties. | ||
| + | 3.1.2 Modern times and before the founding of New China | ||
| + | In the early 20th century, around the time of the May Fourth Movement, there was a major development and breakthrough in the study of Chinese rhetoric. It was mainly manifested in two aspects. First, it introduced or referred to the rhetoric of Europe and Japan, and began to establish a systematic rhetoric of Chinese. The second is the gradual introduction of modern Chinese rhetoric, which is the object of study of modern vernacular languages. From the 1920s to the 1930s, a number of monographs on rhetoric appeared one after another. The following three kinds can be cited as representatives: | ||
| + | Tang Yue's "Rhetorical Patterns" (1923)(唐钺《修辞格》). It mainly refers to the traditional European rhetoric and is devoted to rhetorical patterns (see Rhetorical Patterns). | ||
| + | Chen Wangdao's " Fa Fan" (1932) (陈望道《修辞学发凡》). This book refers more to Japanese rhetoric, but has its own originality. It inherited and carried forward the tradition of referring to flaws and mistakes in Wenze and Wang Ruoxu's Hu Nan Ru Lao Ji （王若虚《滹南遗老集》）of the Yuan Dynasty, and distinguished rhetoric into positive and negative rhetoric; it inherited the tradition of ancient writings on rhetorical techniques such as metaphor, exaggeration, and even-likeness, and referred to the rhetorical grammar of the East and West, and classified them into 38 grammars; these have had great influence on the study of Chinese rhetoric since then (see Chen Wangdao). | ||
| + | Wang Zhen's "Rhetoric of the Chinese Language" (1935) (汪震《国语修辞学》) is entirely in the vernacular. In the first chapter it is stated that "Mandarin rhetoric is limited to the standard Chinese language, which is neither a dialect of a certain place, nor a Classicial chinese language that can be used for reading only... We are living human, and we speak living human's words. If we could use living human words vividly without mistakes and misunderstandings, ' Rhetoric of the Chinese Language' could be counted as useful" This point was in tune with the historical situation of the Mandarin movement at that time. | ||
| + | 3.1.3 After the Establishment of New China | ||
| + | After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, there were some new developments in the study of rhetoric. | ||
| + | Those parts of the Wenzhi and the Hu Nan Ru Lao Ji that correct errors and refer to fallacies, as well as those parts of Rhetoric Fa Fan that are summarized as negative rhetoric, are intertwined with grammar in many places. The interrelationship between grammar, rhetoric, and even logic is closer in a non-formal language like Chinese than in Western languages. This fact was gradually perceived by the scholars of linguistics, which led to the conception and attempt to combine them for the purpose of application. | ||
| + | In 1951, Lu Shuxiang and Zhu Dexi published their "Address on Grammar and Rhetoric"(吕叔湘、朱德熙《语法修辞讲话》). The so-called rhetoric here is more focused on the negative rhetoric described in "Rhetoric Fa Fan", which is told in conjunction with grammar. | ||
| + | In the preface of the monography, it is clearly stated that the main task of the book is to "correct the errors and the vulgarities" (see Address on Grammar and Rhetoric). | ||
| + | In the 1950s, there were more references to Soviet academic developments. At that time, the Soviet rhetoric community had a distinction between rhetoric of language and rhetoric of art. In view of the fact that ancient Chinese rhetoric had a tradition of speaking about syntax and word syntax, and the close relationship between grammar and rhetoric in Chinese, some people also made an attempt to refer to the so-called linguistic rhetoric, and to incorporate certain elements of word usage and sentence formation into rhetoric in terms of positive expressive effects. | ||
| + | In the 1960s, the linguistic community initiated a study of rhetoric in the Chinese Language(《中国语文》). In the 1960s, a discussion on rhetorical research was initiated in the Chinese Language. Some new ideas, attempts and visions emerged. | ||
| + | In 1979, Guo Shaoyu's New Inquiry into Chinese Grammar and Rhetoric(郭绍虞《汉语语法修辞新探》) was published. This was another work that attempted to integrate grammar and rhetoric. | ||
| + | In the 1980s, the study of Chinese rhetoric was revitalized. Many scholars of the younger generation were exploring new ideas from different perspectives. Some of them are exploring Chinese rhetorical techniques, especially rhetorical patterns, more extensively and deeply; some of them are focusing on the comprehensive study of modern Chinese, including the study of modern Chinese rhetoric and rhetorical monographs; some of them are focusing on the study of rhetoric in the works of modern and contemporary writers; some of them are trying to explore practical rhetoric, or essayology, which is closely related to writing training; some of them are focusing on the different communicative functions of different genres. Some of them focus on the so-called functional rhetoric, which explores the different communicative functions of different genres; some focus on the so-called discourse linguistics, which is at the edge of grammar and rhetoric, with the use of coherent language as the object of study, and so on. It will take time to mature. However, the situation already makes people foresee that one or several new systems of Chinese rhetoric are being nurtured and some new fields are being opened up. | ||
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| + | '''3.2 Development of Rhetoric in the West''' | ||
| + | In the West, the development of rhetoric has roughly gone through four periods: (1) the period of flourishing, from the fifth century B.C. to the second century A.D.; (2) the period of stagnation, from the gradual decline of the Roman Empire in the second century to the eve of the Renaissance; (3) the period of ups and downs, from the sixteenth century to the early nineteenth century; and (4) the period of innovation, from the early twentieth century to the present. | ||
| + | 3.2.1 The period of prosperity | ||
| + | From the fifth century B.C. to the second century A.D., there was a period of rhetorical prosperity in ancient Greece and Rome. In this period, rhetoric was integrated with oratory and separated from dialectic. It was the art of persuasion, the study of the means of persuasion and the way of debate, and focused on three types of oratory: political deliberation, courtroom debate, and ceremonial ornamentation, including the five major components of argument, arrangement, style, recitation, and delivery. There were famous courtroom orators, eloquent orators and teachers of rhetorical persuasion, such as Croax, Gorigas and Cicero, while Aristotle's Rhetoric and the Roman writer Quintilian's Principles of Oratory are the classics of this discipline and the source and mainstream of Western rhetoric. | ||
| + | The systematic study of the art of persuasion was born in Sicily as a result of the courtroom debates that emerged from the political revolution that overthrew the oligarchy and established democracy. Colas and Tisias were the first renowned teachers of rhetoric who taught young people the art of persuasion, and although their teaching was not systematic, it nevertheless included a variety of techniques and training and arrangements useful for oratory. The great impact of eloquent rhetoric on the public is well demonstrated. Later, Goghias further developed the rhetorical ornamental features of rhetoric and developed a style of prose filled with beautiful verse, metaphors, stunning vocabulary, and short sentences with a fine balance of long sentences. | ||
| + | As E. M. Cope points out in his book The Rhetoric of Aristotle, sophistry rather than truth, and the splendor of vocabulary rather than the rationality of argument were the goals of the early teachers of rhetoric. In contrast, Socrates, the great eloquent speaker of truth, was not a mere pile of rhetoric, but rather a masterful use of question and answer techniques. The fundamental difference between Socrates and the teachers of rhetoric, however, is that they had very different goals in mind. Whereas the aim of the rhetorical teachers was to teach young people how to gain power through eloquence, Socrates taught them the way to truth. Rhetoric, Gogicus declared, is the art of persuasion in the courtroom and in the council. For Socrates, on the other hand, rhetoric was not a real art, but merely sophistry. | ||
| + | In his monograph Rhetoric, Aristotle gives a clear definition of rhetoric: rhetoric is the art of discovering ways of persuasion in any subject matter, and can be applied to various methods in prose and poetry, such as debating, moral, emotional, and just methods. He divided three types of speeches: (l) the political municipal style, which is applied to parliamentary and municipal meetings, etc., (2) the courtroom debate style, which is applied to courtroom arguments, and (3) the ceremonial algory style. In the book, he also explores some rhetorical patterns, such as explicit metaphors, metaphors, and similes. And paying attention to different levels of audience, he argues that the speech is not only composed of the speaker and his topic, but also includes the audience that the speaker faces. | ||
| + | 3.2.2 The period of stagnation | ||
| + | From the gradual decline of the Roman Empire in the second century, through the long Middle Ages, to the eve of the European Renaissance, this was a period when Western rhetoric went from flourishing to stagnation and even degradation. Although rhetoric, grammar and logic were included as the "three arts" and occupied an important place in the university curriculum at this time, rhetoric had no great achievements either in theory or in practice. | ||
| + | 3.2.3 The period of ups and downs | ||
| + | The Renaissance revived classical rhetoric, and from the sixteenth century to the early nineteenth century, rhetorical monographs and textbooks were produced. Leora | ||
| + | wrote The Art or Craft of Rhetoryle, and Thomas Wilson published The Art of Rhetoric. However, they can be broadly divided into three categories, namely: the traditional school, which adheres to the classical rhetorical model; the French school of Peter Ramus, which focuses only on phrasing and stylistic style, while attributing logic to the establishment and layout; and the school of rhetoric, which is mainly interested in the naming and classification of rhetorical patterns. The whole rhetoric was too much in favor of rhetorical classification and tedious mechanical methods, and gradually fell into decline. So much so that Samcul Butler, the 17th century English satirist poet, ridiculed the rhetoricians for their entire code of rules and regulations, which was nothing more than teaching people to name the tools in their hands. | ||
| + | 3.2.4 A period of innovation | ||
| + | In the early twentieth century, the development of modern linguistics, modern Western philosophy, psychology, aesthetics, and literary criticism created the conditions for the emergence and development of modern rhetoric. But the revitalization and innovation of Western rhetoric really began in the 1930s. The French linguist Charles Bally, in his Traite de Stylisique Francaise, published as early as 1905, explored the expressive power of the various elements of the linguistic system. The English linguist Richards. (In his book The Philosophy of Rhetoric, I.A. Richards proposed that the new rhetoric he advocated is the study of "the understanding and misunderstanding of words and their remedies. "In order to delve into the various ways of expressing ideas, it is necessary not only to discuss the different effects of processing the larger units of discourse on a macro level, but also to examine the basic units of meaning and their interrelationships on a micro level. He advocated that if the key to the old rhetoric was "persuasion," the key to the new rhetoric is that both sides of the communication seek to be intellectually, emotionally, and attitudinally The key to the new rhetoric is that both sides of the communication seek to "equate" in terms of reason, emotion, and attitude, whether in terms of intention, structure, style, or wording, as a rhetorical device to produce the desired effect in the reader's audience. At the same time there is the Belgian philosopher Chiam Perelman who advocates a "new rhetorical school" based on persuasion and debate. In addition, the phenomena of style and expression have become a common subject of interest for linguists and literary critics. In Western Europe and the United States, stylistics has emerged as a linguistic theory and approach to the study of language and style. In the former Soviet Union, the study of various functional corpora, especially literary corpora, has become the main body of modern rhetoric. The use of mathematical and statistical methods, the rise of discourse chapter rhetoric, and the interdisciplinary study of rhetorical theory and rhetorical phenomena have added vitality to modern rhetoric and made it increasingly systematic and diversified. | ||
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| + | ===4. Introduction and examples of Chinese rhetoric=== | ||
| + | There are 63 major categories and 79 subcategories of rhetorical devices. It is a way to improve the effect of language expression by modifying and adjusting statements and using specific expression forms. | ||
| + | I will introduce several Chinese Rhetoric methods in the following part. | ||
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| + | '''4.1 Metaphor''' | ||
| + | 1、Definition | ||
| + | Metaphor, i.e. a rhetorical method that indicates two things of different degrees of similarity between each other, using one thing to compare another thing. | ||
| + | 2、Structure | ||
| + | A simile is generally composed of three parts, namely, the subject (the thing or situation being compared), the metaphor and the simile (the iconic word of the metaphorical relationship). | ||
| + | 3. Classification | ||
| + | According to the similarities and differences of the three parts of the metaphor structure and the implicit features, there are four types of metaphors. | ||
| + | (1) Explicit metaphors. Both the body and the metaphor appear, and the metaphorical words "like, like, if, as if, as if, as if, like, as if ......, as if ...... | ||
| + | The metaphors are connected by the words "like, as if, as if, as if". The common form is "A is like B". For example, the leaves come out of the water very high, like the skirt of a pavilion dancer. | ||
| + | (2) Allusion. The metaphor is connected with the metaphor "is, becomes, constitutes". A typical form is: "A becomes B." | ||
| + | For example, the square is a sea of snow-white wreaths, and the monuments have been piled up into snow-white hills. | ||
| + | In addition, there are some variants of allusion to be noted | ||
| + | ① Modifying allusion: The metaphorical relationship between the subject and the metaphor is realized in the form of modifying and being modified, restricting and being restricted. For example. | ||
| + | This is a sea of flowers. | ||
| + | ②Implied metaphor: The metaphorical relationship between the subject and the metaphor is expressed in the form of the same compound reference. For example: Old King, don't pour soup. | ||
| + | ③Commentary metaphor: The metaphorical relationship between the subject and the metaphor is expressed in the form of commentary, often connected by dashes. | ||
| + | The siren sounded. The lid of the red brick "can" - the iron door pushed open ...... | ||
| + | (3) metaphor. The metaphor is a direct description of the metaphor, without the presence of the body and the metaphor. The typical form of metaphor is "A for B". For example, the most detestable ones | ||
| + | The snakes and beasts have eaten up our flesh and blood. | ||
| + | (4) Metaphors. Several metaphors are used together to describe an object. For example: A huge white lilac put its flowers on the gray 8 corrugated roof, like snow, like jade, like splashing waves. | ||
| + | (5) Back metaphor:Also known as mutual metaphor, it is a form of metaphor that uses metaphor as the ontology and then uses the ontology as the metaphor to set up metaphors with each other. It has a twist and turns, which can enhance the artistic impact. | ||
| + | Example 1: The street lights were bright from afar, / as if they were shining with countless stars. / The stars in the sky are now, / as if they were lit with countless street lamps. ("The Market in the Sky") | ||
| + | Example 2: At that time, the mine made a terrible rattling sound, like thunder, no, more terrible than thunder. (The Dialogue of Coal) (This is a kind of roundabout metaphor, which proposes the metaphor "thunder", then negates the metaphor, and finally proposes the metaphor again. After affirming, negating and negating again, it strengthens the distinctness of the metaphor.) | ||
| + | Example 3: My teacher took my small hand with her big gentle hand and didn't let go of it for a long time. I knew that my teacher was expecting my answer, my vow, my progress. It was, a warm stream injected into my heart! No, it was a spring rain that sprinkled me with my head held high. (Such a flat affirmation, a steep suppression and denial, and then a sudden affirmation, back and forth, so that the lyric dripping.) | ||
| + | 4、Role | ||
| + | (1) metaphorical reasoning is simple and easy to understand, so that people can easily accept. | ||
| + | (2) The metaphor can make something badly imagined concrete, and it can be illustrated by other similar things, so that people can understand it more clearly. | ||
| + | (3) Metaphors can make the general things visualized and give people a deep impression. | ||
| + | (4) It plays the role of modifying the article. | ||
| + | (5) to make things image, vivid, highlight the characteristics, render the atmosphere, side by side. | ||
| + | 5、Composition conditions | ||
| + | The subject and the metaphor must be essentially different things, otherwise, it is not a metaphor. If a sentence is not a metaphor, you can't look at the metaphor alone. | ||
| + | The following are a few examples of sentences that are not metaphors. | ||
| + | (1) His character is like his mother - similar things for comparison | ||
| + | (2) It's dark and dreary as if it's going to rain - an expression of speculation | ||
| + | (3) Do not go to work with the burden of thought - the metaphorical meaning of the word | ||
| + | 6、Commonly used metaphors | ||
| + | like, as if, if, as if, like, seem, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, like, as the same, into, is, into | ||
| + | '''4.2 Exaggeration''' | ||
| + | 1. Definition | ||
| + | In order to achieve a certain expression effect, the method of deliberately expanding or reducing the image, characteristics, function and degree of things is called exaggeration. | ||
| + | 2. Types | ||
| + | (1) Enlargement exaggeration. It is a form of exaggeration that deliberately makes things "bigger, more, higher, deeper, stronger". For example: The difficulty of the Shu Road is more difficult than the sky. | ||
| + | (2) Narrowing exaggeration. Deliberately put the objective facts "small, small, low, shallow, weak" and other exaggerated techniques. For example: Wumeng pounding away the mud pills. | ||
| + | (3) Exaggerate ahead. The future results of a thing may appear in the future to describe the present state of this thing, or the future state of a thing to the present state before the exaggeration technique. For example, the farmers said, "When I see such green wheat fields, I can smell the fragrance of white bread." "The powdered face contains the power of spring without revealing it, and the lips of the dan are smiling before they open." (Cao Xueqin, "Dream of the Red Chamber", Qing Dynasty) | ||
| + | 3. Role | ||
| + | Distinctly express the author's emotions and attitudes towards things, highlight the essential features of things, set the mood, enhance the infectious power, and enhance the vividness of language. | ||
| + | 4. Attention to problems when using | ||
| + | (1) Exaggeration is not pompous, it must be reasonable and not detached from the basis and foundation of life. | ||
| + | (2) exaggeration and the truth must have a certain distance. Otherwise, it is not clear whether it is telling the truth or exaggerating. | ||
| + | (3) exaggeration should pay attention to the application of the occasion. Serious reports, reports, scientific and technical explanatory articles, reasoning articles and other styles of writing, should not use the rhetoric of exaggeration. | ||
| + | '''4.3 Prose''' | ||
| + | Arrange three or more sentences that are similar in structure and length, consistent in tone, and related or identical in meaning. | ||
| + | Effects: To strengthen the rhythm and atmosphere of the language, to enhance the rhythm and organization of the text, and to facilitate the expression of strong feelings (expression effect). | ||
| + | To enhance the language momentum, to highlight a certain feature of something, to express a certain emotion of the author. | ||
| + | Example sentence: Their quality is so pure and noble, their will is so tough and strong, their temperament is so simple and humble, their mind is so beautiful and broad. | ||
| + | '''4.4 Repetition''' | ||
| + | In order to highlight a certain meaning and emphasize a certain feeling, a certain word or sentence is intentionally repeated. Repetition is to repeat certain words or sentences in order to emphasize a certain meaning or highlight a certain emotion, and the focus of expression is on the repeated words or sentences. | ||
| + | Function: It is mainly used in poetry to express strong emotions by repeatedly chanting. At the same time, the rhetorical technique of repetition can also make the format of the poem neat and orderly, but also undulating, full of linguistic beauty. | ||
| + | ⒈ continuous repetition (no other words in between). | ||
| + | Example sentence: the valley echoes, he just left, he just left. | ||
| + | ⒉Repetition | ||
| + | Example sentence: as if the loss of the three provinces, the more the party state is like a country, the loss of the three eastern provinces who do not sound, the more the party state is like a country. | ||
| + | |||
| + | '''4.5 Pairs''' | ||
| + | A pair of phrases or sentences with equal number of words, the same or basically the same structural form, and symmetrical meaning, expressing two opposite or similar meanings. | ||
| + | Effects: neat and proportional, rhythmic, highly general, easy to remember, and musically beautiful. | ||
| + | Main ways. | ||
| + | 1、Pairing. The upper and lower sentences are similar, similar, complementary, and contrastive in meaning. | ||
| + | For example, the reed on the wall is heavy at the head and light at the bottom; the bamboo shoot on the mountain has a thick mouth and a hollow stomach. | ||
| + | 2、Opposition. The pairing of the upper and lower sentences that are opposite or opposed in meaning. | ||
| + | For example: . Cross-eyed cold to a thousand fingers, bending the head willingly for the children's cattle. | ||
| + | 3、String pair (running pair). The upper and lower sentences have the meaning of succession, progression, cause and effect, assumptions, conditions and other relations of the couplet form. | ||
| + | Example sentence: . I drank the water of Changsha and ate the fish of Wuchang. | ||
| + | '''4.6 Questioning''' | ||
| + | In order to attract the attention of others, deliberately ask a question first and then answer it yourself. Strong emotion. | ||
| + | Effects: To attract attention and inspire readers to think; to make the hierarchy clear and compact; to allow better description of the characters' thought activities. | ||
| + | Strengthens the tone, highlights what is going on, expresses a certain emotion of the author. | ||
| + | Example sentence: Why is the flower so red? It has its material basis in the first place. | ||
| + | '''4.7 Rhetorical question''' | ||
| + | Also called provocative question, rhetorical question, cross-examination. It expresses a definite meaning in the form of a question, a negative in the form of an affirmative rhetorical question, and a positive in the form of a negative rhetorical question. | ||
| + | Effects: To strengthen the tone, to make people think, to stimulate the reader's feelings, to deepen the reader's impression, to enhance the momentum and persuasive power of the text. | ||
| + | To strengthen the tone, highlighting what is, expressing a certain emotion of the author. | ||
| + | Examples | ||
| + | What about me, don't I have something to blame? | ||
