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History of Translation

A Comparative Study on the Translation History in Western Countries and China 王煜 Wang Yu

王煜，202020080645.

Abstract

Translation is an intercultural communication activity, translation activities have accelerated the development of human civilization and reduced the communication barriers between people of different countries or nations. With time goes by, things are in a state of flux and both the western and eastern countries have gradually formed their own history of translation, the study of translation history is a basic project of discipline construction. Though there are many differences among the translation histories of western countries and China, the two kinds of translation histories are still shining their own bright unique lights and have an indelible influence and contribution to human translation activities. This paper intends to make a brief comparison of translation histories between western countries and China, which includes the origins, the stages, the representatives of the stages, the significance and influence as well as the differences of the two translation histories.

Keywords

Translation History of the West; Translation History of China; Comparative Study

摘要

翻译是一种跨文化交流活动，翻译活动加快了人类文明发展步伐，减少了人们之间的沟通障碍。随着时代的变迁，中国和西方国家逐渐形成了各自的翻译史，翻译史的研究是学科建设的一项基础工程。尽管中西方翻译史在某些方面有所差异，但却都有着各自的独特性，并对人类的翻译活动产生了巨大的影响与贡献。文章将以中国和西方国家为主要对象，从二者翻译史起始，包含阶段和各阶段代表人物，影响意义，差异性出发，对二者的翻译史进行简略的对比研究。

关键词

西方翻译史；中国翻译史；对比研究

1. Introduction

No matter in China or in the west, translation plays an important role in knowledge-spreading. As an indispensable part of translatology, the study of translation history has made a great influence on translation activities, it has gradually become the focus of the literary and historical circles in recent years. Translation activities can be traced back to the origin of language, and the history of translation is almost as old as language itself, it is closely related to the changes in today's society. "Since the 1980s, the translation studies in the mainland of China have made remarkable progress in the curriculum design of Chinese and western translation history and the compilation of related works. In the early 1980s and 1990s, there were many related works came out one after another including History of Translation in China – before May Fourth（《中国翻译简史-“五四”运动以前部分》） written by Ma Zuyi, A Historical Manuscript of Chinese Translated Literature （《中国翻译文学史稿》）edited by Chen Yugang, and also the A Short History of Translation in the West（《西方翻译简史》） the author of which is Tan Zaixi. Thus, it opens the gate for the compilation of Chinese and western translation history works."(Xie Tianzhen2009,Ⅴ) The history of western translation can be divided into five stages while the Chinese study of translation has a glorious history of more than two thousand years and has experienced five climaxes. Through the comparative study of Chinese and western translation history, it will help us to have a deeper understanding of Chinese and western translation activities and thus to gather a general full view of it, which will be a positive and meaningful attempt.

2. The Translation History of Western Countries

Western translation activities are rich in a long history and a multiyear span. The history of western translation can be roughly divided into three stages: the traditional stage, the modern times and the contemporary. More specifically, it can be grouped into the ancient times, the middle ages, the Renaissance period and the time after WWⅡ.

2.1 The First Stage: Translation in the Ancient Times

The translation history of western countries first began in the the 3rd century BC. In a broad sense, the earliest translation in the west is the Old Testament translated by 72 Jewish scholars in Alexandria, ancient Egypt, between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC; Strictly speaking, the first western translation is the Greek Homer Epic Odyssey translated by Andronicus in Rome in the middle of the third century BC.(Tan Zaixi2000,88-89) At the end of the 4th BC, during this time, the Greece began to decay and the Roman had became stronger and stronger with its military expansion. The expansion of the Roman Empire brought itself into contact with the splendid Greek culture, therefore, the Romans not only conquered the Greek city, but also inherited and developed the brilliant achievements of ancient Greek culture, and then created a splendid cultural of its own era after Greece. So soon began a large scale translation activities, the activity of translating and introducing Greek classical works probably began in this period.(Liu Junping2009,8) Many famous translation theorists began to make their presences, namely Cicero, Quentin, Jerome and so on, also the famous Roman litterateurs like Andronicus, Naevius, Ennius, these great writers used Latin language to translate or adapt Homer’s epic or other Greece dramas.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89) Started the translation tradition and promoted the birth and development of Roman literature.

2.2 The Second Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (4th-6th)

The second climax occurred in the late Roman Empire through the early Middle Ages and was religious in nature. In this period, translation was mainly related about the religious stuff. Religious forces have great influence in the west, Christianity strives to promote its own religion, thus, the Bible, the source and psychological weapon of the Christianism naturally meant a lot in religious world. Since the Old Testament of the Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek, respectively, it needed to be translated into Latin for effective circulation in Rome. "Jerome was a Latin Christian priest, he translated the Bible into Latin(Vulgute) according to the Hebrew version of the Bible." This version had a great influence on medieval theology and was the most widely circulated and authoritative translation of the Middle Ages, marking an unprecedented level of Western translation.(Tan Zaixi2000, 89)

2.3 The Third Stage: Translation in the Middle Ages (11th-12th)

This period can also be called "the period of the Arab Centennial Translation Movement",(Liu Junping2009,9) it lasted over two hundred years. In order to consolidate the rule and promote socio-economic and cultural development, the medieval Arab Empire undertook a massive, organized academic activity to translate and introduce the scientific and cultural classics of ancient Greece and the East. Translators of this period actively translated the most important works of Greek literature in all disciplines with an open mind and a strong desire for knowledge. Between the 11th and 12th centuries, Toledo became Europe’s academic center for its prosperous translation activities, the western translators who gathered here translated many works from Arabic into Latin. Cultural patterns and religious ideas converged here.(Tan Zaixi2000, 90) Until nowadays, the positive influence of the movement still plays an inherent role: numerous proprietary names such as ‘concept’, ‘category’ all are gradually established in Arabic. This movement not only facilitated the integration of the inner Arab world, but also, in fact, promoted the integration of the Western and Persian worlds.

2.4 The Fourth Stage: Translation in the Renaissance Period

The Renaissance movement is a European ideological and cultural movement which took place from the 14th century to the 16th century, and reached its peak in the 16th century and inspired a cascade of the development of science, art and literature. A large number of outstanding translators shown up and a series of excellent translation works had been produced. During this time, a great quantity of ancient Greek and Roman classics had been rediscovered and translated into various European languages, which had brought about a profound impact on the European nation states. Leonardo Buruni, who was one of the most influential cultural translation practitioners in the Renaissance period and was also one of the earliest representatives of humanistic translators in the history of western translation. He was famous for his translation of Plato and Aristotle. Humanists began to study the Bible with the method of studying classical literature, and translated the Bible into the national language, which led to the rise of the religious reform movement. In Germany, Martin Luther, a religious reformer, translated the first mass Bible which influenced most and ushered in a new era in the development of modern German; in Britain, Chapman, a writer and translator, translated Homer's Iliad and Odyssey from 1958 to 1616, and the translation and publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked the formation of modern English.(Liu Junping2009,9) The renaissance played a very important role in the western history of the development of translation, it marked the national language status in the field of literature and translation having finally been consolidated, simultaneously, it showed the translation is playing a huge role in the formation and development of the national language, literature and thought. During the the three hundred years that lasted from the 17th century to the 19th century, translation activities continued to move forward. Although its scale and influence could not be compared with that of the Renaissance, it still produced many excellent translators and translated works. The biggest feature was that translators not only continued to translate classical works, but also became interested in modern and contemporary works. The works of Cervantes, Shakespeare, Balzac, Goethe and other great writers had been repeatedly translated into various languages, and translations of Eastern literature have also been published.(Tan Zaixi2000, 91)

2.5 The Fifth Stage: Translation after WWⅡ

Although World War II has brought different degrees of blows to many countries, some western countries have used a large amount of capital to actively resume production, developed various social fields, and attached great importance to the person with ability. Western science and technology are changing with each passing day, driven by cybernetics, information theory and system theory, the world of knowledge and experience has been greatly expanded, and social and cultural exchanges have become increasingly close, which provided a solid material foundation and ideological guarantee for the prosperity of translation. With the growing in number or quantity of translation activities, the translation theory continues to develop, and the number of translation talents in various countries keeps on increasing. Translation has gradually expanded from traditional literary and religious translation to other fields, such as scientific and technical translation and business translation, and with the emergence of professional translators, the influence of translation has become more and more obvious, playing an important practical role. Distinctive features in this time, from the scope to the scale, effect, and to the forms, are all different from any time in the past, having made tremendous progress, the translation scale has exceed the past. There are a large number of outstanding translators and translation theorists in the west, they have put forward their different points from different angles in different periods, which made a brilliant contribution to the history of western translation. The western translation activity promoted the cultural exchange and spread the ideas.(Tan Zaixi2000, 92)

3. The Translation History of China

China has a long history with 5000 years of civilization. Since China is a multi-ethnic country, so translation plays an irreplaceable role in the communication between different nationalities. There is no reference to the history of translation in China, although there are some documents in the Xia and Shang Dynasties, we still can not discern the translation activities at that time from the existing records. "The song of the Yue Boatman can be regarded as the first poetry translation in Chinese history."(Ma Zuyi1998,5) However, it was only an isolated translation activity and did not trigger a large-scale translation movement in China.

3.1 The First Stage：Translation of Ancient Buddhist Scriptures

The first climax of the Chinese translation history was the translation of ancient Buddhist scriptures. The Potala Sutra should be the earliest translation of Buddhist scriptures in China,it was also said that the Forty-Two Chapters Sutra is the earliest Chinese translation of the Buddha's sutras, however, the one that is proven to be reliable should be the book The Fifty Books of the Mingdu translated by An Shigao during the reign of Emperor Huan of the Eastern Han Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,17)

It has experienced four phases, each of which had its own features: the first was the starting period which was from the last year of emperor Huan in the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty. Translators in this period were mainly Buddhist monks,(Ma Zuyi1998,33) However, the quality of the translated works depends on the ability of the translators’ understanding of Chinese, so the classics of the translated works are varied. Also, due to the shortage of learners' language knowledge , they usually used literal translation. The second perid was the developing time, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to Sui Dynasty. The Buddhist scriptures continued to prevail under the rulers' advocacy and began to translated Buddhist scriptures in an organized way which was also use the literal translation. During this period, Shi Daoan put forward the famous theory of ‘Five losses of source texts and three difficulties in translation’. Meanwhile, through the translation and interpretation of nearly 400 volumes of Buddhist classics, kumarajiva first introduced Indian Buddhism to the Chinese people, which played an important role in the prosperity of Chinese Buddhism at that time.(Ma Zuyi1998,40) The translation in this time had changed from individual translation into group translation which had improved the quality if translation and as well made some progress in translation theories and skills.(Ma Zuyi1998,55) The third period was the heyday of the translation history took place in Tang Dynasty.(Ma Zuyi1998,58) Xuanzang was an important figure in promoting Sino Indian friendship and cultural exchanges in China's history，not only was he a great translator and organizer of translation, he was also a great translation theorist whose contribution to translation studies still remains significant today. As for the last period, it was in the Northern Song Dynasty, the studying of translating scriptures gradually withered, and during this period, the translation mainly focused on the esoteric classics translations.(Ma Zuyi1998,82)

As part of Chinese history, especially as the link of the cultural development, Chinese ancient Buddhist sutra translation has contributed more than a lot.  The spread of Buddhist ethics contributed to the formation of Taoism in China.

3.2 The Second Stage：Technical Translation during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties

The translation of Buddhist scriptures gradually declined during the two hundred years of the Ming Dynasty. With the arrival of western Christian missionaries, China came into contact with Europe. In order to facilitate their relations with Chinese officials and intellectuals, the missionaries translated works of western science and technology as well as Christian texts assisted by Chinese officials. They also introduced the Chinese classics to the West. Matteo Ricci came to China on a mission to introduce Western scientific and technological knowledge. He pioneered the history of combining Chinese and Western translation to introduce Western scientific and technical literature, and was the first to translate the Four Books into Latin, he was the first to introduce Chinese texts to the West.(Ma Zuyi1998,263) From the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty to the "new learning" period of the Qing Dynasty, there appeared translators who introduced science, literature and philosophy in Western Europe, represented by Xu Guangqi, Lin Shu and Yan Fu. Xu Guangqi was a patriotic scientist and organizer of the scientific and cultural movement in China at the end of the Ming Dynasty, and made outstanding achievements in introducing Western natural sciences and improving the level of science in China.

3.3 The Third Stage：Literary Translation in Late Qing Dynasty

After the Opium War, the Qing government organized a large number of scholars to translate western natural science books, Under the influence of the reform thought, a large number of translations introducing western political thoughts, scientific methods and some literary works appeared. The records of four continents, translated by Liang Jinde, Lin Zexu asked him to do so, was the first systematic introduction to the geographical knowledge of western countries in modern China.（Ma Zuyi1998,329）After the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895, Yan Fu translated the theory of evolution and put forward the triple criteria of ‘faithfulness, fluency and elegance’, which has played a great guiding role in the translation practice of later generations, His translation promoted the development of "new learning" and enlightened the Chinese nation at that time. Another scholar Liang Qichao, who was a politician, thinker and encyclopedia scholar of that time and advocated that China needs to develop the translation career and cultivate translation talents at a full stretch. He has done fruitful research on the translation of Buddhist scriptures and the translation of science and technology between the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

3.4 The Fourth Stage：The Translation of Socialist and Communist Works

The May 4th Movement was a watershed in China's modern translation history, made a significant contribution to the introduction of foreign literature to China and the development of literature in China. After the May 4th movement, China's translation industry has ushered in a new historical period, translators in this period of time, by comparison with those during the late Qing dynasty, were more selective regarding source texts. Chinese translation scholars began to introduce the classic works of Marxism-Leninism and the literature of the proletariat. The translation of the Manifesto of the Communist Party was published during the May 4th movement. During this period, great changes have taken place in the content and form of translation work: vernacular began to replace classical Chinese, as a result, popular language becomes easy to understand, the excellent literary works of western countries have attracted more and more Chinese readers. Famous translators like Lu Xun, Mao Dun, Zheng Zhenduo, Guo Moruo, Zhu Shenghao, Lin Yutang, these scholars had translated a large number of foreign masterpieces and enriched the inner world of the Chinese people, Lu Xun once advocated that there should be an exotic atmosphere in the translated works which would familiarize the readers with the foreign cultures. He also believed that literal translation of culturally loaded words was one of the important means of enriching the mother tongue. These scholars helped the Chinese people to know more about the outside world and laid a good foundation for the systematization and scientization of translation theory in China.

3.5 The Fifth Stage：The Translation after 1949

The founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949 enabled translation to enter into a new era. With the founding of the new China, China's translation industry was also liberated. Translation became a very important part of the national cultural and educational cause. National organizations for translators were established in order to protect the interests and benefits of translators. The quantity and quality of translated works have grown by leaps and bounds. Since then, translation work has been an important part of the new socialist culture, and has been developing rapidly, making great achievements and perfecting translation theory. The classical works of Marxism-Leninism, excellent foreign literature, scientific and technical literature and the like were systematically introduced. There are large-scale translation like the translation of Marx and Lenin's works. In the 1950s, scientific and technical works to meet the demands of the national social and economic construction. In the 1970s, translation of United Nations documents after China was restored to its rightful seat in the United Nations. Also, literary translators became a very important part of China's literature and arts personnel. Qian Zhongshu He puts forward his "transmigration theory (化境说)" for literary translation. That is a literary translation is like the act of transmigration in which the souls, the spirit of the original text remain in the target text even although the carrier of them, the language, has changed. In 1978, two years after the end of disastrous "cultural revolution," China adopted its "reform and open" policy. A new and dynamic atmosphere for translation emerged.

4.1 The Similarities of the Western and Chinese Translation History

About the religious and translation, we can easily notice that in the history of Chinese and western translation, almost all the early translation activities were the translation of religious classics. The translation of religious classics had opened the curtain of Chinese and western translation history. The spread of religion is always accompanied by the translation of religious classics. It is not difficult for us to understand the reason: after the emergence of religion, in order to absorb more believers, it is necessary for the religious to spread widely across nations and countries. Therefore, from ancient times to the present, religion is always a kind of existence form of various national beliefs and cultures. It keeps on influencing the spiritual belief and behavior of the society.

The translation activity has made great contributions to the establishment and development of national languages in various countries. For example, in the history of western translation, Martin Luther's Bible translation played an important role in the unification and development of German language and the establishment of modern German, what’s more, the English version of the Bible enriched the English vocabulary and benefited the modernization of English a lot. The same in China, the Buddhist scripture translation also enriched the use of Chinese vocabulary, in the ideological field, it not only laid the foundation for the establishment of Taoism, but also paved the way for the formation of "New Confucianism" in Song Dynasty. And we can not ignore the contribution of the literary translation in the first half of the 20th century in the establishment and development of modern vernacular Chinese.

The translation activity helps to transmit cultural values and promote cultural exchange. Translation bears the mission of cultural exchange, the translation activities are trying to make a close connection between nations and countries and introduce the language and cultural habits of one nation to another. Such kind of efforts have enriched the vocabulary and promoted the exchange between areas. Jesuits who came to China in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties would translate Chinese classics and literary works into foreign languages, which, in a state of isolation between China and Europe, they have become the middlemen for the exchange of Chinese and Western civilizations.(Tan Zaixi1999)

4.2 The Differences Between the Western and Chinese Translation History

First is that, the time is different. Western translation predates Chinese translation by over 200 years. It is said that the reason is due to the differences in topography and geomorphology of the two parts. We all know that China possesses a great number of mountains and lakes, and in the ancient times, it would take quite a few days to send messages from one place to another place, especially when people in the remote areas, it would be a hard and long journey for them to head for a destination. So, there is difficulty in communicating among the various peoples in different nations, there will be delay of the communication and connection. As for the west, there are numerous plains, so it was much convenient and easier for the western people to communicate and exchange their ideas with each other, which set a ideal environment for the development of translation activity.

Also, the position of the religious varies. The different traditional culture of the west and China has made the concept of religious of the two are quite varied from each other. Different religious cultures have different forms of expression and vocabulary of their own. In the west, the Bible is not only a religious classic but also an important mainstay of western culture and the foundation of Christian faith. Buddhism was introduced into China from India in the early years of AD and became a very important part of Chinese traditional culture, in order to consolidate his ruling position, the rulers ruled the people spiritually, and the doctrine of Buddhism was in line with the ruler's appetite, so it was first spread among the ruling class and gradually gained its legal status.

The translation tradition of the west and China differs. One of the differences of them is the difference between single system and multiple system. “The simplicity of Chinese translation tradition is mainly in the narrow sense，though there are different kinds of translations of national languages in China, most of them are still dominated by the tradition of Chinese language and culture translation. “because they all occurred in the same environment of the language culture since ancient times, that is , the environment of Chinese language culture.” By way of contrast, In terms of space, the western translation tradition did not always develop in the same region. In the later formation and development process, it spread throughout all ethnic regions in Europe；In terms of time, the western translation tradition began in ancient Rome, and then evolved into the ancient Latin language and culture system. In the later period of the middle ages, the system expanded and evolved into many relatively independent ethnic systems. So the system of the west is more like a kind of multiple system instead of a single system like China.(Tan Zaixi2000,15)

The Chinese and western translation concepts are different. Then, the translation theories are different. Chinese translation tradition pays more attention to practicality than to the theory. Like professor Tan Zaixi once said that: “What Chinese translators and translation theorists are most concerned about is how to deal with the difficulties in translation and how to deal with them.” however, western translation pays more attention to systematicness and theory. Secondly, the national characteristics of China and the West are also different. Relatively speaking, Western ideas are more open and China is conservative. For a long time, the Chinese people advocate authority and accept more challenges less, China's three cardinal principles and five constancies in religion are in sharp contrast to the religious reform in the West. Although the West also advocates authority and takes religion as its belief, it dares to break through dogmatism, which brings a breakthrough to western translation studies to a certain extent.

Conclusion

History is a bridge connecting the past, the present and the future. Throughout the history of translation between China and the west, although the differences between them inevitably exist, the brilliant translation achievements made by both sides are remarkable: excellent translators, translation scholars, or outstanding translation theory, translation works, all of these have opened up the way for our future translation research, they are leading people to the direction of knowledge, and constantly leading us to explore into the unknown field. Mastering the history of a discipline can help us to see the direction of its development, we then will able to learn from the experience and lessons in this development process and use this kind of method to guide the development of this subject. To have contact with the history of translation is helpful for us to understand and improve the level of translation and develop the translation career. The achievements of our predecessors have accumulated valuable cultural heritages for us. We should sum up our predecessors' translation experience and continue to make our efforts for our country's translation cause.

References

• Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 翻译学 [A Series of Translation Studies in China]. Wuhan: Hubei Education Press 湖北教育出版社.
• Xie Tianzhen. 谢天振. (2009). 中西翻译简史 [A Brief History of Translation in China and the West]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press外语教学与研究出版社.
• Qi Jian. 戚健. (2017). 古罗马时期翻译思想新探 [A New Probe Into the Translation Thoughts in Ancient Rome]. 南昌航空大学学报：社会科学版Journal of Nanchang Hangkong University: Social Science (3) 68-74.
• Ma Zuyi. 马祖毅. (1998). 中国翻译简史-“五四”以前部分（修订本） [A Brief History of Chinese Translation: The Part Before the May 4th Movement] . China Translation Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.
• Liu Junping. 刘军平. (2009). 西方翻译理论通史 [A General History of Western Translation Theory]. Wuhan: Wuhan University Press武汉大学出版社.
• Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中国翻译与西方翻译[Chinese Translation and Western Translation]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translation Journal(5) 6-8.
• Wang Yong. 汪勇. (2008). 翻译与宗教传播[Translation and Religious Communication]. 中国校外教育理论 Education for Chinese After-school(26) 51-53.
• Li Xuan. 李璇. (2012). 中西翻译高潮之对比[Comparison of Translation Climax Between China and the West]. 青年文学家 Youth Literator(3) 131.
• Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (2000). 中西译论的相异性[The Differences Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal (1) 15-21.
• Tan Zaixi. 谭载喜. (1999). 中西译论的相似性[The Similarities Between the Chinese and Western Traditions of Translation Theories]. 中国翻译Chinese Translation Journal (6) 25-28.

Comparison and Translation Studies Between Chinese and Western Color Terms 方洁玲 Fang Jieling

Abstract

Color terms are terms used to describe the external color characteristics of things, and are very common in our lives. We use them not only to describe the external image of an object, but also to express our inner psychological feelings. Color words contain rich cultural connotations, which should not be understood simply from their literal meanings when translated, but from the different cultural connotations and extended meanings contained in the color words to understand and choose the meanings of the words. This paper first introduces the composition of color words in Chinese and English and makes a comparative analysis of their characteristics, then discusses the different meanings given to the six colors in Chinese and English, and then provides different translation methods that should be used in different situations, providing a certain reference for the English-Chinese translation.

Key words

color terms, cultural difference , reason ,translation methods

摘要

颜色词是用来描述事物外在颜色特征的词语，在我们生活中非常常见。我们不仅用它描绘物体的外在形象，也用它表达内在心理感受。颜色词包含了丰富的文化内涵，在翻译的时候不能简单地从字面意思上理解，应从颜色词所包含的不同文化内涵和引申意义来理解和选择词义。本文将首先介绍中英颜色词的构成并对其特点进行对比分析，然后具体论述六种颜色在中英文中被赋予的不同意义，接着提供了面对不同情况应该采用的不同翻译方法，为英汉互译提供了一定的参考。

关键词

颜色词 文化差异 原因 翻译方法

1.Introduction

Color is an indispensable part of human life,it is because of the colorfulness of colors that the world is much more varied and pleasant. Color words not only have an important impact on people's vision, but also have a great impact on people's inner feelings and emotional expression. As an important part of language, color words are frequently used by human beings in English, but due to different histories, cultures, customs and habits, in the long run, different people have given specific meanings to various colors. Analyzing and comparing the different connotations of color words in Chinese and Western cultures and exploring the cultural differences between English and Chinese will be of great help to the translation work between English and Chinese. At the same time, translators will inevitably meet a lot of problems in the translation work. In this paper, we mainly discuss the composition and cultural connotation of color words between Chinese and English. In addition, we also propose some translation methods and make a brief conclusion.

