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202270081625 白婷 Bai Ting 英语笔译(English translation)

Drinker' Wager Game

白婷 Bai Ting, 202270081625

Abstract

The drinkers' wager game is a particular method in China to help create a more joyous atmosphere while drinking. In general, the drinkers' wager game is used as a penalty to urge drinkers to drink more, but its primary purpose is to create a more cheerful atmosphere. This article aims to introduce the origin and development of the drinkers' wager game and expound its categories detailedly.

202270081703 蔡思 Cai Si 日语笔译(Japanese translation)

Land Boat Dance

                                                                                                       CaiSi蔡思 202270081703

202270081627 陈婧 Chen Jing 英语笔译(English translation)

Chinese Surnames and Clan Names

Chen Jing 陈婧, 202270081627

Abstract

China has a long history of surnames and clan names, which is closely connected with national politics, social system, characteristics of the times, marriage system, customs and so on. Therefore, the evolution of Chinese surnames and clan names together with their origins and types can help us better understand Chinese culture.

Key Words

surnames, clan names, evolution, origins, types

题目

中国的姓与氏

摘要

中国的姓氏历史悠久，与国家政治、社会制度、时代特征、婚姻制度、风俗习惯等密切相关。因此，了解中国姓氏的演变、起源和种类可以帮助我们更好地了解中国文化。

关键词

姓，氏，演变，来源，种类

Ⅰ. Chinese Surnames and Clan Names

Before Han Dynasty, surnames and clan names were separate definitions in China. The Chinese character of “surname”, namely “姓”, is composed of the characters “女” and “生” (“女” refers to “female” and “生” refers to “give birth to”). The surname comes from the maternal line and the clan name from the paternal line. In matriarchal society, human beings only knew their mother but not their father, and the surname represents a person's maternal lineage. Most of the ancient Chinese surnames have the "女" side, such as Ji(姬), Jiang(姜), Si(姒), Yao(姚), Hao(好), etc., which reflects the close relationship between the "surname" and the matrilineal lineage. With the social development and the multiplying population, the advantages of male in production and warfare continued to emerge. Clan groups emerged strong male leaders who wanted to distinguish his own group with a certain title, and this is where the "clan name" comes from. Clan names such as Xuanyuan(轩辕), Shennong(神农) and Fuxi(伏羲) in ancient legends reveal its origin. (Yu Chang 2014, 58)

Ⅱ. The Evolution of Chinese Surnames and Clan Names

Before the Zhou Dynasty, emperors only had surnames, and the upper classes had surnames and clan names, while ordinary people didn’t have surnames or clan names, only the first name. Things changed during the Warring States period when clan name was no longer the privilege of the upper class. From then on, especially after the First Emperor of Qin unified China in 221 BC (Li Qinghua 2012, 10), clan name and surname were fused into the last name or surname. It was in Han Dynasty that all Chinese surnames and clan names were treated as surnames, which was a turning point in the evolution. After a long period of development, there are numerous Chinese surnames with diverse origins and different types. (Lin Dengping 2014, 87) So, how many surnames are there in China? 468 surnames are collected in Surnames, written in the early years of Northern Song Dynasty. A total of 6362 surnames are found in various historical documents according to modern statistics, but it can be asserted that not all these 6362 surnames are still used now. Some of them were just used in history but for a very short time. (Tian Yaqi, Ni Jingjie 2001, 46)

Ⅲ. The Origins of Chinese Surnames and Clan Names

The origins of Chinese surnames can be summarized as follows.

1.Take the names of vassal states as surnames, like Xia(夏), Qi(齐) and Lu(鲁).

2.Names of fiefdoms. Officials and scholars of the court were rewarded fiefs for their contribution to the states. Then the names of the fiefs were used as their surnames, such as Cui(崔), Lu(卢), Bao(鲍), etc.

3.Names of residents. For example, the one who moved to Ji Mountain was called "Ji clan"(稽氏); the one who took charge of the East Mongolia was called "Meng clan"(蒙氏).

4.Surnames given by the ancient emperors. They were also based on the names of residents. The surname Jiang(姜) was given to those who lived along the Jiang River and Ji(姬) was given to those who lived along the Ji River.

