20230630 final exam culture 04

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Jiang Luyun 姜露云 - Literature: Chinese Pastoral Culture

Origin and Brief Introduction

The period when the pastoral culture formally formed and developed was the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties. During this period, the trend of preserving nature and being hermits built a bridge for the development of pastoral culture. The establishment of Tao Yuanming's pastoral poetry and Xie Lingyun's landscape poetry are both manifestations of the rise of it, which belongs to Chinese traditional culture and is the embodiment and sublimation of China's "agriculture-based" culture for thousands of years.

The pastoral culture of hermits in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties considered nature worship, life respect and harmony as its priority. The pastoral life includes not only the self-sufficient pastoral life with simple clothes, local materials, but also the pastoral life with elegant artistic connotation, such as playing the musical instruments, composing music, enjoying wine, making friends traveling together, and reciting poems which is a poetic rural life.

起源和简要介绍

田园文化正式形成、发展的时期是魏晋南北朝时期，这一时期亲尚自然及隐居之风兴起，为田园文化的发展搭建了桥梁。陶渊明田园诗的创立、谢灵运山水诗的形成，都是田园文化兴起的表现，田园文化隶属于中国传统文化，是中国几千年“农本”文化的体现及升华。

魏晋南北朝时期隐士的田园文化以崇尚自然、尊重生命、追求和谐为其核心思想。 田园生活既包括素衣素食、就地取材、自给自足的田园起居，也包括意境高雅的田园休闲生活，例如抚琴作曲、把酒言欢、结友同游，吟诗作赋等，是诗化的乡土生活。

Ancient Pastoral Culture

古代田园文化

The Emergence of Pastoral Poets

There are many famous poets living in seclusion due to depression at the court in ancient time, for example, Tao Yuanming picking chrysanthemum and tasting wine, Wang Wei watching osmanthus fall in leisure, Su Shi well in inventing food and so on. Tao Yuanming pioneers the pastoral poetry in the history of Chinese literature and is the first to introduce ordinary pastoral life into the field of art. In his poems, it can be seen everywhere that he is tired of the dirty reality and has love for the quiet pastoral life, and he creates "Return to the Garden and Live" and "Peach Blossom Land" and other very famous literary works. Because of his abundant labor experience, his poems are filled with the joy of laborers and show the feelings that only laborers can feel.

田园派诗人的涌现

有很多著名的诗人因怀才不遇，在这过程中涌现了一大批田园诗人，例如，采菊品酒的陶渊明、闲看桂花落的王维、善于发明美食的苏轼等等。 陶渊明在中国文学史上首创了田园诗派,第一个把普通的田园生活引入艺术的领域。在他的田园诗中，随处可见的是他对污浊现实的厌烦和对恬静的田园生活的热爱，创作了《归园田居》《桃花源记》等极为有名的文学作品。因为有实际劳动经验，所以他的诗中洋溢着劳动者的喜悦，表现出只有劳动者才能感受到的思想感情。

The Popularity of Seclusion Thought

The word "seclusion" originates from the Book of Changes, which means to stay away from the hustle and bustle and return to one's original nature. There are mainly two kinds of understanding of seclusion. One is to live in seclusion in mountains, forests or villages quietly and far away from prosperity. The other is the spiritual retreat, that is, refuse to fight for fame and wealth, put down the obsession and leisurely live. The tradition of seclusion of Chinese poets was formed in the Jin Dynasty. Tao Yuanming is undoubtedly the most famous one who was born in a declining official family, had been a minor official for a few years, then resigned to go home and seclude from public life. Tao Yuanming uses reading, writing poetry and drinking alcohol to adjust his mind, explain the compassion of life and enjoy his daily life with poems. The deep influence of seclusion in culture stems from Chinese people's constant boredom with the world and longing for the beauty of nature and life. It reflects some primitive desire in human heart and is a choice and concept of independent and free life.

归隐思想的流行

归隐一词源于《易经》，是指远离喧嚣，返璞归真，回归本源。归隐主要有两种理解，一种是指隐居山林或乡村，远离繁华，安静地生活；另一种是指心灵上的归隐，即拒绝名利之争，放下执念，从容自在地生活。 中国诗人的归隐传统是在晋代形成的,要论中国历史上最有名的诗人隐士,毫无疑问当推陶渊明。他出生在一个没落的仕室家庭里，曾做过几年小官，后辞官回家，从此隐居不仕。陶渊明用读书、作诗和饮酒来调适自己的心理,解释人生的悲慨,将自己的日常生活诗化。 归隐思想在文化中的深入影响源于中国人一直以来对尘世的厌倦和对自然之美、生活之美的向往，体现了人类内心深处的某种原始欲望，是一种独立自由生活的选择和理念。

Modern Pastoral Complex

Pastoral complex causes cultural resonance in China and express our culture abroad successfully. Moreover, people have the idea and tendency to look for and return to the "peach blossom land" in real life.

现代田园情结

田园情结在国内外爆火，在国内引起文化共鸣和在国外形成文化输出，人们开始产生寻找和回归现实生活中的“桃花源”的想法和趋向。

Some Social Phenomena in China

The Explosive Popularity of Internet Celebrity Li Ziqi

A video of a Chinese girl named Li Ziqi returning to the villages to grow vegetables has attracted millions of viewers for her unpretentious life. She holds the attitude that people should have towards industry in the industrial age, to be dependent and reserve out own uniqueness. Li Ziqi's popularity on the Internet has made Westerners understand oriental culture and the rich spiritual culture of Chinese people, which is a very successful cultural export. In January 2020, Li was selected as one of China Women's News' Top 10 Women Figures in 2019. Li Ziqi evokes the fantasy of a return to nature that is universal in modern, urban industrialised societies transcending nationality and culture. What viewers see in her videos are the deep relationship between Li Ziqi and her grandmother, the richness of traditional Chinese food, the diligence and wisdom of the Chinese people, and the yearning for the poem of Tao Yuanming thousands of years ago, which says, "I gather chrysanthemums in the fence at the east and leisurely see the mountains at the south." Audiences have different skin colors, languages and cultural backgrounds, but they share the same needs: to live a simple and happy life, to love and to be loved.