2.Characteristics of the Composition of Chinese and Western Color Words

Color words are words used to describe the color of different things. And they are the symbols that exist in human languages to record a large number of colors, which are generally considered to be adjectives in grammar. In the historical development of Chinese color words, there are three types.(Cai Xiaomin2020,65) (1) Basic words. These words are the most basic and objective, and are generally used to objectively describe the most direct external color state of an object. They are "white", "black", "red", "yellow", "blue ""Green" "Gray" "Purple" "Brown" and "orange". (2) Reference words. Reference words means that people specifically distinguish basic words to show different colors. These words are more detailed and specific than the basic words. For example, we tend to divide "green" into "dark green" "grass green" and so on. (3)Descriptive words. Descriptive words comes from people's perception of nature. These words can not only distinguish colors, but also describe what they look like. Such color words are more literary and subjective. Color words in English are mainly divided into basic color words and compound color words. basic color words : (1) simple colors. For example, black, white. (2) Colors of plants. For example, orange, etc. Compound color words : (1) the name of plant + simple color. For example, apple green. (2) Chemical name + simple color. For example, vermilion, etc

3.The Different Understanding and Perception of Colors in China and the West

Nature is colorful and can be described with many words. Generally speaking, black symbolizes oppression, white symbolizes purity and innocence, and green symbolizes life force. However, due to different histories and cultures, the same color may have different meanings. After a careful study of color words, it is easy to see that color words create various associations that have a great impact on a person's emotions and behavior. This is the main reason why people use color words to explain their moral character, emotions, and perceptions of things. Different cultures and ways of thinking lead to different meanings of color words, and this disparity can affect people's understanding of the meaning of the same word. For example, in English-speaking countries, white symbolizes purity and beauty, which is why brides wear white wedding dresses in Western weddings. However, in China, white is often used to express grief, and a white funeral dress is worn at a funeral. In this paper, we start with the six basic color words red, black, white, yellow, purple and blue, and compare their cultural connotations in English and Chinese, discussing the different understanding and cognition of colors in China and the West and the differences in cultural connotations between Chinese and Western cultures.  红and Red In traditional Chinese culture, "红" represents joy, happiness, good luck, and prosperity. "红" is a color that cannot be absent from important events in China, such as the red couplets(红包), red lanterns（红灯笼）, and red packets（红包） during Chinese New Year festivals, the red dress of the bride at weddings, and other festive ceremonies in China. Similarly, words combining the word "红" generally mean prosperity, such as “hongguangmanmian”（红光满面）、”dahongdazi”(大红大紫)、”honghuo”(红火)、”hongren”(红人)、”hongrun”(红润), etc. In addition, during the revolutionary era, the color red also symbolized the modern Chinese revolution and power, such as the“hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领), etc.( Zhao Fenyan2019,232) In the West, red refers to the color of blood, and when red is mentioned, it is generally associated with cruelty, violence, and bloodshed. For example, "red hands", "red battle", "the red rules" " red revenge", the color red also symbolizes radical and violent revolution, as in "red activities", but also danger and tension,such as "a red flag". "red alert" "a red adventure story", in addition to the above-mentioned symbolic meaning, the color red also has connotations of debauchery and obscenity.(Yan Wen2012,177)For example, red light district, a red waste of one's youth, and so on. The positive connotation of the color red in Western culture is due to the exchange and integration of different cultures, which is said to have been introduced to the West via Persia from the Far East. like red letter day、red envelope、the red carpet.  黑 and Black In Chinese history, “黑” is an honorable and dignified color, which had a high status in ancient times. During the Xia, Qin, and early Han dynasties, “黑” was the dress of emperors and officials, and the common people were only allowed to wear plain clothes, and then a restriction that was gradually relaxed after the Northern Song Dynasty. In China, the derivation of “黑” includes the positive meanings of stern, iron-faced, upright, and mysterious, such as in the art of theatrical masks, where the “黑脸” symbolizes the noble character of uprightness and selflessness. In addition to its positive connotations, “黑” sometimes symbolizes a derogatory meaning, indicating a counter-revolutionary, regressive, or stubborn party. For example, the ”阴曹地府” is said to be dark and sunless, and “黑”, as opposed to light, symbolizes darkness, death, terror, etc. In the West, black is the color of death, symbolizing death, suffering, and grief, hence the black color of Western mourning garments. black tidings means "bad news"，Jesus was crucified on the Friday before Easter, The Black Friday is considered to be a "dangerous and ominous day". Black also symbolizes "anger" and "irritation", such as: black in the face,to look black at sb，Other words that express negative meanings，such as black sheep, black dog, black eye, black list, black and blue, black art, and other black symbols.(Wang Yu2012,151)In addition, black also represents seriousness, discretion, and pomp. Black suit and black dress have always been the most revered traditional clothing in the West. In solemn formal occasions, people like to wear black clothing. Symphony orchestra performers almost always wear black suits. The term "black-ball" refers to a costume ball. In business English, "a company in black" refers to a profitable business, where“ in black” means profitable, because on financial statements, profit figures are written in black ink.[6]  白 and White In Chinese, “白” is often used to represent death, such as at funerals with white decorations, white flowers, and white mourning clothes, but there are also many words containing “白” that do not represent color at all, but rather the name of something or have another meaning,[8]such as”baicai”(白菜), “baixiong”（白熊）、 “baiyi”(白蚁)、”baijuan” (白卷)、 “baichi”(白痴), White" also means "pure, or unadulterated, such as”baikaishui”(白开水)、”baizhi”(白纸)、”baiqierou”(白切肉)etc. "White" also often means "in vain" or "without cost", such as”baifeishi”(白费事)、“baida”（白搭）、”baisong” (白送)、“baishouqijia” (白手起家) etc(Chen Yongye2005,425) and The Chinese word “白” is also not the same as the English word "white", which we can say the white people (白人), but is better translated as: She has a fair skin. In addition, it is difficult to summarize the exact meaning of some of the“白” in Chinese, For example “baihua”(白话) vernacular, “tanbai”（坦白）: to confess, to make a clean breast of something, etc. In the West, however, white is considered as a symbol of purity, and it is customary to wear white wedding dresses and gowns at weddings, hence there exist the expressions like white-handed，a white lie，a white day, they treated us white etc.  黄 and Yellow In traditional Chinese culture,”黄” is a symbol of power, honor, and nobility, in the Chinese feudal society, yellow is a symbol of imperial power and nobility, such as ”chonggao”(崇高)，”huangpao”(皇袍)、”huanggong”(皇宫)、”shengzhi”(圣旨) and so on. In modern Chinese, words such as “huangchengcheng”(黄澄澄),”huangcanvan”(黄灿灿)mean a good harvest and an auspicious day. ”黄” is a glorious color. And it is always associated with "honor", "brilliance", it is a symbol of "power" and "nobility". To this day, ”黄” is still the symbol of ancient China, which is its positive meaning. Similarly, ”黄” has negative connotations, such as ”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊) , “huangseluxiang”(黄色录像) etc, but in the West, the term "the blue video", "the blue talk" is used to describe the pornographic nature of the country. It means ”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)and ”huangsexinxi”(黄色信息)(Du Tianyu2020,188). In addition, ”黄” also means failure, sickness, or old age, such as ”huangji”(黄髫). The word ”黄” also means youth and ignorance. In the West, in Western Christianity, yellow is a symbol of shame. Because in the Bible, Judas betrayed Jesus by wearing a yellow dress. Therefore, "yellow" has the connotation of betrayal .And it also means sadness, sickness, cowardice, etc. For example, "a yellow streak" means cowardice. "yellow" also has mean and vulgar semantics. In the 18th century, Americans often printed pornographic books on yellow paper. As a result, the low level of exaggeration and exaggerated distortion of facts used by newspapers and periodicals to attract readers was later extended to journalistic styles as well. For example, "yellow journalism" is a style of journalism that attempts to attract people in any way possible. [9]In English, Yellow Pages is the "yellow phone book", and yellow boy is a slang term for "gold coin. The English words for Chinese ”黄” would be: pornographic, filthy, vulgar, obscene, etc. In English, blue is often used to mean ”黄”, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)etc.(Chen Yongye2005,425) Some Chinese words have nothing to do with the English word yellow, such as blue jokes(下流的玩笑)、blue revolution (性解放)、blue films (黄色影片)、blue software (黄色软件)and so on.  绿and Green In Chinese culture, “绿”represents vitality, and phrases related to”绿”express hope and vitality of people, such as“lüzhou”（绿洲）、“lvyiangran”（绿意盎然）. In today's China, ”绿”has a new symbolic meaning, such as: “lvseshipin”(绿色食品),”lvsechanye”(绿色产业), all referring to the concept of health, safety and non-pollution. The green light is also a signal for safe passage. In Chinese, a "lvmao" （绿帽）means that a man's wife is in an illicit relationship with someone else.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun2019,153) However, in ancient Chinese culture, ”绿”means humbleness, because humble people wore green clothes. Also,”lvlinhaohan” (绿林好汉)means a barbarian who occupies a mountain and becomes king. In traditional British culture, "Green" is a symbol of youth and vitality. It reminds people of the harmony and tranquility of nature. The "Green Peace Organization" is an organization that protects animals and plants. A dove with a green olive branch in its beak is a symbol of peace, "green winter" refers to a warm winter, and "in a green wood" refers to when people are young and strong. Green also represents a sense of madness and despair, just as Satan's image in the Bible is green. In addition, green in English also has a derogatory meaning of jealousy, lack of training, and childishness, such as “as green as grass”，’a green eye”，”a green hand”.(Chen Yuan陈缘2020,49) In addition, greenback means U.S. currency in English, and since U.S. dollar bills are green in color, green also means "money," "bills," or "economic power" in the United States.  蓝 and Blue Blue is the color of the sea and clear skies, giving people a feeling of peace and tranquility. In Chinese, in addition to the color,”蓝” is often used together with other words to form phrases that have different meanings from the color. For example, “蓝 青 官 话 “the standard Chinese spoken by the people with accent “蓝本”script on which the works are based； model “蓝图”（blue print）building plan “蓝田生玉”the noble people usually come from the good family “青出于蓝而胜于蓝 “the new coming from the old is better than the old . But blue in English can be extended to depression, sadness, nervousness, immorality, obscenity, and pornography. For example :“feel blue“, ”be blue about future“,”Her mood is blue“,“be down with blues”,“sing the blues”,“blue devils”,“blue funk“,”blue revolution“, ”blue films“, ”blue jokes“, ”blue room” refers to a place in The White House where the president meets his friends and family. and the ”Blue Book“ refers to a book that contains the names of celebrities and important government officials.(Du Tianyu2020,187-188)

4.Reasons for the Difference in the English-Chinese Translation of Color Words

Different countries and regions have different interpretations of color. The main reasons for this difference are geographical factors, historical factors, religious beliefs, and social systems, 

4.1 Geographic Factors

Chinese civilization originated in the Yellow River Basin. The rich water resources and flat land of the Yellow River Basin have nurtured several generations of Chinese people. This is the main reason why the Chinese people love yellow. For generations, we Chinese people are also known as the “yanhuangzisun”(炎黄子孙)(Cai Xiaomin2020,66).Western civilization originated in ancient Rome. The only way out for Greece was to expand abroad. Therefore, blue became the favorite color of the Greeks. 

4.2 Historical and Cultural Factors

A large number of color words have been created in different historical backgrounds and conditions. Therefore, it is important to understand the differences in the historical background and culture of different countries. For example, during the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression, our Party was called the”hongjun”(红军), which gave rise to expressions like “hongsezhengquan”(红色政权)、”hongjun”(红军)、”hongqi”(红旗)、”hongge”(红歌)、”hongsewenjian”(红头文件)、”hongseganglin”(红色纲领),etc.(Li Dan2018,132) In addition to some basic meanings, the color “红” in China also has some special historical meanings, such as the heroic and fearless revolutionary spirit. This is also the main reason why our national flag adopts the color red. Also in ancient China, yellow was a symbol of power, a color reserved for the royal family, representing the supreme authority, which meant that yellow robes were added to the flag. In the West, purple is used as a metaphor for "throne" and "prominence," and the addition of a purple robe means rising to a position of prominence, because Western emperors and bishops have a tradition of wearing purple robes, such as :be born in the purple(生于皇室), be raised to the purple. In recent years, yellow has become more and more of a symbolic term in China for low taste, erotic vulgarity, and obscenity, such as”huangsedianying”(黄色电影)、”huangseshukan”(黄色书刊)、”huangseguangdie”(黄色光碟).etc. The "黄" in these names has nothing to do with the English "yellow", these words in English are expressed like this pornographic, vulgar, obscene. It is very different from the associations in Chinese culture. The color vocabulary is visually and psychologically positive and derogatory for people of different nationalities. 

4.3 Religious beliefs

In China, the Five Element Theory is widely spread. Since "gold" is at the core of the theory, yellow becomes noble. In contrast, in the West, because yellow is stigmatized in Christianity and most people are Christians, many people dislike yellow and often even use it to convey negative connotations, according to "the Gospels" in the Bible's, in which Jesus was willing to be crucified, bleed to death, and be sacrificed with the blood of the Gospels. The Bible has been a classic of Christianity, and most people in Europe and the United States believe in Christianity. Since the Bible has always been a Christian classic, and most people in Europe and the United States are Christian, its influence on Western culture as a whole is immeasurable, and on English culture as well. Therefore, people think that "red" is associated with bloodshed, martyrdom, and bad things, and "red" makes them think of horrible things, such a“ red hand”( 沾 满 血 的 手 ),“ a red battle”( 血 战 ),“ to see the red light”(灾祸临头)."In Chinese language, the color red is a symbol of honor, splendor, good fortune, and celebration. [2]Such as: :“ 开门红”make/ get off to a good start,“ 满堂红”success in every field,“ 红 榜 ”honor roll,“ 红 运 ”goodluck,“ 红 事 ”wedding,“ 红 人 ”a favorite with someone in power etc.". 

4.4 Social System

The use of different colors to represent political affiliations or national identities has long been a common practice among peoples of different social systems in China and the West due to their political, economic, and religious differences. In English, the true blue refers to the loyal members of a political party, especially the die-hard conservative members of the British party; White Paper or Blue Paper refers to a report or diplomatic document with blue or white covers issued by the British and American governments on a particular topic; Yellow Paper refers to the French and other countries. A government report of a country; Green Paper is a draft report for discussion by various committees; the Chinese use the term "红" to symbolizes the proletarian revolution, the meaning of which is derived from the book "Red Star Over China"(“红星照耀下的中国”,and is also translated into”西行漫记”) by American writer Edward Snow.(Li Dan2018,132)

5.Translation Methods of English-Chinese Color Words

From the above analysis, we can conclude that there are similarities and differences in the cultural connotations of Chinese and English color words. Therefore, in the translation of color words, it is impossible to generalize, so translators need to adapt to the local conditions and adopt an appropriate way to translate. 

5.1 Literal Translation

Literal translation means that every effort should be made to maintain the linguistic style of the original work. At the same time, it requires that the target language should be fluent and easy to understand. There are similarities between English and Chinese languages and cultures. In the translation of English-Chinese color words, some color words can be found in the target language, while others have similar extended cultural meanings. Sometimes there is no similar extended meaning, but only a literal translation meaning, so the literal translation can also be used for translation.(Hu Zongkang, Zhang Jun,153) For example, when the word black remains in its original color in the corresponding language, i.e, it has the same connotation, a literal translation is usually used. black humor 黑色幽默 (an absurd, grotesque, or morbid humor in literature, especially in novels and plays) black Friday黑色的星期五 (the Friday on which any disaster occurs) black hand黑手党 (a secret organization that originated in Sicily, Italy, and has spread to the United States to engage in criminal activities) black market 黑市、black- hearted 黑心的、blacklist 黑名单、black and white TV黑白电视, etc.(Chen Yuan2020,49）and red light district can be directly translated as“红灯区“, which refers to the neighborhoods where sex industries are concentrated in cities of certain countries and regions. Similarly, some color words in Chinese can be directly translated into English, for example:” 白露”, one of the 24 solar terms, is a culturally specific term in Chinese, which is completely unfamiliar to Western countries. Due to cultural exchanges, "white dew" is becoming more and more familiar to foreigners, and it has the same cultural meaning in English as "白露" in China. As another example, "绿油油" is a Chinese adjective used to describe the color of vibrant green leaves. We can translate it into English as "green and shiny" because the color words here are only used to describe objective points of view, and they have the same meaning. 

5.2 Free Translation

Free translation. When the meaning of a color word in the original language is different from the meaning of the color word in the target language, the translator has to translate the meaning of the color word in the original language into the customary expression in the target language. In some cases, color words appear in both Chinese and English, but they do not have any color meaning; some are customary object names, while others give new meaning to them. In this case, the color itself cannot be focused on, so the colorless translation should be abandoned.This kind of translation based on the cultural background of two languages to correspond to the meaning is called "free translation".(Chen Yuan2020,49） Take black as an example, for instance, black lie--恶意的谎言、black and blue--青一块紫一块、black tea-- 红茶、black guard--恶棍、black coffee --不加牛奶的咖啡、pain somebody black-- 把某人描写成坏人、黑帮can be translated into “reactionary gang”、黑钱--ill-gotten money、黑面包 brown bread, and so on. Another example is that we often say "他是老师面前的“红人", which is translated into English as "He is teacher's favourite student" ,”hongren”(红人)is an extended paraphrase of the Chinese, which does not mean literally, it means someone who is popular and be sought after by others, and the exact meaning needs to be contextualized. People from English-speaking countries will be confused if we translate it as "red people". In English, the meaning of "one's favourite people" is somewhat similar to "红人", so the phrase "one's favorite people" is appropriate. Another example is "a white elephant," which is said to be a punishment given by the king of Thailand to his erring ministers in the past, as the cost of keeping white elephants is very high and would be a great financial burden. This word is very common in English, but a literal translation of "白象" would not have any connotation in Chinese, so it can be translated as "expensive and useless thing.（Jin Yan2012，130）

6. Conclusion

This paper first discusses the construction of color words in Chinese and English, and then compares their compositional features. Secondly, six colors (red, black, yellow, white, green, blue) are taken as examples to analyze the cultural similarities and differences between Chinese and English color words. The reasons for the differences are divided into four main categories: geographical factors, historical factors, psychological factors, religious beliefs, and social systems, Finally, a solution to the problem is proposed, which provides a proper reference for translators when translating Chinese and English color words. When doing translation, translators can mainly use two different translation methods, namely, literal translation and free translation. When the Chinese cultural connotation of a color word in a sentence is the same as the English one, the literal translation can be used. When it is different from English, a free translation is appropriate. With the continuous penetration of globalization, people's languages and cultures are gradually interwoven, so does the meaning of color words, and also the similarities are expanding gradually. However, each nation-state has its own unique culture and customs, so the color words have completely different meanings in different regions and different languages. Therefore, when translating color terms, in order to translate the meaning of the text more accurately, the translator must have a deeper understanding of the color words.(Bao Dongjiao2005,107).In addition, the translator should not only learn translation skills, but also the history, geography, and culture of the country where the source and target language are located, which will help the accuracy of the translation. In short, the key to a good color word translation is the combination of translation skills and a deep understanding of the culture, as well as an accurate analysis of the color word.

7.Reference

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Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation 周书尧 Zhou Shuyao

Abstract

Translation has existed since historical records. Translation goes hand in hand with human history, even before historical records. Whether in my country or Western countries, the long tradition of translation has become the most dazzling pearl in the process of human civilization.In addition, translation plays an indelible role in promoting cross-cultural communication and cultural communication.This article first discusses the history of translation in China from four stages , then discusses the five stages of western translation history , and finally compares and analyzes the similarities and differences between Chinese and Western translation histories, and puts forward some of the author's own views.

Key words

The history of Chinese,The history of Western,the stages of translation history,comparison

摘要

自历史记载以来,就存在翻译.翻译与人类的历史并道而驰,甚至先于历史记载.无论在我国,还是西方国家,悠久的翻译传统俨然成为人类文明进程中一颗最耀眼的明珠。此外，翻译在促进跨文化交流和文化传播上承担着不可磨灭的作用。本文首先从中国的四次翻译高潮论述中国的翻译史，再从西方的五次翻译高潮探讨西方的翻译史，最后对中西方翻译史的异同进行对比分析，提出一些笔者自己的看法。

关键词

中国翻译史，西方翻译史，翻译高潮，对比

I.Introduction

Since the 1980s, the Chinese translation studies community has made remarkable progress in the establishment of Chinese and Western translation history courses and the compilation of related works.In the 1980s and early 1990s,A Brief Introduction to the History of Translation in China from Ma Zuyi and other books of Chen Yugang and Tan Zaixi were published one after another,which raised the curtain for the compilation of Chinese and Western translation history works by the domestic translation scholars.The four stages in the history of Chinese translation have promoted the development of Chinese history, culture and society to varying degrees.The same as our country, Western translation has an age-old history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.The five stages in the history of European translation have promoted the exchanges of literature, art, science and trade between countries, and to a certain extent promoted the development of Chinese translation.In fact, when we examine the development trajectory of Chinese and Western translation activities and the evolution of translation concepts together, we find that there are some similarities between Chinese translation and Western translation.Especially in the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts, the two have very similar evolution laws.

Ⅱ.The history of Chinese translation

According to records, there have been four stages in China's long history of translation development, leaving behind many classic discussions.From these four translation climaxes, we can see the translators, translation theories and practices that emerged in different periods in China.And these translation stages have had varying degrees of impact on China's history, culture, society, and literature, including the development of Chinese translation.

2.1 The first stage:Ancient Translation History

The translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties (25-1279) can be regarded as the first important period in the history of Chinese translation, the initiation period of traditional Chinese translation theory, and the first large-scale, planned, Organized translation activities.A large number of Buddhist scriptures were introduced into our country from various countries in the Western Regions, which had a profound impact on our country's language, religious philosophy, painting, arts, etc.The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures with textual research should be translated by An Shigao（安室高） during the Eastern Han Dynasty (151 AD).From 148 AD to 170 AD, he translated more than 30 Buddhist scriptures in Luoyang, making great contributions to Buddhist translation and the spread of Buddhist culture in China.The translation of Lokaksema（支娄迦谶）, who was at the same time as An Shigao, was basically a word-for-word translation, which was not easy to understand. The literal translation in the Chinese translation community probably started from this time.Zhi Loujiachen were the masters of the literal translation school. In addition to them, the major translators include Lokaksema and Dharmaraksha（竺法护）. And most of these translators were “foreigners”. Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk, set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Shi daoan put forward the famous "five instances of losing the source and three instances of difficulties", which had a great influence on later translation studies.(Li 2016,132)The Sui and Tang Dynasties were the prosperous period of Chinese Buddhist translation.Xuan Zang（玄奘）, Kumarajiva（鸠摩罗什）, and Zhen Di（真谛） of the Tang Dynasty are collectively known as the three major translators of Chinese Buddhism. In the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he fumbled and summed up the famous "Five do not flip"(五不翻原则）and “six methods of translation”. "Five do not flip"means translators should employ transliteration facing mysterious words, polyseme, culture-loaded words, conventional transliterating words and words showing respect. And the core of his translation theory can be concluded in one sentence. That is: it is necessary to seek truth and be straightforward.（既须求真又须喻俗) The Buddhist translation of this period enriched the religious beliefs of the people, became the spiritual support of the people at that time, promoted the exchange between China and the world at that time, and made Buddhist scriptures an inseparable part of our traditional culture.

2.2 The stage two:Modern Translation History

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties (middle 14th to 19th centuries), there was a second stage of translation in Chinese history. During this period, the translation was mainly scientific and technological translation.This major shift was also decided by the Chinese and Western countries at the time in order to seek their own interests and finally reached an agreement on mutual terms.Western missionaries wanted to spread religious thought and culture in China, while Chinese scholars at that time were eager for knowledge and were keen on Western advanced science and technology in order to maintain the regime. In this way, the two needs complement each other, and the translation of Western scientific books is increasing. Increased, which promoted the great development of science and technology translation at that time.In 1868, the official translation and publishing organization of the Qing Dynasty, referred to as the Translation Museum, used the translation method from Western to Chinese, which means that foreign scholars interpret and Chinese scholars write and polish.(Liu 2016,148)The main representatives of translation activities in this period include Xu Guangqi（徐光启）, Li Zhizao （李之藻）, etc.Especially Xu Guangqi, known as the "Father of Western Translation", does not understand foreign languages, and his translations are mainly through listening to narratives and co-translation and compilation.He proposed that the translation of Western history books should be prioritized and progressive，and put forward his own translation thought: "If you want to be superior, you must understand; before you can understand, you must first translate."Although there were many translation achievements during this period, there was no systematic translation theory.Although the later translation museum had clear translation principles, its main purpose was to maintain its own rule by learning advanced Western technology.

2.3 The third stage: Contemporary Translation History

From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, China was in turmoil and internal and external troubles. Some rulers and intellectuals with capitalist ideas demanded to unite to resist the aggression of Western countries, and proposed reforms to strengthen themselves.Translation in this period is the boundary of modern Chinese translation history. Translation in the field of science and technology has gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, and ethics. China has entered a new stage of translation. The scale and influence of its translation activities all surpassed any period in modern times.At the end of the 19th century, Western academic translation represented by Ma Jianzhong （马建忠）and Yan Fu（严复）was a translation act driven by "national anxiety", which promoted the expansion and deepening of foreign exchanges.(Liu 2016,148-149)In particular, Yan Fu's "faithfulness,expressiveness and elegance" translation standards have had a profound impact on translators' translation activities."faithfulness" means loyalty, and "expressiveness" means unobstructed. In Yan Fu's interpretation, "elegance" means the translation strives to be elegant.The representative translator at that time was Lin Shu（林纾）. He proposed to pay attention to the purpose and function of translation, which meant that the translation should be able to achieve the expected goals and effects.When Lin Shu is translating, he emphasizes on subjective feelings, and the translator needs to communicate with the original author and the characters in the original work.A large number of translators, represented by Lin Shu, mostly adopt the principle of domestication and advocate free translation, which reflects the flexibility and openness of translation to a certain extent.During the May 4th Movement, the "New Youth" magazine was launched and began to translate western cultural thoughts and literary works. Representatives such as Chen Duxiu（陈独秀）, Hu Shi（胡适）, and Zhou Zuoren （周作人）all attached great importance to introducing foreign literature and foreign culture.Translation activities during this period included the introduction of scientific and technological knowledge and the dissemination of advanced ideas. The scale and the number of works all showed its important position in the history of translation.Moreover, the audience in this period has also expanded from intellectuals to part of the people, broadening the horizons of the Chinese people, increasing their knowledge, and playing a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.

2.4 The fourth stage: Present Translation

Since the reform and opening up, China and the Western world have had a broader space for communication, and the translation industry has achieved prosperity and development.In an open China, from the initial learning from modern and contemporary Western translation theories, to actively conducting cultural exchanges with other countries, learning and exploring research methods, and focusing on cross-disciplinary comprehensive innovation, translation practices and theories have achieved unprecedented development.(Xu 2018,5)For example, cultural schools, structuralism, post-colonialism, and other translation theories have been translated into China in large numbers. Literary works involve politics, economy, culture, literature, art and other fields, and the quantity and variety greatly exceed the previous generations.Representatives at this time include Liu Miqing（刘宓庆）, Tan Zaixi（谭载喜）, Huang Long（黄龙） and others. Among them, Tan Zaixi compiled the book "A Brief History of Western Translation". The whole book pays attention to absorb the relevant research results at home and abroad. It is important for various historical periods, especially since the 20th century. The representative tasks in the western translation field, translation works, schools of thought, etc. are described and commented, and the mutual promotion, evolution and development of translation practice and translation theory are analyzed and discussed in a simple way, which promotes the formation of a systematic translation theory in China.During this period, our research is no longer limited to the summary of translation practices and abstract induction of translation principles, but from the generalization of subjective thoughts to the description and analysis of specific translation phenomena, translation events and processes.Translation studies have changed from a single-paradigm study to a multi-paradigm study. In short, the reform and opening up has created a new situation in China's translation industry, constantly expanding research fields, and effectively promoting the development of Chinese translation studies.

Ⅲ.The history of western translation

The same as our country, Western translation has a long history.In a sense, the development of Western European civilization should first be attributed to the translators.From the ancient Roman Empire to the modern European Community, literary, artistic, scientific, and trade exchanges between countries are all carried out through the work of translators. Throughout the whole process, the history of Western translation can be divided into five major development stages.Broadly speaking, the earliest translation in the West is The Septuagint.Strictly speaking, the first translation is the Homer epic "Odyssey" translated in Latin by Andronicus .Both the former and the latter began in the third century BC, with a history of more than two thousand years, and are an important part of the entire European history of development.(Tan 1985,36)

3.1 The first stage : Ancient

Ancient translation mainly revolved around the Greek translation and Latin translation of the "The Bible. Old Testament" from the third century BC to the sixth century AD. Translation in this period can be divided into the first stage of ancient Greek literature translation and the second stage of religious translation.At the end of the fourth century BC, the Greek slave society began to decline, while the relatively backward Rome gradually became stronger.At this time, Greece has a certain cultural foundation and is still superior to Roman culture. Therefore, Greek culture has a greater attraction to Roman culture. The translation and introduction of Greek culture may begin in this period.It was only in the middle of the third century BC that recorded translations began to appear. Andronicus, Neveus, Ennius, and other excellent translators, who are known as the three ancestors of Roman literature, have translated a large number of Greek dramas in Latin.This large-scale translation first opened the situation of local translation in Europe. It spread Greek culture to Rome, promoted the development of Roman culture, and served as an important bridge for Rome and later generations to inherit ancient Greek literature.(Tan 1985,36) The translation activities in the fourth to sixth centuries AD were mainly religious translation.In Europe, religious forces have always been strong and stubborn. From the very beginning, the Christian Church was hostile to secular literature, and tried to develop a religious culture that served its own interests.As the source of Christian thought and spiritual weapon, the "Bible" has naturally become the most concerned classic in the religious world.In 384 AD, Jerome was entrusted by the Roman Pope to compile a translation called "The New Testament", which marked that the translation of the "Bible" had achieved an important position on par with the translation of secular literature.As Europe entered feudal society, religious translation was popularized, and the Bible was translated into various languages one after another.

3.2 The second stage : Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, Latin translation was no longer limited to religious documents. Eastern literature was translated and introduced to the East. The achievements of Arabic academic research promoted the development of Western translation.At that time, Western translators gathered in Toledo, Spain, and translated a large number of works from Arabic to Latin. This is the rare closely contact between Christians and Muslims in history.(Tan 2004,64)In the ninth and tenth centuries, Syrian scholars went to Athens to translate a large number of Greek classics into Syrian and brought them back to Baghdad. Baghdad established an important translation center, and many Greek classical works were translated into Arabic.Later, in the eleventh century, a large number of Arabic works appeared in Toledo. Translators translated these works into Latin. Toledo gradually became an academic center and translation center, becoming a "Translation Museum" similar to Baghdad. His translation and academic activities lasted for a hundred years, and the impact was also great.