5.Take the order of different generations or the seniority order of the same generation as the surname. In the first case, the son of a vassal was surnamed as Gongzi(公子), and the son of a Gongzi was called Gongsun(公孙). Surnames like Bo(伯), Zhong(仲), Shu(叔), Ji(季) belong to the second case.

6.Posthumous names. Zhuang(庄), Kang(康) and Xuan(宣) are from them.

7.The titles of family. According to The Spring and Autumn Annals, descendants whose ancestor received a posthumous name can be considered a family. The Songs of Chu documented that clans like Zhao(昭), Qu(屈) and Jing(景) used the posthumous names of their ancestors as their surnames.

8.Official positions or the titles of nobility. Officials used their positions as surnames such as Taishi(太史), Taishi(太师), Sima(司马), Sikong(司空), etc. And the nobility were surnamed by their titles like Huang(皇), Wang(王) and Gong(公).

9.Take a person’s reputation as the surname. For example, a man called Yang Yinggan was beheaded and his descendants are surnamed as Xiao(枭).

10.Take skills as surnames. The descendants of those who practiced “witchcraft” (“巫术” in Chinese) were the Wu(巫) clan. A person who specialized in “divination” (“占卜” in Chinese), his descendants were surnamed as Bu(卜). The descendants of the “craftsmen” (“工匠” in Chinese) were surnamed as Jiang(匠).

11.Take events as surnames. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the old prime minister Tian Qianqiu was so old and frail that he rode in a cart (“车” in Chinese) every time he entered and left the prime ministerial palace, and everyone called him Prime Minister Che(车) at that time. Later, his descendants used "Che" as their surname. (Tian Yaqi, Ni Jingjie 2001, 44-45)

Ⅳ. Types of Chinese Surnames

The structure of Chinese surnames is relatively complex. They can be divided into 5 types.

1.Single-character surname. Most of Chinese surnames are single-character. For example, Wang(王), Li(李), Zhao(赵), etc.

2.Two-character surname. There are three kinds of two-character surname. For the first kind, the surname consists of two irrelevant characters which should be used together. Surnames like Ouyang(欧阳), Shangguan(上官) and Huangfu(皇甫) are common ones. The second kind was formed by the union of two families through marriage or adoption, which can be passed on from generation to generation. For example, Lufei(陆费), Qianwang(钱王), Fanjiang(范姜), etc. The third type is the combination of the father's and mother's surnames such as Zhangwang(张王), Lideng(李邓) and Dengguo(邓郭). The first surname usually comes from father’s and the second from mother’s. Traditionally, this kind of surname cannot be passed on.

3.Three-character surname. Such as Zhukehun(朱可浑), Buliugu(卜柳谷), Houmochen(侯默晨), etc.

4.Four-character surname. Four-character surnames account for a small share, and most of them derive from ethnic minorities, such as Aixinjueluo(爱新觉罗).

5.Multi-character surname. The emergence of multi-character surnames was also influenced by Chinese minorities, such as Hutixibuye(呼提西布也). (Lin Dengping 2014, 86)

Ⅴ. Conclusion

Chinese surnames and clan names have deep cultural and historical connotations and have a variety of origins and different types. Chinese surname culture is a key to decipher the structure of ancient Chinese society and a bond to enhance the cohesion of the Chinese nation. (Xiao Rui 215, 65-66)

References

Li Qinghua 李庆花. (2012). 中国姓名文化考略. Shandong Normal University 山东师范大学.

Yu Chang 余昌. (2014). 中国人的姓氏与名字. New Hunan Review新湘评论. (16), 57-59.

Lin Dengping 林登萍. (2014). 中英姓氏的结构和变迁对比研究. Journal of Chifeng University（Soc.Sci）赤峰学院学报(汉文哲学社会科学版)(10), 86-88.

Tian Yaqi 田亚岐, Ni Jingjie 倪景杰. (2001). 我国姓氏的起源与发展. Journal of Xi'an Educational College Journal of Xi'an Educational College 西安教育学院学报(01), 43-47.

Xiao Rui 肖锐. (2015). 论中国姓氏文化研究意义. Journal of South-Central University for Nationalities (Humanities and Social Sciences) 中南民族大学学报(人文社会科学版)(04),63-66.

Terms and Expressions

Surname 姓

Clan name 氏

Maternal line 母系

Paternal line 父系

Maternal/matrilineal lineage 母系血统

Posthumous name谥号

The title of nobility爵位

Surnames 《百家姓》

The Spring and Autumn Annals 《春秋左氏传》

The Songs of Chu 《楚辞》

Questions

1.Which surname is from maternal lineage?