一些中国社会现象

网红李子柒的爆火

一个叫李子柒的中国女孩拍摄自己归田种菜视频，这种朴实无华的生活吸引了百万人围观。她告诉了人们工业化时代，对于工业应该有的态度：适当依赖，但也要保持自己的独特性。 李子柒在外网的爆火让西方人了解了东方文化，了解了中国人丰富的精神文化，是非常成功的文化输出。2020年1月，李子柒入选《中国妇女报》“2019十大女性人物”。 李子柒唤起了现代工业化都市社会的人类对重返自然的一种具有普世价值的幻想，它跨越了国籍和文化。观众从她的视频中看到的是李子柒和奶奶之间的深厚感情，是中国传统美食的丰富多彩，是中国人民的勤劳和智慧，是对几千年前陶渊明诗中“采菊东篱下，悠然见南山”的向往。观众拥有不同的肤色、语言和文化背景，但却有着共同的需求：过上简单幸福的生活，爱人，也被人爱。

Relevant Literary and Artistic Works Are Highly Sought After

Pastoral television series such as "Go Where the Wind Blows" and "Menghualu" are well received. These TV dramas are not too ups and downs, but the selected scenes, such as tea shops in the Ming Dynasty and Dali in China, have their own characteristics. In this beautiful scenery, food and beauty, people can find long-lost warmth, which plays a role in healing the heart and soothing the soul. The story is simple but let people relaxed and happy, the scenes are common but can make people smile. Literary works about pastoral life, such as Wang Zengqi's Grass and Trees In the World, and some online "farming articles", have surged in page views. The farming literature first describes how the main characters establish their own base areas, and then build scientific, economic, military and political systems in their territory. It is similar to farmers' hard work in farming for a living. We can appreciate the thought of escaping the fantasy and immersing in the illusion of the yearning and comfort as Tao Yuming felt in seclusion.

相关文艺作品备受追捧

《去有风的地方》《梦华录》等田园剧反响良好。

这些电视剧选择的场景例如明朝茶肆、中国大理各具特点，在这种美景美食美人之中，人们能找到久违的温暖，起到治愈人心，抚慰灵魂的作用。简单慢节奏的剧情却让人轻松愉快，会心一笑。 有关田园生活的文学作品类似汪曾祺的《人间草木》以及一些网络“种田文”的阅读量暴增。 种田文即先集中描述主角如何建立自己的根据地，然后在自己的领土上搞科技、经济、军事、政治制度建设的过程，类似农民辛辛苦苦种田过日子，文章于虚幻中带着“悠然见南山”的向往与欣慰。

The Mode of Running a Farmhouse Burst Into Flames

"Fishing, woodcutting, ploughing and reading" refers to the popular way of living in the traditional pastoral culture atmosphere, which is also the theme image presented by the pastoral culture. The idyllic and artistic conception created by them is fascinating, and it is a symbol in the traditional Chinese culture. In modern times, "fishing, woodcutting, ploughing and reading" has evolved into similar cultural experience projects such as waterfront recreation, farming and picking. There are a lot of real version of "happy farm" on the market, and the people who inquire about it are also in an endless stream. The smell of soil and flowers coming from the countryside, the vast land and fresh green food are a great appeal to the people who have been living in the city for a long time. Therefore, the farmhouse projects such as picking locally grown vegetables, eating meals made by local people and living in farm houses are welcomed as soon as they are launched. It fully embodies people's extreme yearning for idyllic life and freedom.

农家乐爆火

“渔樵耕读”是指传统田园文化氛围中的平民化生存方式，也是田园文化所呈现的主题形象，它们所营造的田园牧歌般的意境令人神往，是中华传统文化中的一个符号，到现代，由“渔樵耕读”演变出滨水休闲、种田采摘等类似的文化体验项目。 市面上出现了很多现实版的“开心农场”，咨询租赁的人也是络绎不断，乡村田园扑面而来的泥土气息与花香，广阔的土地和清新的绿色食品，这种生活方式对久居城市的人们产生了极大的吸引力，因此，摘农家菜、吃农家饭、住农家屋等农家乐项目一推出便受到欢迎，充分体现了人们对田园生活的恣意和淡泊自如的向往。

Why are Chinese people so fond of pastoral life?

为什么中国人对田园生活情有独钟？

A Pursuit for Belonging and Stability

Pastoral life is the product of Chinese agricultural civilization, which represents a sense of belonging and stability. Chinese civilization is rooted in farming. Due to the characteristics of "relying on the land to eat" of farming economy, the changes of natural resources and conditions without directly determine people's living conditions. Therefore, "ploughing" is on a par with "reading" in the eyes of scholars, and farming has been sublimated as one of the ideals that scholars pursue all their life. The countryside of the Chinese people is the common emotion in the depth of consciousness: Tao Yuanming resigned his official to return to the countryside; Zhuge Liang ploughed in Nanyang; Su Dongpo was banished to farming in Lingnan……From the cultivation of sentiment to the pursuit of spirit, the countryside is endowed with endless imagination by the ancients. Returning to the countryside and enjoying the simple life of plain food is a conjunct pursuit deep in the consciousness of the Chinese people.

向往归属感和稳定性

田园生活是中国农耕文明的产物，代表的是一种归属感和稳定性。中华文明根植于农耕文明。由于农耕经济所具有的“靠天吃饭”特性，自然资源和条件的变化直接决定着人们的生存状况，因此， “耕”与“读”在文人眼中享受平等待遇，耕种已经升华为文人毕生追求的理想之一。 中国人的田园是意识深处的共同情感：陶渊明辞官归田园、诸葛亮躬耕南阳、苏东坡被贬岭南种地……从情操的陶冶，到精神的追求，田园被古人赋予了无尽的想象，回归田园、享受粗茶淡饭的简单生活这是中国人意识深处的一种共同情感。

An Inherent Connection Between Chinese and Ground

The idea of farming practice in the field advocates "the unity of nature and man and the nature of Dao". In addition, "living on the land" means that people's life is adhered to the land, which is reflected in the social form of "people never leaving the soil" and the harmonious relationship between man and nature generated around the land. It means that there is an inherent connection between human and nature which has healing and soothing effects on human. Therefore, Chinese people adopt a friendly attitude towards nature, control human behavior and make reasonable use of nature. At the same time, the countryside is also a place of spiritual comfort. The poets find people of similar interest and values in the pastoral landscape, establish a close relationship, dispel the sense of tragedy in life, and find a haven to rest in their hearts. Therefore, the pastoral culture is rooted in the life of Chinese people and has influenced the value choice and national character of Chinese people.