| + | '''4.8 Borrowing''' | ||
| + | Instead of directly stating the person or thing to be expressed, borrow someone or something closely related to it. | ||
| + | Types of borrowing: feature instead of thing, concrete instead of abstract, part instead of whole, whole instead of part. | ||
| + | Effects: To highlight the essential characteristics of things, to enhance the image of language, to make the writing simple and concise, language rich in variety and humor; to draw people's imagination, so that the expression receives the effect of outstanding image, distinctive features, concrete and vivid. | ||
| + | Methods. | ||
| + | ①Part for the whole. That is, the representative part of the thing is used in place of the main thing. | ||
| + | For example, the green hills on both sides of the shore are opposite to each other, and a lone sail comes by the sun. --- "Looking at Tianmen Mountain | ||
| + | ②Replacement of the whole with characteristics. That is, to use the borrowed body (people or things) characteristics, signs to replace the name of the body things. | ||
| + | For example: If you love fine waist and pink legs, you have a dance floor. (Mao Dun, "Words of Modernization") | ||
| + | ③ Concrete instead of abstract. That is, the abstract concept is replaced by a concrete thing related to the abstract concept. | ||
| + | For example: The beacon in the South is in its tenth year. --(Three Chapters of Meiling) | ||
| + | (4) Tool instead of ontology. | ||
| + | For example, when the earth is plowed in the season of jingxing, eight out of ten families have already lit up the bottom of their hoard and cannot uncover the pot. --The Rice of Elm Money | ||
| + | ⑤ The proper name is used instead of the general term. The name of a typical person or thing is used instead of the name of the thing itself. | ||
| + | For example: If you kill one Li Gong Park, millions of others will rise up! -- "The Last Lecture" Identification of metaphor and borrowing | ||
| + | '''4.9 Antithesis''' | ||
| + | The original meaning is expressed in words or sentences that are opposite to the original meaning, to enhance the effect of expression by saying the opposite. Some of them are sarcastic and revealing, while others express close and friendly feelings. | ||
| + | For example: (The foreign students in the Qing Dynasty) also have disbanded braids, coiled flat, and remove the cap, the oil can be seen, just like a little girl's hair bun, and twist the neck a few times, really beautiful. ("Mr. Fujino") | ||
| + | '''4.10 sense''' | ||
| + | The rhetorical method of using the psychological phenomenon of mutual communication of various senses to describe and express one sense to another. | ||
| + | Function: The use of generic sense can receive evocative effects, and its expressive effect is irreplaceable. It can turn abstraction into image, so that readers can better understand; it can evoke rich associations from this to the other; it can be unconventional and lively; it can express accurately and have far-reaching meaning; it can enrich the mood of poetry and constitute a special artistic beauty. | ||
| + | '''4.11 Puns''' | ||
| + | The use of multiple meanings of words and homophonic (or near-sounding) conditions, intentionally make the statement have a double meaning, the words in this and the meaning in the other, that is, puns. | ||
| + | The pun can make the language subtle and humorous, and it can deepen the meaning and give people a deep impression. | ||
| + | '''4.12 Top Truth''' | ||
| + | Use the end of the previous text for the beginning of the following, the first and last connected more than twice, so that the adjacent statements or fragments or sections pass down to the next, the first and last cascade, expressed in symbols is "ABC, CDE". This rhetorical technique is called top-true, also known as thimble or joint pearl. | ||
| + | The use of top-true rhetoric, not only can make the structure of the sentence neat, the tone is consistent, and can highlight the organic link between things interlocking. | ||
| + | '''4.13 Intertextuality''' | ||
| + | Also called intertextuality, it is a rhetorical method often used in ancient poetry. | ||
| + | In ancient texts, the meaning belonging to one sentence (or phrase) is divided into two sentences (or phrases), and the meaning of the upper and lower sentences are explained to complement each other, which is intertextuality. | ||
| + | The ancient explanation of it is: "The reference to the mutual text, containing and seeing the text." Specifically, it is a form in which the upper and lower sentences or two parts of a sentence, which seem to say one thing each, actually echo each other, elaborate each other, and complement each other, say the same thing. For example. | ||
| + | Qin Shi Ming Yue Han Shi Guan | ||
| + | '''4.14 Loopback''' | ||
| + | To put it simply, to loop is to read the same thing in the same way. | ||
| + | The loop is the organization of the preceding and following phrases into the same circular form of shuttle, in order to express the connection between different things. The loop can make the statement neat and proportional, reveal the dialectical relationship of things, and make the language incisive and alarming. | ||
| + | For example. | ||
| + | The water in the Lingshui Lake rings; the gold in the Golden Valley is golden. | ||
| + | The Buddha mountain incense to respect the Buddha mountain; Weng Yuan milk to raise Luyuan weng. | ||
| + | '''4.15 拈连''' | ||
| + | The rhetorical technique is called xianlian (niān lián), when two things are described together, the words originally applied only to things A are used to things B. This rhetorical technique is called xianlian, also known as "smooth". The use of the flicker can make the context closely linked to natural, vivid and profound expression. | ||
| + | Example Sentences | ||
| + | Example (1): Bees are making honey, and they are making life. | ||
| + | Example (2): The moon is like a hook when I go up to the west tower alone without words. The moon is like a hook. The lonely wutong tree is locked in the deep courtyard in the clear autumn. Li Yu (A Meeting with Joy) | ||
| + | Example (3): Don't look at me as deaf, but my heart is not deaf! ...... | ||
| + | '''4.16 Comparison''' | ||
| + | 1. Concept | ||
| + | The rhetorical way of writing is to simulate thing A as thing B. It includes several forms of writing things as people (anthropomorphism), writing people as crops (anthropomorphism) and writing this thing as another thing (anthropomorphism). In fact, the former form is to "humanize" things, the latter two forms are "object" or "object A B object". | ||
| + | '''4.17 Parallelism''' | ||
| + | In order to make the sentences compact and concise, the ancients often used the method of parallel mentions to line the text. The so-called "parallel mention" is generally to put two related things side by side in one sentence to express. | ||
| + | For example, "Zhong and Li did not commit a single crime, but died". (Shi Ji. This sentence means: "If Zhong did not commit a single crime, he died; if Li did not commit a single crime, he died. (Go away, flee)". | ||
| + | If we take the word "death" here as a word to understand it is wrong. According to the historical facts, the one who committed suicide was Dafu Zhong, and the one who fled was Fan Li. | ||
| + | '''4.18 Transfer''' | ||
| + | Transfer is a rhetorical way to transfer the word used to describe thing A to modify thing B when the two things are related. Example The rhythm of the buildings in the square is actually harmonious. (Using the word "harmony" to describe music to modify "architecture") | ||
| + | '''4.19 Contrast''' | ||
| + | It is a rhetorical way to compare two opposing or opposite things, or two different aspects of a thing, side by side. | ||
| + | The function of contrast is to make the good appear better and the bad appear worse at the same time. | ||
| + | There is a man who is alive and he is dead; there is a man who is dead and he is alive. | ||
| + | '''4.20 Mirroring''' | ||
| + | In order to highlight the main thing, the rhetorical method of describing the things that are related to it first as a companion to set it off. This rhetorical method is divided into positive and negative, according to the relationship between the things that are presented and the things that are set off. | ||
| + | The main thing and the accompanying thing change in the same direction. | ||
| + | The desolate and depressed environment and atmosphere are used to set off a sad mood. | ||
| + | Contrary: The main thing and the accompanying thing change in the opposite direction. | ||
| + | Use "...... but I thought the boat was slow" to contrast the eagerness of "I" [2] | ||
| + | '''4.21 Cascading''' | ||
| + | |||
| + | Cascade is one of the traditional rhetorical patterns in Chinese; cascade is also called gradual, progressive. According to the logical relationship of things, three or more similarly structured phrases, sentences, paragraphs express in the number, degree, scope, etc., the proportion of light and heavy, high and low size of the end, in order to layer increasing or decreasing rhetorical techniques. The layers are divided into increasing (ascending) and decreasing (descending) two categories. | ||
| + | Incremental (ascending): the order of the layer of progression, from small to large, from light to heavy, from shallow to deep, from low to high, layer by layer. | ||
| + | Decreasing (descending) type: the order of the layers, from large to small, from heavy to light, from deep to shallow, from high to low, decreasing layers. | ||
| + | Derived meanings. | ||
| + | 1, layer by layer progression. Yan Fu's "original strong": "China's people today, its strength, wisdom, morality, if we talk about it, it is the accumulation of thousands of years of layers of progression, the essence of the mountains and rivers and the terroir of the difference, the guidance of the penal and religious customs of repeated changes, Taojun furnace hammer and into this last one of the realm." | ||
| + | 2、Delivered step by step. The Qing dynasty history manuscript - criminal law three: "Where the lawsuit outside the state and county level delivery to the governor, within the total in the three law division." | ||
| + | 3、A kind of rhetorical pattern. Use the same or similar structure of the phrase to express the meaning of the progression of layers. | ||
| + | For example: after knowing the stop and in the fixed, fixed and can be quiet, quiet and can be safe, safe and can consider, consider and can get. --Zeng Zi, "The Great Learning | ||
| + | |||
| + | ===Reference=== | ||
| + | [1]姜平: 中西修辞学发展初探[J], 四川教育学院学报, 1998(1), 48-50. | ||
| + | [2]许红菊: 汉语修辞与发展[D], 湖北: 华中科技大学，2012. | ||
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英语笔译 张瑞 Zhang Rui 202170081608
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to study the use of honorifics in modern languages and the expressions of politeness in address forms. In this paper, English and Chinese are selected to study the corresponding expressions by means of data collection and analysis. The results show that the use of honorifics is influenced by language habits, cultural backgrounds, social changes and other aspects, and the development direction of honorifics is explored.
Key words
Honorific; personal pronouns; Comparison
Introduction
1.1 Background of research
In recent years, with the background of globalization, international communication and cross-culture contact has become an essential part in the modern world. When communicating with others, the question “How do I want to be addressed” might come to the mind. Languages, seen as human culture relics, have their own features that embody different customs in different societies. In everyday life, the use of language is an essential part which enables us to express, receive and communicate ideas as well as massages. Among different functions of languages, honorifics stand apart from other functions. Even though there are various forms of honorific used in different languages, the existence of honorifics serves one very purpose: to express your respect to others. The use of honorifics changes from one culture to another culture and different usages of honorifics in different languages deserve our attention.
1.2 Aims of research
Different honorifics have different meanings and are used for different purposes. Honorifics have developed along with the language itself. Theories that are used in the study of honorific include Language typology and linguistic anthropology theories. Thus, in the following part, I’d like to illustrate the development of honorifics, similar and different uses of honorifics and the cultural connotations that honorifics indicate. Besides, the relationship between politeness and honorifics will be discussed.
Literature Review
2.1 Theoretical Framework
Moravcsik (2013) claims that Language typology aims to describe and explain the common properties and the structural diversity of the world's languages. Goals and tools for language typology are the key points, on which the author had put most attention and efforts to introduce and illustrate. And the author focused more on the similarities of different languages when looking into language patterns.
The key question raised is that: What is the reason for their differences and for their similarities? To find out the reasons, the author put his attention more on the similarities and differences in vocabularies, word structures, and word orders. By comparing the similarities of vocabularies, three reasons— shared historical origin, language contact and shared cultural environment (supported by respectful person pronouns)—are discussed. Then, the author talks about language types and universals with the examples of different word orders and sentence structures, and introduced the definition of language typology—the study of typologically and universally shared features of languages.
Another focus point is different kinds of statement types and corresponding statements. Statement types differ in mainly three aspects. First, the author gives the examples of alveolar nasals with the illustration of examples of food stores. Crosslinguistic statements are existential and universal. Existential statements tell us results under different language conditions. Based on universal statements, they differ in modality (absolute universals and statistical universals) and the universe they pertain to (unrestricted universals and implicational universals). Statistical statements are about probabilities: it is not only possible that the next language that you encounter has a particular feature – it is said to be probable. Absolute universals in turn are about certainties: they say that the next language you look at will have a particular feature. Difference between unrestricted universals and implicational universals lies in the relationship between implicans and implicatum as well as their complexity.
According to the relationship between terms, we can label the three implicational types: paradigmatic, syntagmatic and reflexive universals. According to their complexity, there are single implicans and/or implicatum and complex implicans and/or implicatum.
When it comes to language samples, we cannot inspect all languages. The reason for that is we cannot know what future languages will be like. Secondly, we don’t know about all the languages which have existed throughout human history. Thirdly, even with today’s extensive data bases, no linguist can consult all descriptions that are available. Thus, Matthew Dryer’s theory aims to find out a universally valid tendency based on genetic groups, geographic groups and measure of universal tendencies. The type of a language influences the way it express meanings (金立鑫, 2006). For example, inflected languages, such as English, changes meanings by changing word forms, while isolating languages, such as Chinese, use isolated words to express special meanings.
2.2 Honorifics
Honorifics are one way we express our honor or respect to others. They are in both spoken or written languages. Different words are used to express different level of honorific. Honorifics are a simple language mechanic that allow us to express esteem or respect for the person we are speaking to. Most languages use honorifics up to some extent. But at the same time, in many languages, the need to use honorifics dissipates when we know someone well. For example, some languages like English consider it acceptable to address a senior without any title.
There are situations where one generally uses an honorific outside of official environments.
David (2013) surveys the use of honorifics in a variety of languages illustrate the forms of honorifics vary in different languages. According to the author, honorifics refer to the addressee, the utterance referent and the bystander of the discourse. How we make use of honorifics determines categories of honorifics. In most cases, we change words we use on occasions where we are supposed to revere others, so that we can communicate better. That means honorifics are lexically different. The use of honorific varies based on the situations. With different individuals’ status being expressed, there are three main types of honorifics.
The first type of honorifics is the addressee honorific, which aims to indicate the social status of the individual spoken to, or the hearer. Addressee honorifics express the social status of the person being spoken, which are normally higher than that of the speakers. Besides, people may use honorifics to show his politeness to the hearers, even though their social statuses are equal. For instance, honorifics in Javanese are involved in this type. And the contents of the conversations don’t matter.
The second type of honorifics is the referent honorific, which is used to express the status of the one being spoken about. Addressee honorifics change forms of words, while referent honorifics are marked by the lexicon. In some Indo-European languages, there is another second person pronoun used to express respect, such as tu/vous in French, or du/Sie in German, siz in Turkish, thee in Middle English. In Chinese the similar variation is 你/您. For example,
German Du isst Sie essen. French Tu manges Vous mangez.
You eat.
The T-V distinction contains the terms T-form and V-form. The idea introduced by Brown and Gilman (1960) that the use of T-V distinction was governed by power and solidarity. The T-form refers to the Latin tu, the singular pronoun indicating informality. The V-form refers to the Latin vos, plural pronoun that indicates respect and formality. By choosing a different form of pronouns, relative social status of the speaker and the hearer is shown. However, in modern English this variation has disappeared.
Another type is the bystander honorifics, which express the status of someone who is nearby, but not participating in the conversation (the overhearer). This is the rarest form of honorifics, which is mostly seen in aboriginal languages in Australian languages—the "mother-in-law languages". In these languages people change their speeches when there are in-law or other tabooed relatives’ presence. The lexicon, morphology and phonology are all affected.
As far as I am concerned, the existence of honorifics results from the differentiation of communities and societies across the world. Honorifics are seen as an embodiment of speakers’ or hearers’ social status. On the other hand, the choices of honorifics also depend on whether it is formal or informal. Chinese scholar 孙芮乔 (2019) takes English and Chinese honorifics as examples, illustrating the politeness strategies that honorifics follow. Face-saving viewing by Brown,P. and Levinson,S (1987) refers that all qualified social adults attaches importance to their face, which consists of positive(to be praised) and negative(not to interrupt others) faces. The politeness strategy thus follows these two aspects.
Honorifics have experienced a very long history. The use of honorifics might vary in different language. But the purpose seems to be clear: to contact with other social individuals more comfortably and efficiently.
2.3 Linguistic anthropology
Linguistic anthropology is one of the branches of anthropology. Unlike linguistics which is the scientific study of the language, linguistic anthropology gives its attention more to language as it relates to socialization and culture. Linguistic Typology analyzes, compares and classifies languages according to their common structural features and forms. Tasks and aims of linguistic anthropology includes a) the classification of languages, i.e., the construction of a system to order natural languages on the basis of their overall similarity; b) the discovery of the mechanism of construction of languages, i.e., the construction of a system of relationships, a 'network' by means of which not only the obvious, categorial mechanisms of language can be read but also the latent ones.
According to Pier Paolo Giglioli (1990) in "Language and Social Context," anthropologists study the relationships between worldviews, grammatical categories and semantic fields as well as the influence of speech based on socialization and personal relationships, and the interaction of linguistic and social members and communities.
Another scholar Wierzbicka (1997) demonstrates that every language has its key concepts and that these key concepts reflect the core values of the culture. Further, she argues that within a culture-independent analytical framework one can study, compare, and even explain cultures to outsiders through their key concepts.
According to Alessandro Duranti (1997), linguistic anthropology is the study of language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice. As an interdisciplinary study of language, it covers interdisciplinary fields of language and puts its focus especially on the effects given by the different usages of language in society. Constitutive social acts represent the social orders that people follow interpsychological (between individuals) and intrapsychological (in the same individual). linguistic anthropology specializes in the questions and topics that are at the core of anthropological research, politics of representation, the constitution of authority, cultural contact and social change, etc. The author attached importance to the culture and language diversity theories, giving the idea that “What used to be thought of as outside of language is now more and more often seen as part of language”. In the following chapters, the author illustrated Meaning in linguistic forms Speaking as social action, Conversational exchanges and Units of participation.
The author introduced ethnographic methods. That means committed to traditional ethnographic methods including participant-observation and work with native speakers, linguistic anthropologists obtain local interpretive glosses of the communicative material they record. Otherwise, they also use elicitation techniques similar to those employed by typological linguists who are interested in grammatical patterns. Recently, these methods have been combined with new forms of documentation of verbal practices developed in such fields, like urban sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, and conversation analysis.
Duranti introduces linguistic anthropology as an interdisciplinary field that studies language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice. B discussing about linguistic diversity, grammar in use, the role of speaking in social interaction, the organization and meaning of conversational structures, and the notion of participation as a unit of analysis., the theories or methods of linguistic anthropology are introduced.
One example given by the author about the standards of acceptability is that pauses and overlaps are used to interpret what is going on. And these re-starts, cut-offs as well as other corrections that speakers make of their own talk. The author noticed that the position of the corrected item is typically at the word which leads to the new topic. In the joint work of Zdenek, S., James M, S., & Nobuko, A. (2012), it is mentioned that society and culture are key elements that differs linguistic anthropology from linguistic. Linguistic anthropologists study language in its cultural framework and think about the rules for its social use. In this way, linguistic anthropology is defined as the study of language in its biological and sociocultural contexts. An obvious difference between linguistic and linguistic anthropology is that those who study linguistic anthropology have never isolated language from social intercourses but have in interdependence with cultural and social structure.