3.3 The third stage :The Renaissance Period

In the 14-16th century, the Renaissance took place in Europe. It was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation, and a great development in the history of Western translation. The translation practice and theoretical research of Western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.During the Renaissance, Western translators constantly discovered new literary fields, unearthed new cultural heritage, and transplanted new ideas to the mainland. Translation at this time went deep into various fields such as ideology, politics, philosophy, literature, and religion, and involved some major works in ancient, modern and contemporary times.Translation in this period played an important role in the formation of national languages, marking the consolidation of the status of national languages in translation.(Tan 1985,37) In Germany, Martin Luther created a precedent for the Reformation. His translation of the "Bible" through the people's language laid the foundation for the later standardization and standardization of German and played an important role in the unification of German.In France, "Celebrity biography" translated by the writer Amyot became an immortal literary translation in the history of translation in France and the entire West.In the United Kingdom, the translation of Greco-Roman history and literary works provided important historical materials and new ideological resources for the formation of an autocratic monarchy in the United Kingdom, which promoted the occurrence of the British bourgeois revolution and promoted Britain to become a modern nationalized country earlier.All in all, the ideological liberation movement of the Renaissance in Europe around 1500 had a profound and long-term impact on Europe, especially Western European society, and cultural translation played a crucial role as a bridge in this ideological liberation movement. It also shows that translation plays a huge role in the formation and development of national language, literature and thought.

3.4 The fourth stage :Since the end of the Second World War

After the Second World War, the West entered a relatively stable period of peace, the economy was restored, production was secured, and science and technology developed rapidly. These are important material foundations for the development and progress of translation.(Tan 1985,37)Compared with the past, translation in the new period has undergone great changes. First, the scope of translation has been expanded. Traditional translation mainly focused on literary and religious works, while translation during this period expanded to the fields of technology and business.Second, the scale of translation is much larger than before. In the past, translation was mainly the work of a few high-level intellectuals. Nowadays, translation has become a profession, and there is even a professional team that has been specially trained.Third, the role of translation has also been enhanced, especially with the establishment of the European Community and the European Union, the process of globalization has accelerated, and the communication activities between countries are realized through translation. Therefore, translation plays a very important role in the economy, culture, science and technology of western countries. The form of translation during this period has also undergone great changes, such as the strengthening of the professionalization of the translation business, the establishment of higher translation education and the training of professional translators.Especially the way of translation has broken the tradition, and machine translation has been developed and popularized.Since English and American scholars first discussed the possibility of using computers for translation in 1946, the development and application of translation machines have increasingly shown vitality after nearly 40 years of tortuous development. It is a challenge to traditional manual translation for thousands of years, and it is also a revolution of far-reaching significance in the history of translation.

Ⅳ.Comparison between the History of Chinese and Western Translation

4.1 Commonality

Through the introduction of the Chinese translation history and the Western translation history in the above two chapters, it is not difficult to find that there are some similarities between the translation concepts and the evolution process of the two, especially the laws of evolution of the Chinese and Western translation concepts are very similar. First of all, the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents.In the West it is the translation of the Bible, while in China it is the translation of Buddhist classics.In my opinion, this commonality is the origin of translation concepts such as "original supremacy" and "faithful original text" that have dominated the Chinese and Western translation circles for two thousand years.(Xie 2010,5)Looking back at history, when Chinese and Western ancient translators were translating these religious documents, they must be pious and absolutely faithful to the original text to translate word by word, lest they would distort the will of God and the teachings of the Buddha.Until the 1950s, due to the advent of the era of professional translation, the target of translation has evolved from religious documents and literary masterpieces to non-literary practical documents such as economy, technology, business, and entertainment. Since then, translation Views have been greatly changed. Secondly, both in China and in the West, translation has played an important role in disseminating knowledge.When we compare the contribution of Chinese and Western translation in spreading knowledge together, this effect is further demonstrated.In the West, backward Rome developed rapidly due to the absorption of advanced Greek culture and became the later Roman Empire.In the Middle Ages, after the Baghdad Translation Center, the translation activities of the "Translation Museum" in Toledo, Spain.The translators provided a source of learning for the Western world by translating ancient Greek and Roman natural science works, philosophy and other classics translated by the Arabs into Latin, as well as the Arabs' own academic works.It is through these classical classics that Western talents began to come into contact with a large number of classical cultures and promoted the Renaissance. Its influence is reflected in all aspects of art, philosophy, literature, music, science and technology, politics, religion, and intellectual inquiry.For China, a large number of Buddhist scriptures from the Western Regions to China from the Han Dynasty to the Song Dynasty opened up the history of Chinese translation.The translation of science and technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty was also influential in disseminating Western science and technology literature and promoting the development of China's natural science and engineering technology.In particular, the literary translation from the Opium War to the "May 4th" period was the dividing line of modern translation history. The translation from the field of science and technology gradually spread to the fields of literature, philosophy, economics, sociology, ethics, etc. In the new stage of translation, the scale and influence of its translation activities have exceeded any period in modern times.Since China's reform and opening up, translation has played a role in promoting communication between China and various countries. The development of the globalization process cannot be separated from the bridge and hub of translation. Third, the role of translation in the establishment and development of national languages in various countries has some obvious commonalities in both the West and China.In the West, Martin Luther's Bible translation has played a very important role in the unification and development of German and modern German.The English translation of the "Bible" also contributes significantly to enriching English vocabulary and expressive means.As for China, Buddhist translation has enriched Chinese vocabulary, especially literary translation during the May Fourth Movement, which promoted the establishment and development of modern Chinese vernacular.The translation in the new era has also enriched the vocabulary to a certain extent.For example, the Chinese "人山人海" translates into English as "people mountain people sea", and it is even included in the English dictionary. Finally, regardless of Chinese and Western, translation also plays a vital role in conveying foreign social and cultural values.(Xie 2010,5)In the West, for example, the excavation, dissemination and development of the spirit of humanism during the Renaissance were largely due to the translation of ancient Greek and Roman classics.In China, Li Zhizao, Xu Guangqi and others' translations of Western social science masterpieces in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties broadened the horizons of the Chinese people and promoted the modernization of China.During the May Fourth Movement, Yan Fu, Lu Xun and others' translations of Western literature and dramas refreshed the Chinese worldview, increased the Chinese people's knowledge, and played a good catalytic role in modern intellectual circles.

4.2 Difference

The last section elaborated from four aspects that the evolutionary laws of Chinese and Western translation history are very similar. Of course, the development of Chinese and Western translation history has its own unique performance, not only in the development period and nodes, but also in certain These aspects are even far apart. Although the initiation and development of large-scale Chinese and Western translation activities are closely related to the translation of religious documents, the status of Buddhism in Chinese and Western social and political life is different.Religion plays an extremely important role in Western society. In Western Christian society, God is not only the creator and nurturer of the universe and mankind, but also the maker and arbitrator of the political and ethical order of the world. Is the primary source of Western moral standards.Therefore, the importance of "Bible" translation can be imagined.In China, imperial power is greater than divine power. Monarchs profess themselves to be the emperor, exercise power by the mandate of heaven, and enjoy supreme authority.Religion can only be spread and developed under the support and use of imperial power. Its essence is actually a tool to maintain rule, and it has never become a religious behavior for the whole people.In Chinese history, religion was never allowed to harm the ethical principles of feudal rule. Once harm occurred, it would be banned and eliminated.The extermination of Buddhism in the history of Chinese Buddhism and the "Chinese Etiquette Controversy" in the history of modern Chinese Catholicism are typical features.Therefore, the influence of Chinese Buddhist scripture translation is more in folk culture, and the effect of its influence is more manifested in a subtle form.For example, the change of world outlook, the penetration of language, the borrowing of the plots of Buddhist classics in literary works, and so on.Moreover, Chinese society uses blood as a bond and family as a unit. It is the blood relationship that closely connects family members.Festivals and weddings and funerals are always carried out on a family or family basis, not under the auspices of the church as in the West. On the other hand, due to the differences in national characteristics between China and the West, the Chinese nation is more pragmatic, focusing on physical and mental cultivation, ethics and morality, paying attention to whether translation theory has practical effects, whether it can guide translation practice and solve various problems encountered in the translation process.(Xie 2010,6)The Western Christian culture and my country's Confucianism have formed a sharp contrast in this respect.Westerners influenced by Christian thought have a strong pioneering and innovative national character. They advocate speculation and pay more attention to the abstract, systematic and systematic nature of translation theories.They believe that the focus is on describing what kind of theory exists behind translation practice, and how to understand and interpret translation from a theoretical perspective.This makes the development path of the two translation theories different.If there were many similarities in the concepts and characteristics of Chinese and Western translation activities before the 1950s, then the differences in the development trends of the two translation theories in the later stages, especially from the end of the 19th century, became larger and larger.Western translation theories have been systematized earlier. Any research is carried out under the guidance of a certain theory, and the results of related disciplines are fully used to make the connotation (translation standard itself) and extension (research method) of translation standards become truly pluralistic. Which embodies a strong scientific spirit.However, Chinese translation theories have remained at the level of translation practice experience perception for a long time, which is largely subjective.In particular, the proponents of traditional translation theory pay attention to the unspoken artistic conception, giving people more space for association and comprehension, but they cannot make precise regulations for translation practice, which is implicit.

Ⅴ.conclusion

It is precisely based on the above-mentioned understanding of the history of Chinese and Western translation from different aspects that "similarities have differences, and differences have similarities", so I think that the history of Chinese and Western translation development should be described, analyzed and sorted in the same framework. It is possible.In this way, we can not only emphasize the common ground in the development of Chinese and Western translation, find the rules among them, but also show the uniqueness of the development of the two.This article adopts the method of compiling parallel narratives based on synchronic presentation, supplemented by diachronic combing, combining two seemingly unrelated development contexts in the history of Chinese and Western translation, and analyzing and describing them as a whole.And the development stages of Chinese and Western translation history are divided into stages according to the mainstream translation objects of the specific era, and then the internal laws of the evolution of Chinese and Western translation concepts are explored and revealed. Generally speaking, translation and culture are inseparable, whether religious, political, or literary, they all grow up in the soil of culture.(Chen 2016,1)In the process of understanding Chinese and Western translation history, people also feel the cultural collision.Not only in the long history of the past, but in the 21st century today, translation is a bridge and a link between countries, and an indispensable existence in people's social, political, and economic life.At the same time, translation is also an art. Through translating works, we not only understand the beauty of each country's culture, but also realize that translation is originally an art.Translation is a rigorous and extensive academic science. Various forms of cultural exchanges between Chinese and Western languages, literature, philosophy, and religion require not only artistic performance, but also rigorous academic attitudes and systematic theories to support.Translators and scholars from different countries, languages and cultures have contributed their outstanding talents and wisdom in the field of translation. They have studied and published a wealth of academic theories and skills in translation studies from different perspectives, which have promoted the progress and development of society.

References

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Literal and Free Translation

On the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills from House's Translation Quality Assessment Model 宋建茹 Song Jianru

Abstract

Translation quality assessment is an integral part of translation criticism. The first TQA model with comprehensive theories and practices Juliane House represented provides a significant reference for translation exercises. A Pale View of Hills, as the first work of Kazuo Ishiguro, possesses a great research value on its narrative styles by virtue of memory and topics about migrants. As of 2011 when its Chinese translation was published, no scholar has evaluated it. This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills with qualitative and quantitative analysis from lexical, syntactic and textual aspects, in a bid to examine validity of the model on novel translation, which turns out that it is an overt and high-quality translation.

Key Words

A Pale View of Hills; House's TQA model; novel translation

摘 要

翻译质量评估是翻译批评的核心课题。朱莉安·豪斯提出的第一个有完整的理论和实践的翻译质量评估模式，为翻译实践提供了重要参考。《远山淡影》是石黑一雄的处女作，其依托回忆的叙事风格和移民主题具有很高的研究价值。《远山淡影》中译本自2011年出版至今，尚未有学者对其进行评估研究。本文运用豪斯的翻译质量评估模式，采用定性与定量相结合的分析方式，从语场、语旨、语式等三个层面对原文和译文进行分析，开展《远山淡影》中译本的翻译质量评估研究，为豪斯翻译质量评估模式对小说翻译的运用进行进一步的探索和补充。通过分析，得出《远山淡影》中译本为显性翻译，翻译质量较高。Italic text

关键词

《远山淡影》；豪斯质量评估模式；小说翻译

Introduction

Translation criticism refers to the analysis and review of thoughts, activities and works of translation by virtue of relevant theories and views, in a bid to improve the overall quality of translators and translations. It is an integral part of translation studies. (Wang Enmian, 1999: 7) Translation quality assessment, as the integral and key part of translation criticism, plays a significant role in surveillance and promotion of translation quality. Among the extant translation quality assessment models, Juliane House’s A Model for Translation Quality Assessment and Translation Quality Assessment: A Model Revised, based on Halliday's systemic functional linguistics and discourse analysis, are systematic, scientific and rational with a relatively complete system of parameters, quantitative methods and steps adhering to specific procedures.

A Pale View of Hills, as Kazuo Ishiguro's first full-length novel, tells the life of the people in Nagasaki after WWII through the memory of protagonist Etsuko and explores recovery of trauma, collision between the old and new ideas, and kinship after war. The first person narrative, memory, humor and satire and international perspectives in the book became his major writing styles in the future. The novel won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society. Its only Chinese translation at present, from Zhang Xiaoyi, is still not analyzed by the scholars. This paper uses House’s translation quality assessment model, with combination of qualitative and quantitative analysis, from field, tenor and mode to analyze the mismatches between original and translation in an attempt to assess the Chinese translation quality of A Pale View of Hills and further explore the application of House’s model in novel translation. The aim of the study is to promote scholars to regulate the behaviors of translation, to improve the quality of translation and translation evaluation, and to provide a reasonable way for establishing the interlingual conversion mechanism.

The thesis consists of four chapters.

After the Introduction, Chapter One gives a brief account of A Pale View of Hills and its research status, involving the author, background, content and influence. Chapter Two is a brief introduction of House’s TQA model, including its theoretic basis, parameter setting, operation steps and feasibility. Chapter Three is a detailed analysis of original and translation of A Pale View of Hills based on House’s model. Chapter Four is statement of translation quality assessment. Then we come to the last part, Conclusion.

I Overview and Research Status of A Pale View of Hills

A Pale View of Hills is Kazuo Ishiguro's first novel, which laid a solid foundation for the formation of Ishiguro's writing style. The chapter mainly introduces the author, plot, theme and influence of the novel and analyzes its research status, in an attempt to master the material well and seek new perspectives for the paper.

1.1 Overview of A Pale View of Hills

Kazuo Ishguro is a noble contemporary Japanese English writer, whose novels feature first person narrative, detailed depiction of loneliness, depression, self-deception and anxiety of characters' inner world and dual narrative strategy to deconstruct the narrator's self-identity, as well as discuss postwar trauma and migrant identity. He won Booker Prize, the British top literary prize, in 1989 and the Nobel Prize in literature in 2017. By virtue of his outstanding literary achievements, he is known as one of the Three Masters of English Migrant Literature together with Salman Rushdi and Naipaul.

A Pale View of Hills, published in 1982, is Ishiguro's debut. The story, with postwar Nagasaki as its background, enjoys two clues: one is what happened when Niki (Etsuko’s little daughter) visited her mother after her sister Keiko died; the other is Etsuko’s memory about people and events in Nagasaki after the war. The two lines integrated together during the narrative, forming the illusory and imaginary impression. Many in-depth topics in this work are worth pondering: postwar trauma recovery, the collision between new and old ideas after war and discussion of family relations. Many marks in the work became his own styles: first-person narrative, memory, humor and satire, international perspectives. In addition, it won the Winifred Holtby Memorial Prize from the Royal Society and is still in print thirty years after its publication. This book, with its enormous emotion, unearths the abyss beneath the illusion of our connection to the world, whose artistic value and charm could be time-tested.

1.2 Research Status of A Pale View of Hills

There are 54 papers about A Pale View of Hills in domestic researches. According to the statistics from HowNet (as shown in the figure below), the number of studies on the work has been mounting, especially after Kazuo Ishiguro won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2017. The perspectives of these researches are mainly from identity anxiety, unreliable narrative and post-war trauma. In Identity Anxiety in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills, Wang Fei discusses the identity anxiety of migrants, exploring manifestations, causes and influence of such anxiety on the characters. In Memory and Narrative Unreliability of A Pale View of Hills, He Xiaobing combined with the classical narratology to analyze how unreliable narration method is presented in the work and discussed the inner world of the characters. In Trauma in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills, Liu Xiaoya explores the protagonist's trauma by using Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis theory and trauma theory (including post-freudian psychological trauma theory), contemporary trauma culture theory along with rhetorical narrative theory.

At abroad there are more perspectives about the studies of A Pale View of Hills. In addition to the main research directions of domestic scholars, such as identity anxiety of characters, unreliable narrative research and post-war trauma, cultural displacement, family relationship and the influence of region on personality presented in the works are also analyzed. The Impact of Place on Personality in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills: An Eco-critical Study co-written by Awla, Yousif Hamad and Azad Sharif, from the perspective of ecocriticism, clarifies the fact that a place is able to define and guide the emotions and thoughts of characters, and analyzes the reasons why geography forms characters of people in order to draw people’s attention to the impact of surrounding environment on them. Ruth Forsythe's article Cultural Displacement and the Mother-daughter Relationship in Kazuo Ishiguro's A Pale View of Hills focuses more on the relationship between mother and daughter under cultural displacement. However, no scholars have analyzed the language itself from the perspective of systemic functional linguistics.

The Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, Zhang Xiaoyi's version, was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011, and the bilingual version in 2019. Up to now, there has no translation criticism or discussion about this translation. Since 2011 when it was translated, it came to draw the attention of scholars and readers. Translation is a direct factor that affects the integrity of author’s thought, the reader's perception and the accuracy of the scholar’s study, thus it is indispensable to use the House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to analyze the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills.

II Introduction of House's Translation Quality Assessment Model

Juliane House's model was described as the first translation quality assessment model with complete theories and practices by international translation criticism, which could provide an important reference for translation learners and scholars. By introducing the theoretical basis, parameter system and operation steps of House's model, this chapter will discuss the feasibility of House’s model in the evaluation of the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, in an effort to foster the application of House’s model in the quality evaluation of full-length novels.

2.1 Theoretical Basis of House's Model

The assessment of translation quality draws upon different translation standards, which are then embodied by the recognition about essence of translation. House deemed that crunch of the translation quality assessment lies in recognition of the nature of translation, namely that "translation is the replacement of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language."(House, 1977: 30)

In House's initial model in 1977, she drew upon language behavior theory, language and text function and context to divide the source language text into two situational dimensions: dimension of language user and dimension of language use. The former includes three aspects: geographical origin, social class and time. The latter includes five aspects: medium, participation, social role relationship, social attitude and province. The evaluation depends on the matching degree between original text and translation. The higher the matching degree is, the better the translation quality is. The quality evaluation of the translated text needs to state mismatching degree of each dimension in the whole context, that is, the description of the quantity of covert errors (errors in context dimension) and overt errors (referential mismatcher or grammatical violation of target language system).

Based on myriad practice, House realized that the initial eight dimensions overlap in some parts. Therefore, in 1997, she revised the original model from the perspective of the context, unifying the previous eight parameters to field, tenor and mode. Field compares subject matter and social action of the original with that of translation. Tenor emphasizes the matching degree on the relationship of participants, time, region, position of author, social role relationship and social attitudes. Mode pays more attention to medium and participation. In addition, House incorporated "genre" into revision model in order to explain the deep structure of the text.

2.2 Operation Steps of House's Model

When evaluating the translation quality of the text, House's model focuses on comparison between original text and translation from field, tenor, mode and genre, clarifies and summarizes mismatches found in the text, so as to obtain a quality report of the translation. The detailed steps presented as follows:

1) Analyze the register and genre of the original text to get its textual functional profile. The original text is analyzed from four dimensions: field, tenor, mode and genre. According to the analysis, “functional statement”, involving ideational and interpersonal functions, needs to be deduced.

2)Compare the target text and the source text to find differences or mismatches. Through the comparative analysis between original and translation along the dimensions on the model, mismatches or differences found in the comparison are sorted out by virtue of overt errors or covert errors and expounded in detail one by one.

3)Summarize the differences and mismatches demonstrated from the above steps in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. Based on above statistics and statement, make the quality statement. The fewer the mismatches are, the better the translation quality is. If readers clearly realize the text a translation work, it is overt translation; while if not, it is covert translation.

2.3 Feasibility of the Model in Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills

At present, there are 78 relevant studies on House’s Translation Assessment model, which are mainly divided into three directions: interpretation of House Translation Assessment model and its revision, evaluating translation of literary works along the model and evaluating translation of applied text along the model. Among them, evaluation of the translation of literary works accounts for 29, which enjoys the following two characteristics:

1)There are merely a few researches applying House model to Chinese translation of literary works. Among the 29 journals and papers evaluating translation of literary works, there are 25 studies that attach great importance to the English translation and 4 to Chinese translation, which signifies that we need more researches of Chinese translation to support the validity of the model on different languages. Therefore, the paper, with the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to Chinese translation.

2)There are merely a few researches applying House model to the translation of full-length novels. Among the 29 journals and papers on evaluating translation of literary works, most of which focus on the evaluation of poems and prose, merely 5 studies are analysis of translation of full-length novels. English translation accounts for 3 and Chinese translation for 2, which demonstrates that we need more researches with full-length novels as corpus to support the validity of the model in different genres. Therefore, the paper, with the full-length novel A Pale View of Hills as its corpus, intends to examine the feasibility of the application of House’s model to full-length novels.

In conclusion, given that the researches based on Chinese translation of full-length novels are insufficient, the paper will use the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills as its corpus to validate the feasibility of House’s TQA model.

III Comparison of Original and Translation of A Pale View of Hills Along House's Translation Quality Assessment Model

A Pale View of Hills is the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, whose Chinese translation was published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House in 2011. House's Translation Quality Assessment model is the first objective model combining quantative analysis with qualitive analysis. The paper applies House’s Translation Quality Assessment model to Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hill, comparing the source text and target text in lexical, syntactic and textual aspects along the three dimensions of register and summarizing the mismatches on field, tenor and mode, in an effort to quantitatively assess the translation quality of A Pale View of Hills.

3.1 Comparison on Field

Field refers to the content or the topic of the text. It is concerned with subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of lexical items. After comparison between the source text and target text on field, there are 18 mismatches, 12 of which are overt errors and 6 covert errors. Among them, there are 9 lexical errors, 1 textual error and 8 syntactic errors. The lexical and textual errors are mainly covert errors, so in general their translation is of high quality. Although most of syntactic errors are not in line with the grammar of target language system, they won’t influence the understanding of the text. Therefore, by and large, translation on field are high-quality.

3.1.1 Lexical Field

Lexical field means the immediate or possible scenes or events evoked in people’s mind when they read or hear the words or lexical items. After the analysis of the original and target text, there are 9 mismatches, 4 of which are overt errors and 5 are covert ones. Most of them won’t block readers to master the overall meanings. Therefore, the translation quality on lexical items are relatively high.

Example 1：

...and the soaked surfaces of brick and concrete were drying all around us.

湿透了的砖头和水泥开始变干。(P8)

Concrete refers to building material that is made by mixing together cement, sand, small stones and water according to Oxford Dictionary, which includes cement rather than equates it. So, it is not very accurate to translate in this way even if the two words are similar. It is obviously an overt error.

Example 2：

As far as I remember, that was the first occasion I spoke to Mariko.

我印象那是我第一次跟万里子说话。(P11)

In the translation, “印象” as a noun refers to a mental picture that you have of what somebody/something is like or looks like. In the light of the rules or grammar of Chinese, it is hardly used as a verb. Thus, it is an overt error.

Example 3：

It's such a shame.

真不像话。(P16)

A shame is used to say that somthing is a cause for feeling sad or disappointed. In the original, the sentence is to express Etsuko’s pity to the homeless dogs and cats around her community rather than her distaste or complaint. Here it is translated into its other meaning when ignoring the context, belonging to a covert error.

Example 4：

Why don't you go into the kitchen for a little while?

你为什么不到厨房去一会儿呢？(P26)

In the translation, “去” is not very appropriate on the basis of grammar of Chinese, since it is such an action verb that does not match with state phrases. In the course of translation, some prepositions in English need to be transferred into verb in Chinese, which are supposed to pay attention to the rules of target language. Here it is obviously an overt error.

Example 5：

It's not appreciated simply because the product disappears so quickly.

不能因为它的产品很快就消失了而不懂得欣赏。(P34)

According to the context, Ogata-San believes that cooking is “as noble as painting or poetry”. So here the product refers to food cooked. Given the concrete expression in Chinese, the product is supposed to be translated more concretely in accordance with the context. It is a covert error.

Example 6：

Perhaps it is just my fancy that I felt a cold touch of unease there on that bank, a feeling not unlike premonition.

这也许只是我的想象，但是那时我在河边觉得凉飕飕的，很不自在，像是感觉有事要发生。(P44)

“Unease” refers to the feeling of being worried or unhappy about something. Given the above-mentioned, Etsuko worried about the safety of Mariko when she was not at home. It differs from its translation that means the feeling of being ill at ease. It is an overt error.

Example 7：

You mustn't suppose, Etsuko, simply because you've seen her in these…in these present surroundings, that she's some peasant's child.

悦子，你不能因为……因为眼前的事物就认为她是什么贫农的孩子。(P51)

Sachiko is not rich according to the context, so “peasant” intimates the meaning of poverty. Its translation explicitly represents it, which is accessible and intelligible. However, “贫农” enjoys extra cultural meaning in China, which could date back to the Cultural Revolution when lands was apportioned based on people’s wealth, so it might mislead readers to its political implication. It is a covert error.

Example 8：

“I must have been such a burden to you in those days,” I said, quietly.

“我那时肯定成了您的负担，”我静静地说。(P68)

Here “quiet” refers to making very little noise, which coincides with the act of saying. According to the context, Etsuko lowered her noise out of guilt when she realized she bothered her family when she practised violin before. However, its translation means the statement without any noise, which obviously contravenes the context, belonging to covert translation.

Example 9：

I could see something moving beside her in the shade.

我看见她身旁的影子里有什么东西在动。(P14)

“Shade” means an area that is dark and cool under or behind something, for example a tree or building, because the sun’s light does not get to it, rather than the shadow which the translator believed. As previously mentioned in the text, “Mariko was lying in the corner furthest from the sunlight”, which also signifies that it is impossible to exist dark shape under the light around Mariko. Thus, the translation of “shade” is not on a par with the context, belonging to a covert error.

3.1.2 Syntactic Field

Syntactic field means the immediate image appeared in people’s mind when they read the sentences. The mismatches in syntactic field are usually for the violation of rules of target language or misinterpreting the source text. On syntactic field, there are 8 mismatches, seven of which are overt errors and one is covert. Among the overt errors, seven sentences are not in line with the rules of target language, which won’t influence the ideational meaning. Therefore, the translation quality on syntactic field is high.

Example 1：

It did upset me, hearing about her.

我真的很难过，听到她的死讯。(P4)

Example 2：

But I was sad though, when I heard.

可是我真的很难过，听到她的消息。(P4)

Example 3：

It's certainly an amusing sort of experience, working in a noodle shop.

这真是很有趣的经历，在面包店里工作。(P26)

In English, the important or unknown information appeared firstly, and the second one follows. However, in Chinese, the second important presents at first, paving the foundation for the more pivotal or unknown one. In above three examples, their translation doesn’t adjust the sequence in line with target language rules. These are overt errors.