中国人与土地的固有联系

农耕实践的思想观念倡导“天人合一，道法自然”。此外， “以土为生”意味着人们的生活是粘连在土地上的，表现为“人不离土”的社会形态和围绕土地而产生的人与自然的和谐关系。这就意味着人与自然之间存在固有联系，自然对人有疗愈和抚慰作用。所以对待自然中国人采取的是一种与自然为善的态度，节制人类行为、合理利用自然。 同时，田园还是人们心灵安抚的处所。诗人在田园山水中找到同类与知己,建立了亲睦关系,消解了人生的悲剧意识,心灵得到安慰与栖息。所以田园文化是根植于中国人的生活中并且影响了中国人的价值选择和民族性格。

Questions

1.Is the pastoral life on par with rural life?

2.When does Chinese pastoral culture form?

3.Who pioneers the pastoral poetry in the history of Chinese literature?

4.Does the word "seclusion" originate from the Book of Changes?

5.Why are Chinese people so fond of pastoral life?

Answers

1.No.

2.In the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties.

3.Tao Yuming.

4.Yes.

5.Because of the pursuit of stability and the coherent relation between Chinese and the ground.

References

[1] 费孝通.《乡土中国》[M].人民出版社，2008

[2] 归隐是什么意思？，www.fuwutb.com（2023-04-12）

［3］喜迎第十一次全国文代会 | 李子柒：时代给了我一阵风，中国文艺网微信公众号（2021-11-23）

［4］《去有风的地方》刘亦菲、李现主演定档，能否再造一万《梦华录》人气，搜狐网（2023-01-15）

［5］金庸.射雕英雄传[M].香港：明河社，1976

Wu Songyun 吴松芸 - Architecture: Paifang

吴松芸 202130092100 翻译专业

Abstract

This essay delves into the cultural significance and architectural beauty of paifang, traditional Chinese gateways that hold deep historical and symbolic value. By examining the origins, design elements, cultural symbolism, and contemporary relevance of paifang, this essay seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of these remarkable structures and culture identity behind them.

这篇文章深入探讨了牌坊的文化意义和建筑之美，牌坊是中国传统的门楼，具有深厚的历史和象征价值。通过研究牌坊的起源、设计要素、文化象征和当代意义，本文旨在全面理解牌坊的建筑结构和它的文化蕴意。

Keywords

Paifang; Chinese gateways; Memorial Archways; Landmarks; Cultural identity

牌坊；中国门楼；纪念拱门；地标；文化认同

Introduction

Paifang, also called pailou, is a Chinese archway or gateway usually made of wood or stone. It is well-painted and sometimes adorned with glazed tiles. Some are located in downtown areas serving as grand entrances to various locations such as mausoleums, temples, bridges, and parks, while others were built to commemorate historical events or famous figures, demonstrating Chinese feudal ethics and traditional norms. With its distinctive design and symbolic meanings, paifang has become an emblematic feature of Chinese architecture and an integral part of the country's rich cultural heritage.

牌坊，又称牌楼，是中国的拱门或门楼型建筑，通常由木材或石材制成。它们绘制精美，有时还镶嵌有釉瓷瓦。一些牌坊位于市中心，作为通往陵墓、寺庙、桥梁和公园等各个地点的入口，而其他一些则是为了纪念历史事件或名人而建造的，展示了中国封建伦理和传统规范。凭借其独特的设计和象征意义，牌坊已成为中国建筑的标志性特征和丰富文化遗产的重要组成部分。

The Origin and Development of Paifang

Hengmen(衡门)

The origin of paifang can be traced back to the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) when Hengmen (horizontal beam gate) consisting of two pillars and a horizontal beam was used as the simplest gate to a home. The earliest record of Hengmen can be found in a poem from The Book of Songs compiled in the Spring and Autumn Period, which states, "Under the Hengmen, one can find peace." Thus, paifang inherited Hengmen's function as an entrance.

牌坊的起源可以追溯到周朝（公元前1046年-公元前256年），当时衡门（由两根柱子和一根横梁组成的横梁门）是家门的最简单的形式。衡门的最早记录在编纂于春秋时期的《诗经》中，其中有一首诗写道：“衡门之下，可以栖迟。”牌坊由此继承了衡门作为入口的功能。

Wutoumen(乌头门)

From the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC-476 BC) to the Tang Dynasty (618 AD-907 AD), residential areas in Chinese cities adopted a system of "li and fang," which divided the city into several square areas according to their functions. Each fang was separated by fang walls, which had a gate called Wutoumen (black top gate). The name originated from the black pottery used to cover the top of the two posts of Hengmen, making them waterproof. Some Wutoumen incorporated the characteristics of elaborately carved Huabiao, a type of ornamental pillar commonly found in traditional Chinese architecture, adding more aesthetic value to the gate. Therefore, the simple and crude Hengmen evolved into Wutoumen.

从春秋时期（公元前770年-公元前476年）到唐朝（公元618年-公元907年），中国城市的居住区采用了“里坊制”，根据其功能将城市划分为几个方形区域。每个方区域由墙隔开，墙上有一道门，称为乌头门。为了防水，门的两根柱子的顶部套上了黑筒瓦，因此得名。一些乌头门融合了精雕细琢的中国传统建筑中华表的特点，为门增添了更多的美感。因此，简陋的衡门逐渐演变成了屋、乌头门。

Lingxingmen(棂星门)

During the Song Dynasty (960 AD-1279 AD), Wutoumen was replaced by Lingxingmen (a gate used to pray for a bountiful harvest). At that time, it was especially used to worship and show respect for Confucius. Lingxingmen no longer served as a common door but acted as a symbolic structure. When the door panels on the Lingxingmen were not necessary, the door panels are removed, thus Lingxingmen retained only the two pillars and the horizontal beam acting as the lintel. The changing function gave rise to the new towering style of the paifang, where the pillars significantly surpassed the lintel in height. It is during this time that paifang changed into a memorial architecture.