A.Shennong(神农) B.Ji(姬) C.Fuxi(伏羲)

2.When did all Chinese surnames and clan names were treated as last names?

A. Zhou Dynasty B. During the Warring States Period C. Han Dynasty

3.Which is the surname of descendants of those who specializes in “divination”?

A.Wu(巫) B.Bu(卜) C.Jiang(匠)

4.What does the surname of “Che” originate from?

A.Posthumous names B.Event C.Official position

Answers

1.B

2.C

3.B

4.B

202270081628 陈淑敏 Chen Shumin 英语笔译(English translation)

Chinese Ancient Headdress

陈淑敏Chen Shumin, 202270081628

Abstract

Headdress culture is important in ancient China. Most of the ancients had long hair, and they cared about etiquette, thinking that with hair dishevelled was a very impolite behavior. Therefore, they needed to rely on headdress to take care of their hair and maintain deportment in daily life. With the continuous development of productive forces and the ancients' unremitting pursuit of beauty, the headdress developed, leaving a lot of cultural content of headdress for modern people.

202270081629 陈思阳 Chen Siyang 英语笔译(English translation)

Evolution history of ancient Bridges in China

陈思阳Chen Siyang, 202270081629

Abstract

Bridges are an important part of ancient Chinese architecture. For thousands of years, the industrious and intelligent Chinese people have built tens of thousands of wonderful and magnificent Bridges. The brilliant achievements of ancient Chinese Bridges have attracted worldwide attention. They once occupied a lofty position in the history of the development of Eastern and Western Bridges and were widely recognized by the world. However, there are many kinds of ancient Chinese Bridges, and the development and evolution process is long. This article aims to introduce the evolution history of ancient Chinese Bridges.

202270081683 陈彦希 Chen Yanxi 英语口译(English interpreting)

Online Shopping Trend in China

陈彦希 Chen Yanxi, 202270081683

Abstract

You only need to stay at home, swipe your phone, select, and purchase, and your parcels will be delivered to your hands. This is the most popular "online shopping culture". Nowadays, almost everyone could get access to the Internet, online shopping has been gradually favored by more people, becoming a convenient and fashionable lifestyle.

Key Words

Online Shopping Carnivals; E-commerce; Development Trend of Online Shopping

题目

中国网购风潮

摘要

足不出户，刷手机、选购、付款、送货到手……这种隔空取物的购物方式就是时下最流行的“网络购物文化”。随着网络大规模进入普通家庭生活，网络购物已逐渐受到更多人的青睐，成为一种便捷而时尚的生活方式。

关键词

网络购物节；电子商务；网购发展态势

Introduction

Where does online shopping come from? The Internet was first born in the United States, and then Americans put shopping on the Internet, forming the new shopping mode -- online shopping (OS). In China, Jack Ma borrowed from American online shopping sites such as eBay and Amazon and founded Alibaba. After that, online shopping in China (OSC) began to develop.

Online shopping carnivals, also known as Black Fridays, in a short period of time, to achieve large-scale promotions of goods, quickly improve brand image, and significantly increase product sales, especially in countries like China (Zeng et al.,2019). For example, Alibaba’s Double 11 online shopping carnivals grew from 2009 to 2019 by at least 27% year-on-year, reaching a total transaction volume of 74.1 billion USD in 2020, almost double compared to 2019, with more than 250,000 Chinese and international brands being sold and 2.3 billion orders processed (Alibaba Group,2020; Yu et al.,2018).

Reasons for the Development of Online Shopping in China

OS is a new consumption mode that connects merchants and consumers through the Internet. More and more people choose OS for the following reasons.

(1) Cost-effective price As a new way of shopping, OS does not need to rent shops; at the same time, many products are sold directly by manufacturers, which reduces some unnecessary links between production and sales, making the price lower than that of physical stores. (Yan, 2010)

(2) Abundant commodities Compared with traditional physical stores, online stores have a complete range and rich categories. An online shop is a collection of goods from all over the country and even abroad, to meet the different needs of different people.

(3) Convenience OS is not limited by time and space. In addition, OS relies on logistics transportation, and goods are delivered by couriers, which not only saves shopping time but also simplifies shopping methods.