Example 4：

…certain arrangements I made have not gone as planned.

一些事情没有照我计划的那样。(P17)

The translation is not complete as the predicate verb “have gone” is not translated, which does not conform with the grammar of Chinese. It is an overt error.

Example 5：

She appeared to know them, for as she walked across the forecourt, she gave them a familiar greeting.

看来她认识她们，边走过水泥地，边熟识地跟她们打招呼。(P26)

The original is a compound-complex sentence with “for” for causal relation and “as” for coordinate relation. In the translation, the former is represented but the later isn’t, neither by conjunction words nor by clause sequence. It causes that the translation lacks of logic, belonging to an overt error.

Example 6：

It's an opportunity for a teacher to see the fruits of his work, and for the pupils to express their gratitude to him.

这是一个机会让老师看看他的劳动成果，让学生们向他表示感谢。(P30)

The translation adheres to the sequence of the original but ignores the fluency of the sentence. In English, attributives are at both ahead of and behind the objects; while in Chinese, they mostly are preceded. Therefore, the translation violates the grammar of the target language, belonging to an overt error.

Example 7：

There's nothing like a timely reminder of one's personal obligations.

及时地提醒个人的责任之类的东西也没有。(P71)

“There's nothing like” is a common sentence pattern in spoken English, meaning nothing else is able to match. The original would have expressed that “a timely reminder of one’s personal obligations” is the most important. The translator misunderstood the meaning utterly, making an overt error.

Example 8：

It amazes me, how things have changed so much so quickly.

太让我吃惊了，世道变得如此之大，如此之快。(P195)

The translation, by and large, is in accordance with the original. Yet there is possibility for readers to be confused about the accuracy of words collocation. Although “so much” and “so quickly” modify the verb “change”, we have to respectively choose the proper words to collocate. It is a covert error.

3.1.3 Textual Field

On textual field, there is only one error---overt error. It is caused by misconstruing what the pronoun refers to. By and large, the translation, through the comprehensive analysis on textual field, is high-quality.

Example 1：

That's just not how it was though.

但是我和她根本不是这样。(P4)

According to “Sisters are supposed to be people you're close to, aren't they. You may not like them much, but you're still close to them”, it refers to the whole view instead of certain relationship between me and my sister. The referential meaning does not accord with that of the original. It is an overt error.

3.2 Comparison on Tenor

Tenor refers to the nature of the participants, the addresser and the addressee, and the relationship between them in terms of social power and social distance. After comparing the original and the translation of A Pale View of Hills, there are 8 mismatches on social attitude and social role relationship, one of which is an overt error and the rest are covert. In general, the translation is highly in accordance with the original so the quality is high on tenor.

3.2.1 Social Attitude

Social attitude refers to the social distance between communicators and the degree of formality of discourse. The misunderstanding of social attitude in the translation process will affect the readers' understanding of the characters in the novel. Therefore, mistakes in representing social attitude of characters should be minimized and even avoided in the translation process. There are 4 mismatches on social attitude in the translation: one is an overt error and the rest are covert errors. By and large, the translation on displaying the social attitude of the original is great.

Example 1：

The English are fond of their idea that our race has an instinct for suicide.

英国人有个奇特的想法，觉得我们这个民族天生爱自杀。(P4)

In the original text, the attitude of the character is relatively objective. However, in the translation, the attitude is represented overly by using an adjective, which might be translator’s understanding on author’s attitude. It limits different interpretation to the author’s attitude from readers. It is an overt error.

Example 2：

“Which are you hoping for, Etsuko?” he asked, eventually. “A boy or a girl?”

“你想是男孩还是女孩呢，悦子？”过了一会儿他问道。(P35)

Ogata-San would like to know Etsuko’s mind about the upcoming baby, but he is not sure if it is proper. At last, curiosity overpowers his hesitation. In the original text “eventually” signifies both time and emotion span. But the translation only manifests the time span. It is a covert error.

Example 3：

“Tell me, Etsuko,” he said, not looking up from his laces. “Have you met this Shigeo Matsuda?”

“告诉我，悦子，”他头也不抬地说。“你见过这个松田重夫吗？”(P36-P37)

Ogata-San, as Etsuko’s father-in-law and adopter after the war, gets along well with her. In the original text, Ogata-San is “not looking up” when speaking to Etsuko since he is lying his laces. The translation ignores the reason, which renders Ogata-San a cold man. It is a covert error.

Example 4:

I'm sure she'd be the first to agree with me about Kazuo mourning her like this.

我肯定她会第一个同意我的观点，和夫不应该再这样想着他了。(P94)

From the original, we can feel the love of Mrs. Fujiwara to her son. However, after reading its translation, we can feel nothing but her dominance. It signifies that the translation deviates from the original context. It is a covert error.

3.2.2 Social Role Relationship

Social role relationship refers to the social relation between the speaker and the receiver, that is, symmetry and asymmetry. The analysis on the social roles relationship in novels is generally from two aspects: relationship between the author and readers, and relationship between the various characters in the work. The former is remained utterly, while the latter is slightly different from that in the original. A total of 4 mismatches are found in the comparison, all of which are covert errors. In the full-text translation, the overall relationship between the characters is the same as that of the original text, and only a few mismatches are found. Therefore, on social role relationship, translation is of high quality.

Example 1：

She said it would be perfectly all right if you came and waited for her at my house.

她说你可以到我家来等她。(P13)

The translation omits “be perfectly all right if”, which takes the edge off the amiability from Etsuko to Mariko. Given the whole plot of the novel, Mariko is a phantom of Etsuko’s old daughter Keiko. The obscure feelings between Mariko and Etsuko are very important to implicate their special emotion. Therefore, the translation ignores to take a consideration of the context. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

As I say, this order came into the office the day you arrived. A real nuisance.

我说过了，订单刚好在您来的那天来了。真是讨厌。(P29)

On the basis of the context, Jiro (Etsuko’s husband) is explaining to his father Ogata-San that he is so busy that he could not accompany him. He feels apologetic about that. However, the tone of speaking in translation is impatient and a bit furious, which runs against that of the original. So, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

I should warn you, perhaps. My daughter has been in a somewhat difficult mood these past few days.

也许我应该警告你。我女儿这几天情绪很不好。(P90)

Warn enjoys two major meanings: to tell somebody about something, especially something dangerous or unpleasant that is likely to happen, so that they can avoid it; to strongly advise somebody to do or not to do something in order to avoid danger or punishment. In the original, Sachiko entrusts Etsuko to look after her daughter so the former one is appropriate. However, in the translation the later one is adopted, which is absolutely improper. It is a covert error.

Example 4：

Now listen carefully, or else you'll never find the noodle shop.

现在您听好了，不然您永远也别想找到面馆。(P183)

The sentence is said when Etsuko intends to tell Ogata-San the route to the restaurant of Mrs Fujiwara. On the basis of the context, Etsuko is very reverent to Ogata-San. However, the manner of translation is tough, which is not of a piece with the original. It doesn’t take account of the context, so it is a covert error.

3.3 Comparison on Mode

Mode can be divided into medium and participation. In the course of analyzing both the original and the translation, a total of 6 mismatches are found on the two dimensions and all of them are covert errors, which manifests the translation are generally of a piece with the original. The translation on mode is of high quality.

3.3.1 Language Medium

Language medium mainly refers to whether the form of language is spoken or written, simple or complex. The contrast between the model of the source text and the target text is mainly reflected in the linguistic features and diction features of text rather than language types used. The language of A Pale View of Hills is simple, delicate and easy to understand, with short sentence, plenty of dialogues between characters and a high degree of colloquialism. The overall style of the translation is similar with that of the original, with only 4 stylistic covert mismatches. Therefore, on language medium, the translation quality is great.

Example 1：

…on one side of the tracks at the foot of the hill could be seen a cluster of roofs.

山脚下铁路的一侧是鳞次栉比的屋顶。(P8)

Cluster means a group of things of the same type that grow or appear close together, whose translation accords with it in the ideational meaning. Nonetheless, “鳞次栉比” in Chinese is a four-character phrase that usually appears in formal written text. It is more complex than the style of the text. It is a covert error.

Example 2：

We're just rabble, like your husband says.Please don’t make a fuss, please sit down.

正如您丈夫说的，我们只是两个混蛋。不用麻烦了，请坐下。(P74)

The situation happens when Jiro’s colleagues come round. From the conversation between Jiro and his colleagues, it is found that they are very familiar and intimate. So, words such as “rabble” and “like” are of high colloquialism. Nevertheless, in the translation “正如” is a formal expression, which is not in line with the original. Thus, it is a covert error.

Example 3：

Blankets and laundry hung from many of the balconies.

很多阳台上挂着毯子啦、洗的衣服啦。(P181)

Example 4：

Young women these days are all so headstrong. And forever talking about washing-machines and American dresses.

现在女孩子任性得很。而且整天在讲什么洗衣机啦、洋裙啦。(P195)

The two sentences are the description of the street which Etsuko and Ogata-San pass by when they intend to visit Shigeo. Etsuko is a calm and composed Japanese woman, whose language style is the same. Modal particles used in translation render the language abrupt and frisky. So, it is a covert error.

3.3.2 Participation

Participation refers to whether the speech is a simple monologue or a complex form that prompts the listeners or readers to participate indirectly, for example, by the transition between statements and questions and the special use of pronouns. The whole plot of A Pale View of Hills is a soliloquy narrated in the first person, interleaved with dialogues between different characters. Readers hardly could participate indirectly in it. The translation is basically in the same style as the original, except for the two following examples. The two declarative sentences are translated into a rhetorical question, which does not require readers to answer as well. Therefore, the translation is of high quality in terms of participation.

Example 1：

That’s no way to bring a child into the world, visiting the cemetery every week.

这样怎么能把孩子带到这个世上呢？(P24)

Example 2：

It seems very disloyal.

这不是忘恩负义吗？(P32)

The quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on whether it is an overt transaltion or a covert translation and its matching degree. On the one hand, it is an overt translation. Accoring to above analysis, the translation is closely related to the culture of the sourse language text. From the translation, expressions with Japanese culture can be found clearly. On the other hand, it is of high quality. There are 32 mismatches in total, 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

IV Quality Statement of Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills

The quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills focuses on its cultural participation degree and its matching degree. Based on the two aspects, this chapter will make a quality statement of the Chinese Translation of A Pale View of Hills.

4.1 Overt Translation

Overt translation refers to the obvious translation rather than the second original. The translation is obviously not aimed at the readers with target language, because the original text, literary works, political speeches and religious sermons, is closely related to the culture it is rooted in. But covert translation can be used as the second text, that is, independent writing. House deems that texts requiring overt translation have no special connection with their culture, and they are not unique to their culture, such as academic papers and travel brochures. She also believes that in overt translation, equivalence can only be established at the level of language/text, register and genre, but it is difficult to achieve equivalence in function. In contrast, the purpose of covert translation is to achieve functional equivalence, and there will be some deficiencies in language, register.

In the contrast reading between the original and the translation, the obvious traces of the original can be found, for example, “你想她们还在打吗？” and “呃，我想小孩子是会打架的。但是我想我应该告诉你一声。还有你看，我想你女儿不是要去上学。”. In English, words representing speculation, such as “suppose” and “think”, are used frequently, while in Chinese they are not. Thus, the target text which remains these words possesses obvious sighs of translation. Furthermore, other signs in the translation, such as “欠了欠身”，show the culture of Japan when greeting. In conclusion, the target text of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation.

4.2 High-quality Translation

This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. Among them, there are 13 overt errors and 19 covert errors. Covert errors caused by ignoring the context and overt errors caused by violating the rules of target language inflict only a little ambiguity on ideational function, interpersonal function and the quality of the text.

Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills, by and large, consisting with the original, is of high quality. On the field, the translation, which transmits the subject matter and social action which covers the specificity of linguistic items, is in accordance with the original on lexical, syntactic and textual dimension in general; on the tenor, the representation of social attitude and social role relationship of the Chinese text is consistent with the English text; on the mode, the language of the translation is as simple and delicate as that of the original and the participation is of low level as well. Therefore, Zhang Xiaoyi’s Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills is of high quality.

Conclusion

A Pale View of Hills, as the debut of Kazuo Ishiguro, involves many in-depth subjects, which initiates the development of author's peculiar writing style. House’s model is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment mode with the integration of both theory and practice. This study applies House’s TQA model to assess the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills on lexical, syntactic and textual aspects. On basis of analysis between the original and the translation, there are 18 mismatches on field, 8 on tenor and 6 on mode. By and large, the Chinese translation of A Pale View of Hills is overt translation. Although a few mismatches can be found in the translation, they cause a little affect to the functions of the text and the presentation of the plot, role characters and role relationship of the whole novel. In conclusion, the translation is in line with the original on register and is of high quality.

Different from the traditional evaluation methods, House's model, based on micro and macro criteria, both quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis, is the first scientific and objective translation quality assessment model with a complete theory and empirical evidence. It can be used as an auxiliary tool to find problems in translation so as to make modifications, which to some extent promotes the development of translation activities. However, in the actual operation process, although the translation quality assessment can be carried out according to parameters, the comparison results still rely on subjective judgment, which cannot utterly guarantee the scientificity of the final evaluation results. In addition, due to the large number of parameters, it takes a lot of time to compare the differences in vocabulary, sentence structure and discourse between the original text and the translation in the evaluation of full-length novel, so the evaluation is not very efficient. Although there are still some shortcomings in the House's model, it is still worth applying in the practice of translation criticism as a relatively complete and objective theoretical model.

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On the Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization--韦洪朗 Wei Honglang,202020080647

Abstract

Abstract This paper makes a systematic discussion on the relationship among literal translation, free translation, domestication and foreignization,which have been always controversial in translation history. Based on the theories and contents of free translation, literal translation, domestication and foreignization, this paper analyzes the similarities and differences between literal translation and free translation, foreignization and foreignization respectively. After cross-contrast analysis between them, it comprehensively sorts out the relationship between translation methods of literal translation and free translation and translation strategies of domestication and foreignization, and discusses their comprehensive application on the basis that domestication and foreignization are the extension of literal translation and free translation to cultural level, which has certain reference significance for further enriching translation practice.

Key words

Key Words: Literal Translation; Free Translation; Domestication; Foreignization

摘要

摘 要 本文就翻译史上备受争论的归化、异化和意译、直译的关系问题进行了系统的讨论。基于意译、直译和归化、异化的理论及其内容，分别分析直译和意译、异化和归化两对概念之间的异同，在他们之间进行交叉对比分析后，综合整理直译、意译的翻译方法和归化、异化翻译策略的关系，在继承归化和异化是直译和意译向文化层面的延伸的基础关系上，具体讨论他们之间的综合运用，为进一步丰富翻译实践具有一定的借鉴意义。

关键字

关键词：意译；直译；归化；异化

Introduction

 In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Outline I.Introduction II.Literal Translation and Free Translation 2.1 Literal translation 2.2 Free translation 2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation 2.3.1 On words 2.3.2 On sentence structures 2.3.3 On rhetorical means 2.4 The Relationships between Literal translation and Free translation III.Domestication and Foreignization 3.1 Domestication 3.2 Foreignization 3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization 3.3.1 On politics 3.3.2 On culture 3.4 The Relationships between Domestication and Foreignization IV.The Relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization 4.1 The Comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization 4.2 The Connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization 4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation 4.2.2 domestication and free translation 4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation V.Conclusion References

I.Introduction

I.Introduction In the history, argues between literal translation and free translation have been lasting for so long. Since there existed so many countries and nations on the continent of Europe, communicating frequently with different languages, the skill and cognition of language translation naturally developed and achieved a lot. During those time, two main methods of translation called literal translation and free translation came into being and accompanied by the problem on choosing which of them. The earliest opinion of translating methods can go back to the period of Roman Empire, when Cicero put forward that free translation should be used in translating Greek texts into Latin, on account of that literal translation , “word for word translation”, couldn’t reflect Roman way of expression and couldn’t be easy-understanding and fluent as free translation, “sense for sense translation”. This view of point had a great and dominate influence at that time, which did not change until late Roman period, when Christianity were gradually in power and the necessity of spreading and translating Bible by the way “exactly what it is ” made literal translation become more popular. Then comes the renaissance, in which many linguisticians realized the importance of keeping the style and features of their own nations. Since then, the two translation methods have taken the lead and been debated endlessly in the translation field. By the 1960s and 1970s, when domesticating translation and foreignizing translation accordingly emerged with free translation and literal translation, reception theory, which upgraded the dominance of readers or we called receivers of translation, again made the domestic translating one-up. This kind of method was criticized by Venuti on its aggressivity of different cultures, based on which he officially put forward the two concepts of domestication and foreignization, which have been two central strategies in translation. So it’s vital to get a better understanding of those four concepts and make their relationships clear, which is of guiding significance to promote translation in practice.(Lu Shu, Wang Jintang 2005,115-116)

II.Literal Translation and Free Translation

II.Literal Translation and Free Translation When seeing translation as shift of linguistic sign, the method of translating could be regarded as the specific approach used by the translator shifting the ST into TT, especially the two methods we mentioned before--literal translation and free translation.Peter Newmark, in his A Textbook of Translation, proposed that the common and only goal of translating should be repeating the meaning of ST, which means those translating methods exist for dealing with some problems happened during the process when translating.( Ma Shikui 2012,20)The meaning and structure of the ST might not be taken into account every time, so it’s important to search for a appropriate solution to deal with this kind of problem, that’s what literal translation and free translation do.

2.1 Literal translation

2.1 Literal translation Literal translation is the one chosen when the original structure and the meaning of ST could both be perfectly taken into account, by adhering to strict original meaning and style of the TT, including the structures of sentences and rhetorical devices. “Word for word translation” could be counted as the original way of literal translation, like the translation of The Bible in the middle Age I showed before. But as the argue and relevant theories developing till modern age, more and more experts realize and have a common sense that “word for word translation” can’t be equal to literal translation, since there always exist more or less differences among different languages. Personally speaking, the way Professor Fan Zhongying explains that literal translation means keeping the linguistic form of the SL, such as the words, the sentence structures and the rhetorical means, fluently and easily understood at the same time comprehensively interprets literal translation.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

2.2 Free translation

2.2 Free translation

It’s better if we can have it both ways, which cannot happened all the time. Thus, free translation might be better when translator can’t follow with the exact structure of SL. Free translation, “sense for sense translation”, refers to a kind of method used to translate the exact sense of the SL into the TL without retaining the sentence structures or the expression way of the SL. The supporters of free translation believe that the purpose of translation is to transform and convey the sense of the SL to the recipient of the TL, so it’s worthy to adopt an expression way closer to the TL, which is easier for the recipient to understand. Free translation has certain flexibility, which means the position of words and sentences can be adjusted. In order to facilitate readers' understanding, even some necessary supplements can be added.(Joe Zeng Rui 2000,249)

2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation

2.3 Analysis with Examples of Literal translation and Free translation Here are some specific examples of contrast between literal translation and free translation：

2.3.1 On words

2.3.1 On words: "Why do men have an Adam's Apple but women don't? "

Literal translating: 为什么男人有喉结而女人没有呢？ Free translating: 为什么男人有亚当的苹果而女人没有呢？

From above, the “Adam's apple” can be translated literally into "亚当的苹果", but it can't reflect the original sense of the ST, because in the western world, "Adam's apple" refers to "喉结" in Chinese instead of literally meaning "亚当的苹果", so free translation is more accurate here. In addition, it is worth mentioning that this example perfectly reflects the fit of sentence structure between Chinese and English. It also shows that translators should also be sure of the culture behind the SL.

2.3.2 On sentence structures

2.3.2 On sentence structures: "Here comes the bus!"

Literal translating: 这来了巴士! Free translating: 巴士来了!

According to literal translating way, if following with the source structure of the English sentence, which is a inverted sentence in English by the way, the translation result is “这来了巴士”, which is obviously both incoherent and hard to understand in Chinese and even twist the sense of the ST. According to the sentence meaning, it should be translated into “巴士来了 ”, which is totally different from the ST in grammar though.

2.3.3 On rhetorical means

2.3.3 On rhetorical means "If Main Street didn' t understand this , Wall Street did."(The Glory and the Dream, p .85)

Literal translating: 如果主街不能理解这一点，华尔街可以。 Free translating: 这一点, 一般人不理解, 华尔街那些大老板们却是明白的。(Professor Wang Zongyan, 1983 :10)

From this example, the key information is that Professor Wang Zongyan translates “Wall Street” into “华尔街的那些大老板们”. In Literature Translation, free translation is evidently more popular, because some literary images are difficult to express accurately through literal translation. In fact, the “Wall Street” here does not mean “Wall Street” itself, but people in power in Wall Street, so it is more appropriate for Professor Wang to translate it into “华尔街的那些老板们” by free translation. The reason of “Main Street”translating into “一般人”is the same.

2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation

2.4 The Relationships between literal translation and free translation According to those demonstrations above, we can see that literal translation is more partial to SL and free translation considers more about TL users. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the style of the source language(show how other people talk), which plays a certain role in spreading the source language culture; the disadvantage is that sometimes it might be too long and difficult to understand, which hinders the communication and understanding between the two sides. Because free translation is biased towards the expression of the nation of the TL, its advantage is that it is more fluent and easy to understand, but its disadvantage is that it conceals the style of the source language and loses the role of translation as a cultural bridge, in which the translator's position seem not that important. All in all, I think it is best to combine the two translation methods organically in the process of translation. Just as professor Lu Dianyang proposed: “ Translate literally, if possible, or appeal to free translation.”(Zhao Jing 2011,61)

III.Domestication and Foreignization

III.Domestication and Foreignization Through the above introduction, we can know that with the change of historical environment, a period of political opposition and cultural exchange encountering a new period after World War II, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has reached a deeper level of development, which is the arrival of Foreignization and Domestication. Although Foreignization and Domestication were first formally proposed by Lawrence Venuti in The Translator's Invisibility in 1995, the translation strategy later called Domestication actually can be seen from Nida's translation theory of "dynamic equivalence"in 1964, which seeks for an expression whose meaning is closest to the SL and conforms to the habit of the TL expression way. Nida's theory has been strongly criticized by Venuti, who supports Deconstructivism, and holds that domesticating translation is an obliteration of the SL culture and a manifestation of cultural colonialism, which is manifested by its failure to comply with the expression of the source language culture. Based on this, on the contrary, Venuti shows strong support for foreignizating translation, and he thinks that this translation strategy of preserving the linguistic and cultural differences of the SL shows respect for the SL culture. The following part mainly clarifies the concepts and contents of these two translation strategies, which will helps to compare with literal translation and free translation mentioned above.（Chen Ying 2009,42）

3.1 Domestication

3.1 Domestication Domestication refers to a translation strategy of dealing with the language forms, customs and cultural traditions, such as proverbs, idioms and allusions when translating, which tends to serve the readers of the target language. According to Eugene A.Nida's concept of natural equivalence, the translation version should be close to the original sense and intention in a most natural expression, therefore, the behavior pattern of the source language should be brought into the cultural understanding category of the target language as much as possible, which means that the recipients of the target language can avoid accepting the cultural expression of the source language in order to better understand the original intention.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

3.2 Foreignization

3.2 Foreignization Venuti puts translation under the background of culture, society, politics and cultural consciousness, and reflects the different positions of different cultures in today's world through the choice of translation strategies, and regards translation as a tool to fight against inequality. From this, we can see the reason why he criticized domestication and vigorously advocated foreignization translation, which is to advocate that the translation should adapt and consider more the culture of the source language and the original author's habit of choosing words as much as possible. Thus, foreignizing translation tends to serve the SL culture, because he thinks that the translation version should take the source language culture as its destination and guide the reader to approach the original author.(Jiang Cui 2015,71-71)

3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization

3.3 Analysis with Examples of Domestication and Foreignization Examples for domesticating method and foreignizing method:

3.3.1 On Politics

3.3.1 On Politics：동해 & にほんかい Since the 19th century, the world has experienced two world wars and the Cold War period. During this long period, independent nation-states gradually chose their own country's "roads" and directions, which made different ideologies and political positions have a strong sense of existence in international relations, among which there were many translation contradictions caused by geopolitics. For example, the title of the sea area between South Korea and Japan has caused controversy between those two countries. South Korea has always called the sea area "동해"(East Sea) in history, but Japan continues to use the European navigator's giving name "Japan Sea"(にほんかい) and gradually gained international recognition from the 19th century. However, South Korean believes that the title change was imposed on South Korea by Japan colonizing Korea, which is a title that violates South Korea's territorial waters and disrespects South Korea. Something similar has happened many times in the world, which is the political difference on domestication and foreignization.(Pan Wenxiao 2020，https://weibo.com/ttarticle/p/show?id=2309404578145859666401)

3.3.2 On Culture

3.3.2 On Culture：“情人眼里出西施。”

Domesticating translation: Love is blind. Foreignizing translation: The beauty Xi Shi is in the eye of lovers.

This example shows well how different it could be between two cultures: the ST and the domesticating one of TT express almost the same meaning in completely different ways, that is, lovers can only see each other's good thing. That is to say, if you want to convey the exact meaning of the original Chinese sentence to English speakers, then domesticating method is the best choice, although it will make the "translation results" look beyond recognition. However, if we choose foreignizing translation, especially retaining the word "Xi Shi", it will give English speakers a chance to understand Chinese traditional culture (Xi Shi is a beautiful woman in the Spring and Autumn Period of China, and "西施" in "情人眼里出西施" means "beauty"), although such translating way may be difficult to understand at first.

3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization

3.4 The relationships between Domestication and Foreignization Through the above analysis, it can be seen that domestication and foreignization also have their own merits and necessity. Although these two translation strategies were born in different historical backgrounds, their struggles to a certain extent reflect the struggle between the dominant position of stronger culture and weaker culture with different identities, which, of course is just one of those aspects, also reflect the problems of cultural communication: domesticating translation is conducive to conveying the meaning of the source language to the target language recipients without obstacles, especially in the case of great cultural differences existing, but this localization behavior will make it difficult for readers to learn what differences the two sides culture have, and in fact cultural diffusion will not be achieved. On the contrary, foreignization translation conveys the target text to readers according to the discourse mode of the source language culture, which can not only make readers realize the charm of different cultures, but also increase the expression ways of their own nation, but it is very likely that the meaning of the target text is difficult to understand. This contradiction is particularly prominent in the political level. Therefore, in translation practice, we should decide which way to choose in different contexts and in the face of different groups of people, so that the two can complement each other and have unity of opposites under proper application.(Zhu Yuanzhong 2013,54)

IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

IV.The relationship among Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization Sun Zhili, a contemporary Chinese translator, said: "Historically, domestication and foreignization can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent to each other. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and sense at the linguistic level, while domestication and foreignization break through the limitations of language factors and expand their horizons to language, culture and aesthetics. " (Sun Zhili 2011,27) Even after the above introduction, the boundary between literal translation, free translation, foreignization and domestication seems to be very vague. In order to better clarify the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, the following will distinguish and compare them.