在宋朝（公元960年至公元1279年）时期，乌头门被棂星门所取代（棂星门是用来祈祷丰收的建筑）。当时，它主要用于崇拜和表示对孔子的尊敬。棂星门不再是普通的门，它成为一种象征性的建筑结构。门扇变得多余而被移除，只保留两根柱子和作为横梁的门槛。这种功能的变化导致了新的高耸式牌坊风格，其中柱子的高度明显超过了门槛。正是在这个时期，牌坊演变成了一种纪念性的建筑。

Paifang and Pailou(牌坊和牌楼)

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the construction of paifang reached its peak. The style and structure of paifang are much more dynamic than those of Lingxingmen. Constructors started to design connected paifang with more pillars and gates, with the center two pillars being taller than the ones on the sides. To add more grandeur to the paifang, the lintel is intricately carved with dragons, phoenixes, or other exquisite patterns. Small Dougong (bracket sets) and roofs were also added to the horizontal beam, creating a multi-pillar, multi-gate, multi-roof paifang. In Chinese, pillars are called "zhu," the spaces between two pillars are called "jian," and the roofs represent "lou," which means buildings in Chinese. The most typical paifang is the one with three rooms/gates, four pillars, and three roofs, called "San jian si zhu san lou”(三间四柱三楼)in Chinese. In general, there is no distinction between pailou and paifang today. However, from a strict architectural perspective, paifang with roofs should be called pailou because a structure with a roof is referred to as a building, and "lou" in Chinese refers to buildings.

在明清两朝期间，牌坊的建设达到了顶峰。牌坊的风格和结构比棂星门更加富有活力。建筑师设计出联合牌坊，增加了更多的柱子形成了多门的牌坊，中间的两根柱子比两侧的柱子更高。为了增添牌坊的壮丽气势，门柱上雕刻了龙、凤或其他精美的图案。门梁上还加入了小斗栱和屋顶，形成了多柱、多间、多楼的牌坊。在中文中，柱子称为"柱"，两根柱子之间的空间称为"间"，屋顶为"楼"。最典型的牌坊是有三间门、四根柱子和三层屋顶的，中文中称为"三间四柱三楼"。在当今，我们没有对牌楼和牌坊进行严格的区别和划分。然而，从严格的建筑角度来看，带有屋顶的牌坊应该被称为牌楼，因为带有屋顶的结构被称为建筑物，而中文中的"楼"指的是建筑物。

Cultural Meanings of Paifang

With its magnificent appearance and rich cultural background, paifang serves as a distinctive architectural feature at the entrances of temples, scenic areas, tombs, and as memorial archways to commemorate great achievements.

As landmarks, paifang symbolize the solemnity and reverence of a place. They were often erected at a distance from large temples in ancient times to remind people to show respect and behave appropriately. For example, the paifang at the Yueyang Academy in Changsha is located by the riverside, a significant distance away to mark its location. Similarly, when approaching a city, a paifang called "Wu Li Pai" in Chinese would be erected three to five li (a Chinese unit of distance) away to indicate the arrival at a specific city. However, as cities expanded, these paifang were often incorporated within the city limits.

牌坊拥有宏伟的外观和丰富的文化背景，也成为了许多寺庙、风景区、墓地的入口大门以及纪念伟大成就的独特建筑。

作为地标，牌坊象征着一个地方的庄严和尊敬。在古代，它们经常远远建在大寺庙前，以提醒人们要肃穆庄严。例如，为了标示书院的位置，长沙岳阳书院的牌坊建设在距离书院较远的河边。同样，在接近一座城市时，会建造一座被称为"五里牌"的牌坊，以表示即将到达特定城市。然而，随着城市的扩张，这些牌坊通常被纳入城市范围内。

As commemorative archways, paifang was established as everlasting mark to honor a specific individual. In ancient times, the emperor often bestowed recognition for various reasons.

One reason was to praise those who performed virtuous and charitable deeds, which were associated with qualities such as loyalty, filial piety, righteousness, and etiquette. Loyalty (忠) involved providing significant assistance to the country, especially during times of war, demonstrating loyalty and resistance against external enemies. It can also be interpreted as faithfulness and wholehearted dedication to the country and its people, contributing to peace and harmony. Filial piety (孝) is influenced by Confucian culture and is a moral obligation to reciprocate the graciousness of parents. Righteousness (义) refers to justice, law, and faithfulness to friends, often reflected through donations to those in need. Etiquette (节) refers to external behavior or demeanor suggesting a courteous manner. Paifang dedicated to virtuous individuals often include inscriptions praising their qualities or contributions. By establishing paifang to promote noble character, the emperor effectively consolidated his rule.

作为纪念性的拱门，牌坊是赞扬其贡献的永恒的标志。在古代，皇帝经常因各种原因授予牌坊。

其中一个原因是赞扬那些行善秉德的人，这些品质与忠诚、孝道、正义和礼仪等特质相关。忠诚意味着在国家需要时提供重要的帮助，尤其是在战争时期，表现出对外敌的忠诚和抵抗。它也可以被解释为对国家和人民的忠诚和全心全意的奉献，促进和平与和谐。孝道的形成受到了儒家文化的影响，是指感恩回报父母的养育之恩。正义指的是公正和对朋友的忠诚，常常通过捐赠有需之人来体现。节指的是外部行为或举止，是行为绅士有矩。有德行之人的牌坊上通常会刻上赞美他们的品质或贡献的铭文。通过建立牌坊来推崇高尚品德，皇帝有效地巩固了自己的统治。

Another type of paifang was dedicated to individuals who excelled in their scholarly pursuits and official careers, such as achieving the top academic rank of Zhuangyuan or holding high-ranking positions, at least at the provincial level.

另一种类型的牌坊是为那些在学术追求和官员职业中表现出色的个人设立的，比如获得状元或至少在省级担任高级职位的人。

Even longevity was commemorated through paifang. When someone reached an advanced age, the emperor would honor them by erecting an archway. Longevity suggested a peaceful and prosperous country which is worthy of celebration, and it also emphasized respect for the elderly and filial piety, which were constantly advocated in Chinese history. For example, in Chaling County, Hunan Province, there is a "Baisui Fang" (Hundred Years Archway) to honor someone who lived to be one hundred years old.