According to the author, the method that linguistic anthropologists commit to is participant observation—observe the day-to-day activities in the field places. And then, the author analyzed speech sounds, sentence as a link to social behaviors and nonverbal communications such as emotions and feeling. From chapter 3 to chapter 10 the author focused on the different aspects of language itself. In the following chapters, cultural elements were introduced to elaborate how language shapes communication and influences culture.
One example is the salespeople’s pronunciation of r-sound in New York City. The researcher, Labov who later gathers examples in a supermarket, assumed that salespeople in large department stores were likely to borrow prestige from their customers and hypothesized that “salespeople in the highest-ranked store will have the highest values of (r); those in the middle-ranked store will have intermediate values of (r); those in the lowest-ranked store will show the lowest values”, which was proved to be true. That means language reflects personal identity.
Christine Jourdan (2006) takes language as a tool of thought and perception and discussed how language influences our perception of the world.
Linguistic anthropology solves the problems such as how to collect language data and how language influences the understanding and perception of human societies. It aims at the actual use.
Methodology
3.1 Collection of examples and data
To compare different languages, we need a great number of data as well as examples. As loads of examples are gathered, the first problem that gets in the way is that: what are the most typical examples that we can use to support the theories? The subject of this paper is honorifics of languages: English and Chinese. Most examples were collected from actual use of languages including living honorifics that are used nowadays and ones that are in limited use or are already ‘dead’. To compare different examples, we need not only those we are using but also ones that appeared in the history and later were abandoned. Attentions are also put to clearly support the theories. The examples as well as terms are obtained from dictionaries, grammar books or Internet.
3.2 research questions
1) In different languages, the standards in choosing most proper words are quite different. Still, it shouldn’t be neglected that there are similar or even same forms of honorifics used in the different languages. So, here comes the first question: What are the culture connotations that differentiate the various uses of honorifics? 2)Languages in the same culture groups share many similarities. But as languages develop, uses of honorifics may go on separate ways. In the following part, I’d like to discuss: what are the elements that have made languages formed their own expressions and rules? 3) As we are studying and analyzing existing samples, it is also important that we get our eyes on the future: In which direction may honorifics develop? What are the development patterns of honorifics?
To sum up, by gathering, comparing and analyzing data and examples in different languages, the author focuses on above questions.
Honorific examples in English and Chinese
Nationality, language and religion—these are the elements that influence people of certain cultures. As languages reflect nationality, so do honorifics. Even though there may be as many forms of honorifics as languages, the very purpose is basically the same—express respect and communicate in a better way. It reflects the relationship between the speaker and the listener. Moreover, the use of honorifics shows difference in social status, distance as well as in occasions.
To compare different languages, we need a great number of data as well as examples. Most examples were collected from actual use of languages including living honorifics that are used nowadays and ones that are already ‘dead’. To compare different examples, we need not only those we are using but also ones that appeared in the history and later were abandoned. Attentions are also put to clearly support the theories.
4.1 English honorifics
In Modern English, honorifics are also frequently used. However, its honorific terms are relatively few compared with languages like others. Usually, a man is cited as Mr. and a woman Miss. By prefixing a person’s name could we express our respect to the listener. Such prefixes include: Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms, Mx, Sir, Dr, Lady or Lord as well as titles or positions—President, General, Captain, Father, Doctor,etc. In Table 1 are some English honorifics that are frequently used.
Neutral Male Female Mx Master Miss/Mrs M Mr Ms Gentleman Ladies Sir Madam/Ma’am Sire Dame Lord/Baron Lady Fr: (Father) Br: (Brother) Sr: (Sister) His/her Excelency His/her Honour
Linguistically, there are basically three types of honorific terms in English: honorifics. that prefixes immediately a person’s name (Mr., Ms.); honorifics denoting the honored person's occupation (Doctor, Father); some honorifics completely replace a name or occupation, as "Sir" or "Ma'am", or "Your Honor”. Subordinates will often use honorifics as punctuation before asking people of higher status a question or after responding to an order: "Yes, sir" or even "Sir, yes, sir."
Based on the actual uses, there are common tiles, formal titles, and religious titles. Common titles, such as Mr., are frequently used in daily life. These honorifics don’t put too much emphasis on one’s social status. Their classifications are based on the natures of hearers—ages and genders. For formal titles, the difference of social status does make a difference. By addressing someone with his academic or professional titles, both politeness and respect is achieved. Under some circumstances these appellations are necessary. For example, “John Bercow, Speaker, Britain's First Commoner (that's an honorific for the class conscious of you out there), was greeting and welcoming his new intake in Portcullis House. He is master of this domain."(Simon Carr, "My Ill-Tempered Encounter With the Speaker." The Independent, May 12, 2010)
Affected by religions like Christianity, Judaism, Islam and Buddhism, there are also relevant terms for believers to express their respect in special situations. In some religious organizations, members follow certain religious orders where appellations also follow some rules. Here is an example from Bible:
But when you pray, go into your room, close the door and pray to your Father, who is unseen. Then your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you.
Matthew 6:6 As we can see, English honorific terms mostly belong to the referent honorific and the bystander honorific, which means English users express their respect to the ones they are talking to and talking about in a direct way.
4.2 Chinese honorifics
Etiquette, one of characters that has been valued in Chinese’s society, reflects special features of Chinese culture. Choices of honorific terms or titles are an important element in the proper observation of etiquette. The history of Chinese honorifics could be divided by New Culture Movement into two periods: honorifics in Classical Chinese and in vernacular Chinese. There are general four types of honorifics: Respectful Language(employs modified words or substitutes called respectful vocabulary that convey a sense of respect for the addressee), Humble Language(Language employs modified words or substitutes called humble vocabulary that convey a sense of self-deprecation and humility for the speaker), Indirect Language(employs words called indirect vocabulary - e.g., euphemisms that are used to hide or beautify an otherwise unfortunate event or action.), and Courteous Language(employs specific words or phrases that have courteous and praising connotations intended to flatter the addressee). Most honorific appellations belong to the range of Respect Language and Humble Language, which will be talked about.
In Classical Chinese, the difference of social status and classifications breeds respectful and humble forms in the use of language. The honorific system is quite complex. A large number of fields, including pronoun substitutes, modified nouns, proper nouns, and pronouns, modified verbs, honorific adjectives, honorific idioms, and honorific alternatives for other neutral or deprecating words, indicate its complicacy. During a conversation or when writing a letter, using proper appellations is necessary. Speakers always employs humble terms to indirectly beautify the listener and respectful terms to directly for the same purpose.
Speaker（I, me） Listener（You） 某 公 在下 足下 先生 君侯 For example, “某为医一生，未尝见此，君侯真天神也！” —《三国演义》第七十五回 As one indicates someone or something that is not present in the conversation, he would prefix XX with following prefixes and suffixes. (the bystander honorifics)
Praise degradation 贵~（noble） 鄙~（humble） 尊~（Respected） 贱~（lowly） 令~（excellent） 舍~（my/our） 贤~ ~公
With the promotion of vernacular Chinese, New Culture Movement in China further hastened the demise of the traditional Chinese honorific system. In modern China, those terms representing traditional monarchy have been outdated in the history. Instead, salutations, such as 亲爱的/尊敬的/敬爱的, are frequently used in speeches and letters. Other appellations, according to one’s social position (老师，科长，处长)，age or gender (大伯，大婶，大爷) convey respect to the listener. The second person pronoun“您”and variants such as“您老人家”are also another form of honorifics in modern China.
Comparison
As time goes by, languages are changing initiatively or passively. Even though most languages do not look like its original forms, the inner spirits of the way languages used could somehow pass down with history. When it comes to honorifics, both eastern and western languages conform to that. Whether it is English or Chinese, honorifics in different periods of time reflected the specifically social conditions and social background of its time.
Nowadays, based on the above examples of these languages, we can find that concerns about elements like gender, age or the degree of intimacy. Thus, the use frequency, word choices, attitudes, classifications, existence basis and development levels vary greatly from each other. In the process of communications, languages, seen as the reflection of cultures, may have different methodologies. One of them is the use of honorific terms. Even though languages differ from each other in many ways, we can still find something common when honorific terms are employed. Nowadays, contacts between nations have never been so convenient and frequent. During the conversations, people would like to take certain methods to express ways in crosslinguistic communications. For example, the term Mr. /Miss. Is always welcome. There were also counterparts of the term Mr./Miss which were not used in their languages. So, it is international communication that has somehow contributed to the transformation of certain languages.
As far as I am concerned, two key elements are showing respect and avoiding taboos. The earth is seen as a small village where members can exchange different ideas though convenient technologies. Still, it comes first how we can communicate better and more effectively, how we can be respected by those from another culture? Face with these problems, language users may have increased their tolerance for wrong usages in their languages and tried to avoid taboos. In the following part, I would like to illustrate some points during the study.
5.1 T-V distinction
Of more than ninety languages, there is a different form of second personal pronoun to deliver formality. Such phenomenon is called T-V distinction, which is named from the Latin pronouns tu and vos. Originally in Latin, two terms differ only in singular/plural use. The idea introduced by Brown and Gilman (1960) that the use of T-V distinction was governed by power and solidarity. A powerful person to use a T-form but expect a V-form in return.
Take English and Chinese as examples. In Modern English, there is no such variation. The pronoun you is used both in formal and informal situations. And its function of showing respect towards addressee is not that clear as its counterparts in German or French. However, back in Middle English, the second person pronouns thou and ye conformed to the distinction, as T form (thou) was used by people with higher social status to lower ones and V form (ye) is used by people with lower social status to higher ones. But over time that was considered polite to use the formal meaning in more and more contexts until the informal meaning was lost. Besides, T form was used within lower classes, when addressing God and when the addressee was not absent. and V form was also used by upper-class members when talking to each other. Such usage was believed to have come into effect with imitation of French among Norman French nobility. Later as other pronouns demised in Modern English, leaving you as V singular and plural pronoun. English was discarded from T-V languages. In modern Chinese, this distinction shows as 你/您. Its V form (您), however, didn’t exist in Middle Chinese when it was in Tang Dynasty. Later in Yuan Dynasty, it appeared in the form of 恁, which worked as second person plural pronoun in vernacular language. With Beijing dialect taking -們 as plural, the plural function of 您 was decaying as honorific function was accepted in the second half period of Qing Dynasty. As vernacular Chinese promoted across the country, the honorific 您 was accepted as out-of-date personal pronouns were abandoned.
As we can see, English and Chinese went on the separate ways on T-V distinction: while Chinese created a new word and changed its semantic functions, English deprived the word of its respective meaning. However, these changes ended up in the same direction.
Under the rule of feudalism for more than two thousand years, Chinese had developed the concept and psychology of distinguishing the dignity from the inferiority and the order of the nobleness deep in mind (蔡红艳, 2015). Influenced by Confucianism, Chinese people associate language communication with morality and ethics, and regard rhetoric as an important means to regulate interpersonal relationship. Complicated honorific systems and terms are just the evidence for that. Nowadays, the word 您 has taken the place of traditional appellations used at feudal times. In western culture, which values individualism democracy and equality, s seen as a tool to extend individual influence.
Simplification of the distinction reflects the pragmatism of English users. Today they generally indicate formal address by using a salutation and last name.
5.2 Development trend of Honorifics
In the modern society where feudal systems were discarded and different forms of democracy system were established in most countries, languages have also changed a lot. In the above discussion, we have talked about some elements that affect the use of honorifics. Based on that, we may find out some points of how honorifics develop in the next step.
The essence of honorifics is the recognition of different personalities. The change of honorific represents the change of how people view diverse personalities. In most countries, there are different kinds of social hierarchy, which offered social basis to the existence of honorifics. Social status, therefore, is the only standard for the use of honorifics, which has the supremacy and was matched with the feudal systems. Therefore, although the addressee character who possessed a higher social status was not respected by the speaker, he must use the honorifics with high respect blindly according to the social rules and principles at that time. The speaker, with a lower social status, was deprived of the basic personality as a man. Compulsory social standards directly influenced the use of the language. On the contrary, the existence of modern honorifics bases on the consciousness of social equality and mutual respect among people, emphasizing the respect for each other's personality, which is adapted to the modern social system. As social systems shifted from feudalism to democracy, people no longer use honorifics involuntarily in the process of communication. Instead, according to the relationships with each other, they would judge whether to use honorifics based on the degree of respect other, the contents as well as the environment. The voluntary use of honorifics follows the process of equalization of personalities. In this way, honorifics no longer serves traditional hierarchy, as people pay more and more attention to mutual respect, mutual recognition and equal personality. But that doesn’t mean extreme equality among people, which ignores the difference of age or ability.
The objects of using honorifics are no longer limited to people with social status in feudal system. The use of honorifics depends on the individual's judgment as well as the situation at that time. To whom honorifics are used, what honorifics are supposed to be used, what levels of respect one should present, all of these matters conforms to the specific circumstances. In this way, as honorifics changed from status use to social use, their functions are correspondingly changing. For language users, social characters honorifics, which contributes to the better communication, are increasing prominent. The number of people who study and use honorifics has increased dramatically. Honorifics have become an essential part of work and social life. It can be seen from this that the subject and object of using honorifics have been extended to all social members, and the purpose of using honorifics is mainly to serve as a "lubricant" for dealing with interpersonal relationships. The function and applicability of their use have changed qualitatively. In this way, the objects of honorifics are gradually used by lower classes that once was ignored.
Since the new social ideological basis of the existence of honorifics - mutual respect, basic personality equality has been deeply rooted in the minds of the people, honorifics are really freed from the shackles of the former absolute honorifics and identity honorifics, and develop towards the direction of relative honorifics and social honorifics. At the same time, in this process, people's ideological activity is greatly improved, and they should always use their proper honorifics according to different environments and different objects they face. However, with the popularity of honorifics, the semantic meaning of honorifics has turned upside down - the mutual change from high to low, from low to high, that is, the functional usage of honorifics has changed, which has appeared some sprouts in today's new trend of honorifics, and even some have been widely used. One of the main reasons for the emergence of the new expression of honorifics is the establishment of a new social ideology - basic personality equality and mutual respect.
Following the trend of economy development and globalisation, honorifics would focus more on the function of facilitating communications instead of distinguishing different ranks in a society. As far as I am concerned, honorifics are going to simplify itself: traditional honorific titles were abandoned while there might be new forms of honorifics which are easily accepted by large members.
Conclusion
As the clock ticks, languages are also changing. The change of languages follows the change of those who use the language. As we invent a word, abandon a word, or transform a word, the underlying changes of the language are going on. When something new appears, we give it a new word. When something old is no longer needed, we keep it in the vault. With small changes happening, the language might look like something different compared with its original forms. Through the study we can find that honorifics are used in many languages. Here are my conclusions:
Firstly, in different languages, the appellation systems differ in scale. Languages such as Chinese have more complex appellations systems than western languages. The reason for the difference lies in the different historical political and cultural structures. They also differ in methodologies. The English language prefers to using different words to express respect while the Chinese language adds prefixes. Another difference between honorific expressions lies in the existence of self-depreciation terms, which shows different attitudes towards modesty that eastern cultures highly valued. The forms of address ale in a dynamic course，differ from period to period and vary from one situation to another.
Secondly, with globalization and international communication pushing forward, the appellation systems might be affected by another language. In different languages there might be some similar expressions that spread between nations. We can find honorific titles in a language and their counterparts in other language. As cultures are spreading across the world, religions for instance, we can find similar religious titles in related languages. Thoughts or new ideas from other countries may also influence one’s honorifics. Such as the appellation 先生 in Chinese, which was used to address teachers, now is commonly used to address other males— just like Mr. in English.
Thirdly, it is true that honorifics convey respect. But as learning a second or third language is welcomed by more and mor people across the world, individuals from a language without a complex honorific system would have difficulty learning a language with a complex honorific system. Besides, in translation honorifics might be a tough part. Whether to use honorifics or not actually reflects the conflict between cultures.
We may predict the development trend of honorifics. Even though expressions of honorifics in different languages are diverse, many languages are gradually simplifying themselves, as a result of economic development, political changes or mentalities changes. Honorific changes happen normally after social changes. The influence and restrictions between language and culture are two-way. This kind of relationship requires us to study honorifics as a social and cultural phenomenon, to put it under the broad social and national cultural background and to analyze problems and find rules. Certain changes of language contain rich national cultural connotation, condensing the cultural characteristics of national world outlook, philosophy, thinking mode, concept mentality, religious belief, folk custom and folk sentiment, aesthetic interest, etc., which is worth the future research.
References
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David, A. (2013). Honorifics: Types, Data, and Importance for Linguistic Theory. Frankfurt a.M.
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英语笔译 赵宇翔 Zhao Yuxiang 202170081609
Abstract
Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes complex is the treasure house of cultural exchange and collision between the East and the West in China and Dunhuang frescoes are the typical representatives of Dunhuang culture. Over the years, It has been arousing more and more people's thinking and attention on protecting and spreading Dunhuang culture. In this paper, the author first introduces the formation of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, the origin and value of Dunhuang culture, and then starts with three cooperation cases between Dunhuang Academy and Honor of Kings, showing the new ways for people to protect traditional culture in modern society, and hopes that more people can participate in protecting and spreading traditional culture through this article.
Key words
Duhuang Frescoes; Mogao Grottoes; Dunhuang culture; Honor of Kings
Introduction
Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes was built in the former Qin Dynasty. After the construction and repair of each dynasty and generation, the diligent ancient people have formed a huge group of caves with a large number of frescoes in them. It is the largest existing Buddhist art place in the world. The Mogao grottoes digging was originally out of the need of religious rituals, belonging to a kind of religious activity. However, it was more and more loved and followed by civilians in the later years. Its value was not limited to religion, including many fields such as art, military affairs, science and technology, agriculture, transportation, etc., And it became a symbol of national culture in the prosperous Tang Dynasty. However, after entering the new century, the dazzling Dunhuang culture is facing the danger of being ignored and eliminated by the society, and the precious frescoes in the caves are in danger of experiencing wind and sand. It is imperative to protect Dunhuang frescoes and spread Dunhuang culture. It is necessary for everyone to feel Dunhuang culture with their hearts and understand the connotation of Dunhuang culture.
1.Introduction On Mogao Grottoes
Mogao grottoes, commonly known as thousand-buddha cave, is located in the west end of the Hexi Corridor of Dunhuang. It was built in the Xuanzhao period of Emperor Fu Jian of the former Qin Dynasty. After that, it went through the construction of the Northern Dynasty, Sui Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, Western Xia Dynasty, Yuan Dynasty and other dynasties, forming a huge scale. There are 735 caves, 45,000 square meters of frescoes and 2,415 muddy colored sculptures. It is the largest and richest Buddhist art place in the world. In 1961, Mogao Grottoes was announced by the State Council of the People's Republic of China as one of the first batch of national key cultural relics protection units. In 1987, Mogao Grottoes were listed as world cultural heritage. Mogao Grottoes, altogether with Longmen Grottoes in Luoyang, Henan province and Yungang Grottoes in Datong, Shanxi province are called as China's Three Grottoes, then Maijishan Grottoes was added to them to be the Four Grottoes. On August 31, 2019, the large-scale documentary Dialogue between Mogao Grottoes and Angkor Wat, co-produced by Dunhuang Academy and other units, premiered in Dunhuang International Convention and Exhibition Center. With the theme of dialogue among Asian civilizations, the documentary shows people the wonderful connection between different civilizations in terms of destiny, culture and art. Mogao grottoes frescoes were painted in the walls, roof and niches of the caves with extensive and profound contents, mainly including seven kinds of themes: the figure of Buddha, buddhist stories, buddhist historic sites, Sutra Illustration Paintings (Jingbian Illustrations), genie, benefactors, decorative patterns and so on. In addition, there are many social life paintings of all aspects performing hunting, farming, textile, transportation, war, construction, dance, weddings and so on. Some of these paintings are bold and broad, while some are bright and magnificent, reflecting the artistic styles and characteristics of different periods. Most of the paintings before the Five Dynasties have been lost. The frescoes in Mogao Grottoes provide important objects for the study of Chinese art history, as well as valuable images and patterns for the study of ancient Chinese customs. According to the calculation, if these frescoes are arranged by 2 meters high, they can be arranged to be a 25km-long gallery. Grotto frescoes are richly colorful, such as all kinds of buddhist stories, mountains and rivers scenery, pavilions and other architectural painting, landscape painting, flower design, flying Buddha and the working people to produce all kinds of scenes, etc., which is the artistic reproduction of more than 1500 years of folk customs and historical changes from sixteen Kingdoms to Qing Dynasty, magnificent and magnificent. It can also be found in a large number of mural art, ancient artists on the basis of nationalization, have absorbed the ancient art of Iran, India, Greece and other countries, which is a symbol of the developed civilization of the Chinese nation.The frescoes of different dynasties show different painting styles, reflecting the political, economic and cultural conditions of China's feudal society. They are glorious chapters in the history of ancient Chinese art and provide precious historical materials for the study of ancient Chinese history.