4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

4.1 The comparison among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization The same point: First of all, foreignization and domestication are extensions of literal translation and free translation, so the two pairs of relations are all methods put forward to guide translation practice; Secondly, relatively speaking, the roles of the two pairs of relations are very similar, especially in linguistic form: literal translation and foreignization both emphasize following the expression of the source text; Both free translation and domestication believe that in order to convey the sense of the source text accurately, the expression of the original text can be sacrificed. The different points: The first point is that the scope is different, which leads to different objects: literal translation and free translation are proposed according to the different structures and characteristics of the source language and the target language, and their discussion focuses on the relationship between form and content, which belongs to the level of language conversion. Foreignization and domestication, as a product of cultural turn, is not only manifested in linguistic form, but also in cultural content. In other words, the emergence and development of foreignization and domestication raise the discussion of language level to the level of culture, poetics and politics. Obviously, the former is a micro translation method, while the latter is a macro translation strategy. Choosing specific translation methods under the guidance of the general direction of translation strategies can make good use of these two pairs of concepts when doing translation. Second, the condition is different: Because literal translation and free translation are aimed at figuring out the issue of the text itself and the language structure, those two translation methods rely heavily on the text on linguistics, and have little room for evolution, development and independence, which make them relatively being static; However, domestication and foreignization do not have such problems. Their appearances were largely influenced by external social factors and the background of times and history, moreover, they focus on the external factors of translation too. Therefore, these two translation strategies are actually unstable and present a relatively dynamic state.(Zhao Jing 2011,62)

4.2 The connection among Literal Translation and Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization

It can be concluded that the basic relationship between these twopairs of concepts is that domestication and foreignization make the discussion of translation transition from pure language level to cultural level, not only paying attention to the internal transformation of language, but also starting to study the political and cultural environment outside language and text, which makes the change of translation’s function happen--from micro-analysis of language to macro-control of the social function of translation.(Chen Ying 2009,42)

4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation

4.2.1 Foreignization and Literal translation According to the comparative analysis in the previous section, we can conclude from their similarities that under normal circumstances, foreignization usually takes literal translation as method, or foreignizing translation usually includes literal translation methods, such as:(Lv Yinping 2007,138) (1)Pandora’s box 潘多拉的盒子 (2)the forbidden fruit 禁果 The above two examples clearly show the way literal translation do, which is also the result under the guidance of foreignizating translation strategy. "Pandora's box" comes from Greek mythology, which refers to the root of all evils, but the translation into Chinese, which is not “万恶之源”, has followed the European saying, and even quoted it in daily communication, which has played the purpose of "understanding other national cultures through translation"; Similarly, "forbidden fruit" comes from the Bible, which means something forbidden, but Chinese translation also follows the expression of the original way.

4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation

4.2.2 Domestication and Free translation Similarly, the shadow of free translation can often be found in domesticating translation. For example:(Lv Yinping 2007,137) (1)drink like a fish 牛饮 (2)a fool’s paradise 黄粱美梦 As far as the first example is concerned, if literally translated into "像鱼一样喝水", it is extremely out of line with the Chinese expression habit, and there is no such statement way in China, which leads to the consequences that translating versions are difficult to understand. However, if we translate "drink like a fish" into “牛饮” in Chinese, which does exists in China and has the same meaning as "drink like a fish" in English. Then the translation effect is not only interesting, but also easy to understand. However, when doing actual translation practice, due to the variety and diversity of cultures, the methods and strategies used in text or language conversion are also comprehensive. We can find that the comprehensive and flexible use of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization can make up for the regret of some traditional opposing ways(It is said that the two pairs of concepts are opposite and cannot coexist).

4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation

4.2.3 Domestication and Literal translation Foreignizating translation is usually regarded as an extension of literal translation, which means that in general, literal translation methods are often used under the guidance of foreignization strategies, but in some special cases, literal translation can also coexist with domestication strategies. (1) 什么时候都要谦虚谨慎，把尾巴夹紧一些。（Jia Wenbo 2000,11） We must always be modest and prudent and must, so to speak, tuck our tail between our legs. The meaning of "把尾巴夹紧" in Chinese coincides with "tuck tail between our legs" in English. At this one, it can be said that literal translation is the most suitable choice, which keeps the form and cultural connotation of the source language to the maximum extent, and at the same time coincides with the meaning and culture of the target language. (2) 一石二鸟(Song Tianxi 2013,49) Kill two birds with one stone. Similarly, this is an example of having language structure and cultural meaning between China and Britain in both ways, which uses the method of literal translation but achieves the effect of domestication. But in Chinese, "一石二鸟" can also be synonymous with "一箭双雕" and "一举两得", which can be chosen when translating "kill two birds with one stone" if you want, however, this way of using the method of free translation is not literal translation anymore.

Domestication and literal translation can coexist under the situation when two sides of language structures and cultures can coincide at the same time, which exists by chance and cannot be forced; It is almost impossible to find examples of coexistence like foreignization and free translation. However, through the above argument, we can find that in translation practice, translators should practice the principle of "concrete analysis of specific problems", flexibly and dialectically combine free translation and literal translation with domestication and foreignization, and avoid rigid translation methods, so as to better assume the responsibility of cultural exchange.

V.Conclusion

V.Conclusion Through the analysis above of the concepts and intensions of literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization, then we further arrive at and even deepen our understanding of the relationship between the two pairs of concepts, which is helpful for translators to approach the translation result and effect as much as possible on the basis of understanding the culture and language of both sides and combining with the practice through rational choice of translation strategies and translation methods under the guidance of the theories. After all, translation is not only a linguistic transformation, whose fundamental task is to reach communication and cultural exchange. Therefore, in a sense, translation plays the role of cultural "fax". In order to coordinate the spread of the source language culture and the acceptance of the target language side, it is necessary to avoid rigid use of a single translation method and translation strategy, or solidifying the idea of translation guiding theory. After comprehensive consideration of translation purpose, target and recipient, it is a translator's duty to use translation method flexibly and dialectically, as being a "cultural bridge".

References

References Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2011).新编英汉翻译教程[A New Coursebook on English-Chinese Translation].上海:上海外语教育出版社.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press Sun Zhili 孙致礼.(2002).中国的文学翻译:从归化趋向异化[China’s Literary Translation: from Domestication to Foreignization].中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(01):39-43. Jia Wenbo 贾文波.(1999).汉英时文翻译-政治经济汉译英300句析[On Practical C-E Translation in Political & Economic Practice].北京:中国对外翻译出版公司Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation. Zhang Meifang 张美芳.(2004).翻译策略二分法透视[A dichotomous perspective in translation strategies].天津外国语学院学报Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University(03):1-6. Zhao Jing 赵静.(2011).直译、意译与归化、异化之比较[Comparison between literal translation and free translation and Domestication and Foreignization].河南农业Henan agriculture(22):61-62. Lv Yinping 吕银平.(2007).“直译与意译 归化与异化”译法之我见[My Opinion on Literal Translation, Free Translation, Domestication and Foreignization].宁夏师范学院学报Journal of Ningxia Teachers Univercity( Social Science)(04):136-138. Venuti Lawrence.(1995). The Translator’s Invisibility .London&New York: Routledge.

On Chinese-to-English Translation of The Summer Palace from the Perspective of Functionalist Approaches to Translation 魏亚菲 Wei Yafei

Abstract

Abstract The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts, as a window for the external publicity of national history and culture, plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. The Summer Palace is well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, which is among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the functionalist approach and the skopos rule, this paper discusses the problems existing in the translation of scenic spots in the Summer Palace from the perspectives of garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. Skopos theory holds that translation depends on communicative purpose. To achieve this goal, translators can choose different translation strategies. It is believed that the purpose of Chinese-English translation of scenic spots is to attract target readers and promote traditional culture. Therefore, when translating tourism materials, it is necessary not only to express the local cultural connotation, but also to consider the cross-cultural factors. The Chinese-English translation of the introduction of scenic spots guided by functionalist approach can make English readers have expectations of scenic spots and understand the cultural connotation of scenic spots. This paper aims to better promote the development and communication of Chinese culture and improve the level of tourism text translation in China by relying on the theory of functionalist approach.

Key words

Key Words: functionalist approach，the Summer Palace，translation strategies

摘要

摘 要 旅游资料的英译作为民族历史文化对外宣传的一道窗口,对地方旅游业的发展有着不可低估的促进作用。颐和园作为中国著名的皇家园林，具有浓厚的中国园林特色及优美的风景，同时也蕴涵着深厚文化内涵。 本篇旅游文本英译的分析以功能派翻译理论作为理论指导，以目的法则为主要原则，从颐和园的园林文化、历史文化和宗教文化三个角度出发对颐和园景点英译中存在的问题进行探讨。目的论认为译文取决于翻译目的，这个目的通常指的是交际目的。为达到这个目的，译者可以选择不同的翻译策略。也就是说，译者的翻译策略必须由译文的预期目的或功能决定，即所谓的“目的法则”。笔者认为景点介绍的汉英翻译的目的就是吸引译文读者以及弘扬传统文化，因此在翻译旅游资料的时候不仅要把当地的文化内涵表达出来，而且要考虑到跨文化的因素。而以功能派翻译理论为指导的景点介绍的汉英翻译，可以使英语读者通过译文产生对旅游景点的期盼，以及对景点文化内涵的理解。以颐和园景区内的翻译文本为例本，依托功能翻译理论，通过“发现问题，指出问题，解决问题”，以期更好地促进中国文化的传播与交流，提高我国现阶段旅游文本翻译的水平。

关键字

关键词：功能翻译；颐和园；翻译目的；翻译策略

Introduction

 Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one.

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Outline 1.Introduction 2. Studies on Functionalist Approach 2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach 2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology 2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory 2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action 2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty 2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach 3.C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach 3.1 Garden Culture 3.2 Historical Culture 3.3 Religious Culture 4. Conclusion References

Outline

Outline

Thesis Statement: Based on the main viewpoints of functionalist approaches to translation, this paper aims to give an analysis to C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

1. Introduction 2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches 2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approach 2.1 Reiss’s Text Typology 2.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory 2.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action 2.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty 2.2 The Application of Functionalist Approach 3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach 3.1 Garden Culture 3.2 Historical Culture 3.3 Religious Culture 4. Conclusion

1. Introduction

1. Introduction The Chinese-English translation of tourist texts is a bridge to spread the culture of classical Chinese gardens, so the accuracy of it has a direct impact on foreigners' understanding of the specific history and culture. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation theory emphasizes the function of discourse, and believes that different types of discourse have different functions, so translators should choose appropriate translation strategies according to the type of source text and corresponding functions. Functionalist approach is to take the "skopos rule" as the highest standard, and any translation activity is a purposeful behavior. The ultimate goal and main function of scenic spot translation is to help people understand the main content of the scenic spot. As a window for the publicity of national history and culture, the Chinese-to-English translation of tourist texts plays an important role in promoting the development of local tourism. Well known for its large and priceless collection of cultural relics, the Summer Palace was among the first group of historical and cultural heritage sites in China to be placed under special state protection. Based on the viewpoints of functionalist approach to translation, this paper aims to analyze C-E translation of the Summer Palace from cultural, historical and religious aspects, hoping to provide some translation strategies for other cultural attractions.

2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches

2. Studies on Functionalist Approaches Functionalism is a theory that advocates reader-centered translation, emphasizing the functions of texts and highlighting the communicative effects. It is believed that many unnecessary mistakes can be avoided and better results can be achieved by applying functionalist approach in Chinese-English translation of tourist text.

2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches

2.1 The Viewpoint of Functionalist Approaches Functionalist Translation Theory, also known as German Functionalist Translation Theory, was proposed by German scholars in the 1970s. It includes four main theories: Katharina Reiss’s Text Typology, Hans Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, Justa Holtz Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action and Christiane Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty. This chapter aims to present the main ideas of this theory.

2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology

2.1.1 Reiss’s Text Typology In 1971, Reiss in her book Possibilities and Limitation of Translation Criticism first made text function as a standard of translation criticism, namely‚evaluate the translated text from the relationship between the functions of the original and the translated text. She insists on the original-centered equivalence theory and holds the view that the ideal translation is to achieve the equivalence between the target text and the source text in terms of ideological content, linguistic form and communicative function. However, translation practice makes her realize that it’s difficult to achieve equivalence sometimes and that sometimes equivalence cannot be pursued. Because of the particularity of translation requirements, the function of the target text is not always the same as that of the source text. Therefore, the translator should give priority to the functional role of the target text rather than the principle of equivalence. Reiss believes that in the normal situation the type of text decides the translator’s choice of a proper translation method (Reiss, 2004). Therefore, she divides text into four types: content-focused text, form-focused text, appeal-focused text and audio-media text. Content-focused text, also known as informative text, includes news reports, commercial correspondence, operating instructions, official documents, patent specifications, essays, treaties, etc. For this text, the main function is to convey information revealed in language itself to readers. The emphasis is on content and topic, so the choice of language and style should serve this function. If both the source text and target text belong to informative text, the translator should represent the content and information of source text accurately and completely (Reiss, 2004) Form-focused text, also known as expressive text, refers to literary works such as novels, poems and so on. “Distinct from ‘content’, which deals with what the author says, ‘form’ is concerned with how an author expresses himself” (Reiss, 2004). For expressive texts, information is only a supplement. What is dominant is the aesthetic factor. When translating such texts, the translator should pay attention to the aesthetic and artistic forms of the original text and to the differences between two cultural habits, trying to achieve the same effect as the source text. In a word, in a form-focused text the linguistic form of the source text determines the form in the target language (Reiss, 2004). Appeal-focused text, also known as operative text, mainly includes notice, instruction manual, advertisement, publicity manual and so on. For operative texts, the primary task for the translator is to provoke a particular reaction on the hearers or readers to incite them to engage in specific actions, while content and form are subordinate. Therefore, to achieve the same effect, the translator need to change the content and stylistic features of the original text, try to keep the potential influential factors of the original text and seek functional equivalence (Reiss, 2004: 38-43). Audio-medial text, also known as multi-media text, refers to radio and television scripts, such as radio newscasts and reports, topical surveys and dramatic productions. It is distinctive in its dependence on non-linguistic media and on graphic, acoustic, and visual kinds of expression. Only in combination with them can the whole complex literary form realize its full potential (Reiss, 2004). In conclusion, different texts determine different translation focuses and methods. In many cases, however, a text may have more than one function, which means that translators should integrate different translation strategies skillfully to achieve different functions of texts.

2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory

2.1.2 Vermeer’s Skopos Theory Reiss’s student Vermeer, who broke the limitation of the theory of equivalent and took skopos to be the first criterion of translation process ‚ proposed the key theory: Skopostheorie. According to Skopos Theory, when translating a text, the translator needs to consider the purpose of translation first and then choose the translation method according to the purpose, which means “the end justifies the means” (Nord, 2001). Vermeer believes that translation, like other human actions, is also a purposeful act. Translation often takes place in cultural backgrounds with different customs and values, so translation is not a simple equivalent transformation between languages. Skopos Theory does not focus on achieving the equivalence between the target text and the original text or the perfection of the target text, but on choosing the best translation strategy based on the analysis of the source text and the intended function of the target text. In a word, translation methods and strategies are determined by the intended purpose or function of the target text. According to Skopos Theory, the first rule that all translators must follow is the Skopos Rule. Translation purpose can be divided into three categories: (1) the purpose of the translator, such as earning a living; (2) the communicative purpose of the translation, such as instructing the reader; (3) the purpose of using a particular translation method, such as the literal translation according to its structure to illustrate the peculiarities of grammatical structure in a language (Nord, 2001). In general, the communicative purpose is more important than the other two. The communicative purpose is usually determined by the initiator of the translation act, but the translator can take part in deciding. The second rule is the Coherence Rule. Coherence Rule requires that the translation conform to the criterion of intratextual coherence, which means that the translation must be accessible to recipients and meaningful in the target culture and in the communicative environment (Nord, 2001). The third rule is the Fidelity Rule. It means that there should be intertextual coherence between the source text and the target text, which means being faithful to the source text. Nevertheless, the degree and form of faithfulness lie in the target text and the degree that the translator understands the original text. Normally “Intertexual coherence is considered subordinate to intratexual coherence and both are subordinate to the Skopos rule” (Nord, 2001).

2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action

2.1.3 Manttari’s Theory of Translational Action Following Vermeer, Manttari develops Vermeer’s Skopos Theory and puts forward the Theory of Translational Action. He emphasizes three aspects: the behavior of the translation process, the role of the participants (the initiator, the translator and the target reader, etc.) and the environment (time, place and media) in which the translation process takes places. It views translation as “purpose-driven, outcome-oriented human interaction and construes the process of translation as message-transmitter compounds that involve intercultural transfer” (Mundy, 2001). According to Manttari, translation is “ a complex act to achieve a particular purpose” (Nord, 2001). It is not about translating words, sentences or texts but is about guiding the intended cooperation over cultural barriers and promoting functional communication. Cooperation here means “transcultural communication” by Manttari. The Theory of Translational Action attaches great importance to providing a functional communicative text for the recipient, a text suitable for the target culture in form and style. Functional suitability is determined by the translator. The translator is an expert in translation, whose role is to ensure the successful completion of cultural transformation. In producing the target text, the analysis of the source text is necessary so that the translator can find out its structural and functional characteristics, which can be described by content and form. The need of the recipient is the decisive factor for the target text. In short, “the value of Manttari’s work is the placing of translation (or at least the professional non-literary translation which she describes) within its sociocultural context, including the interplay between the translator and the initiating institution” (Mundy, 2001).

2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty

2.1.4 Nord’s Theory of Function plus Loyalty Though skopos rule changes the focus of translation from the source language text to the target language text and the target receivers, it has some limitations. One is that different readers have different expectations, and the translation purpose cannot satisfy all the expectations of the target reader. Another is that the translation purpose may sometimes be against the intention of the source language. Therefore, based on the skopos rule, Nord introduces the loyalty principle. The principle of loyalty is a supplementary principle proposed by Nord to make up for the deficiency of skopos rule. According to the explanation of Nord, it is not the relationship between the original text and the target text, nor the equivalence between the original text and the form of the target text, but the consistency between the author of the original text, the initiator of the translation, the translator and the reader of the target text, which is the principle of loyalty. The proposal of the loyalty principle makes up for the mistakes that some radical skopos translators usually make, such as omitting and rewriting, which makes skopos theory more perfect and makes skopos theory more likely to guide the translation of literary works. “Function” and “loyalty” are two pillars of Nord’s functionalist approach. “Function” refers to what a text means or is intended to mean from the receiver’s point of view”, while “loyalty” means that “target-text purpose should be compatible with the original author’s intention” (Nord,2001). It emphasizes the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addresses and the initiator. Function plus loyalty enables the translator to avoid the limitations of skopos rule and try to achieve a balance between translation purpose and the source-text author’s intention”(Nord,2001). That is to say, when translating the original text, the translator should take into account the readers' cultural background, knowledge level and expectation of the translation, and choose the corresponding translation strategy according to the translation requirements. If the reader wants to read a word-for-word translation of the article, then the translator must meet the reader's requirements, otherwise he must explain to the reader why he chose his own translation method. The translator's job is to weigh two different cultures instead of imposing one culture on another.

2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts.

2.2The Application of Functionalist Approach to the Tourist Texts. In the 1990s, Functionalist Translation Theory was introduced to China, and since then it has been applied to translation studies by Chinese translation scholars. In his article published in 1995, Zhang Nanfeng briefly introduces Skopos theory to China for the first time, and considers that Skopos theory is referential (Zhang Nanfeng, 1995). German Functionalist Translation Theory, a paper released in1999, is the first article in China which systematically introduces German Functionalist Translation Theory (Zhong Weihe & Zhong Yu, 1999). Based on an overview of Functionalist Translation Theory, Zhang Meifang focuses on introducing Nord’s theory, especially on the detailed analysis of Nord’s principle of loyalty (Zhang Meifang, 2005). Famous domestic scholars, such as Liu Junping (2009), Liu Miqing (2012) and Li Wenge (2004), also introduce this theory in their books. With the rise of Functionalist Translation Theory in China, someone has compared it with other theories. Zhu Haotong compares Skopos Theory with Functional Equivalence Theory to analyze the similarities and differences between them, and further reveals that Functionalist Translation Theory inherits the reasonable part of Nida’s Functional Equivalence Theory, which is an important breakthrough and supplement to solve the problems that Functional Equivalence Theory leaves (Zhu Haotong, 2006). Some scholars also combine theory with translation practice to explore the application of Functionalist Translation Theory to translation practice. Jia Yanli and Wang Hongjun point out that Skopos Theory has its limitations, but it is still of instruction and reference value for non-literary translation texts, such as advertisements and tourism materials (Jia Yanli & Wang Hongjun, 2012). Li Liangchen selects several famous tourist attractions in China to translate the on-site tour-guide commentary into English. Then he improves them under the guidance of Skopos Theory and sends out questionnaires to overseas tourists for further analysis. He argues that the translation of on-site tour-guide commentary which is guided by Skopos Theory is more favorable to conveying information to foreign visitors, to promoting cultural exchanges and to improving the image of China’s tourist destinations (Li Liangchen, 2013). In Pragmatic Translation: Theory & Practice, Wu Feng and He Qingji introduce Functionalist Translation Theory (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008) and the characteristics of tourism text and translation skills (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008). In this book, they also discuss the controversy over the Chinese name of Functionalist Translation Theory, and holds that “功能派翻译理论” is the most appropriate Chinese translation (Wu Feng & He Qingji, 2008).Based on his own translation practice and under the guidance of Functionalist Translation Theory, Wu Zixuan probes into some special phenomena in the English translation of CNN newsreels. The author believes that in the translation of external publicity, we should not stick to the standard of faithfulness to the original text, but should deal with the original text properly from the perspective of achieving the purpose of translation, such as rewriting, abridging. (Wu Zixuan, 2005). Functionalist approach establishes a theoretical system of diversified translation standards dominated by skopos rule. From the definition of Functionalist approach, it can be seen that the advantage of it is that the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original text, study the translation process with "translation purpose" as the starting point, and determine the translation strategies and methods. This can give full play to the translator's own initiative, flexible processing of the original text, in order to achieve the translation of the communicative function. In addition, functionalist approach requires the translation to be examined in the cultural context of the reader. The reader can accept the translation and understand the meaning of the original text through the translation, so the translation can realize the communicative function. On the basis of such advantages, functionalist approach can be used to guide the English translation of garden scenic spots, and the translator can choose a wider range of translation strategies and break out of the constraints of the original text. Only by clarifying the purpose of translation can we avoid these limitations in the English translation of garden attractions. When using functionalist approach to guide the English translation of Chinese classical garden scenic spots, it is necessary to flexibly choose translation strategies and methods, give full play to the advantages of skopos theory, and achieve the balance between "principle of purpose" and "principle of fidelity" as far as possible. With the deepening of globalization and cross-cultural communication, tourismis becoming a major industry in the 21st century. The development of tourism can not only promote the economic development of a country but also promote the external dissemination of national culture. Therefore, tourism translation deserves attention. Tourism text is a typical informative and operational text, and the language is unique. It is full of gorgeous words, such as four-character expressions, verses, proper nouns and so on. Tourism text materials include tourism advertising, tourism brochures, scenic spots signs and so on. In this paper, we focus on the introduction of Chinese gardens’ scenic spots, which is usually colorful in language and rich in literary style. Tourism text translation belongs to applied translation, which should play a series of practical functions to publicize the image and resources of the country or place and attract overseas tourists. Therefore, the translator of tourism text must be clear about the type and function of tourism text, and to grasp the ultimate purpose of the translation. On tourism text translation, the communicative purpose of the translation should be placed in a central position. Furthermore, the tourism text has both the information function and the calling function. The information function and the calling function complement each other. Only when the target language readers acquire the expected tourism information and cultural knowledge can the calling function be realized and the purpose of tourism text translation be achieved. With different translation strategies, the translated version should both expressed contains basic information, and make the tourists feel the profound of the Chinese culture from the beautiful scenery. Cultural tourism has long been the focus of international tourism, and understanding Chinese culture is the main purpose of inbound tourists, so the translation of tourism texts bears the mission of cultural transmission and cultural publicity. However, due to the great differences between Chinese and English culture and language, there are many difficulties in cultural transmission in tourism text translation. China has a long and splendid history and culture. When introducing the scenic spots of cultural relics and historic sites, we usually associate with many historical figures and stories. These terms are cultural blank for most foreign tourists, but this kind of cultural experience is also the most attractive place for foreign tourists. It is of great importance to pay attention to cultural differences in tourism translation and carry out cultural transmission effectively. Chinese and English languages have different logic views, and Chinese expressions in tourism texts value decoration. English expressions tend to be clear, concise and to the point. For example, Chinese tourism texts often use a four-character lattice, which is symmetrical, while there is no corresponding four-character lattice expression in English. Therefore, in Chinese-English translation of tourism texts with frequent use of four-character phrases, it is necessary to keep in mind the objective principle of functionalist approach and give priority to cultural communication instead of rigidly adhering to form.

3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach

3. C-E Translation of the Summer Palace under Functionalist Approach By studying the specific translation strategies made by predecessors, the following steps are also adopted in this paper: first, the translation strategies are determined according to the text type, such as faithful reproduction of the original information or rewriting; Secondly, the translation strategies are determined according to the potential purpose of the translation, such as paraphrasing or deleting poems, generalizing specific expressions and transliterating proper nouns. Thirdly, the translation strategies are defined with the tourists as the center, such as adding logical words, adding explanatory information and using plain English. The Summer Palace epitomizes the philosophy and practice of Chinese garden design, which played a key role in the development of this cultural form throughout the east. It is an outstanding expression of the creative art of Chinese landscape garden design, incorporating the works of humankind and nature in a harmonious whole, which was once the most important place of political and diplomatic activity for the supreme rulers of the late Qing dynasty. Based on three aspects of the Summer Palace, namely, garden culture, historical culture and religious culture, this paper discusses the problems existing in the English translation of the scenic spots of the Summer Palace and puts forward corresponding countermeasures under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory.