甚至长寿也通过牌坊来纪念。当有人到达高龄时，皇帝会通过建造一个拱门来向他们致敬。长寿象征着一个和平繁荣的国家，它也强调了中国历史一直倡导的尊重和孝道。例如，湖南茶陵县的"百岁坊"。

There is also a type of paifang specifically conferred on women who chose not to remarry after losing their husbands. This paifang recognizes women's chastity, which was a part of feudal ethical standards. However, the concept of chastity paifang has been subject to criticism and reevaluation in modern times. Some argue that it reinforces gender inequalities and places undue emphasis on a woman's sexual purity and fidelity. It is a tool for control and oppression, restricting women's freedom and autonomy. However, considering the historical context, in ancient times, the entrenched female chastity contritute to a stable feudal society. What's more, this Confucian ethics was believed to ensure the healthy development of children who lost their fathers. Although this type of paifang was advocated in ancient times, it is considered unacceptable nowadays.

还有一种特定授予那些在丧偶后选择不再再嫁的女性的牌坊，叫做贞节牌坊。这种牌坊承认了女性的贞节，这是封建伦理准则的一部分。然而，在现代，贞节牌坊的概念受到了批评和重新评估。一些人认为它强化了性别不平等，过分强调了女性的贞洁和忠诚。它是一种控制和压迫的工具，限制了女性的自由和自主权。然而，考虑到历史背景，在古代，女性的贞节观念在封建社会中根深蒂固反而促进了稳定社会的形成。同时这种儒家伦理一定程度上能确保失去父亲的孩子的健康发展。虽然在古代倡导这种类型的牌坊，但在现代被认为是不可接受的

Ranks for Paifang

Paifang can be classified into different ranks based on the contribution of the individuals honored: Imperial Bestowed Paifang (yuci paifang), Honorific Paifang (enrong paifang), Imperial Decree Paifang (shengzhi paifang), and Imperial Edict Paifang (chijian paifang).

Imperial Bestowed Paifang (御制牌坊): This is the highest level of paifang. It is personally commissioned by the emperor, and the funds are provided by the imperial treasury.

Honorific Paifang (恩荣牌坊): This is the second level of paifang. It is commissioned by the emperor, but the funds are provided by local finances.

Imperial Decree Paifang (圣旨牌坊): This is the third level of paifang. It is still commissioned by the emperor, but individuals themselves should fund the construction of the paifang.

Imperial Edict Paifang (敕建牌坊): This is the lowest level of paifang. It is constructed with the emperor's verbal approval, and the funds are provided by the individuals themselves.

Paifang can also be classified into different grades based on the materials used and the number of gates and roofs they have. The materials used can include wood, stone, brick, and glazed tiles (liuli), with the highest grade given to paifang with a yellow glazed tile roof. The number of levels can be one, three, five, seven, or nine. In ancient times, the number nine was considered the most prestigious. The general rule is that the more pillars and roofs a paifang has, the more magnificent it appears, and the higher the rank. Additionally, the quality of the materials used determines the grade of the paifang.

牌坊可以根据所纪念的个人的贡献而分为不同等级：御制牌坊、恩荣牌坊、圣旨牌坊和敕建牌坊。

御制牌坊：这是牌坊的最高级别。它由皇帝亲自委托，并由皇家财政提供资金。

恩荣牌坊：这是牌坊的第二级别。它由皇帝委托，但资金由当地财政提供。

圣旨牌坊：这是牌坊的第三级别。它仍由皇帝委托，但个人自己负责资助牌坊的建造。

敕建牌坊：这是牌坊的最低级别。它是在皇帝的口头批准下建造，资金由个人自己提供。

牌坊还可以根据所使用的材料和门、屋顶的数量进行分类。使用的材料可以包括木头、石头、砖块和琉璃瓦，黄琉璃瓦的牌坊被视为最高等级。层级的数量可以是一、三、五、七或九。在古代，九被认为是最有威望的数字。一般来说，牌坊的柱子和屋顶越多，外观越宏伟，级别越高。此外，所使用材料的质量也决定了牌坊的等级。

Famous Paifangs

Paifang Cluster in Tangyue Village Shexian County（歙县棠樾牌坊群）

The Paifang cluster is an Imperial Bestowed Paifang located in Anhui Province and is the most prestigious among China's paifang. These archways, a total of seven, are made of stone and exquisitely carved, presenting a magnificent and grand look. They are arranged from sides to middle in the order of loyalty, filial piety, etiquette, and righteousness.

This paifang is dedicated to the Bao family in Tangyue Village for their virtuous qualities and significant contributions to the imperial court. The men of the family held official positions and engaged in business outside, while the women remained in their hometown, taking care of the family, educating children, and assisting the poor. The children pursued education and fulfilled their filial piety to their parents. They received recognition from both the emperor and the people.

The Bao family has many stories. Among them, there is an archway inscribed with "Father's Benevolence and Son's Filial Piety," which commemorates an incident where a bandit captured the father and son and threatened to kill one of them. However, both the father and son insisted on sacrificing themselves. Touched by their actions, the bandit felt too guilty to harm them and eventually released them.

歙县棠樾牌坊群是中国牌坊中最有威望的一组御制牌坊，位于安徽省。牌坊共有七座，由石头精心雕刻而成，外观宏伟壮观。按照忠、孝、节、义的顺序从两侧排列到中间。

这座牌坊群是为了纪念歙县棠樾村的鲍家所建，以表彰他们的品德高尚和对皇室的重要贡献。鲍家男子在外担任官职并从事商业活动，而女性则留在家乡照顾家庭、教育孩子和帮助穷人。子女们追求学业并尽孝敬父母之责。得到了皇帝和人民的认可。

鲍家有许多故事。其中，有一座牌坊上刻有"父慈子孝"的字样，纪念了一次强盗俘虏了父子并威胁要杀死其中一人的事件。然而，父亲和儿子坚持要牺牲自己。被他们的行为所感动，强盗感到过于内疚而不忍伤害他们，并最终释放了他们。

Coloured Glazed Paifang of Imperial College（国子监琉璃牌坊）

The large glazed archway in the Guozijian (Imperial Academy) is located in Beijing. It is the only paifang in the country specifically dedicated to education and was built in the 48th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign (1783). The archway has a three-gate, four-column, seven-roof palace-style structure made of glazed tiles. The exposed parts of the wooden structure are covered with colorful glazed tiles, and the upper roof is covered with yellow glazed tiles, with green glazed brackets. The architecture is exquisite, majestic, and splendid, and the horizontal inscriptions on both sides of the archway are written by the emperor.