2.The Origin of Dunhuang civilization
Mogao grottoes was built during XuanZhao period of emperor Fu Jian of the former Qin Dynasty. According to records, in the second year of Jianyuan of the former Qin Dynasty (366 A.D), Lezun, a monk, passed by the mountain and suddenly saw golden light shining like seeing Buddha, so he dug the first cave on the wall. Later on, monks like Faliang continued to build caves to practice meditation, which is called "Desert Cave", meaning "high place in the desert." Later, due to the common use of "漠" and "莫" it was renamed "Mogao Grottoes." Another saying is: Buddhists have said that the construction of Buddha Cave has boundless merit and there is no one better then him. So the name of Mogao Grottoes means that there is no higher cultivation than the construction of Buddha Cave. During the Northern Wei, Western Wei and Northern Zhou dynasties, the rulers believed in Buddhism, and the grottoes were built with the support of nobles and developed rapidly. During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, with the prosperity of the Silk Road, Mogao Grottoes flourished even more, with more than a thousand caves During the rein of emperor Wu Zetian. After the Anshi Rebellion, Dunhuang was occupied by Tubo and Guiyi armies successively, but the statue making activities were not greatly affected. In the Northern Song Dynasty, the Western Xia Dynasty and the Yuan Dynasty, Mogao Grottoes gradually declined, mainly rebuilding the caves of the previous dynasty, with few new ones. After the Yuan Dynasty, Dunhuang stopped opening caves and the caves were gradually deserted. In the seventh year of Jiajing of Ming Dynasty ( 1528), Jiayuguan Pass was closed, making Dunhuang a nomadic place of frontier fortress. In the fifty-seventh year of Emperor Kangxi of Qing Dynasty ( 1718), Xinjiang was pacified. In the first year of Yongzheng ( 1723), Shazhou Office was set up in Dunhuang. In the third year ( 1725), it was changed to Shazhou Guard, and immigrants came from Gansu province to Dunhuang wasteland and rebuilt Shazhou City. In the twenty-fifth year of Qianlong ( 1760), Shazhou Guard was changed to Dunhuang County, and Dunhuang's economy began to recover. Mogao Grottoes began to be noticed. In the 26th year of Guangxu ( 1900) of Qing Dynasty, a world-shaking Sutra Cave was discovered. Unfortunately, under the specific historical background of the corruption and incompetence of the late Qing government and the invasion of China by western powers, shortly after the discovery of the cultural relics in the Sutra Cave, western explorers such as British Stein, French Boshihe, Japanese Ju Ruichao and Russian Odenberg came to Dunhuang and defrauded a large number of cultural relics from Taoist Wang by unfair means, resulting in the looting of the cultural relics in the Sutra Cave. Most of them were unfortunately scattered and collected in many public and private collection institutions in Britain, France, Russia, Japan and other countries.
3.The Value of Dunhuang Frescoes
Dunhuang frescoes preserve materials belonging to sports attributes, such as riding and shooting, shooting targets, horse skills, prancing horses, sumo wrestling, wrestling, weightlifting (raising elephants and bells), chess, throwing pots, martial arts, swimming, polo, kick-off, etc. The colored sculptures and frescoes in Dunhuang grottoes are mostly Buddhist contents, such as the statues of colored sculptures and frescoes, sakyamuni's stories of The Buddha, karma and karma, various kinds of buddhist classics paintings, numerous Stories of the East of Buddhism, and mythological figure paintings, etc., each of which has a large amount of rich and systematic materials. It also involves India, West Asia, Central Asia, Xinjiang and other regions, which can help us understand the Buddhist thought, sect, belief and dissemination of ancient Dunhuang and Hexi Corridor, the integration of Buddhism and Chinese traditional culture, the process of Buddhism sinicization, etc. The construction of Dunhuang Grottoes for one thousand years was an important period of development in which China was divided for a long time after the West and East Han Dynasties, moved towards national integration and unification between the north and the south, reached the peak of the Tang Dynasty, and then declined. During this period, it was the formation and development period of the procedure, genre, category and theory of Chinese art. It was also the period when Buddhism and Buddhist art were introduced into China, the Buddhist theory and Buddhist sect were established and developed in China, and Buddhist art became an important category of Chinese art, and finally completed the sinicization. From the perspective of Chinese painting art, the figure painting, landscape painting, animal painting and decorative pattern painting in Dunhuang frescoes have a history of thousands of years, which can become an independent history of figure painting, landscape painting, animal painting and decorative pattern painting. It is abundant in figure painting, landscape painting, animal painting, decorative pattern of instance, especially preserved before the song dynasty in China(the 10th century), which the world museum collections have not seen. There are more than 200 caves with music themes in Dunhuang frescoes, painted with numerous bands, musicians and musical instruments. According to statistics, there are more than 500 groups of different types of bands, more than 40 kinds of musical instruments of blowing, playing, pulling and playing, totaling more than 4,500 pieces. There are also musical scores and other musical materials in Dunhuang Sutra Cave documents. The abundant music image data shows the continuous development and change of Chinese music culture for nearly one thousand years. It provides valuable materials for the study of Chinese music history and the exchange of Chinese and Western music. Most of the frescoes in Dunhuang grottoes contain dancing images. There are dance scenes and dance images that reflect human social life and customs, such as western region music and dance, folk banquet and wedding dance; There are palace and noble yan Yue song and dance scenes reflected in the Sutra Ilustration Paintings; There are dance images of the celestial circle, such as the dancing image of flying apsaras, etc.There are also dance music and related materials preserved in the Cave. Dance art is unable to retain the space-time art, ancient dance image, modern people already know very little about, in terms of collection of Dunhuang grottoes dance image, dance art museum, saved countless superb dance skills and perfect dance artistic image, on behalf of the dance development and its development course in each era.
4.Dunhuang Frescoes Are Enjoying New Life:
Honor of Kings is China's largest social game platform, with an average daily live of 100 million users across all ages.Since its popularity exploded in 2017, Honor of Kings has been exploring new possibilities for mobile games. In addition to its entertainment and social attributes, Honor of Kings still wants to increase its social, cultural and artistic attributes. Tencent's Tianmei L1 studio (the producer of Honor of Kings) found that Honor of Kings has a strong platform advantage based on the huge daily traffic of QQ and WeChat and the daily activity of the game itself. Therefore, the studio began to spread Chinese traditional culture as the new development direction of the game. On the one hand, it is to enrich the connotation of the game itself. On the other hand, most players are in the age range of 18 ~ 30 years old among the users of Honor of Kings. With the help of the publicity and exposure of the game, young people can better understand Chinese traditional culture, so as to inherit and carry forward traditional culture and make traditional culture obtain its new life. At this time, Dunhuang culture is facing the danger of being eliminated by popular culture. Compared with popular culture loved by young people, such as hip-hop, pop music, quadratic, etc., traditional China culture is not competitive and gradually withdraws from the historical stage. In order to better protect and spread China's excellent traditional culture, Dunhuang Academy began to seek opportunities to cooperate with Internet giants, trying to make Dunhuang culture enter people's vision again through the rapid transmission power of the Internet. Therefore, In 2018, Tencent announced that Honor of Kings and Dunhuang Academy launched cultural creation activities, thus, an industry cooperation ,across cultural and game fields, between the two leaders in the field of China traditional culture and China's emerging game industry began.
Yu Jian Fei Tian (Meeting A Flying Apsaras) The first creative product--the skin of Meet A Flying Apsaras between Dunhuang Academy and Honor of Kings, was put on shelves in the game on October 26, 2018 (during the third anniversary celebration of Honor of Kings). Dunhuang Academy selected the most common Flying Apsaras image in Dunhuang frescoes for linkage, while the official of Honor of Kings selected the hero Yang Yuhuan, whose temperament image is most consistent with Dunhuang Flying Apsaras, for linkage. After more than 6 months of patient polishing, Xu Yanyi, the main skin designer and 2D art designer of Honor of Kings, overturned five editions of original painting design, and went to Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes in person to experience the charm of Dunhuang frescoes and understand the spiritual connotation of Dunhuang Flying Apsaras, and finally completed the original painting design of Yang Yuhuan’s Meeting A Flying Apsaras skin (as shown in the picture). Meanwhile, the modeler and special effect engineer made concerted efforts to present the flying apsaras image in the frescoes lifelike in front of the game players. The skin of Meeting A Flying Apsaras once launched triggered a huge response, players were very surprised and curious about this novel way of linkage, and began to take the initiative to learn about Dunhuang culture. Various data show that the cooperation between Dunhuang Academy and Honor of Kings has been a great success and a win-win situation has been achieved. The opening line of the Skin, "I meet you, and there are still colors in me," pulls the player's imagination back to the prosperous age of Tang Dynasty more than 1,000 years ago. After thousands of years of wind and sun exposure, Dunhuang frescoes are no longer the scenery of that year, with colors falling and dull. However, through "Internet+", the once weathered Dunhuang frescoes, which have suffered a lot in the past, meet people again in a new way.
Yu Jian Shen Lu (Meeting A Golden Deer) As an old saying goes: Strike while the iron is hot. Honor of Kings and Dunhuang Academy once again joined hands on April 27, 2020 (during the "May 5 Friends Festival" of Honor of Kings) to launch the skin of Meeting the Fairy Deer. The theme of the skin was designed with reference to the mural "Nine-color Deer Born" in Cave 257 of Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, and the popular hero Yao of Honor of Kings was selected for linkage. "Buddha's Past Life as the Golden Deer" is Sakyamuni's life experience of many deeds. The frescoes tell the story of the deer king and informants. The golden deer is the Buddha's past life, the lotus born under the foot is the allusion of the Buddha's birth, and the Buddha's light on the head is the standard of the Buddha.. Therefore, with a comprehensive reference to world view design and Dunhuang allusion, the external display design of the skin of Meeting the Golden Deer is: the golden deer is born with lotus step by step, and the divine light flickers faintly behind it, which is more divine.At the same time, the original Dunhuang elements are skillfully integrated into the skin design: In character design, the color, elements, patterns and clipping of Dunhuang frescoes are referenced. The combination of lithargyrum color with white green conveys a very strong contrast between cold and warm colors, so that visual performance is more vital; In scene design, the arrangement of the mountains, the growth of plants, the flow of clouds, are mostly from the frescoes; In terms of music design, the combination of five-string lute and single-string harp restores the sound of Dunhuang. The theme of this joint action between Dunhuang Academy and Honor of Kings is "Dunhuang Golden Deer, Guard with Love." Both parties hope to take this opportunity to let more people (not just game players) understand Dunhuang frescoes and Dunhuang culture, and protect and inherit Dunhuang culture with heart. Two consecutive linkages have made more and more people fall in love with Dunhuang culture. The cooperation between Dunhuang Academy and Honor of Kings is very harmonious, realizing a win-win situation. On March 19,2021, the two sides officially announced the third cooperation and will jointly launch the third Dunhuang cultural theme skin. In the past three years, Dunhuang Academy and Tencent Company have created projects such as "Digital Dunhuang" and "Digital Silk Road" with the help of powerful network publicity platform and advanced network technology, so that people can enjoy the beauty of Dunhuang at home through the network. Therefore, the third Dunhuang culture theme skin is launched at this time to add another fire to the spread of Dunhuang culture.
Yu Jian Hu Xuan (Meeting A Huxuan Dancer) On September 26, after half a year's production, Diao Chan's skin of Meeting A Huxuan Dancer unveiled its mysterious veil. The theme of the skin refers to the pharmacist's Sutra Ilustration Paintings on the north wall of Cave 220 of Mogao Grottoes, which is an artistic masterpiece of Dunhuang music and dance. The painter might refer to the style of Chang'an, and painted the glittering, huge dance scenes. Musicians of different skin colors and nationalities play musical instruments from the Central Plains and the Western Regions. The artistic fusion of "Tang Yun and Hu Feng （Tang Dynasty's and the West's cultural styles）" shows the openness and tolerance of the prosperous Tang Dynasty. In the lower part of the picture, there are a pair of dancers, dancing rapidly on the small round carpet, which many scholars regard as Huxuan dance. And the hero character Diao Chan of Honor of Kings incarnate as a Hu Xuan dancer, to show Huxuan dance with over-a-thousand-year history to game players. In 1944, the former Dunhuang Art Research Institute stripped off the grand and magnificent frescoes of the early Tang Dynasty under the falling frescoes in Cave 220 of Dunhuang. Huxuan dance was introduced into the central plains from the western regions, and became all the rage in Chang'an during the prosperous time. Chang 'an painter, who was far away from his native land, painted many prosperous scenes along with Huxuan dance and Lantern Trees into the ancient volume of Chang' an. In the 16th year of Zhenguan, the prosperous days were painted into the frescoes, representing the style of Tang Dynasty. Diao Chan's skin of Meeting A Huxuan Dancet is based on Dunhuang music and dance in Cave 220. Under the artistic inclusive guidance of "Tang Yun Hu Feng", it tries to integrate the cultural elements of the Western Regions, Dunhuang and Tang Dynasty, and creates the image of a Huxuan dancer dressed in Ku Tang(a kind of clothes derived from Dunhuang music and dance frescoes, tied at both ends and shaped like a bag), barefoot and lightly dancing, and turning rapidly like the wind. Dunhuang art is always experiencing the test of time, wind and sand. Honor of Kings joined hands with Dunhuang Academy to implant many designs symbolizing mural denudation and wind and sand dissipation in the skin of Diao Chan's Meeting A Huxuan Dancer, hoping to convey the significance of Dunhuang digital protection and Dunhuang spirit inheritance to everyone. Under the guidance of many experts of Dunhuang Academy, the Art Group of Honor of Kings has worked hard when polishing the third Dunhuang cultural theme skin: In terms of color design, it refers to the characters in Cave 220--white with stone green as the main color, lapis lazuli blue as the embellishment color, supplemented by vermilion to pull up the color contrast. While making differences with other Dunhuang skins, it continues the classic color of Dunhuang. In terms of decoration, "Meeting A Huxuan Dancer" selects the pomegranate curls with twining branches as accessories in Cave 220 to connect the whole design, matching with hanging vines, rhombic lattice pattern, round leaf pattern, Oblique grid pattern edging and other drapery shapes, and decorative streamlined lines in frescoes as embellishment. it not only retains the charm of Dunhuang, but also strives to widen the gap with the previous Dunhuang theme skin. In terms of clothing and accessories, on the basis of continuing to use the characteristics of Dunhuang maiko costumes--barefoot and naked waist, an oblique frame shape is designed at the chest. The lower body is a yarn Kutang (tied at both ends, shaped like a bag, one on the left and right, and one on the calf) gradually changing from stone green to lapis lazuli blue, which has the characteristics of Dunhuang music and dance. There're also jewelry accessories from the western regions supplemented by Dunhuang elements of patterns, with bracelets on the arms and wrists, ornaments wreaths all over the body, and silk belts holding in her hands. The headdress comes from the frescoes in the 220th cave in a lotus shape, and the hair crown is extracted from the Mogao Grottoes in the design of the elements of the caisson. The design of sleeve tail bell and waist drum refers to the Yulin Grottoes belonging to Dunhuang Academy. The special effects, select Dunhuang music and dance classic images such as the undrummed self-singing instruments, lotus, bells, pottery drum, supplemented with golden sands. The theme of this joint event between Dunhuang Academy and Honor of Kings is "Huxuan Dance in Prosperity, One Turn for a Thousand Years." Diao Chan incarnates as a Huxuan dancer to perform Huxuan dance on the stage. Each turn seems to bring people back to the prosperous age of Tang Dynasty thousands of years ago, as if this turn never stops after thousands of years, which just symbolizes the Chinese culture including Dunhuang culture, is enduring in the long river of history.
Conclusion
Dunhuang is a window of time, through which you can see the resplendent culture of the Chinese nation. Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes, Dunhuang frescoes and Dunhuang culture span thousands of years, showing the achievements of cultural exchanges between the East and the West to contemporary people, and showing the connotation of Chinese "tolerance" culture that to the world; However, the cooperation between King's Glory and Dunhuang Academy will let more people (including the author) understand and fall in love with Dunhuang culture and let more people know new ways to protect traditional culture. Even if the Dunhuang frescoes are eroded and the Dunhuang grottoes will eventually be weathered, we will still remember the Huxuan dance, the brilliant Dunhuang, and the open and inclusive spirit of Mogao Grottoes. In the future, including Honor of Kings, the whole society will spontaneously form a beautiful atmosphere to protect and spread the traditional culture, and the traditional culture led by Dunhuang frescoes will be reborn in modern society.
References
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Terms and expressions
- Dunhuang 敦煌
- Mogao Grottoes 莫高窟
- Dunhuang Frescoes 敦煌壁画
- Dunhuang Academy 敦煌研究院
- Honor of Kings 王者荣耀
- Meeting A Flying Apsaras 遇见飞天（王者荣耀杨玉环×敦煌研究院飞天主题文创皮肤）
- Meeting A Golden Deer 遇见神鹿（王者荣耀瑶×敦煌研究院九色鹿主题文创皮肤）
- Meeting A Huxuan Dancer 遇见胡旋（王者荣耀貂蝉×敦煌研究院胡旋舞主题文创皮肤）
Questions
1. When did people begin to build Mogao Grottoes? A. In the former Qin period B. In the Tang Dynasty C. In the Han Dynasty
2.How many caves are there in Mogao Grottoes? A. 375 B. 735 C. 537
3.How long is the history of Mogao Grottoes? A. About 100 years B. Less than 1000 years C. More than 1000 years
4. Up to now, how many cultural theme skins have Dunhuang Academy and Honor of Kings cooperated to perform? A. One B. Two C. Three
Answers
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. C
英语笔译 郑冬琴 Zheng Dongqin 202170081610
Abstract
In 1972, China and Germany formally established diplomatic relations. Since then, trade exchanges between the two countries have become more frequent and the diplomatic relation has become closer. With the continuous improvement of China's opening up to the outside world, a large number of economic and trade exchanges have been carried out between China and Germany. In recent years, through the efforts of both governments, Germany has gradually become one of China's most important trading partners. However, "ten miles of different wind, a hundred miles of different customs". First of all, international business negotiation belongs to the field of economic activity, and also, it is a cross-cultural communication activity involving various cultural factors. Cultural differences between countries are often one of the most prominent obstacles in international business negotiations. In this thesis, the author studies and analyzes the impact of cultural differences on Sino-German international business negotiations from the following aspects: values, communication style, verbal and non-verbal behavior, dietary habits, corporate culture and fulfillment of contract. In view of the objective facts of the cultural diversity of the world, this thesis mainly discusses the cultural differences between China and Germany by means of illustration and comparative analysis, and then puts forward some useful countermeasures in order to provide some reference for negotiators to overcome some unnecessary barriers to negotiation.