(4) Herd mentality Some groups (such as students) are influenced by the surrounding environment and have the illusion of needing something and blindly follow the trend to buy certain goods. (Ren, 2019)

Development Trend of Online Shopping in China

(1) OS has increasingly become the mainstream consumption mode As we all know, with the development of the Internet, people's consumption patterns and living habits are changing. OS has become more and more the mainstream consumption pattern and living habits of people.

(2) Rapid penetration of e-commerce The rapid penetration of e-commerce is more obvious in various industries, so more people gradually choose and favor OS, completing the evolution from “the love of a few people” to “national online shopping carnivals”.

(3) Rising popularity in the third- and fourth-tier cities The influence of OS is penetrating from coastal areas to inland areas, and netizens in third- and fourth-tier cities will become the next wave of online shopping carnivals. (Zhang, 2011)

(4) China will continue to lead the world in online shopping A report from the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) says China's online shopping market is the largest in the world.

The Harms of Online Shopping Cannot Be Ignored

(1) Online shopping takes up a lot of living expenses OS mainly adopts Alipay, Huabei, and other payment methods, so the real situation of cash flow cannot be seen, and the payment of funds often exceeds the estimated cost. Many students and office workers even need to repay their “debt” at the beginning of a month and save money in the middle and at the end of the month.

(2) The process of online shopping rights protection is tedious Some goods online have serious quality problems, and even some merchants sell fake goods. Many people encounter this situation and communicate with the seller, the seller refuses to admit or the seller agrees to return the goods for a refund, but the consumer should bear the postage. Although some people know how to protect their rights, because of the long process and cumbersome procedures, the end is not settled. (Ren, 2019)

(3) Security problems of online shopping When purchasing goods online, you need to present your name, address, mobile phone number, and other important information to both the seller and the OS platform. Once mobile phone numbers are leaked, harassing calls and spam text messages will appear from time to time, which affects people’s normal life.

Conclusion

At present, OSC is in the third stage of rapid development, the consumer group is expanding, and consumers are more and more accustomed to OS, which increasingly becomes a way of life. In the next 3 to 5 years, the structure of OSC will be stable, favorable factors will increase, and unfavorable factors will be gradually improved. The development momentum of OSC is good.

References

Alibaba Group. (2020). Alibaba Generates RMB498.2 billion (US$74.1 billion) in GMV during the 2020 11.11 Global Shopping Festival (November 12, 2020).

Müller Astrid,Joshi Maithilee,Thomas Tobias A.. Excessive shopping on the internet: recent trends in compulsive buying-shopping disorder[J]. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences,2022,44.

Yu, H., Zhang, R., & Liu, B. (2018). Analysis on consumers’ purchase and shopping well-being in online shopping carnivals with two motivational dimensions. Sustainability, 10(12), 4603.

Zeng, M., Cao, H., Chen, M., & Li, Y. (2019). User behaviour modeling, recommendations, and purchase prediction during shopping festivals. Electronic Markets, 29(2), 263–274.

任艳.高校大学生网购现状及对策分析[J].戏剧之家,2019(25):160-161.

闫振寰. “网购”渐成时尚生活风潮[N]. 张家口日报,2010-03-05(004).

张诚.淘宝“全民疯抢”看网购未来趋势[J].数字通信,2011,38(06):7.

Terms and Expressions

parcel 快递；包裹

"online shopping culture" “网购文化”

Online Shopping Carnivals 网络购物节

e-commerce 电子商务

eBay 易趣（购物网站）

Amazon 亚马逊（购物网站）

Alibaba 阿里巴巴（购物网站）

Black Friday “黑五”

Alibaba’s Double 11 online shopping carnivals 淘宝“双十一”购物节

physical store 实体店

logistics transportation 物流运输

courier 快递公司

the third- and fourth-tier cities 三四线城市

netizen 网民

the Boston Consulting Group (BCG) 波士顿咨询集团

Alipay 支付宝

Huabei 花呗

cash flow 现金流

Questions

1.(T/F)Online shopping carnivals, also known as Black Fridays.

2.What are the reasons for the development of online shopping in China?

A.cost-effective price B.abundant commodities C.convenience D.herd mentality

3.Which development trend of online shopping in China is right?