国子监琉璃牌坊是中国唯一一座专门教育牌坊，建于乾隆四十八年（1783年）。这座牌坊采用琉璃瓦制作，呈现出三门四柱七楼的宫殿式结构。木结构的外露部分覆盖着色彩斑斓的琉璃瓦，上层屋顶则使用黄琉璃瓦，并搭配绿色琉璃檐口。工艺精湛、庄严壮观，外观华丽，牌坊两侧的横幅题字是由皇帝亲自书写。

Confucius Forest Paifang（孔林牌坊）

Located in Shandong Province, it was built in the Ming Dynasty (1594) and rebuilt in the Qing Dynasty (1732). This paifang has a six-column, five-gate, five-roof structure. The stone paifang built for Confucius is designed like an emperor's archway, with stone pillars carved with cloud dragons, majestic lions holding stone drums, and noble decorations such as coiling dragons, dancing phoenixes, qilins, and spirited horses on both sides of the archway. It is magnificent, demonstrating the esteemed status of Confucius in the minds of the people at that time.

位于山东省，建于明朝（1594年），后在清朝（1732年）进行了重建。牌坊采用了六柱五间五楼的结构。这座为孔子而建的石坊制若皇帝，加上石柱的云龙，夹抱石鼓的雄狮，坊额两旁的盘龙、舞凤、麒麟、骏马等尊贵纹饰，气势雄伟，足见孔子在时人心目中地位是非常尊贵的。

The Ruins of the Cathedral of Saint Paul（大三巴牌坊）

It is not a real paifang but the front wall of St. Paul's Cathedral, which was constructed during the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty and was once the largest Catholic church in the East. However, in the fifteenth year of the Qing dynasty's Daoguang reign, the church was destroyed by a large fire, and only this wall remained. Due to its resemblance to traditional Chinese paifang, the Chinese people called it paifang. The archway is simple and majestic, representing the fusion of Chinese and Western cultures in Macau.

Numerous ancient archways were torn down and damaged due to urbanization and modernization. They were also dismantled due to safety concerns for pedestrians and traffic inconveniences. This is a significant loss for Chinese cultural heritage. Legal protection, conservation, and restoration are necessary. The government, community, and individuals should all be involved and raise awareness of this cultural treasure.

实际上，大三巴牌坊并不是牌坊，而是圣保禄大教堂的前墙。这座教堂建于明朝万历年间，曾经是东方最大的天主教堂。然而，在清朝道光年间的第十五年，这座教堂被一场大火摧毁，只剩下了这面墙。由于它与传统的中国牌坊相似，中国人称之为牌坊。这座拱门简约而庄重，代表了澳门中西文化的融合。

由于城市化和现代化的推进，许多古老的牌坊被拆除和破坏。因为行人安全和交通不便的考虑而被拆除。对于中国文化遗产来说是重大的损失。牌坊需要法律保护、维护和修复。政府、社区和个人都应该参与其中，提高对这一文化宝藏的认识。

Paifang in China and Torii in Japan

Paifang and torii share many similarities. They are both composed of pillars and lintels, serve as entrances to a place, and carry cultural meanings. However, there are some differences. The torii gate is a single red wooden gate-shaped paifang, designed in a relatively simple manner, while paifang may have multiple gates and be made of different materials, always demonstrating a magnificent and majestic look. It is said that Chinese architectural styles have had a strong influence on the development of torii.

According to legend, the origin of the torii is related to the pursuit of the sun. A long time ago, the sun god had a quarrel with his brother and decided to hide in a cave, blocking its entrance to never come out again. However, sunlight was essential for people to live. So, they came up with a solution. They built a high structure at the entrance of the cave and placed a group of roosters on it. Every morning, these roosters would crow loudly, disturbing the sun god's sleep. Unable to tolerate the noise outside, the sun god eventually stuck his head out of the cave to see what was happening, and that's when the sun appeared again.

Now, a torii gate is directly associated with a shrine or supernatural realms. It is a boundary used in Japan to distinguish between the realm of gods and the human world. It serves as the entrance to the divine realm and holds an important position in the hearts of the Japanese people. On the other hand, the paifang in China is an architectural structure erected in ancient times to honor achievements, academic success, good governance, as well as loyalty, filial piety, and righteousness.

牌坊和鸟居有许多相似之处。它们都由柱子和横梁构成，作为场所入口的标志，并承载着文化意义。它们也存在一些区别。鸟居是单门红色木质门，设计相对简单，而牌坊可以有多个门，并由不同材料制成，外观壮丽庄重。据说，中国建筑风格对鸟居的发展有着很大的影响。

根据传说，鸟居的起源与太阳有关。很久以前，太阳神与他的兄弟发生争吵，决定躲进一个洞穴，封住洞口永远不再出来。然而，阳光对人们的生活至关重要。因此，他们想出了一个解决办法。他们在洞口建了一个高的结构，上面放了一群公鸡。每天早上，这些公鸡会大声啼鸣，打扰到太阳神的睡眠。无法忍受外面的噪音，太阳神最终探出头来看发生了什么，于是太阳再次出现了。

现在，鸟居与神社或超自然领域直接相关。在日本，它被用作区分神和人类世界的界限。它是通往神圣领域的大门，在日本人心中占据重要地位。中国的牌坊则相反，牌坊是古代为了纪念成就、学业成功、善治，以及忠、孝、义等品德而建立的建筑结构。

Conclusion

Paifang stands as a testament to the rich cultural heritage and artistic excellence of Chinese architecture. These majestic gateways not only serve as physical entrances to various spaces but also embody profound cultural significance of honour and identity. By learning and valuing paifang, we can deepen our undertanding for the beauty and symbolism embedded within these remarkable structures, ensuring that they continue to inspire and educate future generations about China's rich cultural heritage.

牌坊是中国建筑丰富的文化遗产和艺术美学的见证。这些雄伟的门楼不仅是通往大型建筑的入口，还是褒扬嘉奖和人物崇高地位的载体。通过学习和欣赏牌坊，我们可以加深对这些卓越建筑中蕴含的美和象征的理解，让对牌坊这一中国文化遗产的欣赏与学习代代相传。

References

[1]曹永洪,邢瑜.明清徽商活动背景下徽州贞节牌坊营造探析[J].美与时代(上),2023(03):106-109.DOI:10.16129/j.cnki.mysds.2023.03.022.