Key Words
China; Germany; cultural differences; international business negotiation; influence; countermeasures
Introduction
In the era of highly developed economic globalization, the economic policies, political attitudes and cultural factors are playing an increasingly important role in international affairs and daily exchanges between different countries and regions. And among these main factors, culture is often a factor that cannot be underestimated. Because the success or failure of intercultural communication is determined by culture to a large extent. Fortunately, nowadays, we have a more open and inclusive world. Although there are some obvious or subtle distinction among different cultures, we are still able to carry out some effective international communication activities. In October 1972, Germany and China formally established diplomatic relations. Since then, the exchanges between the two countries have been generally smooth in all aspects. For example, the leaders of China and Germany met at the UN General Assembly. In addition, the two countries frequently conducted high-level state visits and carried out various economic consultations. Especially since China's accession to the World Trade Organization, the trade exchanges between Germany and China has developed rapidly. Furthermore, in 2013, the Chinese government proposed "the Belt and Road" Initiative. With the development and promotion of this initiative, extensive cooperation and exchanges have been carried out between China and many other countries. In this case, China's foreign trade has reached a new level. Moreover, the China-Europe Railway Express has also greatly promoted the economic exchanges between Germany and China. Besides, in the last few years, the United States has launched a trade war against China, which has dramatically reduced the volume of trade transactions between China and the United States. To a certain extent, it has also created more opportunities for Sino-German trade transactions. As an important trading partner of China, Germany often needs to conduct business negotiations with China. However, it is not easy to successfully reach the negotiation goal due to the complexity of international negotiations. They involves foreign policies, economic strategies and cultural differences. As we all know, the special negotiations with different modes of thinking and behaviors are more challenging than general negotiations. Whether we can correctly understand and deal with the cultural differences between China and Germany is crucial to the success of the negotiations. So negotiators need to master some useful business negotiation skills. They also should try to cultivate their keen awareness of cross-cultural communication. Only when they pay attention to the commonalities and differences between different cultures can they understand others better and communicate more effectively in cross-cultural activities, so as to promote the success of international business negotiations.
Definition of Culture and Intercultural Communication
1.1 The Definition of Culture
Regarding the definition of culture, different scholars hold different views. If we consider it in a narrow sense, culture refers to the behaviors, habits, traditions or beliefs peculiar to a particular region or organization. However, if we regard it as a broad concept, culture is considered to be the way of life of a country or a nation. It includes customs, religious belief, political system, science and technology, language and other elements. Culture is usually considered to be a broad concept in international business negotiations. Generally speaking, it refers to the modes of thinking and behaviors and the values of a country or a nation, which affects people’s social style to a great extent. It also embodies the characteristics of a particular social group. Due to the specific history and tradition, different countries or regions have developed their own cultural characteristics and cultural models. Due to the differences in traditional habits, value system and social styles, we can find that there are some trade frictions in Sino-German business negotiations.
1.2 The Definition of Intercultural Communication
"Communication between native speakers and non-native speakers, or between any people who are different in terms of language and cultural background, is called cross-cultural communication."(Zhuang Enping, 2004:8)In essence, it refers to the direct verbal communication between two parties. What it studies includes the differences in value orientation, way of thinking, language norms, customs and habits and so on, and it involves not only in-depth theoretical analysis, but also practical application. And only in this way can it better serve the intercultural communication activities.
Concept and Characteristics of International Business Negotiation
2.1 Concept of International Business Negotiation
"International business negotiation is a process of consultation. It involves two or more negotiators who are from different countries and represent different interests. They are meant to conclude a transaction with each other."(Salacuse.J.W, 1991:40) As we all know, there are inevitable conflicts of economic interests in negotiation. If negotiators are unable to reduce trade frictions and settle disputes, it will be very difficult for them to conclude a transaction in the end. In essence, international business negotiation belongs to a kind of cross-cultural communication activity. Therefore, culture plays an important role in international business negotiations. In a word, in foreign trade activities, we need to recognize the close relationship between culture and international business negotiation.
2.2 Characteristics of International Business Negotiation
2.2.1 Being Closely Related to National Policies
Essentially, international business negotiation is an international communication activity, which is closely related to national policies. Generally speaking, international business negotiation involves at least two countries or nations. Different countries or nations have different national policies. For example, a product is allowed to be sold in one country, but it may be explicitly prohibited in another country. From this we can see that national policies vary among many countries and affect economic activities to a large extent. Therefore, in international business negotiations, negotiators are supported to be very familiar with their own country's national policies. At the same time, they also need to have a basic understanding of the national policies of other countries and abide by a series of laws and rules governing foreign trade and economic relations, which can greatly help reduce unnecessary trade frictions.
2.2.2 Being Much More Complex
Negotiators who come from different countries and regions have different cultural backgrounds, values, ways of thinking, ways of behavior, languages and personal habits. Therefore, in the face of an unfamiliar cultural environment, it is inevitable that there will be some communication barriers and different opinions between negotiators, which will easily produce conflicts of interest and unpleasant phenomena in the negotiation process. At last, it will make the negotiation environment more complex. So it will be more difficult for both parties to come to an agreement.
2.2.3 Being both Conflicting and Cooperative
International business negotiation is a process of conflict and cooperation. If the interests of both sides are exactly the same, there is no need to negotiate. So it is normal that there are conflicts of opinions and interests between the two parties. International business negotiation, in fact, is a process of reducing differences through consultation so that the interests and objectives of both parties tend to converge and finally reach an agreement. If disputes escalate and differences widen, it is easy to lead to the breakdown of the negotiations. Therefore, it is very important for both parties to seek common ground while reserving differences in order to gain mutual benefits.
The Embodiment and Causes of the Cultural Differences between China and Germany
3.1 Difference in Values
"In the process of international business activities, time is an important concept worthy of our attention. However, people's view of time varies greatly since there are cultural differences between different nations."(Wang Tianwen,Wang Shimin, 2008:39) Germans are strictly punctual, doing only one thing at a time. The plans they made were highly binding. Even if things do not end within a specified period of time, they must stop without affecting the next arrangement or keeping the next person waiting. What's more, they think being punctual is a kind of basic courtesy as well as a sense of responsibility. If someone don't be punctual, it not only wastes the time of both parties, but also is a lack of honesty of someone. On the contrary, Chinese people tend to do many things at the same time or many people do the same thing together. They emphasize multiple participation and better completion of tasks. In most cases, people get along very well. Generally speaking, Chinese people have a more flexible schedule or plan, which does not emphasize that everything should be in accordance with a fixed schedule or a strict plan. Chinese people don't like to make appointments because they think plans can be changed depending on specific circumstances. Instead, they prefer to visit at any time. In most cases, even if an appointment is made in advance, the visitor may not come.
Due to the totally different modes of thinking between Chinese and Germans, people tend to have opposing or misunderstanding views on things. “The individualism＆collectivism dimension describes the extent to which the society is organized around individuals or the group.”(Xue Qi, 2006:6)The ideological core of Chinese culture is collectivism. The Chinese believe that everyone is not a separate individual, but an individual living in a social group. No matter what they do, they should follow the principle of collectivism, stick to the collective wisdom and give full consideration to the collective common interests. Otherwise, people will not be able to live in society and community, and may even be abandoned by society and group. In conclusion, it is obvious that Chinese people are more talkative and are fond of participating in various social activities. They often get together with relatives and friends, and attach great importance to the harmony of the group. In German culture, the basic unit of society is not the collective but the individual, and people attach great importance to the existence and achievement of the individual. German culture also does not emphasize the maintenance of collective harmony and consensus of opinion. They tend to pay more attention to the expression of their personal opinions when considering problems, and will not easily make concessions even when they disagree with others. Moreover, Germans, who are deeply influenced by individualism, prefer to be quiet and alone, enjoying a good time by themselves. They think that frequent socializing is a waste of time.
3.2 Difference in Communication Style
"In order to better explain and show the diversity of world culture, the American anthropologist Edward T. Hall proposed the concept of high and low context culture."(Fan Lei,Fan Weiwei, 2001:148) As we all know, China and Germany are classified as two totally different contextual cultures. China is known as a high-context country. Chinese people attach great importance to the role of context in interpersonal communication. They often express their thoughts and feelings in a very implicit and euphemistic way. This makes it difficult for others to quickly understand what the speaker is really trying to express. While Germany is a typical low-context country, people usually express their views and true feelings directly and clearly. And they seldom say some nonsense or crack a joke that is irrelevant to the topic. This inevitably gives the impression that Germans are serious and difficult to approach. Therefore, different contextual cultures influence communication styles to a great extent.
In addition, the Chinese and Germans have completely different attitudes to the concept of face, which largely affects their communication styles. As is known to all, Chinese people prefer to attach great importance to their so-called honor and reputation. In interpersonal communication, they will feel very embarrassed and disgusted if others directly say something negative or rejecting. Because in their opinion, it is a kind of inconsiderate and damaging behavior of others' reputation. In Germany, people don't care much about so-called face. They do not express their thoughts and opinions in a roundabout way. Hence, sometimes it is easy to offend others unintentionally.
3.3 Difference in Verbal and Non-verbal Behavior
German, as a typical Germanic language, of course belongs to the Indo-European language family. Each language has its own characteristics. And accuracy is one of the labels of German. German has many prescribed sentence structures and grammatical rules, which are naturally reflected in its expression patterns. Germans often use words such as "have to" and "must", which tends to give people the impression of being rigid and arrogant. In fact, it is a manifestation of German conscientiousness and preciseness. There are also many words in German that require foreigners to understand their usage environment and idioms in detail so as to accurately understand the real intention of the other party. However, Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family, which has rich and profound connotations and flexible and diverse sentence patterns. “Chinese people tend to speak in a euphemistic way, which usually gives people the impression of humility.”(Tong Fang, 2006:58) When expressing opinions, Chinese people are fond of adopting the mode of induction, explaining the reasons first and then drawing a conclusion. The Germans, on the other hand, prefer the deductive method, which states the conclusion first and then puts forward the reasons.
We also need to pay attention to nonverbal behavior because it is a critical part in intercultural communication. It consists of various gestures, body movements, eye contact and so on. The meanings of these behaviors may be quite different in different cultures. Therefore, negotiators should have a good command of different non-verbal signals of their own nations and other nations. Otherwise, it would be easy for them to misunderstand these signals, and then they may not be aware of the mistakes. In Germany, for example, silence signifies approval. While in China, the embodiment of politeness and respect to others is given priority. Therefore, people do not express their disagreement or dissatisfaction directly. If someone remains silent for a long time, he may disagree with something. In addition, Chinese people also like to use eyes and expressions to show their attitudes. So it is also important to learn to observe the changes of Chinese people’s expression.
3.4 Difference in Dietary Habit
Speaking of the dietary habit, we know that people from different countries and regions have different dietary habits. To be specific, Chinese people prefer to eat rice and drink tea while Germans prefer bread, noodles and coffee. In addition, Chinese people adopt the dinner party system.They believe that eating is not just to replenish the body's energy needs. What is more important is to meet people's spiritual and emotional needs through dinner. Eating in groups and chatting together can strengthen relationships with friends and family. In Germany, people prefer separate meals. Even though many people sit at the same table, everyone eats their own food and there is little interaction. In addition, by the way, the wine culture of China and Germany are distinctly different. Chinese people have the habit of toasting and encouraging people to drink in order to show the host's hospitality. If the guests enjoy drinking the wine provided by the host, the host will be wonderfully happy. In Germany, there is no such habit. Germans are used to drinking beer, usually alone, in a do-it-yourself way.
3.5 Difference in Corporate Culture
The outstanding characteristic of German enterprise culture is to pay attention to the cultivation of ability and solve the actual problems. Each employee is given sufficient space to think freely. It can greatly improve the quality and problem-solving ability of the participants. Another very important task of German corporate training is to let employees identify with the values of the company. As is known to all, German enterprises always put product quality in the first place. They believe that there are no both good and cheap products, only good or bad ones. Most German products are famous for their quality and become world-famous brands. However, Compared with the German enterprise culture, China's enterprise culture pays much more attention to the form of corporate culture. In this way, it naturally ignore the true connotation of corporate culture. Influenced by traditional culture, Chinese enterprises attach great importance to the paramount power of leaders and the harmonious relationship between teams.
3.6 Difference in Fulfillment of Contract
"In 1980, Hofstede put forward a four-dimensional model of national culture in The Effect of Culture. After the four dimensions, he put forward the fifth dimension, which is called the long-term orientation and short-term orientation."(Geert Hofstede, 1984:82)Specifically, long-term orientation is a type of behavior that fosters and encourages the pursuit of future returns. China is a long-term oriented country. Managers of Chinese enterprises pay attention to the development prospects and future profitability of the enterprise. And they are willing to make great efforts for achieving long-term goals. However Germany is a short-term oriented country. Germans are more concerned with the current profits of companies. When the adverse factors in economic activities increase, they will hold the attitude of uncertainty avoidance. In a word, as for international business negotiation, Chinese and German negotiators have very different views on the fulfillment of contract.
The Impact of Cultural Differences between China and Germany on Negotiation
4.1 Impact on Communication
First of all, in terms of verbal communication, due to the existing different cultural traditions of different countries, Chinese people are very roundabout. But Germans are straightforward. In the eyes of Germans, however, euphemism is not sincerity but pretence. “Chinese people always need to think again and again when they make decisions. To the Germans, this is a sign of indecision. Germans often bristle at such behaviour.”(Lin Zhengqi, 2016:40)Sometimes, the two sides of a negotiation have very different understandings of the same thing. For example, "dragon" is a mascot in all ages in China. It mainly stands for happiness and good luck. In Germany, however, it is an evil monster and is generally believed to bring misfortune to people.
When it comes to non-verbal communication, what i want to mention is body language. Different body languages deliver different messages. Sometimes, in different situations, even the same body language can convey completely different meanings. For example, Chinese people are used to nodding their heads repeatedly in conversation. People nodding their heads in different situations conveys different messages, such as encouragement, hesitation and agreement. Germans, on the other hand, often regard a nod as simply agreement. Therefore, in the process of international business negotiations, negotiators are easy to misunderstand the body language, which reduces the possibility of successful negotiations to a large extent.
4.2 Impact on Negotiation Mode
The mode of thinking of Chinese is totally different from that of Germans. The way of thinking of Chinese is subjective. They often attach great importance to the humanities and interpersonal relationship, which makes Chinese people be in the hope of making friends with foreigners before negotiations. They think that many problems are easier to solve if they have a close relationship with others. While Germans are objective in their thinking. They attach more importance to issues rather than relationship. Besides, they devote themselves to dealing with problems in a rational and efficient way. As a result, they don't want to take the time to build relationships before doing business. In the business negotiation, there will be some misunderstanding between the two countries. For example, Germans may make a bad impression on Chinese. In this way, Chinese would think that the Germans are so indifferent and serious that it is difficult to contact with them. While on the other hand, Germans may hold the idea that Chinese people are fond of cottoning up with others. As a result, both sides will think the other is insincere. Thus, there is little possibility of continuing negotiations.
4.3 Impact on Decision-making
Chinese and Germans have different values orientation, which will certainly affect the negotiators' behavior. Generally speaking, Chinese attach great importance to building an excellent negotiating group. And they have a strong sense of hierarchy and collectivism. Each person in the group is responsible for specific task, and there must be irreplaceable chief leader. In contrast, Germans emphasize individuality. Members of the group respect each other's views. In short, they are more inclined to show the independent personality of each individual. In international business negotiations, if cultural difference is not realized, it may well be impossible to carry on the negotiation successfully at the very beginning.
4.4 Impact on the Signing of the Contract
Influenced by the traditional Chinese culture, Chinese people are more inclined to pay much more attention to the feelings of others. And in their opinion, it is very important to build harmonious interpersonal relationships. Even in the process of international business negotiations, in order to maintain the good economic partnership that has been established, the Chinese sometimes take the initiative to make compromises and concessions to the terms of the contract. In the choice between emotion and law, they often choose the heartwarming emotion rather than the severe law. For them, rigid laws tend to damage the relationship between people, so it is worth doing a little harm to their own interests to maintain a harmonious relationship. However, for the Germans, the choice of emotion and law is just the opposite of the Chinese. They believe that rules and laws are the basis for settling the matter, so they often write almost all the details into the contract explicitly. “In case of breach of contract, compensation or return of goods must be made in strict accordance with the contract. ”(Chen Zhaoyang,Chen Jingliang, 2007:2)It is precisely because of the two different attitudes that there is a potential risk that the negotiation will break down during the signing of the contract.
Countermeasures to Reduce the Impact of Sino-German Cultural Differences on Negotiation
5.1 Recognizing the Existence of Cultural Differences
As we all know, the existence of cultural differences cannot be changed. So it is very important to overcome the cultural differences and reduce the conflicts in negotiations. There is no doubt that the recognition of the cultural diversity of the world is the premise of a correct understanding of cultural differences. "First of all, we should have a sense of identity with our own national culture. At the same time, it is necessary to respect the culture of other nations."(Dou Weilin, 2014:24) In international business negotiations, the excellent negotiators are supported to recognize and respect cultural differences in the first place. And then, they should try their best to adapt to it. Furthermore, it is essential that negotiators have a tolerant attitude towards cultural differences. Of course, striving for "common ground while reserving differences" is not the same as fully absorbing other cultures. One should hold a moderate view of foreign culture rather than totally tolerate or ignore it. Therefore, it is very important to respect the etiquette, customs and taboos of various countries and nationalities for a successful negotiation.
5.2 Making Adequate Preparations before the Negotiation
As the saying goes, "Opportunity favors the minds that are prepared". If the negotiators want to be in the active position in the negotiation, they must make full preparations in advance. Only in this way, the negotiators can deal with the various adverse situations that may appear in the negotiation process, and finally achieve the success of the negotiation.To be brief, the preparation for the negotiation includes the background of the negotiation, the purpose of the negotiation, the differences that may be encountered during the negotiation, the agenda, alternative plans and concession strategies and so on. The negotiation background includes negotiation place, negotiation time, negotiation expectation, scene layout, the number of participants and so on. Compared with the monoculture, the preparation of international business negotiation is more complicated because of the intercultural factor. As a result, different countries have different views on these issues. Before the negotiation, the negotiators should have a comprehensive understanding of the partners' expectations, customs, negotiation means and so on. For example, the Chinese and the Germans have very different notions of time. For the Germans, time is money, and they are very efficient when negotiating. In China, by contrast, the Chinese like to cement a partnership through brief chats before the negotiations begin.In a word, sufficient preparations before a negotiation can greatly improve the possibility of a successful negotiation.
5.3 Respecting Each Other's Customs
Custom is a very important concept. It is passed down over a long period of time. It has the characteristics of relative stability, variability and spontaneity. And custom is also the external embodiment of the lifestyle and values of a particular group of people. It includes modes of production, ways of life, manners and beliefs. Compared with the external elements of culture, such as language, body language and behavior, customs are more subtle and complex. If we are not careful enough, we may offend others unintentionally.Therefore, before international business negotiations, negotiators should have a full understanding of the customs of each other in order to avoid accidentally offending others. In the process of negotiation, it is especially important to respect the customs of each other. It can create a more harmonious atmosphere for negotiators to achieve the success of negotiations.
5.4 Eliminating Conflict through Effective Communication
In the cross-cultural negotiations, the two sides from different cultural modes often have communication barriers due to cultural differences. Negotiators must master the necessary cross-cultural negotiation skills to overcome the communication barriers in cross-cultural negotiation.Generally speaking, in international business negotiations, the following communication barriers are the most common. The first obstacle may be caused by the misunderstanding of speech expression, translation error, and even the meaning of a word or phrase. For example, Chinese people think red represents good luck, happiness and enthusiasm. In Germany, red is associated with evil, radicalism and brutality. The second obstacle is caused by different ways of expression. It is affected by negotiators' professional habits, professional knowledge and understanding ability. For example, most Chinese people speak tactfully, and they usually don't express their true intentions. In this case, negotiators need to communicate effectively to avoid some unnecessary conflicts. The third obstacle is caused by the psychological factors of the negotiators. It includes attitudes, biases, and negotiation experience.In short, in the negotiation, especially in the cross-cultural negotiation, negotiators should try to overcome the above three communication barriers. Therefore, negotiators can manage to avoid some unnecessary problems and troubles. If they are confronted with obstacles and difficulties, they need to break the deadlock through effective communication.