3.1 Garden culture.

3.1 Garden culture. The Summer Palace is a classical garden famous for its magnificence and beauty. There are many temples in the garden, and the green waves of kunming lake ripple. Landscape and humanities complement each other, containing rich natural and cultural information, reflecting the characteristics of Chinese classical gardens. The garden cultural features of the three scenic spots, namely, the hall of clouds, the foxiang pavilion and the Wenchang courtyard, are particularly outstanding. Therefore, this paper takes these three scenic spots as examples to discuss the Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace. (1) 排云殿、佛香阁景区是颐和园内建筑布局最完整、建筑形式最丰富的中轴建筑群体，殿、阁、廊、亭、桥、坊、碑等建筑约两万平方米。从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海、层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。 Translation：This scenic spot covers an area of 20,000 square meters with an assortment of buildings such as palaces, towers, corridors, pavilions, walkways, bridges, archways and inscribed stone steles. It comprises a well-arranged group of structures, all diverse in style, located in the center of the Summer Palace garden. This complex of structures, ranging from the Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway on the waterside, the Gate that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall that Dispels the Clouds, the Hall of Moral Glory, and the Tower of the Fragrance of the Buddha, to the Realm of Popular Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple, were built in an orderly manner running from the foot of the hill to its top, with gardens, temples and palaces harmoniously integrated into the whole。 Analysis：As we all know, the design style of ancient Chinese buildings is beautiful with "symmetry". The "axis" in hall of clouds scenic spot refers to the layout of the Summer Palace from far to near and from top to bottom, which cannot be simply understood as the center. Simply translating "axis" as "center" cannot express accurately the meaning of "symmetry". Comparatively speaking, "axis" can better reflect the architectural style of the scenic spot. (2) 从临水的云辉玉宇牌坊至排云门、排云殿、德辉殿、佛香阁、众香界、智慧海，层层升高，排列有序，气势巍峨，金碧辉煌，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体。 Translation：These structures，including Glowing Clouds and Holy Land Archway at lake side，the Gate of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of Dispelling Clouds，the Hall of moral Glory，and the Tower of Buddhist Incense，the Realm of Multitudinous Fragrance and the Sea of Wisdom Temple，were built in an orderly manner ranging up the hill with gardens，temples and palaces harmoniously integrated. This manifests beauty，grace and splendor，reminiscent of the loftingness and grandeur of a once mighty empire. Analysis：In terms of the characteristics of language, Chinese emphasizes parataxis and four-word antithesis. When describing and naming scenes, gorgeous words and poetic words are generally chosen in Chinese. But, English emphasizes hypotaxis, on the other hand, puts more emphasis on reproducing the original appearance of things, using simple and natural words and preferring direct description. In sign translation, the English translation pays more attention to accurate, concise and lively. In the above paragraph, "层层升高，排列有序，将园林、寺庙和宫殿融为一体" is an introduction to the architectural features of foxiang pavilion, in order to make tourists have a clear understanding of the overall layout and architectural features of the scenic spot. This information is essential and can be translated into detail. However, "气势巍峨，金碧辉煌" focuses on the subjective description, and its explicit translation needs more complicated words. If this paragraph is translated in detail, it is easy to drag the content and make the key information vague. Therefore, the deletion of the English translation of this sentence will not affect the basic information of the original text. (3) 主阁（文昌阁）两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜骑。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。 Translation: A bronze statue of the God Wenchang, statues of gaeries, and a bronze steed were placed in the two-story pavilion. This tower is pared with the Tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves, located to the west of the Longevity Hill, in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The God Wenchang and the Martial God together symbolize reining of the emperor supported by scholars and warriors. Analysis: Two questions arise in Chinese-English translation. First, there are two translations of wenchang pavilion in the translation: pavilion and tower, which appear in the same sign. Two different translations of the same scenic spot name tend to make foreign tourists think that it refers to different scenic spots, which may cause difficulty in understanding. Second, the translation of Wenchang pavilion into "Wenchang Tower" is against the actual architectural characteristics. In fact, the meanings of "pavilion" and "tower" have both similarities and differences. According to the Oxford dictionary, Tower means "a tall narrow building or part of a building, especially of a church or castle", mainly referring to the tower-shaped part of a building, usually a tall and slender structure, such as the Eiffel Tower. "Pavilion" means "a building that is meant to be more beautiful than usual, built as a shelter in a park or used for concerts and dances". The top structure of the pavilion usually has rectangles, triangles, hexagons, etc. The common feature of them is that the top is supported by columns without walls. From the external structure of Wenchang pavilion, its bottom is solid and its top is supported by columns. Therefore, the pavilion can accurately reflect the architectural characteristics of Wenchang pavilion, so I think it should be translated as Wenchang pavilion.

3.2 Historical culture.

3.2 Historical culture. The accurate Chinese-English translation of the introduction of the Summer Palace not only enables foreign tourists to understand the characteristics of Chinese gardens, but also enables foreign tourists to understand the historical knowledge of a specific period of China. However, the Chinese-English translation of the Summer Palace still has problems in accurately conveying the historical background of the scenic spots, such as the English translation of Wenchang pavilion scenic spot: (4) 此景区始建于清乾隆十五年，一八六零年被英法联军烧毁，光绪时按原样重建。阁结构为八面三层四重檐，通高36.44米，耸立于20米高的石造台基上，气势雄伟，是颐和园全园的构图中心。阁内供奉有铜铸金裹千手观世音菩萨站像。像高五米，重万斤，为明代万历年间所造，在八根贯通全阁上下的承重铁梨木擎天柱的衬托下，美妙庄严，熠熠生辉，有极高的文物和艺术价值。 Translation: The Wenchang tower was first built in 1750 and rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu after the Anglo-French Allied Forces builted it down in 1860. The octahedral tower has three stories with four-layered eaves, altogether 36.44 meters high. Standing upright on a 20 meter-high stone foundation, it constitutes the center of the Summer Palace landscape and serves to accentuate its magnificence. A statue of the thousand-handed Guanshiyin Buddha, cast in bronze and gilded with gold, stands inside the tower. The statue, five meters high and five tons in weight, was cast during the reign of Emperor Wanli of the Ming Dynasty. Set off by the eight imposing pillars which support the tower, it glows with beauty, grandeur and brilliance. Its historical, cultural and artistic value can hardly be overstated. Analysis: “始建于乾隆十五年”only was translated into “was first built in 1750” and the “光绪年间重建” was translated into “rebuilt under Emperor Guangxu”.The first sentence does not show that 1750 was the fifteenth year of the reign of emperor Qianlong, and the second sentence does not give foreign visitors the exact date of the reign of emperor Guangxu. The change of time concept and the disunity of expression easily make foreign tourists feel confused. Therefore, the translation of the time and the historical dynasties should be accurate and meticulous, and the supplementary method should be used to not only describe the dynasties clearly, but also supplement the corresponding years, so as to achieve the standardization of the translation. In this way, foreign tourists can not only be clear about the time of the event, but also understand the Chinese historical dynasties. Consider as follows: the Wenchang Pavilion was first built in 1750 during Emperor Qianlong’s reign（1735- 1795）and rebuilt in 1886 under Emperor Guangxu（1875- 1908）after the Anglo- French Allied Forces burned it down in 1860.

3.3 Religious culture.

3.3 Religious culture. Many scenic spots in the Summer Palace have a strong buddhist atmosphere. While visiting the scenic spots, foreign tourists can understand the profound buddhist culture. Wenchang pavilion in the Summer Palace is the representative of Chinese religious culture. (5) 主阁两层，内供铜铸文昌帝君和仙童、铜特。文昌阁与万寿山西供武圣的宿云檐象征“文武辅弼”。 Translation: A bronze statue of the god，Wenchang，and statues of two followers，the celestial boy，and the bronze steed，were placed in the two- storey pavilion. This tower is pared with the tower of Cloud- Retaining Eaves，located to the west of the Longevity Hill，in which a statue of the Martial God was placed. The two towers symbolize the support by both scholars and warriors to the ruling emperor. Analysis: It is well known that westerners believe in theism, which refers to god as supreme . In Chinese religious culture, people believe in atheism and do not believe in the existence of god. Therefore, it is inappropriate to translate "文昌帝军" and "武圣" into "the god, Wenchang" and "the Martial god" in the translation. In fact, the "文昌帝军" was Zhang yu, an emperor of Shu of Ning kang (374). And "武圣" refers to Guan yu in history. Therefore, the simple translation of "God" is not in line with the traditional Chinese culture, which will not only cause western tourists to misunderstand that Chinese religious tradition also believes in God, but also fail to convey Chinese historical allusions and relevant historical figures. In contrast, if "文昌帝军" is translated as "the emperor, Wenchang" and "武圣" is translated as "the Martial Master (Guanyu)", it can more faithfully convey the history and religious culture contained in the source language.

4. Conclusion

4. Conclusion To sum up, Under the guidance of the skopos rule of functionalist translation theory, translators should have a cross-cultural awareness, fully understand the reading psychology and cultural appreciation needs of target language readers, and use effective translation strategies and methods to achieve the purpose of tourism text translation. Functionalist approach has made a pioneering contribution to the translation of non-literary genres. Functional translation effectively eliminates the disadvantages of traditional word-for-word translation, improves the efficiency of translation, and helps readers to grasp the meaning of the original text.

The importance of the translation of the Summer Palace lies in the profound garden culture, historical culture and religious culture. The English translation is not only helpful for international friends to know more about the garden characteristics of the Summer Palace, but also helpful for spreading the long history and profound culture of China. In order to attract target readers and promote traditional Chinese culture, it is not only necessary to carefully explore Chinese culture and history, but also to use the fuctionalist approach appropriately. 

Translation is a complicated process. Functionalist approach stresses the function of the discourse, the purpose of translation. In the practice of translation, if the translator can get rid of the bondage of the original equivalence, actively playing to subjective initiative, fully understanding the original text, depending on the purpose of discourse and adopting different translation strategies, the effect and readability of translation can be improved.

References

References Hans Vermmer, “Skopos and Commission in Translation Action”, in the Translation Studies Reader,ed. Chesterman, London and Network:Routledge,p.221-232. 2000. Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. Routledge publishing.2001. Mason, “Textual Practices and Audience Design: and Interactive View of the Tourist Brrochure”. In Navarro et al.(eds.). Pragmatics at Work: The Translation of Tourist Literature. Bern: Perter Lang. 157-176.2004. Nord, Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. 2006. Nord, Translating as a purposeful activity. Shanghai: SFLE PRESS, 2001:27,30,32,65,245. Reiss, Katharina. Translation Criticism: The Potentials & Limitations. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press. Shanghai. 2004. Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History Translation. Routledge.1995. 方梦之、毛忠明， 英汉—汉英应用翻译教程，上海: 上海外语教育出版社，2004. 金惠康，跨文化旅游翻译，中国对外翻译出版公司，2004. 贾文波，应用翻译功能论，北京：中国对外翻译出版公司，2004 孙艺风，文化翻译的困惑与挑战，中国翻译，2016年第3期. 王宏志，翻译与创作，北京大学出版社，2000. 吴自选，德国功能派翻译理论与 CNN 新闻短片英译，中国科技翻译, 2005. 谢天振，当代国外翻译理论，天津：南开大学出版社，2005. 张南峰，走出死胡同建立翻译学. 中国翻译, 1995. 仲伟合，钟钰. 德国的功能派翻译理论. 中国翻译, 1999. 张美芳，功能加忠诚—介评克里丝汀· 诺德的功能翻译理论.上海外国语大学学报, 2005.

Contrast between Literal Translation and Free Translation 张雪仪 Zhang Xueyi

张雪仪 202020080668

Abstract

The contrast between literal translation and free translation has always been the most discussed problem in translation studies. To compare these two translation methods, the basic point is to understand the purpose of translation. The ultimate goal of translation is to help different cultures communicate better, so that people who speak different languages can understand each other’s cultures. Due to the differences in social, historical and cultural backgrounds between languages, how to choose between the two translation strategies of literal translation and free translation requires translators to weigh the strengths and weaknesses of these two methods. This essay mainly compares literal translation and free translation between Chinese and Russian to help students and translators translate better.

Key words

Translation strategies, Literal translation,Free translation

摘要

直译与意译间的对比一直是翻译学中讨论度最高的问题。想要将这两种翻译方法进行对比，最基本的一点就是要明白翻译的目的是什么。翻译的最终目的在于帮助不同文化进行更好的交流，让使用不同语种的人相互理解彼此的文化。由于语种间社会历史文化背景的差异，如何在直译和意译这两种翻译策略中做出选择，就需要译者衡量两种方法的利弊。本文主要对汉语和俄语间直译和意译进行比较，以帮助学生和译者更好地进行翻译实践。

关键词

翻译策略，直译，意译

Introduction

The former Soviet Union translation theorist Fedorov believes that “translation is an activity of expressing what has been used in one language as a unified whole of content and form, and accurately and completely expressed in another language.” Translation theorist Barhudaro The husband also wrote: "Translation is the process of changing the coherent discourse of one language into the coherent discourse of another language while maintaining its content and meaning."(Cai Yi, Duan Jinghua 2000) Mr. Lu Xun once advocated "literal translation." He said: "Translation must take both sides into consideration: one is of course to be easy to understand, the other is to maintain the fullness of the original." The Chinese translator Zhang Peiji summed up the translation standard as "faithful and smooth."(Gong Linjing 2015,192) To some extent, translation is a process of thinking re-creation, so certain standards and principles must be followed when translating. Translation standard is a measure of the quality of translation, it can guide translation practice, and it is a principle that must be followed in translation activities. Although each scholar has different opinions on the standard of translation, the final result he pursues is the same: the original text and the translated text express the same effect.In order to achieve the same effect, different translation methods have been derived from the translator's translation practice. The most basic and common ones are literal translation and free translation.

Russian idioms and proverbs, as the crystallization of the wisdom of the Russian nation and the immortal fossils in the Russian language, are one of the best materials for the Chinese to understand and learn Russian history, culture, and society. Due to different geographical, historical and economic conditions, the Russian and Chinese ethnic groups have formed different cultural backgrounds. These distinctive backgrounds and characteristics have caused great difficulties for Chinese learning Russian to further understand Russia. This essay will take the Chinese translation of Russian idioms and proverbs as examples to study the basic definitions of literal translation and free translation, their respective advantages and disadvantages, and their relationships, in order to help students who learn Russian understand literal translation and free translation.

Controversy between literal translation and free translation

In different periods and different countries, people's views on translation theory have changed a lot, but the debate about literal translation and free translation has always existed.

Controversy in Chinese Translation Community

Which is better, literal translation or free translation, has always been divided in Chinese translation community. This kind of controversy first occurred during the translation of Buddhist scriptures written in Sanskrit into Chinese. During the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, the famous monk Dao An was the earliest representative of the literal translation in China. Dao An himself did not understand Sanskrit and was afraid that paraphrase would lose the maxims in Buddhist scriptures, so he advocated strict literal translation. However, Kumarajiva from India, who was invited by Dao An, advocated free translation. On the basis of fully understanding the original thought content and artistic style, the translation was appropriately deleted. Although Dao An and Kumarajiva are also engaged in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, the translation methods they adhere to were very different. This divergence continued into the Tang Dynasty. Xuan Zang, as the most famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, proposed a translation method that was completely different from the previous two translation methods—a combination of literal translation and free translation.(Wang Zhuan 1996,55)

The contradiction between modern literal translation and free translation may be due to the different understanding of these two translation methods. The translator Sun Guiding believes that: literal translation is stuck to the structure of the original text and does not consider whether the Chinese is fluent and natural; while free translation is to use the inherent Chinese idioms and the most natural words and sentences as much as possible to achieve the effect of conveying the meaning of the original text. Former President of Wuhan University, Du Zuozhou, believes that literal translation means translating word by word according to the original text; free translation means translating according to the meaning of the original text, and the translation is more suitable for the common grammar of the translated language. The educator Meng Xiancheng believes that literal translation is a translation technology with different degrees of correctness. Literal translation is a translation that is faithful and correct according to the original text; free translation is a translation that summarizes the original meaning. Zhu Guangqian said: "The so-called 'literal translation' refers to the literal translation based on the original text. Every word and sentence are translated word by word, and the order of the words and sentences is not changed. The so-called ‘paraphrasing’ is to express the meaning of the original text in Chinese, and it does not have to be completely based on the literal and order of the original text. " Feng Shize believes that "translation and literal translation are up-and-down relations; between literal translation and free translation is the left-right relationship. If the reversal of word order and other methods are free translation, then the definition of free translation is equal to translation, and there is no other translation besides free translation. "(Feng Shize 1981,10) The principle of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" put forward by the modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has long been the basic principle guiding translation practice. A large number of beginners who learn foreign languages regard "faithfulness and expressiveness" as translations that are completely faithful to the original text when translating.(Feng Shujian 1993,44) In fact, Yan Fu's translation requirements are a guiding principle for translation based on semantics. When translating, if the structure and expression of the original text cannot be directly adopted, the sentence structure and expression must be changed according to the characteristics of the target language. In addition, there are many differences between the original language and the target language in the word order, grammar, variants and rhetoric in the translation process. In many cases, there is no direct corresponding word. This requires the translator to consider the actual semantics, background and other factors. On the basis of the original meaning of the sentence, use an appropriate method to convey the content of the original work and reproduce the language style of the original work.

In the Soviet Union, under the influence of ideology, Western translation theories could not be widely disseminated, but within the Soviet Union, translation theories similar to Western translation theories have been formed and developed, and two main schools of translation theory have been further differentiated — Linguistic Translation School and Literary Translation School. To a certain extent, the dispute between these two schools also reflects the debate on literal translation and free translation among translators' groups. In terms of the principles or standards of translation, the linguistic translation school believes that an ideal translation should be an equivalent translation, first of all linguistic correspondence, that is, the translation should have the same meaning as the corresponding language or discourse unit of the original; the literary translation school believes that translation pursues artistic correspondence, and linguistic correspondence must be subordinate to artistic correspondence. Therefore, it proposes that the aesthetic standards of translation should reproduce the artistic reality reflected by the unity of the original content and form. The characteristic is to use images to translate images, that is, to create the same image in different languages. In 1953, Andrei Venediktovich Fedorov, the leader of the linguistic translation school, published his work "Summary of Translation Theory", which was the first monograph of the Soviet Union to study translation theory from the perspective of linguistics. The author proposes that translation theory is a branch of linguistics. Since the translation of any genre work must rely on the comparison of two languages, translation problems can only be solved in the field of language. Fedorov’s view was refuted by the literary translation school represented by Ivan Alexandrovich Kashikin. The literary translation school believes that aesthetic issues are the core of literary translation theory, and translation should be regarded as a form of language art, that is, translation should be studied from the perspective of literature and art.(Xie Yuncai 2002,99) In fact, the literary translation school emphasizes the translation of literary and artistic works, which belongs to the specific translation theory; while the research of the linguistic translation school focuses on the general translation theory, that is, the translation of all thematic works including literary works. The dispute between the two major translation theory schools of Russia and the Soviet Union provides another perspective for Chinese translators to explore the relationship between literal translation and free translation.

The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms

The idioms of different nationalities are the most dynamic and expressive units at the lexical level in different languages, and they are also the units that can best reflect the characteristics of national culture in languages. The number of Russian idioms is extremely rich, it records and reflects all aspects of Russian national life. Due to the great differences in geographical locations and living customs between China and Russia, the national cultures reflected in Chinese and Russian must be quite different. One of the difficulties in idiom translation is its imagery. When translating idioms, both the meaning and the image must be considered. Although the Chinese and Russian cultures are very different, many of the commonalities of mankind, such as emotion and natural environment, have created conditions for mutual communication, mutual understanding and idiom translation between different languages.(Feng Yongmei 1999,97)

Literal translation

Generally speaking, the literal translation method refers to a translation method that directly translates the original text without changing the language characteristics and style of the original text on the basis of fully respecting the meaning of the original text. Chinese translation of Russian idioms by literal translation method has the advantage of being able to intuitively and faithfully express the meaning of the idiom, maintaining the unique style and imagery of the original text: the disadvantage is that the translated idiom may not be understood by the Chinese because of China and Russia have different historical, cultural backgrounds, grammatical structures, and language world landscapes, which can easily form obstacles in the process of understanding.(Zhou Changyu 2010,34)

Translating Russian idioms by literal translation is further divided into two methods — literal translation into Chinese idioms and literal translation into non-idiom sentences or words.

Literal translation of Russian idioms into Chinese idioms is suitable for the translation of Russian and Chinese idioms that are completely equivalent in image, structure, and meaning. The advantage is that it is easy to understand, and the translation is simple and fast.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98) E.g:

домашнего (своего) вора не убережешься. 家贼难防

знать как свои пять пальцев (видно, как на ладони) 了如指掌

подлить масла в огонь 火上浇油

как рыба в воде 如鱼得水

как ножом по сердцу 心如刀割

как гром среди ясного неба 晴天霹雳

на добро отвечают добром 善有善报

копейка рубль бережет 财从细起

мечты сбываются 梦想成真

курица всегда следует за петухом 嫁鸡随鸡

чего мало, того и дорого (дорого то, что мало) 物以稀为贵(12)

изгонять яд с помощью яда 以毒攻毒

сидеть как на иголках 如坐针毡

действия громче слов 事实胜于雄辩

зарыть талант в землю 埋没人才

висеть на волоске 千钧一发

лить как из ведра 倾盆大雨(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

The idioms in the above examples are completely equivalent in image, structure or meaning in Russian and Chinese, so Chinese idioms can be used for literal translation.

In fact, in the two languages, idioms with the same image, structure, and meaning are still in the minority, so it is more common to translate Russian idioms into non-Chinese idiom sentences or vocabulary. E.g:

настоять на своем 坚持自己

камень с души свалился 心里的一块石头落地

связать свою судьбу 把自己的命运与……相连

быть на голову 高出一头

вбивать в голову 往脑子里灌

блеснуть метеором 像流星一样一闪而过

с мизинец 小拇指这么大(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

It is not difficult to find that the literal translation method can completely retain the original appearance of the idiom, show the common concept of human understanding of the world, and be beneficial to the cultural exchange between China and Russia.

Free translation

Another method commonly used in the Chinese translation of Russian idioms is free translation. Vocabulary gaps between languages are a common phenomenon, causing many difficulties for translation. There are many reasons for the vacancy of vocabulary, such as cultural reasons such as life experience, customs, religious beliefs, and linguistic reasons. There are roughly two ways to fill the language gaps — paraphrasing by replacing the image.and discarding images for free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Russian says "Два медведя в одной берлоге не уживутся (一个洞穴容不下两头熊).", while Chinese says "一山不容二虎". Another example is "Скатерть со стола, и дружба сплыла (桌布一收，友谊不再) " in Russian, and "人走茶凉" in Chinese.(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014) This method belongs to paraphrasing by replacing the image.

For the "harmony" of the translation, sometimes the translator has to choose to abandon the image for free translation. This is determined by both cultural and linguistic factors. Some linguistic features cannot be translated, and some idioms themselves are not strong enough. In this case, if Choosing a literal translation method will make readers confused.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,18) E.g: Как женился я на вашей матери да взял вот этот домишко в приданье, так думал, что богаче да лучше меня и людей нет, фертом ходил! (А. Островский) 我和你母亲一成亲，就得到了这栋作为陪嫁的屋子，当时我心想，再没有人比我更富足、更好的了。我那时可真是双手叉腰、得意洋洋的。 “Фертом” is the name of the letter “Ф” in ancient times.Its shape is like a person with hands on hips, and “фертом ходить” is an idiom evolved from body language. The cultural meaning of this idiom is "神气十足、得意洋洋、威武自负的样子" . The translation uses other idioms to complement the missing images in Chinese, clarify the meaning of the idiom, and convey the emotional color contained in the original idiom.(Hu Guming, Shen Man 2011,19)

The idioms in a certain language are fixed and unchanged after long-term use and tempering, but the frequency of each idiom is different. Some idioms are universally used by the whole people, spread and used in a wide range, while some idioms are only used in written styles. In Russian literature, there are improved precise and interesting idioms. For example, in the works of the famous Russian fable writer Krylov, there are reduced idioms, such as “ медвежья услуга”（直译：熊的帮忙；意译：帮倒忙）， “ сильнее кошки зверя нет”（直译：再没有比猫更厉害的野兽；意译：井底之蛙）， “ зелен как виноград”（直译：葡萄还很青；意译：年轻人没经验).(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014) When translating literature, translators often need to learn cultural background knowledge, replace the image in the original idiom, and then convey it to Chinese readers. Crows are a very common animal, usually black and gray. The description of crows in Chinese idioms is "the crows in the world are generally black（天下乌鸦一般黑）". It can be seen that white crows are rare. However, "белая ворона" often appears in Russian literary works, as a metaphor for people who are different from the masses in terms of external characteristics or ideological qualities. In the Chinese and Russian concepts, the crow is a nasty animal. Although white crows are rare, this Russian idiom is usually derogatory, expressing disdain, contempt, or ridicule against the person. In Chinese, animal images are also used as a metaphor for "different people", such as idioms that stand out from the crowd and phoenix feathers are rare. "Crane" and "phoenix" have always been regarded as precious and noble animals in traditional Chinese culture, so they cannot be compared with " Corresponding to "White Crow", it is not suitable for translating "белая ворона". Examples are as follows: Он замкнулся, не вдается в разговоры — вот вам и белая ворона.（Сталин) 直译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是一只白乌鸦。 意译：他不与人交往，不与人交流，真是与众不同。 Боишься, что они среди нас белой вороной окажется. Недосягаемым экземпляром.(Кожевников В “Корни и крона”) 直译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间的白乌鸦，一个无法达到的例子。 意译：你是担心他们会变成我们中间标新立异，望尘莫及的人。 Most Chinese who come into contact with Russian are students majoring in Russian. The Russian idioms we usually encounter appear in textbooks. These idioms are often used by the Russian public and are easily understood and accepted by the Chinese. E.g:

В Тулу со свим самоваром не ездят. 直译：去图拉不用带自己的茶炊。 意译：多此一举

Честь лучше бесчестья. 直译：尊重比不尊重好。 意译：礼多人不怪。

словно горя с плеч 直译：把山从肩膀下卸下 意译：如释重负

выеденного яйца не стоит 直译：一个空蛋壳不值钱 意译：鸡毛蒜皮，一文不值

чужими руками жар загребать 直译：用别人的手将红炭火拨成一堆 意译：坐享其成，不劳而获

ни рыба, ни мясо 直译：没有鱼也没有肉 意译：不三不四，不伦不类

лучше синица в руках, чем журавль в небе 直译：天上的仙鹤不如手中的山雀 意译：远亲不如近邻

На языке мед, а под лед 直译：嘴上甜得像蜂蜜，心里冷得像冰 意译：笑里藏刀

И на солнце есть пятна 直译：太阳上也有黑点 意译：人无完人

семь раз отмерь, один раз отрежь 直译：测量了七次后再剪裁 意译：三思而后行(Wang Fuxiang, Wu Hanying 2014)

Using free translation to translate Russian idioms requires the translator to accurately understand the meaning of the original text, because cultural differences make it impossible to literally translate. Only through the translator can an unobstructed bridge between Russian idioms and Chinese idioms be built.

The application of literal translation and free translation in the Chinese translation of Russian proverbs

There are often multiple translations of the same Russian proverb in Russian-Chinese dictionaries. On the one hand, because the translator uses different translation methods; on the other hand, because Russian proverbs have very rich connotations, a translation cannot perfectly interpret the inner meaning of the proverb. According to the context and the connotation of the proverbs, the most commonly used methods of Chinese translation of Russian proverbs are literal translation and free translation.(Feng Yongmei 1999,98)

Literal translation

In Russian and Chinese languages, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implicit meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express a certain kind of the same semantics, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of synonymous Chinese proverbs can convey the information contained in the original image, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables the reader to perfectly understand the original text. E.g:

In Russian and Chinese languages, some proverbs not only have the same meaning or implicit meaning, but also use the same or similar figurative images to express a certain kind of the same semantics, and they are completely consistent in content and form. In this case, the equivalent translation of synonymous Chinese proverbs can convey the information contained in the original image, which not only retains the rhetorical color of the original language, but also enables the reader to perfectly understand the original text. The other situation is the experience that the Russians summed up in their long labor and life, which has evolved into a proverb, but the Chinese have not summed up this experience, so translating Russian proverbs into Chinese literally, Chinese people can understand them at a glance and increase their knowledge of the world. E.g:

Беда не приходит одна. 祸不单行。

Век живи, век учись. 活到老，学到老。

Выше встанешь, дальше увидишь. 站得高，看得远。

Лучше один раз увидеть, чем сто раз услышать. 百闻不如一见。

Береги платье снову, а честь смолоду. 衣服要从新的时候爱惜，荣誉要从年轻时珍惜。

Выше лба уши не растут. 耳朵高不过额头。

Для милого друга семь верст не околица. 为了好友，多绕七里也不嫌远。

Лучше умереть стоя, чем жить на коленях. 宁愿站着死，绝不站着生。

Не имей сто рублей, а имей сто друзей. 宁要一百个朋友，不要一百个卢布。

По одежке встречают, по уму провожают. 迎客时看衣，送客时看才智。(Jia Sufen 1996)

There is another situation where the literal translation method can be used. Although the image in Russian proverbs is different from the commonly used images in Chinese, it is also easy to understand. For example, "Молодец против овец, а против молодца — сам овца." In fact, this proverb can be paraphrased as "欺软怕硬 ", but in this way the translation discards the lively literal meaning of the original text. On the other hand, it is literally translated as "见到绵羊充好汉，碰到好汉成绵羊" , on the basis of retaining the original image, readers can easily understand the meaning of the original proverb. Another example is "Заяц от лисицы, а лягушка от зайца бежит. " can be translated as "一物降一物", but the image in the original text was completely abandoned, if it is literally translated as "one thing drops one thing "狐惊兔，兔惊蛙", this kind of translation is not only simple and clear, but also in line with the aesthetics of Chinese proverbs. In general, the literal translation not only retains the symmetrical rhetorical techniques in the original sentence, but also retains the symmetrical beauty of the original sentence structure. It not only conforms to the aesthetic characteristics of the original Russian text, but also shows the beauty of phonology and structure in Chinese.(Jia Sufen 1996)

The translation of Russian proverbs by literal translation not only maintains the original language, but also transplants the unique image language of Russian proverbs into Chinese, which not only expands the horizons of Chinese readers, but also enriches the way of expression in Chinese.