A.OS has increasingly become the mainstream consumption mode B.slower penetration of e-commerce C.rising popularity in the first-tier cities D.China won’t continue to lead the world in online shopping

4.(T/F)The development momentum of OSC is good.

Answers

Correct answers are:

1.T

2.ABCD

3.A

4.T

202270081630 陈烨 Chen Ye 英语笔译(English translation)

Chinese Dumpling Culture

陈烨Chen Ye, 202270081630

Abstract

The Chinese food culture is very profound and dumplings are one of the most representative food eaten by Chinese people from the south to north all over the year. Although vary the customs and traditions of dumplings, the only thing that remains constant is the blessing behind them. This text will describe the Chinese dumpling culture in terms of its origins, allusions, customs, proverbs, and emotional connections.

202270081631 丁粤 Ding Yue 英语笔译(English translation)

The Development of the Talent Selection System in Ancient China(except from keju)

丁粤Ding Yue, 202270081631

Abstract

Talent is one of the most valuable wealth of a country. In order to consolidate their rule over the country, the ancient feudal rulers of China successively formulated and implemented a series of talent selection systems. In order to help us better understand the development of the talent selection system in ancient China，this paper will introduce the hereditary official system, the talent selection system of the Zhou dynasty，the recommendatory system and the Nine-grade appraisal system in chronological order and analyze their influence on ancient Chinese society.

Key Words

Talent selection system；the hereditary official system；the recommendatory system；the Nine-grade appraisal system

题目

中国古代人才选拔制度的发展（不包含科举制）

摘要

人才是一个国家最宝贵的财富之一。为了巩固对国家的统治，中国古代封建统治者先后制定并实行了一系列人才选拔制度。为了帮助我们更好地了解中国古代人才选拔制度的发展，本文将按照时间先后顺序介绍世官制、周朝的人才选拔制度、察举制和九品中正制，并分析它们对中国古代社会的影响。

关键词

人才选拔制度；世官制；察举制；九品中正制

1.The development of the talent selection system in ancient China

1.1 The hereditary official system

 The hereditary official system, also known as Shiqing Shilu system, was mainly used in the Xia dynasty and Shang dynasty. It determined the appointment of government officials at all levels through family blood relationship, limited the official position to the scope of the nobility, and made sure that the descendants of the nobility inherit the power of their ancestors from generation to generation.Under this talent selection system, the vast majority of appointed officials come from the nobility, and the common people have few opportunities to become officials. With the increasing corruption of the aristocratic class, the hereditary official system gradually exposed its inherent drawbacks and was eventually replaced by the new talent selection system.（Wei Jingyuan 2014）

1.2 The talent selection system of the Zhou dynasty

 In the Zhou Dynasty, in addition to inheriting the hereditary official system of the Shang Dynasty in the rank of ministers, they began to select and appoint talents from the low-level officials and at the grass-roots level. There are mainly two kinds of methods: "Xiang Sui" and "Gong Shi". "Xiang Sui" was to recommend competent people to the imperial court every three years by local officials in the suburbs of the capital. These recommended people were either appointed or became an official after studying in a national educational institution. "Gongshi" refers to the talents contributed by the vassal states to the Zhou Dynasty. According to the Book of Rites - The King System, the King of Zhou asked the vassal states to elect Xiushi according to their villages and then promoted them to Situ, which were called "Xuanshi"; The outstanding talents of Situ would receive further education in the national public schools and they were called "Junshi". After finishing their learning, they were called "Zaoshi". Then the outstanding talents from the "Zaoshi"  were selected and reported to the King of Zhou. They would be promoted to the position of Sima and called "Jinshi". After that, the King of Zhou selected talented people from "Jinshi" and presided over the discussion of their official positions and salaries.（Wu Haiyan 2020）

1.3 The recommendatory system

 In the Han Dynasty, the feudal autocratic regime was further developed, and the previous talent selection system could not meet the needs of centralized rule, so the recommendatory system was adopted. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, a whole set of official selection system was established and developed to select talents, namely, the recommendatory system. It included regional recommendation and emperor recruitment. The system of selecting talents as officials from bottom to top was one of the most important ways of selecting officials in the Han Dynasty.The recommendatory system in the Han Dynasty mainly used "virtue and talent" as the basis for selecting talents, and "filial piety" and "incorruptibility" as its important inspection items. （Yang Xin，Yu Dandan 2014）Compared with the hereditary official system, the recommendatory system has a wider selection range and more emphasis on virtue and talent, which plays a positive role in promoting social progress and development.