Conclusion
Due to the impact of a variety of uncertain factors, there is a more complex and changeable negotiation environment in international business negotiations. So it is very important to enhance sensibility of cultural differences, which can help to create more favourable conditions for effective communication and cooperation. In view of the cultural differences between Germany and China, this thesis mainly compares Chinese culture with German culture, and then analyzes and explains the reasons for the differences. In addition, this paper adopts lots of cases to study and discuss the impact of cultural differences on business negotiations.Finally, it puts forward some specific coping strategies. Looking at the existing research results on this topic, it is not difficult to find that most of the previous scholars paid more attention to the study of business negotiation principles and skills, while ignoring the role of culture. However, this paper find that culture has great significance for the success of business negotiations.But I know there are some shortcomings in this thesis. For example, because cultural difference is a comprehensive concept, it's impossible for me to give examples one by one and conduct comprehensive research and analysis in this thesis. Therefore, I think that future scholars can make further analysis and research on this topic from other aspects so as to promote the improvement of this issue.
References
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- Dou Weilin 窦卫霖.(2014).跨文化商务交流案例分析[Case Studies on Cross-cultural Business Communication].Beijing:University of International Business and Economics Press对外经济贸易大学出版社.
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Terms and Expressions
- high-level state visits 高层国事访问
- high context culture 高语境文化
- low context culture 低语境文化
- ten miles of different wind, a hundred miles of different customs 十里不同风，百里不同俗
- the Belt and Road Initiative “一带一路”倡议
- the China-European Railway Express 中欧班列
- Theory of Face 面子理论
- individualism＆collectivism 个体主义&集体主义
- Indo-European language family 印欧语系
- Sino-Tibetan language family 汉藏语系
- the dinner party system 聚餐制
- the individual dining system 分餐制
- four-dimensional model of national culture 民族文化的四维模式
- long-term orientation and short-term orientation 长期导向和短期导向
Questions
- 1.Which of the following countries belongs to typical high-context culture?
A.China B.Canada C.German D.America
- 2.Which of the following countries belongs to typical low-context culture?
A.China B.Japan C.North Korea D.German
- 3.Which of the following countries are long-term oriented and short-term oriented countries respectively?
A.China and German B.Canada and China C.German and Canada D.America and German
- 4.Which of the following countries takes the theory of face very seriously?
A.German B.UK C.China D.America
- 5.When did Hofstede propose the four-dimensional model of national culture?
A.In 1979 B.In 1980 C.In 1981 D.In 1982
Answers
- 1.A
- 2.D
- 3.A
- 4.C
- 5.B
英语笔译 钟青 Zhong Qing 202170081611
Abstract
Ancient Chinese official terminology covers the core concepts of the bureaucratic system, such as bureaucracy and administrative t erms, and is an important material for the study of the political history of various dynasties.The political civilizations of different dynasties have given birth to a wealth of official terminology, and their translation methods are important topics for the translation of Chinese classics and the study of Western sinology.The translation of cultural terms requires translators to reconstruct the concept of source language terms across languages, but ancient Chinese administrative terms have special complexity due to the profound humanities of the scientific and political concepts or ideas they represent, and they have many significant differences in concept connotation, semantic representation and communicative context compared with Western administrative terms.In view of this, in the process of translating ancient Chinese classics to the outside world, the translation of core administrative terms often becomes a difficult point.How to effectively translate ancient Chinese official terms has become a key part of the foreign translation of Chinese classics.From the perspective of communicative theory of terminology, this study examines the communicative contextual complexity of ancient Chinese administrative terminology translation as a practice of cross-language knowledge interaction, and explores its contextual translation strategy, which aims to improve the effectiveness of foreign translation of Chinese classics.
Key words
Administrative Terms; Communicative Theory of Terminology; Context
Introduction
1.1 Basic Linguistic Forms of Ancient Official Service Terms The ancient official terms mainly had three language forms: representation language, presentation language and schematic language. The so-called representation language is that the name directly refers to things, or the name is recorded with things or the physical objects related to things as the form of language, which is the most intuitive category of official names. In the ancient era of mythology, the earliest names of official officials, fire officials, dragon officials, bird palace and water officials are prominent representatives. In the feudal times, the number of such official names was not very large, but in the early Northern Wei Dynasty, the "Faku" once had such official names, such as cloud birds. The term "presentation language" is set according to the characteristics of the naming of the official palace."Book of Han": " Since Zhuanxu, for the people division and life to civil."And the language of recording the official name is a direct reflection of the job, so the language of the official name often contains the content of the job. The most important activities in ancient Chinese society were religious sacrificial activities and military activities."Zuo Zhuan · Thirteen Years of Chenggong" said: " The great affairs of the country, in the sacrifice and rong."So the ancient palace name appeared earlier is the official name engaged in these activities. Representation language and presentation language are relatively specific in language expression, while the schematic language is an official name with a certain meaning, which is generally not seen from the literal word. Like yu Lin, rock lang, tong department, chang qiu and so on. And the most is the name of the general, such as the general of the cavalry, General Guoyi, General Zhiwei, General Renwu, General Xinwu, etc. The titles of a large number of generals are praise and praise. There are also words taken from the scriptures as official names, such as: Shu Ji Shi, Yu virtue, division industry, Dengyong, etc., which also have a certain meaning. Secondly is the official name reflects a certain system, such as the appointment system with "false, photo, record, lead, power, knowledge" and other words on the official name; reflects the etiquette system such as please, wine, Honglu, etc.; and is the Chinese feudal society unique customs, said the name system in the official name.
1.2 Study Significance The ancient Chinese official terms covered the core concepts in the official system, such as bureaucracy and official name, which are important materials to study the political history of successive dynasties. The political civilization of different dynasties gave birth to the rich official terms, and its translation and mediation method is an important topic in the study of classical book translation and western Sinology. Compared with western official terms, they have many significant differences in terms of conceptual connotation, character representation and communicative context. Due to the inherent particularity of official terms in ancient China, it is often difficult to fully solve such terms' translation problems only by relying on the cross-language conversion strategy on the surface of language characters, so we need to learn from multidisciplinary theoretical resources for interdisciplinary thinking. In this respect, the research results of modern terminology theory are an important theoretical reference. This study draws on the theory of communicative terminology, from the question of the "reality", systematically examines the context of the ancient Chinese official terms translation complexity, and on this basis to explore the context of the ancient Chinese official terms translation strategy, fill the part of the blank of the ancient Chinese official terms research. This paper studies the official terms in ancient China from the perspective of communicative terminology, makes some innovations in the selection of translation theory, and summarizes the contextualized translation strategy of official terms.
1.3 Paper Structure The first part of this paper briefly introduces the language form of ancient Chinese official positions, and demonstrates the significance of research. The second part briefly introduces the existence of existing research, mainly including existing official word translation and term translation. The third part summarizes the theoretical framework of this paper: first, summarizes the theory of communicative terminology, and then summarizes the application of communicative terminology theory in term translation. The fourth part summarizes the multiple contexts of official term communication in ancient China: conceptual context, language context and cultural context. Part five outlines that the term-based conceptual context, linguistic context, and cultural context should help to solve the cross-lingual positioning, definition, and final naming issues of term translation, respectively.
Literature Review
2.1 Term Translation Chinese term translation practice has a history of thousands of years. In the academic world, term translation is an important research field across terminology and translation, term translation has not only become an indispensable part of modern terminology ontology research, and the practice and theory of term translation research as an important research direction in the field of contemporary translation research, its independence outline is increasingly prominent. In addition, the terminology is a major difficulty in the translation practice, and Yan Fu once issued a feeling that "one stands, ten months hesitate". Due to the importance and difficulty of term translation, its research has been paid close attention by scholars. It can be seen that the term translation research in China has gone through three stages: incubation period, development period and prosperity period.From 1992 to 2003, there was an incubation period of 20 publications per year. During this period, the research focused on case studies, such as Yang Dan's series of papers on "miscellaneous translation of official terms"; most of the research content was a casual experience summary. Since 2004, the number of articles rising year by year, 2004-2011 for the development of term translation research period, annual articles in 20-40, it is worth mentioning that Jiang Wangqi, Hou Guojin discuss the term translation standard, specific for the term translation standard accuracy, systematic, differentiation, transparency principle, term translation standard research caused academic attention. Since 2012, the number of term translation papers has increased rapidly, with an average annual publication volume of more than 50 papers, indicating that the terminology translation has attracted great attention in recent years, and the research has entered a prosperous period. This may be because big data technologies such as computers and networks in the new era have brought new research perspectives and technical support to the research of term translation. Another important reason is that, with the improvement of China's comprehensive national strength, China's exchanges with the international community in various professional fields have been developed in depth, and the translation and research of professional terms in various fields meets the realistic needs of The Times.
2.2 Review of Official Terms Translation Research There are not many articles on official translation, but they show a growing trend. On June 5,2022, the keywords "official translation" were searched, and 32 articles related to official translation were found. Wang Chen and Zhen Peng first conducted research on translation in American official positions in 1999 and 2007, respectively. In 2009-2019, the number of articles on official translation positions gradually increased, but there were still very few articles, totaling only 17 articles. The number of related articles in 2021-2020 increased significantly with a total of 13 articles. Wu Fang and Zhang Longkuan (2009) pointed out that there is a phenomenon of the dislocation of official translation in Chinese translation and English classics. Cultural differences and the contempt of translators are the important reasons for the dislocation of translation, and corresponding methods and explanatory methods can be used in translation. Pan Xiangxue (2014) discussed the translation method of the virtual official position and the actual official position from the perspective of semiotics. The article believes that the real meaning of the real official position is the most important, while the virtual official position should reduce the unnecessary pragmatic meaning. Hao Zhiyan (2020) discussed the method of official translation and the consistency of translation. The author believes that although there is an inconsistency in translation, the consistency is greater than the inconsistency. Xiu-ying li, wu (2021) relying on the Vyvyan Evans proposed concept of vocabulary and cognitive model theory (LCCM Theory) meaning construction mechanism, found in the Cambridge Chinese sui and tang dynasties in the tang dynasty official terms present seven kinds of concept representation and meaning construction mechanism, generated with the source term concept has certain equivalent meaning, the official term translation is across language across culture and time, integration and interpretation of the concept of choice. To sum up, there are not many studies on the English translation of official posts. The main research objects are The Cambridge History of Chinese and the Chinese classics, including the Romance of The Three Kingdoms, A Dream of Red Mansions, The Records of the Grand Historian, and the Book of History. Researchers discuss the translation methods and consistency of official positions from the perspectives of equivalence theory, teleology, semiotics, adaptation theory, and acceptance aesthetics. In view of the complexity of the official positions system, the translation methods are often flexible and diverse.
Methods and Theories
3.1 Overview of Communicative Terminology Theory Terms are a special type of vocabulary in human language, but they also have the contextualized properties of common words. Context is the natural habitat (natural habitat) of terms.(Altmanova et al., 2018:8) In the specific communication context, the terms not only characterize the professional field knowledge, construct the knowledge system, but also meet the needs of verbal communication, and conduct the discourse construction. More importantly, in the process of communication, the complexity of terminology communication is more prominent due to the knowledge background, cognitive level and the social and cultural context in which it are located. However, traditional terminology mainly focuses on the standardization of terms from a prescriptive perspective, ignoring the communicative contextual factors of term use. In fact, the context of term use is also very complex, for example, communicative situations and different term use groups in communication will affect the actual use of terms. With the advancement of terminology theory research, people began to gradually realize the contextual complexity of terminological communication, believing that we needed to develop a new theory of terminology. In the early 2000s, the Spanish jetsologist Cabre (M.T. Cabre) proposed the "Communicative'Theory of Terminology" (communicative terminology). This theory attaches special importance to the terminology in communication, and puts forward the "door theory" (Theory of Doors) of terminology research, emphasizing the three dimensions of terminology research concept, language character and communication. These three dimensions consider the knowledge symbol and context of the term, which comprehensively reflect the name and use of the term. Cabre (2003:187) also introduced the concept of "terminology unit" (terminological unit) to understand the term concept (polyhedron) and its context influence from a multidimensional perspective. Concept characters and communication as different paths of cognitive terms are equally important for effectively understanding terms. The theory of communicative terminology is an important theoretical innovation and expansion on the basis of traditional terminology, which further deepens people's understanding of the complexity of term naming and its use. Terms translation is different from the word translation in the general sense. Its essence is the secondary naming process after the spread of term-related concepts across languages. The essence of ancient Chinese official terms translation is also the interdisciplinary secondary naming process of ancient official terms. The translator should not only deeply understand the term concept in the source language context, but also spread it to the destination language context. In this process of cross-linguistic and cultural communication, translators need to examine the concept and attributes of the source term, and also need to examine the cultural cognitive context of the destination language audience. This kind of terminology theory attaches importance to the concept, charology and communication of the terms in the specific context, and can more fully reflect the multidimensional complexity and dynamic characteristics of the terms used in the real context, rather than still examining the terms in the glossary.
3.2 Application of Communicative Terminology in Terminology Translation Communicative terminology is a new research direction of terminology only in the early 1990s. Unlike traditional terminology research, the theory holds that the traditional terminology is only part of terminology research. The theory of communicative terminology advocates the study of terminology from the communicative perspective and the two factors involved- -communicator and communicative context. Although the doctrine has been founded for nearly 30 years and has received great response in Latin America and southern Europe. Its founder, Cabre, also won the VEST Special Contribution Award for Terminology in 2007, the main works and academic propositions of communicative terminology are mostly published in Spanish Catalan or French, so they are rarely mentioned in the domestic academic circles. In recent years, some Chinese scholars have also studied the term translation based on the theory of communicative terminology. Zhang Peng (2011) questioned the theory of communicative terminology from the perspectives of cognition, linguistics, sociology and communicology. The article believes that the terminology theory must cover large and flexibly in order to fully describe the multifaceted characteristics of the term.Chen Xiangmei (2017) discussed the generation, theoretical proposition, theoretical characteristics and research objects of communicative terminology. The article believes that communicative terminology is the criticism and inheritance of traditional terminology theory, and its contribution to the study of terminology cannot be ignored.Liu Shifeng and Wei Xiangqing (2021) used the theory of communication terminology to study the translation of ancient Chinese scientific terminology. Starting from the perspectives of conceptual significance, context significance and cultural significance, the paper aims to solve the definition, qualitative and naming problems of ancient Chinese scientific and technological terms, and improve the effectiveness of cross-domain communication of terms. To sum up, the theory of communicative terminology has been applied in term translation, but mostly with abstract theoretical discussion, and it is very rare to use theory to solve the guidance of specific term translation. Therefore, there is still a lot of room for using communicative terminology to solve the problem of specific terminology translation.
Multiple Context of Official Term Communication in Ancient China
正文. Based on the theory of communication terms, ancient Chinese official term naming and the use of communicative multiple context, involves the concept context, language context and cultural context, the concept context is a term as a concept representation symbol, and the influence of language context and cultural context reflects the terms of the common word common attributes. These three contexts have an influence on the communicative process of using terms, as do the naming and use of ancient official terms.
4.1 Concept Context The term is the name of a concept, reflecting the essential attributes and characteristics of a concept. Term translation is an interlingual quadratic nomenclature of terms, and this nomenclature needs to consider the body of knowledge of the source term, the conceptual system context. Both terms and concepts are the basic units of expertise in a certain discipline, and the sum of the discipline's expertise constitutes a conceptual system, and they have certain internal logical relations between these basic units. The concept system of ancient Chinese official positions constitutes the concept system context of ancient Chinese official positions terms. In ancient China, official position involved many factors such as function, status, identity and affiliation, and had the superimposed complexity of abstract cognition and meaning. It is difficult to grasp the specific meaning of official position comprehensively and accurately from the literal meaning only. One important embodiment of the long centralization system is the centralized and comprehensive administrative system. Take the establishment of the central official positions in the early Song Dynasty as an example. In view of the province, the ministry, the temple and the supervision were in the idle state for a long time, a relatively stable relevant functional institutions were set up to block the arbitrariness of the assignment in the late Tang Dynasty and the five Dynasties. That is, in the old institutions, the new institutions, such as the Ministry of Household and Industry, and the Ministry of Civil Affairs, the East and West Court, the capital, and the Ministry of War; and with the secretary and secretary, and the secret pavilion (Chongwen Yuan), and so on. It not only made a large number of old officials in the later weeks without practical duties, but also promoted a large number of civil officials who could serve for the new regime. The translation of official positions, such as "magistrate east" and "flow", " depends on the understanding of the whole six departments, rather than literally alone. Take the establishment of local officials in the early Song Dynasty as an example. In the Order of the Tang Dynasty, "the governor and the county magistrate should check the action" means that in the Tang Dynasty, even after the Rebellion, the state and county governor and the county magistrate had not changed. In the vassal territory, although its power was controlled by the section of the town. However, after entering the Song Dynasty, in order to deprive the local envoys, governor and other powers under the control of the military officials, the local prefectures, prefectures, magistrate, magistrate, governor, the governor of the state; the county magistrate in its name, used for the selection of county officials, must not be the civil minister county magistrate. Understanding the changes of the whole official position system produced by the alternation of the Tang and Song dynasties helps us to grasp the mutual relationship between "governor", "magistrate", "magistrate" and "governor" and supervision " more clearly, and determine the specific concept of official position from the system in the conceptual context.
4.2 Language Context The formation and movement of the system itself is a dynamic historical process. China's official service system existed in ancient times, but different dynasties had different historical backgrounds, including the inheritance of the previous dynasties and the innovation based on the own dynasty. The official service system showed dynamic changes. At the same time, the legal official positions will inevitably change accordingly with the development of national politics, economy and military affairs. For example, without touching the establishment of the emperor, and strengthen the central local control, expand the establishment, add new official positions, such as informal official positions, but enjoy salary; official rank, "officer" and "post" separation, officials do not deal with actual things, official positions only indicate their status; official power is hollowed out, as temporary posts and other posts; executive system people do not follow the legal system, abuse of power, impact the fixed official system, causing disorder; In order to strengthen the power of the central government, new positions to replace old ones. The above phenomena have caused the phenomenon of dynamic changes in the official service system, so the role of the context is particularly important. Take the local garrison envoys, observation envoys and group training envoys of the Tang Dynasty as an example. For example, the state financial revenue and expenditure is completely separated from the Ministry of households, the left Tibetan Treasury, Taifu Temple, the central government relied on the emperor directly appointed by the three temporary envoy (the ministry of household, degree minister, salt and iron envoy), the transfer of local finance for the control of the town, the central government order whip beyond, the financial management presents a pair of chaos: After arriving in Germany, the world rose up. Because of hunger and disease, people were exhausted and the territory was empty. The use of the military, back to the branch, transport; four square levy town, and self-sufficiency in the integrity, the regiment practice. Collection of the division of the number of four, mo xiangtong photo, outline big bad. The imperial court could not destroy the envoys, and they could not destroy the states. Four contributions, learned into the internal Treasury, powerful officials, because of the fate, public trust to offer, private for the stolen goods, move ten million plan. Henan, Shandong, Jingxiang, Jiannan heavy troops, all self-support, Wang Fu into few.
4.3 Cultural Context
The birth of any name always has its origin, and so is the name of the official name. Open the ancient literature, it will find, the official name from ancient to the end of the feudal era, summed up there are three named forms, one is the ancient period marked by "auspicious" as the official name, one is based on the "five elements" of heaven and earth four officer, and finally is the most important one is on the job for the content of the official name.
From the ancient books, we find that the historical records of the ancient times have the color of the myth, so both the relevant forms of the official system and the official names also have certain mythological elements. The thought of the official system in ancient times is completely the embodiment of the ancient philosophy of heaven."The way of heaven" is the law of the operation of the celestial bodies. The survival of all things in man and nature is largely subject to a large extent by the time, which is the experience summed up when people coexist with nature- - "prosperity is chang, reverse is death". This understanding has become the basis of people's original world outlook, reflected in the official system is to "conform to the day" as its ideological criterion, and the appearance of the five elements of the official name is the concrete embodiment of this ideology.