Free translation

Due to the influence of cultural factors, many Russian and Chinese proverbs expressing the same semantics use different metaphors. Some Russian proverbs are difficult to retain the original image in the process of translation into Chinese. If literally translated according to the original image, due to the different national and cultural backgrounds of China and Russia, the translation is difficult to be accepted by the Chinese, and even misunderstood may occur. In order to accurately convey the meaning of the original text to readers, we can readjust the structure of the original text on the basis of a correct understanding of the meaning of the original text, and use standard Chinese expressions to reproduce Russian proverbs to avoid ambiguity and misunderstanding.

There are some elements used in proverbs that foreigners cannot understand. For example, the Russian proverb "В огороде бузина, а в Киеве дядька." is literally translated as "菜园里长接骨木，而基辅里住叔叔", which cannot be understood by the Chinese. The four elements “огород” “бузина” “Киева” “дядька”, which contained in this proverb are completely unrelated. In fact, this proverb means that there is no logical relationship between what someone says, and the translator can directly paraphrase it as "胡说八道", "前言不搭后语" or more easily understood "满嘴跑火车". Another example is "На воре шапка горит." literally means "the hat on the thief's head is on fire". In fact, this proverb originated from a short story in the Kievan Rus period: someone’s money bag disappeared and he shouted "Catch the thief", but no one knew where the thief was. This man had an idea and shouted, "The thief's hat is on fire." After hearing this, the thief touched his hat unconsciously and exposed himself. Therefore, "На воре шапка горит." can be paraphrased as "不打自招" or "做贼心虚."(Jia Sufen 1996)

Есть несколько русских пословиц, которые больше подходят для вольного перевода:

От труда- радость, от безделья- усталость. 直译：快乐从劳动中来，疲劳从闲散中来。 意译：劳动使人快乐。

Баба с возу- кобыле легче. 直译：农妇下了车，马儿就轻松。 意译：求之不得

Герой не моего романа. 直译：不是我小说中的主人公。 意译：不是我的意中人。

Терпенье (ученье\уменье) и труд всё перетрут. 直译：耐心和勤劳能克服一切。 意译：锲而不舍，金石可镂（只要功夫深，铁杵磨成针）。

Чтобы узнать человека, надо с ним пуд соль съесть. 直译：想要了解一个人，应该和他吃一普特盐。 意译：日久见人心。

Посади свинью за стол — она и ноги на стол. 直译：让猪入席，它会把爪子也伸上来。 意译：得寸进尺。

Черного кобеля не отмоешь добела. 直译：黑色的狗洗不白。 意译：本性难改。

Конь о четырех ногах, да спотыкается. 直译：马有四条腿，也会摔倒。 意译：聪明一世，糊涂一时。

За что купил, за то и продаю. 直译：怎么买来，怎么卖出。 意译：人云亦云。

Обжегшись на молоке, дуешь на воду. 直译：一旦被牛奶烫，喝水也要吹一吹。 意译：一种被蛇咬，十年怕井绳。(Jia Sufen 1996)

Conclusion

In the process of translation, translators often feel that there are a lot of contradictions and differences between the two languages in terms of lexical structure, syntactic structure, expression methods and metaphors. In many cases, translators understand the original meaning but do not know how to express it in the target language, which leads to the debate about which is better, literal translation or free translation. When translators translate works that are more contradictory between bilinguals, translators often use free translation methods. When translating works that are consistent or have more common points than contradictions or conflicts between bilinguals, translators tend to choose literal translation .

In fact, the relationship between literal translation and free translation is interdependent and inseparable. Therefore, when we translate an article or a book, it is not feasible to translate every sentence literally or freely. Only when the translator cleverly arranges the alternation of the two can it be possible to translate a better translation. When we comment on literal translation and free translation, we should consider the effects of the division of labor and cooperation between the two, and should not one-sidedly understand the advantages and disadvantages of literal translation and meaning.

References

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Dialectical thinking in arguments between literal translation and free translation 甘奉玉 Gan Fengyu

Abstract

As two methods of translation, how to use literal translation and free translation has always been the focus of debate between Chinese and Western translation circles. Through the study of translation methods of literal translation and free translation at home and abroad, we can know that to some extent literal translation and free translation are two relative conceptions, so there will be word-for-word translation, that is, dead translation, and excessive free translation. However, these two are only two extremes of literal translation and free translation. In fact, although there are differences in definitions and application fields between literal translation and free translation, they are unified in common translation purpose, translation procedure and translation standard. Therefore, the two are contradictory and unified in translation activities. This is also the profound embodiment of the unity of opposites in materialist dialectics.

Key words

literal translation, free translation, word-for-word translation, over free translation, unity of opposites

摘要

作为翻译方法，直译(literal translation)与意译(free translation)怎样使用的问题一直是一个争论中西方翻译界不休的焦点。通过对国内外直译与意译的翻译方法的研究，我们可以得知，从某种程度而言，直译与意译是两个相对的概念, 所以才会有逐字翻译，即死译，与过度意译这两个完全对立的概念。但是，这两者只不过是直译与意译的两个极端点。其实，直译和意译虽然在概念定义，适用范围上有所差异，但却又统一于共同的翻译目的、翻译过程和翻译标准中。所以两者在翻译活动中应该是既对立又统一的矛盾体。而这也正是唯物辩证法中的对立统一矛盾观的深刻体现.

关键字

直译； 意译； 死译； 过度意译； 对立统一

Introduction

Throughout the translation history at home and abroad, the literal translation and free translation have always been a heat discussion in the translation circles. Someone absolutely approve literal translation and demean free translation, even pursue a dead translation, which creates an translated text difficult to understand. While some other people absolutely agree with free translation even advocate random acts, which means a random deletion in the translation practices and creates anther entirely different text. However, there are also a number of translators who have recognized that these two translation methods are not totally opposite. So they adopt a compromise and flexible way. That means they will choose the most appropriate one depending on the text demanding. Therefore, we can deduce from it that this eclectic translation is consistent with the Contradiction view of Unity of Opposite in Materialist Dialectics. In fact, literal translation and free translation are right a set of contradictions which are both opposite and unified. They complement each other into an integral one. The dispute between free translation and literal translation in Chinese translation circles first appeared in the dispute of "text" and "quality" in the Eastern Han Dynasty. During this period, Shi Dao-an, a senior monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, advocated literal translation and put forward that the translation should not be added or deleted but only make some adjustments to the word order. In the post-Qin period opposed to the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the monk Hatoyama advocated that the Buddhist scriptures should be translated freely. That is, the original text should be changed to adapt to the Chinese style. Subsequently, Xuanzang, a senior monk of the Tang Dynasty, drew lessons from their former translation achievements and put forward that both seeking truth and vulgarity. (Chen Fukang 2011, 14-38)That is, literal translation should be combined with free translation, not only one of them. At that time, some translators have noticed that literal translation and free translation are not completely opposite. After that, in modern times from the Opium War to the May 4th Movement, since Yan Fu has put forward the translation standard of faith, smoothness and elegance, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai ignited the dispute on faith and smoothness. Lu Xun is a typical literal translation school. He insists that faith first and smoothness second even tolerates incoherence. He adopts the method of dead translation and absolute translation. While Qu Qiubai believes that faith and smoothness are not opposed. From the New culture Movement(from 1915-1923) to the 1980s, Mao Dun also put forward that literal translation doesn't mean word-for-word translation without any addition or deletion. Since the reform and opening up, Xu Yuanchong has said that literal translation should be faithful to the original content first then to the original form and last to the smooth translated text. On the other hand, while free translation should be faithful to the original text first then to the smooth translated text and last to the original form. Therefore, although there are differences in translation methods between literal translation and free translation, their ultimate goal is to be faithful to the original content and express the original meaning.（Chen Fukang 2011, 288-333） Since Cicero, the first translation theorist in ancient China, put forward that avoid word-by-word translation as a speaker, the dispute between literal translation and free translation began to appear in the West. In ancient times, Perot insisted on dead translation in the translation of the Bible, which caused the translation quality to be too low. Poitius in the Middle Ages also advocated word-by-word translation and strict formal correspondence. In modern times, French translator Abulangour aimed to cater to readers in a way of over-free translation and arbitrary deletion. Even so, there are many translation theorists in the western translation world who advocated eclectic and flexible translation. For example, in ancient times, Jerome advocated the flexible principle to apply in literary translation and religious translation differently. During the Renaissance, French Amyot emphasized the dialectical unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. Moreover, some translators did not exercise their own translation ideas. During the Renaissance, Reichlin was one of them. Although he advocated word-by-word translation, he abandoned word-by-word translation in practice. This can also further explain that absolute promotion of literal translation or free translation is not a desirable translation method. In translation practice, we must take a suitable degree between the two in the way of combining literal translation and free translation at the same time to better serve for the target readers.(Tan Zaixi 2004, 5-15 ) The purpose of this paper is to explore the dialectical thinking contained in the dispute between literal translation and free translation, that is, the viewpoint of unity of opposites. The first chapter is about the word-for-word translation, and the second chapter is about the over-free translation. From this, we can draw a conclusion that it is not advisable to regard literal translation and free translation as absolute opposites. The third chapter is about the eclectic translation, which is the correct method for us to learn and adopt. It is also a dialectical translation method that follows the view of unity of opposites. The fourth chapter will analyze the differences between literal translation and free translation. Then the fifth chapter focuses on the unity of literal translation and free translation in translation goals, translation procedures and translation standards. Through the discussion of the whole article, we can clearly see the unity of opposites between literal translation and free translation and draw a conclusion that we should apply dialectical translation in our translation practice and adopt the point of view of unity of opposites in translation theory. (He Lirong 2018, 40)

1.Dialectic thinking of the Unity of opposites

The theory of unity of opposites is the core content of materialist dialectics theory. (Xu Guoliang 2020, 75) In the history of philosophy, the German philosopher Hegel first expounded the basic thought of contradiction theory from the standpoint of objective idealism. Later, Marx, Engels and Lenin critically absorbed Hegel's theory and developed contradiction theory into the core content of materialist dialectics theory. The theory of contradiction contains two basic problems, and one is the relationship between unity and opposition, while the other is the universality and particularity of contradiction, which involves a series of basic concepts of contradiction theory, such as basic contradiction and non-basic contradiction, fundamental contradiction and non-fundamental contradiction, principal contradiction and non-principal contradiction. Understanding these basic concepts and their relationship is the key to understand and grasp the contradiction theory completely and accurately and finally apply it to the practice of social life. (Yan Mengwei 2020, 41) The problem of unity and opposition of contradiction is actually about the nature of contradiction. We always know things from comparison. The so-called comparison is to find the similarities and differences between two things. The former is called unity and the latter is called opposition. The unity is relative and the opposition is absolute. It is worth emphasizing that the opposition of contradictions plays a key and decisive role in development, because development comes from the unity of opposites. This means that unity and opposition are two indispensable elements in the process of development. They complement and interact with each other. Literal translation and free translation are such a pair of contradictions. The opposition of the two is reflected in the absolute opposition between word-for-word translation and over-free translation. There are differences in their definition and application and similarities in their translation goals, procedures and standards.(Yang Ying 2019,161)

2.Word-for-word translation

Literal translation is a method that not only maintains the original content, but also the original form. (Xu Yuanchong 1996,92) Fu Sinian and Zheng Zhenduo all advocate literal translation. In the history of modern Chinese translation, Lu Xun and his younger brother Zhou Zuoren's work of The Collection of Extraterritorial Fiction is regarded as the representatives of literal translation. In particular, literal translation is neither dead translation nor a mechanical verbatim translation. Because English and Chinese have different structures, it is impossible to translate word by word. From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is parataxis while English is  hypotaxis. (Zhu Xiaojia 2008, 1)That is to say, in Chinese, a sentence is usually short with little modifier and connected words, while in English, several meanings can be expressed with complicated structure with assorted clauses and connected words into only a sentence. Besides, the English is a more static language in which nouns and adjective are always used, but the Chinese more dynamic one, verbs are more active. Finally, the former has a systematic grammar but the latter seems freely arranged.(Cao Huoqun 2005, 40) So, when we do some translating exercise, we should focus on their grammar structure to deal well. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, continuing word-for-word translation will lead to formalism. Such a translated text is not intelligible for reader. That is to say, literal translation must be readable without any misunderstanding or violation of expression.

3.Over free translation

Free translation refers to the method that maintains original content rather than original form. In the process of translation, in order to make the language clear and persuasive, the translator must try to conform to the language customs of target texts rather than adhere to the expressive pattern of the original work. Zhao Jingshen put forward that it is better to be smooth with some disloyalty instead of absolute loyalty. Obviously, Mr. Zhao Jingshen is in favor of free translation, and so does Mr. Yan Fu. Many of Yan Fu's classical works have adopted free translation, such as the Theory of Heaven is a typical example of free translation. When we translate from English to Chinese, especially some idioms that are in closer ties with western culture, we have to move or change these cultural barriers so that Chinese readers could understand easily. It is also true when translating Chinese into English. Under this condition, free translation will be more suitable and effective. However, free translation does not mean random translation. The latter means making up translated sentence by subjective imagination without analyzing the structure of the original text. It is also known as over-free translation. (Wu Shuang 2018, 107) In fact, when we translate, we must master the thought and style of the original and regard them as corresponding one of the target language. In addition, the theory, fact and logic of the original work should also be corresponding in the target language. We can not replace these features of the original with our personal thoughts, styles, facts, theories and logic. Only in this way can the contents not be changed after translation.

4.Dialectic translation

Feng Qinghua put forward in the book of A Practical Translation Course that the so-called literal translation is a kind of translation method to maintain both the original content and the original form. If there are same language form and expressive effect between original and target text, we should adopt literal translation to deliver the same contents. While the so-called free translation is a method to keep the original content and style only not the original form. So if there are different language forms and expressive effects between the two texts, we should adopt free translation mostly. (Feng Qinghua 1997, 12) Therefore, Literal translation and free translation have their own advantages and restrictions. The former is beneficial to the transplantation of culture, while the latter can avoid obscurity in literal translation. If in literal translation, we will translate the sentence “mashing a mirror is no way to make an ugly person beautiful, nor is it a way to make social problem evaporate” into “砸镜子不能使丑八怪变漂亮，也不能使社会问题烟消云散”, while if in free translation, we can turn it into “砸镜子并不能解决实际问题”. (Fan Zhongying 1994, 22) We can see the latter one is more concise and comprehensive to express the connotative meaning. While although the former are totally literal translation, we still feel it terrible. So, a translator should use these two translation strategies according to the actual situation to express the surface structure and deep meaning of the original text. The use of literal or free translation depends on the rules of both English and Chinese. In translation, if we can not directly adopt the structure and expression form of the original work, we must change the sentence structure and expressive way to convey the connotation of the original work. An excellent translated text is realized neither by simple literal translation nor by simple free translation but by the combination of two. In another word, we should adopt dialectic translation in our practice.

5.1.1 Opposition in definition

Qiao Zengrui defines literal translation in Chapter 4 of Translation Theory as a method that the translation deliberately retains the original form to maintain the content and style of the original. At the same time, He also defines free translation as a method that keep the original content and style by use of the same or similar expression as the original text in the target language regardless of the two different languages. The first one regards form as the only way, content and style as target, while the second directly takes no account of form. With this regard, the two totally opposite in definition.(Qiao Zengrui 2000,263)

5.1.2 Opposition in application fileld

Generally speaking, literal translation is generally used to translate some political books, laws, treaties and scientific and technological documents, terms, idioms, and some simple sentences. (Wu Shuang 2018,178) The early translation of Buddhist scriptures of early Chinese generally followed this theory. So do the Marxism-Leninism works and Mao Zedong works. For example, “纸老虎” can only be translated as “paper tiger” but not “scarecrow”. The latter one was corrected by Mao Zedong when the interpreter translated it into “scarecrow”. President Mao emphasized that this word had two characteristics and if translated into scarecrow, it will lose duality. Because “纸老虎” in China means imperialism and reactionary, which seems terrible but no great power in it. Since it was made of paper, this tiger became soft in the damp and washed away when it rained. While scarecrow can scare away children and birds. So paper tiger is better than scarecrow. In the process of translation, there are many situations that literal translation can not be used, so we must adopt the method of free translation, especially the translation of literary works. (Wu Shuang, 2018, 178)On the one hand, there are many common traditional Chinese words that reflect the unique cultural concepts and cultural phenomena of our country, which can't translate directly into corresponding words in English. For instance, if we translate"初生牛犊不怕虎" into "A new born calf is not afraid of a tiger", then our target readers in English-speaking countries may find it difficult to understand the substance of the literal meaning. ( Yang Yin 2019, 161)So here “The more wit, the less courage” will be better. On the other hand, some certain maxims, idioms and puns in English have no choice but to use free translation. (He Lirong 2018,43) For example" have a wolf in the stomach" means"饥肠辘辘" 饥饿难忍" rather than “肚子里有个豺狼”. Moreover, some exclusive English nouns should be free translated such as "the heel of Achilles" into"致命的弱点" instead of “阿克琉斯的脚后跟”.

5.2.1 Unity in translation goal

In literal translation, loyalty to the original form should be put first, followed by loyalty to the original content and last pursuit of fluency and popularity in target language. In free translation, loyalty to the original content should be put first, then the fluency and popularity of the translation language are second, and the original form comes last. It can be seen that loyalty to the original content is the common purpose of literal translation and free translation.(Wu Shuang 2018, 108) The unity of literal translation and free translation is also reflected in the fact that the translation must be smooth and fluent and conform to the expressive habits of target language. If the translated text is obscure and unreadable without conformity to the habits of the target language and culture, the two translation strategies have not achieved the true unity, so the purpose of communication has not be achieved. Therefore, literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods used in translation. They are unified in the translation purpose to accurately and faithfully convey the original meaning and intention with the same form and spirit as original text.(He Lirong 2018, 41)

5.2.2 Unity in translation procedure

The literal translation and free translation is unified in translation procedures. Both of them should conform to the following translation steps of understanding, expression and verification. Understanding is the first stage of translation process. It includes not only the understanding of language and cultural phenomena, but also logical relations. A translator should be good at analyzing ambiguous sentences and make correct judgment before translating. Expression is the process by which the translator reproduces the content of the original text into target language. Expression is the result of understanding, but understanding correctly does not mean expressing right. Therefore, we must learn many specific methods and techniques, such as literal translation, free translation, literal translation plus free translation, literal translation plus annotation, and so on. The third stage is verification. In this stage, we must check the translation at least twice. In he first time, we should check whether there is any missing translation or wrong translation. And in the second time, we should check whether it's smooth and intelligible out of the original text. Whether literal translation or free translation, we must follow the three steps of understanding, expression and verification in translation practice. Understanding is the premise of expression, but understanding and expression are usually complementary and unified, which can not be separated completely. While understanding the original text, the translator also chooses the expressive way and further deepen his understanding.

5.2.3 Unity in translation standard

On the establishment of translation standards, Chinese and foreign translation theorists in different historical periods put forward different views. In China, there are Ma Jianzhong's view of "good translation" on the basis of modern linguistic theory, Yan Fu's translation standards of "faith, smoothness, and elegance", Chen Xiying's theory of “similarities in shape, meaning and spirit”, Lin Yutang's translation standards of “loyalty, smoothness and beauty”. In the West, there are Twelve Translation Principles of Bart, Three Principles of Tettler, Seven principles of Luther, and functional equivalence of Eugene. Nida and so on. All these translation standards are based on different social needs, translation contents, translation objects and translation purposes.(He Lirong 2018, 42) No matter which translation standard, it is impossible to meet by only literal translation or only free translation. Therefore, the two translation methods are unified in any translation standard. So, they are inseparable unity of opposites.

6.Conclusion

Literal translation and free translation are two different translation methods. Although they are different in conceptual definition and applicable field, in order to achieve a unified translation standard and achieve a common translation purpose, they both follow the same three steps of understanding, expression and verification. In the process of translation, if the target text has the same form and style as the original text, it can be translated literally. If there are different form and style, it should be translated freely. When the structure of the original text is inconsistent with that of the target language, sticking to word-for-word translation will cause stiff translation difficult to understand. In the same way, making up sentences through subjective assumption according to the literal meaning without analysis of original text will cause random translation disloyalty to the original one. Therefore, we can conclude that we should treat literal translation and free translation with a dialectical way and use these two translation methods flexibly to create wonderful translations in our concrete translation practice.

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Peter Newmark’s Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation 赵茜 Zhao Xi,202070080627

Abstract

The dispute over the two basic translation methods, literal translation and free translation, has never stopped since ancient times. In view of the basic problem of his argument, Peter Newmark, an English translation theorist divides the various translation methods into eight, points out that different translation methods should be taken according to different text characteristics and puts forward with semantic translation and communicative translation bases on years of translation researches. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes the effect of the translation. The author of this paper expresses some views on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from the fragmented and one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has brought people out of the struggle between them and made people see the direction of further development of translation research.

Key words

Free translation, Literal translation, Peter Newmark, Semantic translation, Communicative translation

摘要

直译与意译这两种翻译基本方法之争从古至今从未停止过。针对其争论的基本问题，英国翻译理论家彼得·纽马克把各种翻译方法分成了八种，指出应根据不同的文本特点釆取不同的翻译方法，并在多年翻译研究的基础上提出了语义翻译和交际翻译。语义翻译重点在强调保持原文的内容，而交际翻译更多强调的是译文的效果。本文作者也提出了对直译和意译的一些看法。彼得·纽马克的理论把人们以往对直译、意译的零散的、片面的观点向前推进了一大步，使人们从直译、意译之争中走出来并看到翻译研究进一步发展的方向。

关键词

直译, 意译, 彼得·纽马克, 语义翻译, 交际翻译

Introduction

According to Chinese and western translation history, no matter in China or in western countries, studies on translation theories and practice have been performed over two thousand years. Translation, as an ancient and extremely significant human thinking activity, is closely related to the development of language itself. And translation after more than two thousand years of development, has developed prosperously, appearing quantities of translation theories, translation schools and translators. However, the dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The fundamental problem between literal translation and free translation is based on the relationship between content and form. To solve this fundamental problem of the dispute, Peter Newmark first points out that translation studies have been long beset by the time-honored theoretical debate over free and literal translation. A range of wider aspects of translation related to the contribution to the development of languages, its relation to meaning, the intention of translation, the readers' background, the type of discourse and the language universals have been long neglected. Therefore, according to Newmark's own translation practice, he puts forward right translation methods, word-for-word translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and communicative translation, which provide to translators to consider and use. Although in the actual translation practice, translators have no necessity to distinguish such translation methods and even to use these methods, this proposal may help translators open their horizons and translate more appropriately. Among the eight translation methods, semantic translation and communicative translation proposed by Newmark own the advantages of other six methods, becoming the most ideal translation methods. Peter Newmark's semantic translation and communicative translation are highly valued and influence the practice of translation in general. (Li Minghan 2014, 3)

Literal Translation and Free Translation

Brief Introduction of Literal Translation and Free Translation

From ancient times, translators hold various attitudes toward such two translation methods, literal translation and free translation.

Literal Translation

Literal translation is a translation method which not only keeps the substance of the original, but also keeps the form of the original. This definition implies that the translation version is expressing the content of the original and should spare no efforts to make every part of the translation version corresponding to every part in the original text including construction of sentence, meaning of the original words, metaphor of the original and so on.

According to Liu Zhongde, literal translation can be summarized into "to reproduce both the ideological content and style of the entire literary work and retain as much as possible the figures of speech". (Liu Zhongde 1991, 52)

Xu Yuanchong defines literal translation as "the kind of translation which is faithful not only to the content but also to the form of the original." (Xu Yuanchong 1984, 45)

Newmark suggests that literal translation is like, "sometimes it is very difficult to define what is literal translation, it is believed that a translation can be regarded as the literal translation when the translator is not influenced but the foreign flavors."(Newmark 2001, 46)

Mr. Yang Xianyi holds that the translators should be as faithful as possible to the original image and too much explanation and creativity should be avoided. This means translators should try to use literal translation method to introduce imagery in the source language to the target language readers. The reason why those translators who insist on literal translation are that they think literal translation is the only way to keep faithful to the original. They endeavor to adopt from as similarly as possible to the original to show the original meaning, thinking that it's the truest reflection of the original. (Wang Zuoliang 1989, 43)

Free Translation

Free translation is a translation method which only keeps the substance of the original, but not keeps the form the original. Target language and source language have different forms to show the same substance, and they could not produce the same result. Free translation does not mean to delete or add content to the original, though it does not pay much attention to the form of the original. Otherwise, the translation would not be faithful to the original. Translators always discover the meaning behind the forms in the source language and dose their best to produce the same meaning in the target language, using the forms and structures in the target language. Consequently, what is supposed to change is the form and the code, and what should remain unchanged is the meaning and the message.

Shuttle worth and Cowie define free translation as "a type of translation in which more attention is paid to producing a natural target language than to preserving the source language wording intact." (Shuttle worth&Cowie 2004, 62)

Free translation is the conveying of the discourse meaning of the speaker is not restricted by the structure and linguistic and rhetoric styles of the original text. (Ren Wen 2012, 18)

Liu Zhongde has given his definition to free translation. According to his definition, free translation aims at transmitting the meaning regardless of the sentence forms and rhetorical devices. If translators are not able to make the translated text faithful to the original text through literal translation, they may use their own words to explain the meaning of the text without considering the words and forms in original text. (Liu Zhongde 1991, 53-54)

Disputes over Free Translation and Literal Translation

In the past, translators generally believed that language and thought were unified, and language was form while thought was content. However, it was impossible to realize the consistence between language forms and ideological content, producing the contradiction between form and content, which is the problem between literal translation and free translation. Modern science has proved that language and thought are not a unity and constitutes a relationship between form and content. Language is only a symbolic system to express thoughts. Translation expresses the same idea by using two different language signals.

Marcus Tullius Cicero is generously acknowledged to be the first person to put forward a systematic description of the practice of translation and he said "I did not translate them as an interpreter, but as an orator... I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserve the general style and force of language." (Tan Zaixi 2018, 20) He puts forward mainly two viewpoints. Firstly, the translation should be as close as possible to the language habits of the target language. At that time, namely, the translation should correspond with Roman habits as much as possible to touch and resonate with the readers. What's more, he advocates free translation and opposes literal translation as he believes that free translation is superior to literal translation. The most important thing in translation is not the corresponding in form, but the meaning and thought in the source language. Cecero's thoughts have provided a guide for other translators and produced an effect on them. Since Cicero came up with his opinion, the disputes over literal translation and free translation has never been stopped.