[2]金其桢. 论牌坊的源流及社会功能[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2003 (1): 71-75.

[3]吕雪梅.传统牌坊的文化内涵与时代价值——以明清褒扬人物类牌坊为例[J].中国文化遗产,2023(02):54-60.

[4]乔云飞, 罗微. 牌坊建筑文化初探[J]. 四川文物, 2003 (3): 68-73.

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Terms and Expressions

The Book of Songs 《诗经》

Paifang 牌坊

Pailou 牌楼

Hengmen 衡门

Wutoumen 屋头门

Huabiao 华表

Lingxingmen 棂星门

Dougong 斗拱

Yueyang Academy 岳麓书院

Wu Li Pai 五里牌

Li 里=500m

Baisui Fang 百岁坊

Imperial Bestowed Paifang (yuci paifang) 御制牌坊

Honorific Paifang (enrong paifang) 恩荣牌坊

Imperial Decree Paifang (shengzhi paifang) 圣旨牌坊

and Imperial Edict Paifang (chijian paifang) 敕建牌坊

Liuli 琉璃

Paifang Cluster in Tangyue Village Shexian County 歙县棠樾牌坊群

Bao family 鲍氏

Father's Benevolence and Son's Filial Piety 父慈子孝

Coloured Glazed Paifang of Imperial College 国子监琉璃牌坊

Qianlong 乾隆皇帝

Confucius Forest Paifang 孔林牌坊

The Ruins of the Cathedral of Saint Paul 大三巴牌坊

Wanli 万历皇帝

Daoguang 道光皇帝

Macau 澳门

Torii 鸟门

Questions

1.Why is paifang called Wutoumen during Tang dynasty?

2.What is Wu Li Pai?

3.What is the deep reason for the emperor to bestow paifang to people?

4.How many ranks does paifang have?

5.What does torii mean to Japanese?

Answers

1.Because black pottery is used to cover the top of the two posts to make them waterproof.

2.Wu Li Pai is the paifang indicating that the location is five li away to a specific city.

3.The emperor wants to effectively consolidate his rule.

4.Four.

5.It is a boundary to distinguish between the realm of gods and the human world.

Wen Xi文茜 - Fine Arts：Chinese Nail Art

It is often said that hands are the "second face of a person" because they are usually an important tool for human interaction and can reflect the qualities of a person. Those who do rough work have rougher hands, while the opposite is white and smooth. Therefore, the Chinese have attached great importance to hand care since ancient times, and the beautification of nails naturally cannot be ignored.

人们常说，手是“人的第二张脸”，因为在通常情况下，手是人际交往的重要工具，它可以反映一个人的特质。干粗活累活的人手会比较粗糙，相反则会白皙滑嫩。因此中国人自古以来就很重视手部护理，对指甲的美化自然无法被忽视。

History

As early as 6,000 years ago, the ancient Egyptians began to polish their nails. In China, the ancient art of nail art had its origins in the early days of human civilization. Initially, nail art was used for religious purposes. At some rituals, people sent their wishes and prayed to the gods by painting designs on their nails. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, some noble women mixed rubber, egg white and beeswax to make early nail polish to keep their nails shiny. One of the Zhou dynasty also had a strict hierarchical classification of nail colors, only royal relatives were allowed to paint dark colors such as black and red, and ordinary nobles could only paint light colors. During the pre-Qin period, people's love for nail art can be glimpsed in the poems and scriptures. Later, in the Tang Dynasty, domestic and foreign exchanges were frequent, people were open-minded, and the pursuit of beauty became more and more enthusiastic. At that time, nail art was popular regardless of ethnicity and both men and women. Man's nail art is called kodan. Some officials would also wear fake nails to show that they were engaged in easy work and to symbolize their honorable status. In the Qing Dynasty, as played in the TV series Yanxi Raiders Zhen Huan, in order to protect the nail, nail protection sets appeared. And nail sets of different status are in different lengths, the status of the noble consort nail sets will also be more expensive materials, decorated more flamboyant.

早在6000年前，古埃及人就开始打磨指甲。在中国，古代美甲艺术的起源在人类文明早期。最初，美甲被用于宗教用途。在一些祭祀活动上，人们通过在指甲上画上图案来寄托自己的愿望，向神灵祈福。商周时期，一些贵族女子将橡胶、蛋白、蜂蜡等混合，制成早期的指甲油，来让指甲保持光泽。其中周朝还对指甲的颜色进行了严格的等级分类，只有皇亲国戚才可以涂黑色、红色等深色，普通贵族只能涂浅色。先秦时期，人们对美甲的热爱可以在诗经中窥探。后来到了唐朝，国内外交流频繁，人们思想开放，对美的追求也愈发热烈。当时不论民族、不论男女都流行美甲,其中男子的美甲被称为蔻丹。部分官员也会佩戴假指甲来表示自己从事的是轻松的工作，象征自己的尊贵地位。在清朝，如电视剧延禧攻略甄嬛传中所演，为了保护蓄甲，出现了护甲套。并且身份地位不同，指甲套长短也不相同，地位尊贵的妃子指甲套的材料也会更贵重，装饰也更华美。

Ancient Nail Art Process

In ancient times, the art of nail art was an important part of the art of aesthetics, and women began to groom their fingertips early to make their hands look slender. And, the combination of traditional Chinese culture and nail art in ancient China resulted in a unique ancient Chinese nail art style with Chinese characteristics, reflecting the rich form of ancient women's aesthetic art.

在古代，美甲艺术是美学艺术中的重要内容，妇女们很早就开始修饰她们的指尖，让手看起来修长。并且，中国古代传统文化与美甲相结合，形成了中国古代特有的美甲方式，具有中国特色，体现了古代女子美学艺术的丰富形式。

Extend the Nail. Ancient people regarded slender and long fingers as beautiful. With the influence of the traditional culture of filial piety, the ancients rarely trimmed their nails, and even if they did, they had to pick an auspicious day to do so. They believe that nails are given by parents and are a symbol of life, so trimming them at will is disrespectful to their own health and parents. After the nails are cut, they must also be carefully wrapped and buried in the soil, which means that the body is returned to the ancestors. So the combination of beauty and filial piety nail storage has become popular. Generally, those who grew nails were noble ladies who did not have to do heavy work. Due to economic and social status restrictions, women from poor families seldom carried out nail-growing activities, because the long nails would interfere with their work.