In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the recommendatory system continued to be implemented. But with the vicious expansion of the powerful landlord forces, the family background became the main basis for elections. Under the situation that the system of selecting officials was becoming increasingly corrupt, a group of powerful families who had been officials for generations and controlled the central or local political power emerged, which led to the formation and development of aristocratic landlords who had been officials for generations. There was a decadent situation of "selecting talents without knowledge; selecting a person with filial piety and incorruptibility who lives apart with his father".（Du Fei 2016）

 1.4 The Nine-grade appraisal system 
 The Nine-grade appraisal system was an important talent selection system in the Wei and Jin Dynasties. It was firstly implemented in the Three Kingdoms Period and abolished in the Sui Dynasty. The local administrative departments set up "Zhongzheng" to assess the virtues and talents of local people.The assessment results are divided into nine grades. The grades were the basis for conferring officials. At first, this system was committed to solving the problem of the unification of the imperial election of officials and the village deliberation, and was a continuation of the official election tradition of the Han Dynasty.（Yang Xin，Yu Dandan 2014）
 However, at the turn of the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the system has changed. Because the position of "Zhongzheng" was monopolized by aristocratic families, the family background became the basis for talent selection. The Nine-grade appraisal system became a bureaucratic selection system to protect the hereditary political privileges of the gentry.

2.The influence of the talent selection system in ancient China

 In the long-term development of China's feudal society, the rulers of previous dynasties established a series of talent selection systems to consolidate their dominant position. Although in different historical periods, the standards and methods for rulers to select talents were different, they had the same historical role. That is, they played a huge role in maintaining the ruling position of the landlord class and promoting the development of feudal society. At the same time, although these systems are constantly changing with the changes of the times, they were unable to jump out of the locking defects of the hierarchical system, the constraints of moral ethics and the influence of feudal economy. All the talent selection system in previous dynasties have defects and loopholes to varying degrees.（Lin Suping 2010）

Conclusion

 Talents are the precious wealth of a country. We should recognize and inherit the advantages of the ancient talent selection systems and discard their feudal shortcomings. We should establish a correct concept of talents, respect knowledge and talents.

References

[1]Wei Jingyuan 韦靖源.中国古代社会人才选拔制度探析[J]. [On the talent selection system in ancient china] 黑龙江史志, Historical Records of Heilongjiang 2014(23):112-113.

[2]Yang Xin，Yu Dandan 杨鑫,于丹丹.浅谈我国人才选拔制度的演变[J].[Brief Discussion on the evolution of talent selection system in China]长春师范大学学报, Journal of Changchun Normal University 2014,33(07):26-28.

[3]Wu Haiyan 武海燕.漫谈中国古代人才选拔制度[J].[Random talk about the talent selection system in ancient China] 文史月刊, Literary monthly 2020(05):72-75.

[4]Du Fei 杜非.中国古代的人才选拔制度[J].[The talent selection system in ancient china] 人才资源开发, Talent resource development 2016(01):70-71.

[5]Lin Suping 林素萍.中国古代人才选举机制的发展历程[J].[The Development Course of Talent Election Mechanism in Ancient China] 新高考, New College Entrance Examination 2010(03):33-34.

Terms and Expressions

The hereditary official system 世官制

The recommendatory system 察举制

The Nine-grade appraisal system 九品中正制

Aristocratic class 贵族阶级

The vassal states 附庸国

autocratic regime 专制政权

filial piety 孝 incorruptibility 廉

village deliberation乡里清议

Gentry 士族

Loopholes 漏洞

In the rank of minister 在士大夫阶层

The Book of Rites 《礼记》

feudal society 封建社会

landlord class 地主阶级

hierarchical system 等级制度

Questions

1.After finishing their learning, what would "Junshi" be called？ A."Gongshi" B."Jinshi" C."Zaoshi" D."Xiang Sui"

2.Which of the following was not the talent selection system in ancient China unable to jump out of?