Contextualized Translation Strategy of Ancient Chinese Official Terms
There is a general consensus on the importance of contextual factors in translation practice and theoretical research. However, in the practice of terms and their interlanguage translation, the influence of contextual factors has not attracted enough attention. To sum up, this study attempts to put forward the following contextualization strategy for the translation of ancient Chinese official terms, reflecting the special requirements of term translation as a cross-language secondary naming practice, and specifically involves the three practical stages of term translation, namely, the practice process from cross-language positioning and definition to the final naming.
5.1 Term Translation and Positioning Based on the Conceptual Context The concept system of the cognitive official position helps to recognize the connotation of the official position concept and the relationship between the concepts. China's feudal autocratic system is extremely powerful, the emperor is the master of the country, "poem" said: " Pu heaven under the king soil, the rate of the soil shore is not the king minister."In the official system is the palace affairs and state affairs are one. The emperor was the son of God, with all the power, and the ministers who helped the emperor govern the world were divided into these parts, one is for the emperor, the central administration and local officials: one is the important ministers between the emperor and the administrators, who directly influence the formulation and implementation of policies. This three-point method is due to macro considerations, but in fact, many different official positions are their own micro system, and the translation of individual official positions in the system cannot be separated from the consideration of the whole system. For example, in the Han Dynasty, the official positions of the capital gate were the gate marquis, the gate Sima, the gate captain, the gate leader, etc. The official names of the official positions were complicated, and their sizes were different. In order to ensure the accuracy of the term, it was necessary to have an accurate grasp of each official position.The Gate Marquis guarded the twelve gates of the capital; the Gate Sima assisted the supervision of all the gates, and was the head of the whole guard. Therefore, their rank from large to small is the gate captain, gate Sima, gate hou. He Kai translated it into Commandant of the Capital Gates, Command er of the Capital Gates and Commandant of the Capital Gate in the Dictionary of English and Chinese Officials. The three translations are only subtle differences, but they reflect the translator's precise grasp of the whole gate guard system.
5.2 Defining of Term Translation Based on Linguistic Context
Ancient Chinese official terms show the characteristics of dynamic change and polysemy at the level of language characters. Therefore, the author should accurately grasp the text context of the terms in the process of translating official terms, and clearly define them to accurately grasp the conceptual connotation of the terms. Take the official position of the Tang Dynasty as an example. The initial section is in charge of military needs, to the later collection of military and political finance in one, to the late Tang Dynasty is the exclusive power. It can be said that although the name of the official position is unchanged, the function of power has changed dynamically. The governor of the Tang Dynasty was translated as "Military Commissioner" in He Kai's grand dictionary, while in China's Cosmopolitan Empire: The Tang Dynasty, the governor was translated as military governor, warlords, governor, provincial governor, and regional military governor. The author has not the same real power in different periods, and the translation of the degree power is different.
The rise of independent military governors after the An Lushan rebellion made the northeast a permanent center of resistance to the Tang court (14) “安史之乱”后独立的藩镇节度使的崛起使东北部分地区成为永久对抗唐王朝的中心。（12）
The An Lushan rebellion ushered in a era of regional powers dominated by warlords and administrators of monopolies. (58) “安史之乱”是藩镇节度使和具有垄断权力的专使控制地方权力的新纪元开端。（51）
One of them, the governor of Huaixi, cut the canals that carried the capital’s grain supply from the southeast.(62) 其中之一是淮西节度使，切断了承载政府东南漕粮供应的运河。
Provincial governors would command only the troops of their own prefecture, which contained their central army, and non-Chinese troops.(65) 藩镇节度使只能指挥其所在州的部队，包括自己的亲兵和胡人部队。（58）
The power of regional military governors, the rise of the salt monopoly, and the new role of eunuchs in the court’s military establishment all challenged these ideals.(263) 地方节度使的权力、食盐专卖的加强、宦官在军队中的新角色都挑战了这些观念。（239）
From the above examples, we can see that the establishment of the official name went through a long selection process. When it acts as a legal official name, it may have experienced several dynasties, such as governor, governor, works lang and so on. The content of the official name changes with the development of the society, the change of dynasties and the official system, so it is impossible to correspond between the official name and the position one to one. Therefore, in order to ensure the accuracy of the term translation, we need to use the language context.
5.3 Term Translation and Name Determination Based on Cultural Context Ancient official names mainly had three language forms: demonstrative language, demonstrative language, and schematic language. Display language and demonstration language are relatively specific in language expression, while the schematic language is an official name with a certain meaning, which is generally not seen from the literal word. Like yu Lin, rock lang, tongdepartment, chang qiu and so on. And the most is the name of the general, such as the general of the cavalry, General Guoyi, General Zhiwei, General Renwu, General Xinwu, etc. The titles of a large number of generals are praise and praise. There are also words taken from the scriptures as official names, such as: Shu Ji Shi, Yu virtue, division industry, Dengyong, etc., which also have a certain meaning. Secondly is the official name reflects a certain system, such as the appointment system with "false, photo, record, lead, power, knowledge" and other words on the official name; reflects the etiquette system such as please, wine, Honglu, etc.; and is the Chinese feudal society unique customs, said the name system in the official name. Therefore, when the translator can make the final name of the term interdisciplinary translation, he can adopt the cultural compensation strategy, that is, to supplement the necessary cultural information, effectively reduce the cultural cognitive load of the readers, reduce the cognitive impairment, and ensure the effective dissemination of the knowledge of the relevant terms and concepts. For example, the translation of the academician academy. Hanlin Academy official name, Tang Xuanzong Kaiyuan setting, by literature, classics, divination, medicine, monk, calligraphy, chess talent, divided into academician to zhao, academician worship, etc.; Kaiyuan 26 years (738) Tang Xuanzong to academician worship to academician, set up the academy, to help the emperor draft decree documents, act as a servant consultant, politics, etc. The Hanlin Academy translated into "Hanlin Academy" and "Hanlin Academy" based on the cultural context is very necessary, and the audience will be easier to understand the word "Hanlin". For ancient Chinese official terms with rich cultural information, it is necessary for translators to supplement the necessary cultural context information in the translation process.
Conclusion
This paper first introduces the application of English translation and communicative terminology in ancient China. Based on the theory of communicative terminology, this paper discusses the multiple contexts of the official terms in ancient China. The translator should adopt contextualized translation strategies for different contexts. The conclusions are as follows: This paper makes an effective supplement to the translation research of ancient Chinese official terms translation, fills in part of the gap in the research of ancient Chinese official terms, and puts forward suggestions on the multiple context of official terms. The discussion and study of official translation in this article will provide more reference for official translation in other books. In addition, this paper studies the official terms in ancient China from the perspective of communicative terminology, has some innovations in the selection of translation theory, and summarizes the contextualized translation strategies of official terms. The conceptual system of cognitive official positions helps to recognize the connotation and the relationship between official position concepts. Many different official positions have their own micro systems, and the translation of individual official positions in the system cannot be separated from the consideration of the whole conceptual system. Ancient Chinese official terms show the characteristics of dynamic change and polysemy at the level of language characters. Therefore, the author should accurately grasp the text context of the terms in the process of translating official terms, and clearly define them to accurately grasp the conceptual connotation of the terms. In the final naming of term cross-language translation, translators can adopt a cultural compensation strategy, that is, to supplement the necessary cultural information, effectively reduce the cultural cognitive load of readers, reduce cognitive impairment, and ensure the effective dissemination of conceptual knowledge of relevant terms.
References
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英语笔译 周皓熙 Zhou Haoxi 202170081612
Abstract
Rhetorics is widely used in every language, aiming to get the best possible expression. The research on Rhetorics is wide worldwide but to go down to the Rhetorics in China, we can name too many. Prior to the early twentieth century, people studied mainly various social sciences, which can be basically grouped into two main categories: The handling of human relationships; Practical problem solving. Rhetoric belongs to the handling of human relationships, which is an important part of general education, a study that determines the ability to communicate efficiently, and a knowledge that is common to the majority of famous historical figures. The text is mainly on introducing the Rhetorics in China in specific ways.
Keywords:
Rhetorics China Language Communication
1. What is Xiuci (Rhetoric) Rhetoric is a discipline of linguistics. "Xiu" originally meant to modify and "Ci" meant words used in arguments, and later "Xiuci" was extended to all words. Therefore, the original meaning of rhetoric (Xiuci) is to modify speech. It is also a linguistic activity in the process of using language, using a variety of means to receive the best possible expression. In fact, since the emergence of language, human beings have had the need for rhetoric. For example, it is a way to decorate one's writing and language, to attract the attention of others, to deepen their impressions and to express emotions. Rhetoric, on the other hand, is the art of increasing one's persuasiveness and influence through effective speech and writing. Prior to the early twentieth century, people studied mainly various social sciences, which can be basically grouped into two main categories: The handling of human relationships. Practical problem solving. Rhetoric belongs to the handling of human relationships, which is an important part of general education, a study that determines the ability to communicate efficiently, and a knowledge that is common to the majority of famous historical figures.
2. What is Rhetorics
Rhetorics is the study of rhetoric, which is an artistic technique to enhance the effect of words or sentences
2.1 The traditional view of rhetoric: rhetoric is the modification of words and the beautification of language.
The so-called "rhetoric", according to its literal meaning, means "modify words". For thousands of years before the establishment of modern Chinese rhetoric, "rhetoric" has always expressed such a meaning, and the study of rhetoric is the study of the means and techniques of decorating and beautifying literature.
2.2 Modern view of rhetoric: rhetoric is the adjustment of rhetoric or the choice of synonymous forms.
The publication of Fa Fan 《修辞学发凡》marked the establishment of the modern view of rhetoric in China, which added scientific connotations to rhetoric on the basis of inheriting the traditional view of rhetoric. Mr. Chen Wangdao(陈望道) points out that "rhetoric is originally a means of conveying meaning and sentiment, mainly for the purpose of meaning and sentiment... It is merely an effort to adjust the language and rhetoric to make it appropriate for conveying meaning and sentiment". Here are two points worth noting: one is that rhetoric is the adjustment of "language", while "language" is the opposite of "rhetoric", and emphasize "rhetoric" was to make it appropriate to convey the meaning and sentiment, which means that rhetoric pursues an appropriate language expression that is in line with the meaning of the situation, rather than the pursuit of flamboyance, which corrects the traditional view that rhetoric. This corrects the traditional one-sided idea that rhetoric is the pursuit of magnificent algae. On the basis of this definition, Chen put forward the concept of positive rhetoric, which corresponds to the traditional rhetorical style of rhetoric, and negative rhetoric, which corresponds to the plain rhetorical style of seeking "quality" as opposed to rhetoric.
3. Introduction to the development of rhetoric
3.1 Development of Rhetoric in China
From ancient times to modern times, the study of Chinese rhetoric has ignored the rhetorical phenomena in oral language and popular literature, and the object of study has been the written poems, words, chapters, which was the so-called "elegant words" in the historical canon. The two most influential works are: Liuxie's "Wenxin Diao Long" (刘勰的《文心雕龙》), which was written in the early 6th century AD, at the end of the Qi Dynasty and the beginning of the Liang Dynasty(南朝齐末梁初), and consists of 10 volumes with 50 articles. The 5 essays in volume 1 are a general discussion of the origin and basic principles of rhetoric and chapters, and play on the basic ideas of "The Quality of the Text and the Phase of the Capital"(《质文相资》). The 20 articles in volumes 2~5 list 20 literary genres, including poetry, fu and other literary genres, as well as historical biographies, treatises, and even practical genres such as imperial edicts, memorial to the throne, etc. Each genre not only describes its origin, but also evaluates the works of its predecessors. The 15 books in volumes 6 to 8 deal with style and technique, including, as we now call it, diction. The following two volumes contain 10 articles on the identification of diction, including a chapter on the relationship between diction and society in the "Preface to the Times"(《时序》). This is a masterpiece that carries on from the past to the future. It is the summary of the study of rhetoric and chapter since the pre-Qin dynasty, and the first to study the study of rhetoric and chapter for more than 1000 years afterwards.
3.1.1 Ancient China
Chen Yi's Wen Ze (陈骙的《文则》) was written in the sixth year of Qian Dao in the Southern Song Dynasty (1170). It subdivides metaphors into 10 categories: direct metaphors, metaphors, analogies, interrogative metaphors, pairs of metaphors, wide metaphors, simple metaphors, detailed metaphors, quoted metaphors, and virtual metaphors(直喻、隐喻、类喻、诘喻、对喻、博喻、简喻、详喻、引喻、虛喻), which is the most detailed of ancient rhetorical works. It does not only talk about what should be, but also what should not be, or what should be in what situation. It also talks about the rhetorical effect of words that are used in the rhetorical sense. These are important additions to the various works on rhetoric sinnce the "Wenxin Diao Long", and they have influenced later generations to modern times. It is believed that the Wenzhi is the first monograph on rhetoric in history that is worthy of the name. Beginning with Ouyang Xiu's "Liuyi Poetic Discourse"(欧阳修的《六一诗话》) in the Northern Song Dynasty, a large number of works on poetry, words, and literary discourse and works on essay composition appeared one after another through the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties. 3.1.2 Modern times and before the founding of New China In the early 20th century, around the time of the May Fourth Movement, there was a major development and breakthrough in the study of Chinese rhetoric. It was mainly manifested in two aspects. First, it introduced or referred to the rhetoric of Europe and Japan, and began to establish a systematic rhetoric of Chinese. The second is the gradual introduction of modern Chinese rhetoric, which is the object of study of modern vernacular languages. From the 1920s to the 1930s, a number of monographs on rhetoric appeared one after another. The following three kinds can be cited as representatives: Tang Yue's "Rhetorical Patterns" (1923)(唐钺《修辞格》). It mainly refers to the traditional European rhetoric and is devoted to rhetorical patterns (see Rhetorical Patterns). Chen Wangdao's " Fa Fan" (1932) (陈望道《修辞学发凡》). This book refers more to Japanese rhetoric, but has its own originality. It inherited and carried forward the tradition of referring to flaws and mistakes in Wenze and Wang Ruoxu's Hu Nan Ru Lao Ji （王若虚《滹南遗老集》）of the Yuan Dynasty, and distinguished rhetoric into positive and negative rhetoric; it inherited the tradition of ancient writings on rhetorical techniques such as metaphor, exaggeration, and even-likeness, and referred to the rhetorical grammar of the East and West, and classified them into 38 grammars; these have had great influence on the study of Chinese rhetoric since then (see Chen Wangdao). Wang Zhen's "Rhetoric of the Chinese Language" (1935) (汪震《国语修辞学》) is entirely in the vernacular. In the first chapter it is stated that "Mandarin rhetoric is limited to the standard Chinese language, which is neither a dialect of a certain place, nor a Classicial chinese language that can be used for reading only... We are living human, and we speak living human's words. If we could use living human words vividly without mistakes and misunderstandings, ' Rhetoric of the Chinese Language' could be counted as useful" This point was in tune with the historical situation of the Mandarin movement at that time. 3.1.3 After the Establishment of New China After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, there were some new developments in the study of rhetoric. Those parts of the Wenzhi and the Hu Nan Ru Lao Ji that correct errors and refer to fallacies, as well as those parts of Rhetoric Fa Fan that are summarized as negative rhetoric, are intertwined with grammar in many places. The interrelationship between grammar, rhetoric, and even logic is closer in a non-formal language like Chinese than in Western languages. This fact was gradually perceived by the scholars of linguistics, which led to the conception and attempt to combine them for the purpose of application. In 1951, Lu Shuxiang and Zhu Dexi published their "Address on Grammar and Rhetoric"(吕叔湘、朱德熙《语法修辞讲话》). The so-called rhetoric here is more focused on the negative rhetoric described in "Rhetoric Fa Fan", which is told in conjunction with grammar. In the preface of the monography, it is clearly stated that the main task of the book is to "correct the errors and the vulgarities" (see Address on Grammar and Rhetoric). In the 1950s, there were more references to Soviet academic developments. At that time, the Soviet rhetoric community had a distinction between rhetoric of language and rhetoric of art. In view of the fact that ancient Chinese rhetoric had a tradition of speaking about syntax and word syntax, and the close relationship between grammar and rhetoric in Chinese, some people also made an attempt to refer to the so-called linguistic rhetoric, and to incorporate certain elements of word usage and sentence formation into rhetoric in terms of positive expressive effects. In the 1960s, the linguistic community initiated a study of rhetoric in the Chinese Language(《中国语文》). In the 1960s, a discussion on rhetorical research was initiated in the Chinese Language. Some new ideas, attempts and visions emerged. In 1979, Guo Shaoyu's New Inquiry into Chinese Grammar and Rhetoric(郭绍虞《汉语语法修辞新探》) was published. This was another work that attempted to integrate grammar and rhetoric. In the 1980s, the study of Chinese rhetoric was revitalized. Many scholars of the younger generation were exploring new ideas from different perspectives. Some of them are exploring Chinese rhetorical techniques, especially rhetorical patterns, more extensively and deeply; some of them are focusing on the comprehensive study of modern Chinese, including the study of modern Chinese rhetoric and rhetorical monographs; some of them are focusing on the study of rhetoric in the works of modern and contemporary writers; some of them are trying to explore practical rhetoric, or essayology, which is closely related to writing training; some of them are focusing on the different communicative functions of different genres. Some of them focus on the so-called functional rhetoric, which explores the different communicative functions of different genres; some focus on the so-called discourse linguistics, which is at the edge of grammar and rhetoric, with the use of coherent language as the object of study, and so on. It will take time to mature. However, the situation already makes people foresee that one or several new systems of Chinese rhetoric are being nurtured and some new fields are being opened up.
3.2 Development of Rhetoric in the West In the West, the development of rhetoric has roughly gone through four periods: (1) the period of flourishing, from the fifth century B.C. to the second century A.D.; (2) the period of stagnation, from the gradual decline of the Roman Empire in the second century to the eve of the Renaissance; (3) the period of ups and downs, from the sixteenth century to the early nineteenth century; and (4) the period of innovation, from the early twentieth century to the present. 3.2.1 The period of prosperity From the fifth century B.C. to the second century A.D., there was a period of rhetorical prosperity in ancient Greece and Rome. In this period, rhetoric was integrated with oratory and separated from dialectic. It was the art of persuasion, the study of the means of persuasion and the way of debate, and focused on three types of oratory: political deliberation, courtroom debate, and ceremonial ornamentation, including the five major components of argument, arrangement, style, recitation, and delivery. There were famous courtroom orators, eloquent orators and teachers of rhetorical persuasion, such as Croax, Gorigas and Cicero, while Aristotle's Rhetoric and the Roman writer Quintilian's Principles of Oratory are the classics of this discipline and the source and mainstream of Western rhetoric. The systematic study of the art of persuasion was born in Sicily as a result of the courtroom debates that emerged from the political revolution that overthrew the oligarchy and established democracy. Colas and Tisias were the first renowned teachers of rhetoric who taught young people the art of persuasion, and although their teaching was not systematic, it nevertheless included a variety of techniques and training and arrangements useful for oratory. The great impact of eloquent rhetoric on the public is well demonstrated. Later, Goghias further developed the rhetorical ornamental features of rhetoric and developed a style of prose filled with beautiful verse, metaphors, stunning vocabulary, and short sentences with a fine balance of long sentences. As E. M. Cope points out in his book The Rhetoric of Aristotle, sophistry rather than truth, and the splendor of vocabulary rather than the rationality of argument were the goals of the early teachers of rhetoric. In contrast, Socrates, the great eloquent speaker of truth, was not a mere pile of rhetoric, but rather a masterful use of question and answer techniques. The fundamental difference between Socrates and the teachers of rhetoric, however, is that they had very different goals in mind. Whereas the aim of the rhetorical teachers was to teach young people how to gain power through eloquence, Socrates taught them the way to truth. Rhetoric, Gogicus declared, is the art of persuasion in the courtroom and in the council. For Socrates, on the other hand, rhetoric was not a real art, but merely sophistry. In his monograph Rhetoric, Aristotle gives a clear definition of rhetoric: rhetoric is the art of discovering ways of persuasion in any subject matter, and can be applied to various methods in prose and poetry, such as debating, moral, emotional, and just methods. He divided three types of speeches: (l) the political municipal style, which is applied to parliamentary and municipal meetings, etc., (2) the courtroom debate style, which is applied to courtroom arguments, and (3) the ceremonial algory style. In the book, he also explores some rhetorical patterns, such as explicit metaphors, metaphors, and similes. And paying attention to different levels of audience, he argues that the speech is not only composed of the speaker and his topic, but also includes the audience that the speaker faces. 3.2.2 The period of stagnation From the gradual decline of the Roman Empire in the second century, through the long Middle Ages, to the eve of the European Renaissance, this was a period when Western rhetoric went from flourishing to stagnation and even degradation. Although rhetoric, grammar and logic were included as the "three arts" and occupied an important place in the university curriculum at this time, rhetoric had no great achievements either in theory or in practice. 3.2.3 The period of ups and downs The Renaissance revived classical rhetoric, and from the sixteenth century to the early nineteenth century, rhetorical monographs and textbooks were produced. Leora
wrote The Art or Craft of Rhetoryle, and Thomas Wilson published The Art of Rhetoric. However, they can be broadly divided into three categories, namely: the traditional school, which adheres to the classical rhetorical model; the French school of Peter Ramus, which focuses only on phrasing and stylistic style, while attributing logic to the establishment and layout; and the school of rhetoric, which is mainly interested in the naming and classification of rhetorical patterns. The whole rhetoric was too much in favor of rhetorical classification and tedious mechanical methods, and gradually fell into decline. So much so that Samcul Butler, the 17th century English satirist poet, ridiculed the rhetoricians for their entire code of rules and regulations, which was nothing more than teaching people to name the tools in their hands.