蓄甲。与现代审美观相同，古人将纤细修长的手指视为美。并且加上受“身体发肤，受之父母”的传统孝文化思想的影响，古人很少修剪他们的指甲，就算要修剪，也得挑选良辰吉日修剪。他们认为，指甲是父母给的，是生命的象征，随意修剪指甲是对自己健康和父母的不尊重。指甲剪后，也要小心包好埋在土里，有把身体还给祖宗的意味。于是结合美与孝的蓄甲便流行起来。一般蓄甲的都是不用干重活的小姐贵族。由于经济和社会地位的限制，贫苦家庭的女子很少进行蓄甲活动，因为过长的指甲会干扰她们劳作。

Color the Nail. During the Tang and Song dynasties, the art of nail dyeing developed tremendously and became an important step in the process of nail beauty. According to historical records, when Yang Guifei was born, her fingernails and toenails were born in a beautiful red color. The women in the palace wanted the same type of red nails as the Princess, so they used phoenix flowers to dye their nails red. The wide variety of colors of anemone flowers became one of the most important raw materials for nail coloring, and the nail coloring method with anemone flowers spread. Freshly picked anemone petals were crushed and corrosive alum was added to make the dye. The nails are then wrapped in a silk cloth soaked in the dye and repeated several times, and the nails are colored.

染甲。唐宋时期，染甲技艺有了巨大发展，成为美甲过程中重要一步。据史料记载，杨贵妃出生时，她的手指甲和脚趾甲天生就是漂亮的红色。宫中女子想要贵妃同款红指甲，于是就纷纷使用凤仙花将指甲染红。色彩种类繁多凤仙花成为染甲最重要的原料之一，用凤仙花染指甲这种美甲方式也就此传开。人们将新鲜采摘的凤仙花花瓣捣碎，加入有腐蚀性的明矾制成染汁。最后将指甲用浸满染汁的丝布包裹，重复几次，指甲就会被染上颜色。

Protect the Nail. This is the last step of nail care is nail care, and the main method is to wear a nail cover. There are many different kinds of nail covers, and the decorative manufacturing materials are also very rich. Over time, the magnificence of nail covers began to become a representative of hand decoration and a symbol of status. Empress Dowager Cixi was an avid fan of nail covers. According to historical records, her nail covers were the longest ever made, one made of jade and one made of gold, expressing her distinguished status in all its glory.

护甲 为了保护长指甲，美甲的最后一步便是护甲，其中最主要的方法就是佩戴护甲套。护甲套的造型有很多种，装饰制造材料也非常丰富，久而久之，护甲套的华美程度开始成为手部装饰的代表，成为身份地位的象征。慈禧太后是指甲套的狂热粉丝。据史料记载，她的指甲套是有史以来最长的，一支用玉制成，一支用金子制成，表现她的尊贵地位，光辉夺目。

Modern Nail Art

In the 21st century, the global nail industry is coming on strong. Modern nail art is much stronger than ancient nail art in terms of production materials, methods, and personalization. There are two main types of nail polish used in modern nail art: one is air dryable nail polish. This can be operated by many people at home and is more practical. The other is phototherapy nail polish, which needs to be irradiated by an ultraviolet light before it can become dry. Nail salons generally use this kind of nail polish because it is not easy to dry, so that it can help them better provide personalized service to their guests. Modern nail art is more complex in terms of production materials and styles. For nail extensions, there are various methods such as crystal powder, light therapy extensions, paperless nail extensions and the most common ones. There are also many different nail styles, including square nails, almond nails, teardrop nails, round nails, etc.

21世纪，全球美甲行业来势汹汹。现代美甲无论在制作原料、方法、和个性化程度上都要远远强过古代美甲。现代美甲所使用的甲油胶主要分为两类：一种是可风干的指甲油。这种很多人在家里也可以自己操作，实用性比较强。另一种是光疗甲油胶，这种甲油胶需要在紫外线灯照射下才可以变干燥。也因为它这种不易干的特性，美甲店使用的一般都是光疗甲油胶，因为这样可以更好的为客人提供个性化服务。现代美甲，在制作原料和款式上更加复杂。光是延长甲片，就有水晶粉、光疗延长、无纸托延长和最普通的甲片等多种方法。并且甲型也颇有讲究，有方形甲、杏仁甲、水滴甲、圆形甲等等。

Modern Nail Art Process

1. Extend the nail. If the nail is long enough or there is no need to extend the nail, this step can be omitted. 延长指甲。如果本甲足够长或者没有延长指甲的需求，这一步可以省略。 2. Polish the nail. By polishing the nail surface becomes rough, so that the nail polish adheres better and does not peel off easily. 打磨指甲。通过打磨使指甲表面变得粗糙，从而让指甲油更好地附着不易剥落。 3.Apply base coat. Insulate the nail polish and nails, prevent nail staining, and make the nail polish more durable. 涂底胶。隔绝指甲油和指甲，防止指甲染色，并且让指甲油更持久。 4.Apply nail polish. This step if the use of light therapy nail polish, each time you need to light 30s to let the nail polish dry. 涂指甲油。这一步如果使用的是光疗甲油胶的话，每涂一次就需照灯30s来让甲油胶干燥。 5.Apply sealer. Sealer is also divided into two kinds of frosted and glossy, you can choose according to your preference. Sealer can protect the nail from scratching and keep the nail integrity. 涂封层。封层也分为磨砂和亮面两种，可以凭借自己的喜好选择。封层可以保护指甲不受刮蹭，并且保持美甲的完整性。

Significance

Nail arts bring not only visible beauty but also spiritual comfort to people. For many people with natural nail defects (such as pestle and mortar fingers) or gnawing nails, nail art gives them the confidence. 美甲给人们带来的不仅是可见的美丽，更有心灵上的慰藉。有很多有天生指甲缺陷（如杵状指）或啃咬甲的人来说，美甲给他们带来了自信。

Reference

[1]蒋晓婉.浅谈我国古代美甲艺术[N].开封教育学院学报,2019-10-20 (10) [2]胡星儒,王义芝.中国古代美甲漫谈[J].寻根,2007(01):84-