A.the locking defects of the hierarchical system B.changing with the changes of the times C.the influence of feudal economy D.the constraints of moral ethics

3.In which dynasty was the recommendatory system adopted？ A.Zhou B.Han C.Wei D.Jin

4.In which dynasty was not the hereditary official system adopted？ A.Xia B.Shang C.Zhou D.Wei

Answers

Correct answers are:

1.C

2.B

3.B

4.D

= = Abstract = =

Language taboo is a common social phenomenon. Every society or every nation has its own taboo language. In China, language taboos are considered as offensive as cultural ones. This paper will briefly introduce major kinds of language taboos in ancient China, hopefully to help know about Chinese cultural traditions in language use.

= = Key Words = =

Language taboo, Appellation, Name, Privacy, Inauspicious words

= = Introduction = =

In ancient China, people believed that everything was spiritual, and the language they spoke could not only be understood by normal people but also by spirits (ghosts or gods). Since people believed that they might be protected or punished by spirits according to the language they spoke, they would avoid to say words that might lead to punishments, which were known to be taboo words in ancient China. Generally, language taboos include two aspects: the worship of spiritual things, and the prohibition and substitution of improper language. (Liu Caixia, 2010) And they can also be classified into four types, which are taboo of appellation, taboo of name, taboo of privacy, and taboo of inauspicious homophonic words.(You Rujie, 1993)

= = Taboo of Appellation = =

In ancient China, family members or relatives, were often strictly addressed according to their family hierarchy and relationship.(Liu Caixia, 2010) However, there are situations where some of normal address would be replaced by other titles because of taboo.

The first reflects parents’ taboo psychology towards spirits in certain regions. Some ancient young parents worried that appellation like "father” or “mother" were too heavy for them to raise children successfully; some parents reckoned that their life were full of bad luck because of “the god of misery”, so they changed address to avoid being known by the god their relationship with children, thus their children could get rid of misfortune; others, through the eight characters of their kid’s birth, worried that there would be restrictions and conflicts between them and their kid, so the appellation of parents would be replaced by other titles. For example, in Daejeon, Fujian Province, the family title "father" is replaced by "A Shu (uncle) ", or "A Xiong" or "A Ge “(the elder brother) " and “mother” is accordingly replaced by "A Shen (aunt)” or " A Sao (the sister-in-law)”.(You Rujie, 1993)

The second mirrors taboo of unlucky numbers in appellation. For example, in the Wu dialect, it is taboo to use "four" in family address such as “Si Shu (the fourth uncle)” and “Si Shen (the fourth aunt)”. Instead, "little" would be a replacement in the title and renamed as “Xiao Shu” or “Xiao Shen”. In addition, since the pronunciation of “Er Ge (the second elder brother)” sounds the same with “Ni Gu (nun)”, people in Shanghai renamed "Er Ge " to "Er A Ge".(You Rujie, 1993)

= = Taboo of Name = =

In ancient China, taboo of name usually refers to two types of taboo.

The first taboo is to mention names of emperors and their royal family. Normally, common people could not speak out or even use the characters in those names directly. Therefore, common people’s names would be changed into other characters, so did those of places to show respect and awe to royal family. For instance, the name of Emperor Wen of Han Dynasty was “Heng”, so the name of “Mountain Heng” was changed into “Mountain Chang”. (You Rujie, 1993)

The second taboo of name is to call the birth name of the elder or a friend directly, so normally every child would be given an extra name known as “ Zi” on his or her coming-of-age ceremony for others to call as a replacement to the birth name known as “Ming”. That is why ancient people would have a surname and two given names. (You Rujie, 1993)

= = Taboo of Privacy = =

In the west, “privacy” in communication mainly involves personal information such as age, property, salary level, marital status, religious beliefs and so on. However, in ancient China, as people lived in a large family, they did not regard basic personal information as “privacy”. (Liu Caixia, 2010) Therefore, “privacy” at that time normally refers to information on private parts of the human body, such as sexual contents and excretion relating to reproductive organs. Therefore, people would avoid using words relating to those topics, as well as their homonyms and phonetic mix-ups, in daily communication, and use euphemisms instead. For instance, ancient Chinese would use “Chu gong" instead of saying “go to the toilet". When it comes to sexual topics, they would use “Tong Chuang (share the bed)” to imply the sexual behavior between husband and wife, while "Xun Hua Wen Liu (looking for flowers and asking willows)” or “Tou Ji Mo Gou（stealing chickens and thieving dogs）” would be used to imply improper sexual behavior or sexual misconducts. (Liu Xingjun, Haozhilun,1996)