3.2.4 A period of innovation In the early twentieth century, the development of modern linguistics, modern Western philosophy, psychology, aesthetics, and literary criticism created the conditions for the emergence and development of modern rhetoric. But the revitalization and innovation of Western rhetoric really began in the 1930s. The French linguist Charles Bally, in his Traite de Stylisique Francaise, published as early as 1905, explored the expressive power of the various elements of the linguistic system. The English linguist Richards. (In his book The Philosophy of Rhetoric, I.A. Richards proposed that the new rhetoric he advocated is the study of "the understanding and misunderstanding of words and their remedies. "In order to delve into the various ways of expressing ideas, it is necessary not only to discuss the different effects of processing the larger units of discourse on a macro level, but also to examine the basic units of meaning and their interrelationships on a micro level. He advocated that if the key to the old rhetoric was "persuasion," the key to the new rhetoric is that both sides of the communication seek to be intellectually, emotionally, and attitudinally The key to the new rhetoric is that both sides of the communication seek to "equate" in terms of reason, emotion, and attitude, whether in terms of intention, structure, style, or wording, as a rhetorical device to produce the desired effect in the reader's audience. At the same time there is the Belgian philosopher Chiam Perelman who advocates a "new rhetorical school" based on persuasion and debate. In addition, the phenomena of style and expression have become a common subject of interest for linguists and literary critics. In Western Europe and the United States, stylistics has emerged as a linguistic theory and approach to the study of language and style. In the former Soviet Union, the study of various functional corpora, especially literary corpora, has become the main body of modern rhetoric. The use of mathematical and statistical methods, the rise of discourse chapter rhetoric, and the interdisciplinary study of rhetorical theory and rhetorical phenomena have added vitality to modern rhetoric and made it increasingly systematic and diversified.
4. Introduction and examples of Chinese rhetoric
There are 63 major categories and 79 subcategories of rhetorical devices. It is a way to improve the effect of language expression by modifying and adjusting statements and using specific expression forms. I will introduce several Chinese Rhetoric methods in the following part. . 4.1 Metaphor 1、Definition Metaphor, i.e. a rhetorical method that indicates two things of different degrees of similarity between each other, using one thing to compare another thing. 2、Structure A simile is generally composed of three parts, namely, the subject (the thing or situation being compared), the metaphor and the simile (the iconic word of the metaphorical relationship). 3. Classification According to the similarities and differences of the three parts of the metaphor structure and the implicit features, there are four types of metaphors. (1) Explicit metaphors. Both the body and the metaphor appear, and the metaphorical words "like, like, if, as if, as if, as if, like, as if ......, as if ...... The metaphors are connected by the words "like, as if, as if, as if". The common form is "A is like B". For example, the leaves come out of the water very high, like the skirt of a pavilion dancer. (2) Allusion. The metaphor is connected with the metaphor "is, becomes, constitutes". A typical form is: "A becomes B." For example, the square is a sea of snow-white wreaths, and the monuments have been piled up into snow-white hills. In addition, there are some variants of allusion to be noted ① Modifying allusion: The metaphorical relationship between the subject and the metaphor is realized in the form of modifying and being modified, restricting and being restricted. For example. This is a sea of flowers. ②Implied metaphor: The metaphorical relationship between the subject and the metaphor is expressed in the form of the same compound reference. For example: Old King, don't pour soup. ③Commentary metaphor: The metaphorical relationship between the subject and the metaphor is expressed in the form of commentary, often connected by dashes. The siren sounded. The lid of the red brick "can" - the iron door pushed open ...... (3) metaphor. The metaphor is a direct description of the metaphor, without the presence of the body and the metaphor. The typical form of metaphor is "A for B". For example, the most detestable ones The snakes and beasts have eaten up our flesh and blood. (4) Metaphors. Several metaphors are used together to describe an object. For example: A huge white lilac put its flowers on the gray 8 corrugated roof, like snow, like jade, like splashing waves. (5) Back metaphor:Also known as mutual metaphor, it is a form of metaphor that uses metaphor as the ontology and then uses the ontology as the metaphor to set up metaphors with each other. It has a twist and turns, which can enhance the artistic impact. Example 1: The street lights were bright from afar, / as if they were shining with countless stars. / The stars in the sky are now, / as if they were lit with countless street lamps. ("The Market in the Sky") Example 2: At that time, the mine made a terrible rattling sound, like thunder, no, more terrible than thunder. (The Dialogue of Coal) (This is a kind of roundabout metaphor, which proposes the metaphor "thunder", then negates the metaphor, and finally proposes the metaphor again. After affirming, negating and negating again, it strengthens the distinctness of the metaphor.) Example 3: My teacher took my small hand with her big gentle hand and didn't let go of it for a long time. I knew that my teacher was expecting my answer, my vow, my progress. It was, a warm stream injected into my heart! No, it was a spring rain that sprinkled me with my head held high. (Such a flat affirmation, a steep suppression and denial, and then a sudden affirmation, back and forth, so that the lyric dripping.) 4、Role (1) metaphorical reasoning is simple and easy to understand, so that people can easily accept. (2) The metaphor can make something badly imagined concrete, and it can be illustrated by other similar things, so that people can understand it more clearly. (3) Metaphors can make the general things visualized and give people a deep impression. (4) It plays the role of modifying the article. (5) to make things image, vivid, highlight the characteristics, render the atmosphere, side by side. 5、Composition conditions The subject and the metaphor must be essentially different things, otherwise, it is not a metaphor. If a sentence is not a metaphor, you can't look at the metaphor alone. The following are a few examples of sentences that are not metaphors. (1) His character is like his mother - similar things for comparison (2) It's dark and dreary as if it's going to rain - an expression of speculation (3) Do not go to work with the burden of thought - the metaphorical meaning of the word 6、Commonly used metaphors like, as if, if, as if, like, seem, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, like, as the same, into, is, into 4.2 Exaggeration 1. Definition In order to achieve a certain expression effect, the method of deliberately expanding or reducing the image, characteristics, function and degree of things is called exaggeration. 2. Types (1) Enlargement exaggeration. It is a form of exaggeration that deliberately makes things "bigger, more, higher, deeper, stronger". For example: The difficulty of the Shu Road is more difficult than the sky. (2) Narrowing exaggeration. Deliberately put the objective facts "small, small, low, shallow, weak" and other exaggerated techniques. For example: Wumeng pounding away the mud pills. (3) Exaggerate ahead. The future results of a thing may appear in the future to describe the present state of this thing, or the future state of a thing to the present state before the exaggeration technique. For example, the farmers said, "When I see such green wheat fields, I can smell the fragrance of white bread." "The powdered face contains the power of spring without revealing it, and the lips of the dan are smiling before they open." (Cao Xueqin, "Dream of the Red Chamber", Qing Dynasty) 3. Role Distinctly express the author's emotions and attitudes towards things, highlight the essential features of things, set the mood, enhance the infectious power, and enhance the vividness of language. 4. Attention to problems when using (1) Exaggeration is not pompous, it must be reasonable and not detached from the basis and foundation of life. (2) exaggeration and the truth must have a certain distance. Otherwise, it is not clear whether it is telling the truth or exaggerating. (3) exaggeration should pay attention to the application of the occasion. Serious reports, reports, scientific and technical explanatory articles, reasoning articles and other styles of writing, should not use the rhetoric of exaggeration. 4.3 Prose Arrange three or more sentences that are similar in structure and length, consistent in tone, and related or identical in meaning. Effects: To strengthen the rhythm and atmosphere of the language, to enhance the rhythm and organization of the text, and to facilitate the expression of strong feelings (expression effect). To enhance the language momentum, to highlight a certain feature of something, to express a certain emotion of the author. Example sentence: Their quality is so pure and noble, their will is so tough and strong, their temperament is so simple and humble, their mind is so beautiful and broad. 4.4 Repetition In order to highlight a certain meaning and emphasize a certain feeling, a certain word or sentence is intentionally repeated. Repetition is to repeat certain words or sentences in order to emphasize a certain meaning or highlight a certain emotion, and the focus of expression is on the repeated words or sentences. Function: It is mainly used in poetry to express strong emotions by repeatedly chanting. At the same time, the rhetorical technique of repetition can also make the format of the poem neat and orderly, but also undulating, full of linguistic beauty. ⒈ continuous repetition (no other words in between). Example sentence: the valley echoes, he just left, he just left. ⒉Repetition Example sentence: as if the loss of the three provinces, the more the party state is like a country, the loss of the three eastern provinces who do not sound, the more the party state is like a country.
4.5 Pairs A pair of phrases or sentences with equal number of words, the same or basically the same structural form, and symmetrical meaning, expressing two opposite or similar meanings. Effects: neat and proportional, rhythmic, highly general, easy to remember, and musically beautiful. Main ways. 1、Pairing. The upper and lower sentences are similar, similar, complementary, and contrastive in meaning. For example, the reed on the wall is heavy at the head and light at the bottom; the bamboo shoot on the mountain has a thick mouth and a hollow stomach. 2、Opposition. The pairing of the upper and lower sentences that are opposite or opposed in meaning. For example: . Cross-eyed cold to a thousand fingers, bending the head willingly for the children's cattle. 3、String pair (running pair). The upper and lower sentences have the meaning of succession, progression, cause and effect, assumptions, conditions and other relations of the couplet form. Example sentence: . I drank the water of Changsha and ate the fish of Wuchang. 4.6 Questioning In order to attract the attention of others, deliberately ask a question first and then answer it yourself. Strong emotion. Effects: To attract attention and inspire readers to think; to make the hierarchy clear and compact; to allow better description of the characters' thought activities. Strengthens the tone, highlights what is going on, expresses a certain emotion of the author. Example sentence: Why is the flower so red? It has its material basis in the first place. 4.7 Rhetorical question Also called provocative question, rhetorical question, cross-examination. It expresses a definite meaning in the form of a question, a negative in the form of an affirmative rhetorical question, and a positive in the form of a negative rhetorical question. Effects: To strengthen the tone, to make people think, to stimulate the reader's feelings, to deepen the reader's impression, to enhance the momentum and persuasive power of the text. To strengthen the tone, highlighting what is, expressing a certain emotion of the author. Examples What about me, don't I have something to blame? 4.8 Borrowing Instead of directly stating the person or thing to be expressed, borrow someone or something closely related to it. Types of borrowing: feature instead of thing, concrete instead of abstract, part instead of whole, whole instead of part. Effects: To highlight the essential characteristics of things, to enhance the image of language, to make the writing simple and concise, language rich in variety and humor; to draw people's imagination, so that the expression receives the effect of outstanding image, distinctive features, concrete and vivid. Methods. ①Part for the whole. That is, the representative part of the thing is used in place of the main thing. For example, the green hills on both sides of the shore are opposite to each other, and a lone sail comes by the sun. --- "Looking at Tianmen Mountain ②Replacement of the whole with characteristics. That is, to use the borrowed body (people or things) characteristics, signs to replace the name of the body things. For example: If you love fine waist and pink legs, you have a dance floor. (Mao Dun, "Words of Modernization") ③ Concrete instead of abstract. That is, the abstract concept is replaced by a concrete thing related to the abstract concept. For example: The beacon in the South is in its tenth year. --(Three Chapters of Meiling) (4) Tool instead of ontology. For example, when the earth is plowed in the season of jingxing, eight out of ten families have already lit up the bottom of their hoard and cannot uncover the pot. --The Rice of Elm Money ⑤ The proper name is used instead of the general term. The name of a typical person or thing is used instead of the name of the thing itself. For example: If you kill one Li Gong Park, millions of others will rise up! -- "The Last Lecture" Identification of metaphor and borrowing 4.9 Antithesis The original meaning is expressed in words or sentences that are opposite to the original meaning, to enhance the effect of expression by saying the opposite. Some of them are sarcastic and revealing, while others express close and friendly feelings. For example: (The foreign students in the Qing Dynasty) also have disbanded braids, coiled flat, and remove the cap, the oil can be seen, just like a little girl's hair bun, and twist the neck a few times, really beautiful. ("Mr. Fujino") 4.10 sense The rhetorical method of using the psychological phenomenon of mutual communication of various senses to describe and express one sense to another. Function: The use of generic sense can receive evocative effects, and its expressive effect is irreplaceable. It can turn abstraction into image, so that readers can better understand; it can evoke rich associations from this to the other; it can be unconventional and lively; it can express accurately and have far-reaching meaning; it can enrich the mood of poetry and constitute a special artistic beauty. 4.11 Puns The use of multiple meanings of words and homophonic (or near-sounding) conditions, intentionally make the statement have a double meaning, the words in this and the meaning in the other, that is, puns. The pun can make the language subtle and humorous, and it can deepen the meaning and give people a deep impression. 4.12 Top Truth Use the end of the previous text for the beginning of the following, the first and last connected more than twice, so that the adjacent statements or fragments or sections pass down to the next, the first and last cascade, expressed in symbols is "ABC, CDE". This rhetorical technique is called top-true, also known as thimble or joint pearl. The use of top-true rhetoric, not only can make the structure of the sentence neat, the tone is consistent, and can highlight the organic link between things interlocking. 4.13 Intertextuality Also called intertextuality, it is a rhetorical method often used in ancient poetry. In ancient texts, the meaning belonging to one sentence (or phrase) is divided into two sentences (or phrases), and the meaning of the upper and lower sentences are explained to complement each other, which is intertextuality. The ancient explanation of it is: "The reference to the mutual text, containing and seeing the text." Specifically, it is a form in which the upper and lower sentences or two parts of a sentence, which seem to say one thing each, actually echo each other, elaborate each other, and complement each other, say the same thing. For example. Qin Shi Ming Yue Han Shi Guan 4.14 Loopback To put it simply, to loop is to read the same thing in the same way. The loop is the organization of the preceding and following phrases into the same circular form of shuttle, in order to express the connection between different things. The loop can make the statement neat and proportional, reveal the dialectical relationship of things, and make the language incisive and alarming. For example. The water in the Lingshui Lake rings; the gold in the Golden Valley is golden. The Buddha mountain incense to respect the Buddha mountain; Weng Yuan milk to raise Luyuan weng. 4.15 拈连 The rhetorical technique is called xianlian (niān lián), when two things are described together, the words originally applied only to things A are used to things B. This rhetorical technique is called xianlian, also known as "smooth". The use of the flicker can make the context closely linked to natural, vivid and profound expression. Example Sentences Example (1): Bees are making honey, and they are making life. Example (2): The moon is like a hook when I go up to the west tower alone without words. The moon is like a hook. The lonely wutong tree is locked in the deep courtyard in the clear autumn. Li Yu (A Meeting with Joy) Example (3): Don't look at me as deaf, but my heart is not deaf! ...... 4.16 Comparison 1. Concept The rhetorical way of writing is to simulate thing A as thing B. It includes several forms of writing things as people (anthropomorphism), writing people as crops (anthropomorphism) and writing this thing as another thing (anthropomorphism). In fact, the former form is to "humanize" things, the latter two forms are "object" or "object A B object". 4.17 Parallelism In order to make the sentences compact and concise, the ancients often used the method of parallel mentions to line the text. The so-called "parallel mention" is generally to put two related things side by side in one sentence to express. For example, "Zhong and Li did not commit a single crime, but died". (Shi Ji. This sentence means: "If Zhong did not commit a single crime, he died; if Li did not commit a single crime, he died. (Go away, flee)". If we take the word "death" here as a word to understand it is wrong. According to the historical facts, the one who committed suicide was Dafu Zhong, and the one who fled was Fan Li. 4.18 Transfer Transfer is a rhetorical way to transfer the word used to describe thing A to modify thing B when the two things are related. Example The rhythm of the buildings in the square is actually harmonious. (Using the word "harmony" to describe music to modify "architecture") 4.19 Contrast It is a rhetorical way to compare two opposing or opposite things, or two different aspects of a thing, side by side. The function of contrast is to make the good appear better and the bad appear worse at the same time. There is a man who is alive and he is dead; there is a man who is dead and he is alive. 4.20 Mirroring In order to highlight the main thing, the rhetorical method of describing the things that are related to it first as a companion to set it off. This rhetorical method is divided into positive and negative, according to the relationship between the things that are presented and the things that are set off. The main thing and the accompanying thing change in the same direction. The desolate and depressed environment and atmosphere are used to set off a sad mood. Contrary: The main thing and the accompanying thing change in the opposite direction. Use "...... but I thought the boat was slow" to contrast the eagerness of "I" [2] 4.21 Cascading
Cascade is one of the traditional rhetorical patterns in Chinese; cascade is also called gradual, progressive. According to the logical relationship of things, three or more similarly structured phrases, sentences, paragraphs express in the number, degree, scope, etc., the proportion of light and heavy, high and low size of the end, in order to layer increasing or decreasing rhetorical techniques. The layers are divided into increasing (ascending) and decreasing (descending) two categories. Incremental (ascending): the order of the layer of progression, from small to large, from light to heavy, from shallow to deep, from low to high, layer by layer. Decreasing (descending) type: the order of the layers, from large to small, from heavy to light, from deep to shallow, from high to low, decreasing layers. Derived meanings. 1, layer by layer progression. Yan Fu's "original strong": "China's people today, its strength, wisdom, morality, if we talk about it, it is the accumulation of thousands of years of layers of progression, the essence of the mountains and rivers and the terroir of the difference, the guidance of the penal and religious customs of repeated changes, Taojun furnace hammer and into this last one of the realm." 2、Delivered step by step. The Qing dynasty history manuscript - criminal law three: "Where the lawsuit outside the state and county level delivery to the governor, within the total in the three law division." 3、A kind of rhetorical pattern. Use the same or similar structure of the phrase to express the meaning of the progression of layers. For example: after knowing the stop and in the fixed, fixed and can be quiet, quiet and can be safe, safe and can consider, consider and can get. --Zeng Zi, "The Great Learning
Reference
[1]姜平: 中西修辞学发展初探[J], 四川教育学院学报, 1998(1), 48-50. [2]许红菊: 汉语修辞与发展[D], 湖北: 华中科技大学，2012.