= = Taboo of Inauspicious homophonic words = =

Taboo of unlucky homophonic words can be divided into three categories: taboos on special days or events (festivals or celebrations), taboos in everyday life and taboos of social stratification. (You Rujie, 1993)

Taboos on special days or events generally refer to unlucky words relating to death or other bad consequences. When ancient Chinese killed domestic birds or animals for cooking on festivals or celebrations, they would say other words instead of “kill” or “dead”. For instance, “Sha ji (to kill a chicken)” would be changed to “Fu ji（to prostrate a chicken）” and a “dead duck” would be called as “Wen ya”. (You Rujie, 1993) In addition, on the day when two ancient Chinese got married or engaged, people could not say "Chong (repeat) " and "Zai (again)”, since those words implied “marry again”, and that was considered inauspicious. (Liu Xingjun, Haozhilun,1996)

Taboos in daily life differ from regions to regions because of different regional dialects. Take Wu dialect in Zhejiang as an example, people in Jiaxing called “Jiang you (soy sauce)” as “Yan se (color)”, since Jiaxing people made sericulture as their major industry and the pronunciation of “Jiang (stiff)” implies the death of silkworms. In Haining, since the pronunciation of vinegar in the dialect was similar with that of “Cuo (wrong)”, people would call vinegar as “Ren xian” to avoid saying “Cuo”. (You Rujie, 1993)

Taboos of social stratification differ from fields to fields. For example, boatmen see “Chen (sink)” as taboo, so they would avoid to pronounce “Chen" in their daily life. When an ancient boatman filled a bowl with rice, he would call this behavior as “Tian fan (add rice)” instead of “Cheng fan”. (You Rujie, 1993) What is more, ancient monks regarded "lǘ (donkey)" as taboo, because monks are bald and hate to be called "Tu lǘ (bald donkey) ". Also, Taoist priests would avoid "Niu (bull)", because they hate to be called "Niu bi zi (bull nose) ". So, these words should be avoided when talking to people in those fields mentioned above. There are more taboo words of this kind and they mainly refer to avoidance of laughing at other people's defects. (Liu Xingjun, Haozhilun,1996)

= = Conclusion = =

In ancient China, people explained nature by means of fantasy and imagination, and prayed for blessing and avoided punishments from spirits by avoiding language taboos. From generation to generation, these language taboos have been partially handed down and become a very important part of Chinese language and culture to enable people in modern times to get a glimpse of language use in ancient times as well as Chinese traditions.

= = References = =

1.《中国文化语言学引论》游汝杰著 高等教育出版社，1993.04

2.《中国禁忌百科》刘兴均，郝志伦编著 四川人民出版社，1996.01

3.刘彩霞. 跨文化交际禁忌习俗文化研究 [D].四川师范大学, 2010.

= = Terms and Expressions = =

spirit(s) 神灵 homophonic 同音的，谐音的 Daejeon 大田（福建地名） appellation 称谓 family hierarchy 家族辈分 homonym 同音词 inauspicious 不吉利的 the eight characters 八字 phonetic mix-ups 谐音词 euphemisms 委婉语 willow 柳树 Fu ji 伏鸡 social stratification 社会分层 Wen ya 文鸭 Ren xian 人仙 Cheng fan 盛饭

= = Questions = =

1.Which two aspects do the language taboo include?

A. The worship of spiritual things B.the prohibition and substitution of improper language

C.the prohibition of improper language D.the substitution of improper language

2.How many types of language taboos mentioned in the text?

A. 2 B. 3 C.4 D. 5

3. Which name could a person have on the coming-of-age ceremony in ancient China?

A. Surname B. Ming C. Zi D. Family name

4.What did ancient Chinese say instead of “kill a chicken”?

A. Sha ji B. Wen ya C. Fu ji D. Sha ya

= = Answers = =

1.AB 2.C 3.C 4.C

The Culture of Basic Courtesy in China

高燕Gao Yan, 202270081633

Abstract

China is an ancient civilization with a long history, and has formed noble moral standards and complete etiquette norms. This paper focuses on the etiquette culture of ancient China, including, traveling, sitting and prone position, banquet, wedding and funeral, birthday party, sacrifice-offering. It will also introduce the etiquette culture of the contemporary society in China, and discuss which ancient etiquette is still used today, and how it affects our life.