Eugene Nida holds that if all languages differ in form, then quite naturally the forms must be changed if one is to preserve the content. He is in favor of dynamic equivalence instead of formal correspondence, maintaining the original meanings. In this sense, Nida agrees with free translation, just as he expresses that translating means translating meaning. (Nida 1985, 119-125)

Zhai Qiubai insists literal translation and claims that the correct translation is based on Chinese syntax and rhetoric and has its specific intentions. First of all, he regards translation as a part of Proletarian literature. Translation should systematically introduce proletarian revolution thoughts to Chinese readers. Furthermore, translation should help create modern Chinese language and literal translation is an approach. To preserve the spirit in the original text, some non-smoothness can be tolerated. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 65)

Lu Xun defines clearly that translation must take into account of two sides: one is easy to understand, the other maintains the style of the original. This explanation refers that the translators must translate according to the original text rather than their own world view and aesthetic taste. The translators must try their best to maintain the style of the original author and inherit historic and national characters rather than imposing extrinsic aesthetic and social background culture of other people on the translation. (Chen Fukang 2000, 301)

Mao Dun has pointed out that due to different language families of Chinese and English and different structures, word-by-word translation us almost impossible actually. Because word-by-word translation is difficult to achieve its ideal effect, any discussion related with literal translation and free translation is inevitably involved with the problem "what is the boundary between them?" He also holds that the so-called literal translation, superficially speaking, means not to alter the original words and sentences. (Xu Haiyan & Sun Weihong 2012, 80)

In Xu Yuanchong's opinion, the criteria to judge literal translation and free translation is whether the translation is faithful to the original. If a translation is faithful to both meaning and form of the original text, it is literal translation. If a translation is only faithful to meaning rather than form, it is free translation. If a translation is only faithful to form rather than content, it is mechanical translation. And the standard to judge faithfulness are form and content. For translation, content is more significant than form. Besides, translators should use both literal translation and free translation. However, sometimes it is difficult to use literal translation or free translation in a translation, so it is not necessary to define literal translation or free translation in those situations. Xu argues that literal translation is not only being faithful to the content of the original text but also being close to its form. When Xu discusses the situations using literal translation or free translation, he often mentions readers and contexts, among which readers are more important. No matter literal translation or free translation, translators should put faithfulness to the content of the original text first, smoothness of target text form second, faithfulness to the form of the source text third. In other words, on the premise of faithfulness to the source language, translation should strive for smoothness of form. On the premise of smoothness of translation, translators should try their best to realize faithfulness to form of the original. If there is a contradiction between the smoothness and faithfulness of the original form, it is of no necessity to stick to the original form. These are the relationships between content and form, and literal translation and free translation. (Cheng Yongsheng 2002, 66)

Whether in Chinese translation circle or in western translation circle, the contradiction between content and form, and literal translation and free translation exists and arouses heated discussion.

Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation

To solve the fundamental problem of free translation and literal translation, Peter Newmark, a renowned western translation theorist, linguist and professor of translation at the University of Surrey, combining with years of translation experience, has concluded and summarized a corresponding theory, semantic translation and communicative translation, whose core is the problem of literal translation and free translation. Semantic translation and communicative translation have been put forward against the background that the majority of scholars have argued for a long time whether to translate literally or freely. The concepts of communicative and semantic translation represent Newmark’s main contribution to general translation theory. (Newmark 1991, 10)

Semantic Translation

Newmark puts the definition of semantic translation as "Semantic translation, attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. " As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation focuses essentially upon the comprehension and response of TL receptors. Semantic translation severs for the source language author and gives a high priority to reflecting his thought patterns and stylistics. (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 22) Here is an example.

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Man Proposes, Heaven disposes.

In this example, the Chinese idiom means that a man has done his or her best to do something and as to whether he or she can achieve the goal, it depends on the fortune. “天” refers to the master of nature in ancient Chinese culture. This word is semantically translated into “heaven” as the translation emphasizes the original information and tries to preserve the favor, style and culture maintained in the source language.

Communicative Translation

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. As this version of definition indicates, communicative translation centers around the semantic aspects of the source language texts. To be specific, in communicative translation, the emphasis should be on conveying the message of the original in a form, which conforms to the linguistic, cultural and pragmatic conventions of target language. Both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership. (Chen Boyu 2003, 4)

Communicative translation intends to present the main idea of the original text and emphasize the social value generated by the translation. Communicative translation highlights on conveying the message expressed in the original and form of the the source language. Due to different textual functions, content and form should have different focuses. Texts of informative function emphasize on the information beyond the language, while texts of vocative function center on readers. The primary intention of translators is to convey the message to the target readers, without paying much attention to the style of the original. If it is necessary, translators can adjust grammar and words to better transmit the information. The change of forms is not only allowed, but also encouraged. (Zhang Linlin 2010, 17)

E.g. 谋事在人，成事在天。

Hawkes's Version: Man Proposes, God disposes.

This translation is communicative translation. Different from the version of Yang, Hawkes translated "天" into "God". In western culture, people believe that "God" is the master of nature. It renders the contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readers.

Comparison Between Semantic Translation and Communicative Translation

The fundamental difference between semantic translation and communicative translation is that semantic translation attaches more importance to the content rather than effect and communicative translation is just opposite.

Firstly, semantic translation is more objective, stresses accuracy and is submitted to the author, culture and meaning of the original. Communicative translation is more subjective, pays much attention to the readers' responses, and is submitted to the target language and its culture. Semantic translation and communicative translation have difference in expression form.

Second, semantic translation make the translated text more close to the original form and retain the vocative effect as much as possible. If there is no much difference between the source and target language specifications, translation should maintain the length of sentences in the original text as well. Communicative translation will reorganize the syntax and utilize more common collocations or words to make translation more fluent, idiomatic and understandable. In the communicative translation, to make the translation brief and emphasize key information, translators should get rid of the bondage of the source language structure and make appropriate adjustments which are not allowed in the semantic translation, such as adjusting the logic relations in the original, making obscure concepts distinct, deleting repeated unnecessary details or redundant information, normalizing some peculiar expressions, and even correcting factual or writing mistakes.

Thus, they have different functions. Semantic translation, performing expressive function, tries to preserve the language characteristics and unique expression forms of the source language to present thinking process of the author. Its translation judged by the target readers is likely to be smoother, simpler, clearer and more direct. While communicative translation is to convey message, performing vocative function.

In addition, the key of communicative translation is immediacy which means the success of translation depends on the readers' responses. Semantic translation lays stress on faithfulness to the source text, but cannot neglect to convey the message contained in the source text. (Lin Xiaoqin 1987, 50)

Here are some examples to better present the differences between semantic translation and communicative translation.

E.g. 世人都晓神仙好。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: All men long to immortals.

David Hawkes’s Version: All men knew that salvation should be won.

In this example, “神仙” is the difficult point because there is no corresponding expression in English. In Chinese culture, “神仙” refers to transcendence and is a life with “supernatural forces” in human beings. Yang directly translated “神仙” as “immortals” because being an immortal is the highest ideal of Taoism. His translation is semantic translation. While Hawkes used “salvation” which is a concept in the Christianity. The creed of Christianity is to be saved from sins. And his translation is communicative translation. Yang chose to be faithful to the original text to preserve the concept in the Taoism. While Hawkes decided to pay more attention to religious background and mentality of the target readers.

E.g. 真是“天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福”。

Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's Version: Truly, “storms gather without warning in nature, and had luck befalls men overnight.”

David Hawkes’s Version: I know “the weather and human life are both unpredictable.”

In this sentence, “天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福” is a challenge in translation. It is a Chinese idiom which means the occurrences of some disasters are unpredictable in advance. According to antithesis habit in Chinese, Yang translated these two idioms into the corresponding English compound sentence, which adopted semantic translation. While Hawkes briefly translated into a single sentence, which adopted communicative translation. The former sentence may be appreciated by Chinese readers, and the simplified processing of the latter is easier for native English speakers to understand and accept because it conforms to the British and American expressions, especially in line with the habits of daily expression.

E.g. Wet Paint!

Version 1: 湿油漆

Version 2: 油漆未干

Version 3: 小心油漆

Version 4: 勿触油漆

This sentence is an official notice. From the four versions of the source text, there are differences among them. Version 1 is word-by-word translation, conveying an obscure message and not involving in any receptors. Version 2 just describes a fact that the paint is not dry but wet and does not present the informative function of the original. This notice aims to warn people not to do something and keep away from the paint. Version 3 and version 4 are free translations because they emphasize more on the content instead of form. The first and second version are semantic translation because they only describe the fact and tell readers the information that the paint is not dry. However, the third and fourth version are communicative translation which not only tell people the information but also play the warning function to notify readers not to touch the wet paint.

However, semantic translation and communicative translation are not opposite. Newmark points out that the two should be viewed as a whole, instead of isolated or opposite parts. And a problem should be emphasized. Corresponding text-types can overlap. Semantic translation pays more attention to a mainly expressive text and communicative translation is more popular in mainly informative or vocative texts. In brief, translators should think the type of text over and ensure a good balance between them.

Text Typology

Language is a unique symbolic system, which has its own most important semantic system, as well as a functional system involving context.

Newmark's text tppology theory is influenced by Reiss, Jacobson and other translators. In the book of Approaches to Translation, Newmark put forward three functional texts, including expressive text, informational text and vocative text. In accordance with these types of classification, Newmark summarized semantic translation and communicative translation. (Newmark 2001, 39)

Expressive text mainly talks about the author's subjective emotions and his or her standpoints, which centers on the source language and the author regardless of the target readers' responses. Newmark points out that the expressive text includes three literary styles: "(1)serious imaginative literature such as poem, novels and dramas, (2) authoritative statements such as speech or statements from government officials or party's officials or party's leaders, documents and regulations and laws from government, and academic works from authorities, (3) autobiography, prose and personal correspondence without target readers." (Newmark 2001, 55) Semantic translation is applicable to the expressive text, with a particular emphasis on the language features and language structure of the original language which is similar to literal translation.

As for informative text, Newmark proposes that "typical informative texts are concerned with any topic of knowledge". (Newmark 1988, 40) The informative text focuses on the information or the content provided in the text. According to Newmark, informative text includes textbooks, papers, reports, and minutes about science, industry, technology, economy, commerce and other areas of knowledge or events, which are mainly used to deliver information and reflect truth. In light of translation of informative text, Newmark proposes that communicative translation can be adopted to convey accurate meaning or the content of the source text to the target readers. (Newmark 2001, 67)

"The function of vocative text is to call upon readers to act, to think, to feel and to react in the way intended by the text." (Newmark 2001, 41) The vocative text includes all kinds of specifications, publicity materials, advertisements, notices and other persuasive words. Two factors must be emphasized in vocative text: one is the relationship between the author of the source text and readers of the source text and another is that translation is easy to be understood by the target readers, therefore, translators should take the source language and its cultural background into consideration in the course of translation practice. And communicative translation should also be used in the vocative text which means much attention should be paid on the target readers' understanding and reaction.

Newmark's Improved Views on Literal Translation and Free Translation

It can be said that literal translation and free translation in the past were had their own disadvantages. Newmark agrees with literal translation and he holds that "translation means filling the blank between two languages and even explaining is translating." (Newmark 1999, 33) This indicates that he does not neglect the importance of free translation. If the language and grammar structure of the original are not that important, the fidelity of the translation can be lowered, creating more room for translation. This situation can mainly adopts free translation. He even believes that translators can create better translation than the original one. Communicative translation and free translation resemble when it comes to the preference for the message to the manner, and the content to the form of the original. In his masterpiece Approaches To Translation, he analyzes and discusses the loss of meaning. As long as the loss of meaning in the translation is inevitable, content cannot separate from form. And complete faithfulness to the original is almost impossible because the so-called preserving the original meaning is relative. What's more, the content of a text should not be equal to referent in language, but include referent, rhyme, genre, style and so on. As the slogan, being faithful to the original, was too empty, some translators advocating literal translation did free translation and even paraphrased the original in the practice. Newmark holds that translators need to notice the content in four layers, the original text level, referred level, coherent language level and natural tone level. In this way, he transforms the empty slogan into concrete requirements in the translation practice and meanwhile criticized the disadvantages of literal translation. (Newmark 1999, 33)

Likewise, the viewpoints of free translation are not advisable as well. Newmark criticizes the basis of free translation school, making the target readers obtain feelings similar to that of the original readers. He thinks the goal is too difficult to achieve because translators had problem in completely knowing the feelings and responses of the original readers. He further puts forward some reasons why this goal cannot be realized. As long as the same feelings cannot be obtained by the source and target readers, there exists no reason or judging basis of great amending or creative rewriting. Free translation produces the matter rather than the manner, or the content rather than the form. Newmark regards it as usually a paraphrase much longer than the original, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all. In free translation, "more translation is paid to producing a natural reading TL text than to preserving the ST wording intact." (Shuttleworth and Cowie 2004, 62)

Newmark criticizes that the argument is theoretical without taking other important facets of translator's purpose, the nature of readership and text typology into consideration. Newmark claims the argument could come to a compromise if translators deal with two sides with another visual angle. In 1981, he proposed semantic translation and communicative translation to replace the old terms. (Newmark 1988, 45) "(a) communicative translation, where the translator attempts to produce the same effect of the target language readers as produced by the original on the source language readers, and (b) semantic translation, where the translator attempts, with the bare syntactic and semantic constraints of the TL, to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the author." (Newmark 1981, 22) In order to better explain these two methods, he designed the form of a flattened diagram. (Newmark 1988, 45)

               SL emphasis                            TL emphasis
  word for word translation                        Adaption
         Literal translation                     Free translation
         Faithful translation                  Idiomatic translation
           Semantic translation               Communicative translation

The diagram indicates that there is a hugest gap between the translation guided by word for word translation and the translation guided by adaption, then between literal translation and free translation, faithful translation and idiomatic translation and semantic translation and communicative translation last. These eight translation methods are a continuity, and they complement each other and cannot be completely separated. In Newmark's opinion, adaption is the freest translation method, and suitable for drama and poem translation. Free translation reproduces the main content of the original and pay more attention to interpret and expound. Target texts guided by idiomatic translation are more natural, more fluent and more coherent. But due to adopt some unknown expressions, the original meaning may be distorted.

Communicative translation possesses the advantages of adaption, free translation, idiomatic translation and semantic translation maintains the advantages of word for word translation, literal translation and faithful translation. Newmark maintains only by combining semantic translation and communicative translation can achieve two aims of translation-accuracy and conciseness. By distinguishing these right methods, he gives further refinements to the above definition of semantic translation and communicative translation. He adds one more element "aesthetic value". Meanwhile, he gives up emphasizing the "effect", and refines communicative translation to be more specific, "communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both content an language are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the readership." (Newmark 1988, 47)

My Thoughts on Literal Translation and Free Translation

The two translation methods, literal translation and free translation, are useful in the translation practice. Taking English-Chinese translation for example, in the translating process, translators can use the method of literal translation when the pattern of sentence in original text is similar with the Chinese one, and we can find some Chinese words being equivalent in meaning to the words used in the sentence of original text. In some cases there are some complex sentences that can be translated with the method of literal translation as well. As long as these sentences are short and the pattern of these sentences is relatively simple compared with other complex sentences, they can be translated by literal translation method. In English, the using of some metaphors and similes is almost similar to the way that they are used by in Chinese. For instance, "time flies" in English can be directly translated into Chinese as "时间飞逝", as the Chinese people also describe time passing very fast in this way, which accords with the expression habit of Chinese.

As English and Chinese are two kinds of different languages, there are many differences in various aspects, such as different grammar and language habits. In English there are some words or phrases we cannot find the relative words or phrases in Chinese. In this cases, using using literal translation method would not be proper. Under this condition, if the translator insists on using literal translation, the translation text will be difficult to be understood by the target readers. So in order to make the translation text readable, translators should adopt free translation. Under the direction of literal translation, translators will try their best to keep the flavor of original work, no matter on the material or the form. Literal translation is the effective method to keep the cultural flavor of original language. Therefore, when there are some cultural differences affecting the translation of culture-loaded words between the source language and the target language, free translation can become one of the translation strategies which provide possibility in reducing or even removing the restrictive factors in translation process.

In the process of translation, it is an ideal way to combine literal translation and free translation because they mutually complement in many cases. When literal translation cannot express the original and basic content of the author and hinder readers to understand, it is crucial for the translator to use free translation to express the author's meaning. When free translation cannot meet the requirement of being faithful to the content of the original text, it is significant for the translation to use literal translation to show features ad the structure of the author's language.

Conclusion

The dispute between two translation methods, literal translation and free translation has been lasting from throughout history. The argument of them is based on the relationship between content and form. This paper attempts to introduce Peter Newmark's improved views on the literal translation and free translation. Newmark criticizes some disadvantages and proposes semantic translation and communicative translation. Semantic translation focuses on maintaining the content of the original text, while communicative translation emphasizes more on the effect of the translation. The author also shows opinions on literal translation and free translation. Peter Newmark's theory has taken a big step forward from one-sided view of literal translation and free translation in the past, which has provided the direction of further development of translation research.

References

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Document Translation

On translation of official documents of CangNan County 吴恺 Wu Kai

On Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

Japanese Language and Literature, School of Foreign Languages, Hunan Normal University, Wu Kai--Wu Kai (talk) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

Abstract

As one of the forefronts of Zhejiang’s opening-up cause, Cangnan County in Zhejiang Province has been enjoying a rapid development and an ever-growing degree of opening-up with lasting vitality as it’s supported by national policies and nourished by the dividends of economic globalization since China's reform and opening-up. As China has ushered in a period of major changes rarely seen in a century, Cangnan County is also facing new opportunities and challenges. Under the background of this era, Cangnan County is expected to make good use of its own advantages, especially the geographical ones—it is close to countries and regions including Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan—and should spare no efforts to achieve a higher level of opening-up, and, in turn, further promote its development. As an embodiment of the collective will of the people of Cangnan County, the official document is one of the best manifestations of its governance and stability control capabilities. For this reason, the research on how to translate official documents is of great significance for that it offers a great opportunity for Cangnan County to re-examine itself and to show the rest of the world its achievement in building a culture-enriched county.

Key words

official document translation, Cangnan County, opening-up, Japan, South Korea

摘要

自中国改革开放以来，浙江省苍南县作为全浙江对外开放的前沿阵地之一，得到了国家政策支持和经济全球化红利的滋润，苍南县发展水平与对外开放程度日新月异，全县活力持久带劲。随着中国迎来“百年未有之大变局”，苍南县也面临着新的机遇和挑战，在此时代背景下，苍南县应该利用好自身优势，特别是临近日本、韩国、台湾等国家与地区的地理优势，努力开展更高层次、更高水平的对外开放事业，促进苍南更好的发展。为此，作为苍南县人民集体意志的体现，苍南县的公文就是对外展示其治理水平、稳控能力的最好的体现之一。而对于苍南县公文的如何翻译的研究，是促使苍南县重新审视自己、推进苍南人文县情传播海外的良机，意义重大。

关键词

公文翻译 苍南县 对外开放 日本 韩国

I. System and Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County

The unique official document system adopted by Chinese government agencies is a special integration of the thousands-of-years excellent political traditions in China and the essence of the organizational structure of the socialist regime. As a county-level unit in China's local administrative structure, Cangnan County has an official document system that is consistent with the national ones in general while has its own features. Official documents of Cangnan County can be basically divided into the following types of writing: resolutions, decisions, orders, bulletins, announcements, notifications, opinions, notices, reports, requests for instructions, approvals, proposals, letters, and minutes. Above-mentioned categories are collectively known as official documents. Besides, there are also some types of practical writing, including summaries, plans, notes, memos, briefings, speeches, manuals and so on, that are often used in our day-to-day work.

In addition to those characteristics of the official documents that are commonly seen in China, official documents of Cangnan County also have its own features, which is mainly reflected in the aspect of proprietary terminology. Cangnan County, which used to be a part of Pingyang County in Zhejiang Province, was officially designated as a county in 1981 with the approval of the Central Government. It takes its name Cangnan, which means “on the south of the Yucang Mountain”, from its geographical location. As a relatively young county-level administrative unit in China’s administrative divisions, Cangnan County has a complex natural endowment and cultural environment, which is the reason why there are many special proprietary terms used in the official documents of Cangnan County, such as “Beautiful South Gate of Zhejiang Province”, “Southern Ouyue (an ancient kingdom in modern Wenzhou and Taizhou)” , “South Gate of Jiangsu-Zhejiang Region” and so on. Moreover, Cangnan is also the birthplace of the “Wenzhou Model”. Since the implementation of policy for the exchange of production materials and commercial grains in 1984, Cangnan has become an important base for the experiments and development of Wenzhou's private economy and market economy, and, thus, has made a significant contribution to the great cause of China's reform and opening-up.

To conclude, the unity of the official document system viewed from the national scope of China and the uniqueness of the official document system viewed from the local scope of Cangnan area are both reflections of the integration of economic, political, and cultural elements. Therefore, when translating the terms and sentences in these official documents, obviously, it is almost impossible to follow general translation theories, such as Yan Fu’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” theory which applies to literature translation, and Christiane Nord’ Skopos theory which emphasizes schematic analysis. Due to the features of the official documents of Cangnan County, it is hard to imagine the consequence it will cause if those Cangnan and Chinese elements they contain are missed when translating them. Therefore, the starting point for the translation and research of Cangnan official documents should be analyzing the official document itself, but not choosing which translation theory to apply.

The translation method focusing on the official documents themselves is undoubtably the one that emphasizes the content while manages to achieve a similarity in form. Thus, the translation theory that meets the requirements of official document translation in Cangnan County shall be the functional equivalence theory of the American linguist Eugene A. Nida. Eugene A. Nida argued in his theory that translation is to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language to reproduce the informational function of the source language both semantically and stylistically. Nida’s definition of translation specified that translation is seeking equivalence not only in lexical meaning, but also in semantics, style and literary form. Translation should convey both the denotative and connotative meaning of a message. Regarding the equivalence of translation, he believed that the equivalence consists of four parts: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. Among the four aspects, he emphasized that the meaning the core and most important part, followed by the form. The form of a text is likely to conceal the cultural connotation of the source language and may, therefore, hinder cultural exchanges. Based on the above, the reasons why the functional equivalence theory is applicable to official document translation in Cangnan County can be concluded as follows:

First, the functional equivalence theory advocates that the target text should be equivalent to the source text both semantically and culturally. Official documents of Cangnan County are carriers of profound political culture with Chinese characteristics and the cultural environment in Cangnan. When translating them, in addition to showing the political consciousness and judicial authority of Cangnan government agencies, the local culture of Cangnan must also be reflected in the translations.

Second, the functional equivalence theory suggests that if the lexical meanings and cultural elements cannot be taken into account at the same time, the translator then may give up the equivalence in form and try to reproduce the semantic and cultural meaning of the source text by changing the form of the sentence. There are many specialized terms with Chinese characteristics and Cangnan’s characteristics in official documents of Cangnan County. When translating them, once there is no corresponding expression in the target language, other forms of expression must be adopted to retain the meanings of those specialized terms as much as possible.

Third, the functional equivalence theory proposes that if the change in form is still not enough to express the semantic and cultural meaning of the expression in the source language, the translation technique of “heavy damage” can be adopted to resolve cultural differences , so that the source language and the target language can achieve equivalence in semantic meaning. “Heavy damage” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, expressing the cultural connotation of the source text with expressions of the target language. It cannot be ruled out that there are words and sentences in the official document of Cangnan County that cannot be translated, and when this happens, the translator can only rely on his translation techniques and understanding ability to process them creatively. Above are simply macro analyses of the official document system in Cangnan County, and when it comes to specific analyses, challenges we face will only be severer.

II. Stylistic Features and Translation of Official Documents in Cangnan County

Looking at the official documents of Cangnan County from the micro level, we can work on the study of its translation based on the following characteristics.

1. Details and Accurate

As an officially-written document geared for the needs of our people, wording of the official documents of Cangnan County has a very specific orientation. Almost all content words have very clear meanings and connotations.

For example, the sentence “经研究，县政府决定召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会，现将有关事宜通知如下。(As discussed, the county government decided to convene a feedback meeting on city-to-county inspections of production safety and a meeting for education and warning on outstanding issues. The relevant matters are hereby notified as follows.)” in the document 《苍南县人民政府办公室关于召开市对县安全生产巡查反馈会暨突出问题集中教育警示会的通知》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Convening a Feedback Meeting on City-to-County Inspections of Production Safety and A Meeting For Education and Warning On Outstanding Issues”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on June 8th, 2020) conveys several points very accurately and clearly, including the decision maker, the type, content and theme of the meeting. Therefore, special attention must be paid to the integrity of the information delivered when translating this sentence. For example, it is translated into Japanese as “討議を通じて、県政府は県の安全生産状況に対する市政府の巡査結果反映会及び顕著問題教育警告会を開催することが決定した。関連事項を以下のようにお知らせする。”

2. Precise and Compact

The role of official documents is to exchange formal information between the upper and the lower, the people and the officials, and the relevant departments. Therefore, the wording of the official documents must be rigorous. No slang and loose sentences should be used, and excessive use of parentheses and descriptive modifiers should be avoided. Official documents of Cangnan County follow this rule as well, in which there will never be informal expressions like daily spoken words.

For example, the expression “三、决策目录施行动态管理，因工作需要增减或变更重大行政决策事项的，承办单位应按照相关规定程序提请调整。(Third, the decision catalogue shall be managed in a dynamic way, the undertaker shall submit application for adjustments in accordance with the relevant regulations if any increase/decrease or change shall be made to the major administrative decision-making matters because of the need of actual work.)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) When translating this sentence into Japanese, the translator shall fully considers the preciseness of the original expression, and translate it as “三つ目、戦略目録動的管理施行、仕事需要によっての増減または変更が必要な場合、請負機構は関連規定の手順に従って調整を提出しなければならない。”

3. Programmed and Standardized

The purpose of official documents requires a stable and routine writing program so that the official business can be conducted in an orderly manner. It is essential that the document writing is reasonably programmed. It allows the officer to know what it is and what to do at a glance if a standardized official document program is followed. The standardization of the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as a tricky feature in their translation.

For example, the expression “各乡镇人民政府，县政府直属各单位 (the people's government of all townships and towns and all directly affiliated institutions of the people’s government of Cangnan County)” in the document《关于公布苍南县2020年度重大行政决策事项目录的通知》(“Notice on Issuing the 2020 Annual Catalogue of Major Administrative Decision-Making Matters of Cangnan County”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on Sept. 20th, 2020) is obviously a standardized addressing of the receiving units of an official document, and it should be translated into Japanese as “各郷鎮人民政府、県政府直属の各部門”. Viewing from a micro perspective, we may find that special attention should be paid to many precise details when translating those official documents. It is of great significance that, during the cause of reform and opening-up, we strike a balance between the macro level and the micro level in official document translation, which will serve as a stage for Cangnan County to show itself to Japan, South Korea and other East Asian countries and regions.

III. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Japanese Language

Cangnan County is one of the nearest administrative units to Japan in China, and Okinawa Prefecture in Japan and Cangnan County are neighbors facing each other across the sea. Furthermore, Cangnan County itself has ports in Xiaguan, Pacao, Yanting, Dayu and other places, and has the basic conditions for conducting small transactions of freights with Okinawa. However, due to the inadequacy policies, laws and regulations, a large portion of Japan’s trade with China, especially with Zhejiang Province, is still conducted in the three port cities, namely Ningbo, Zhoushan, and Hangzhou. Cangnan’s geographical advantages have never been given to full play. To Japan, Cangnan is not a total stranger. Wenzhou City has a great influence upon Japanese culture and history. Special local products such as Wenzhou green tea and Wenzhou satsuma orange are very attractive to Japanese people. Many of the business exchanges during the Kamakura Bakufu in Japan were happened between Hakata merchants and Wenzhou people. As an important subordinate region of Wenzhou City, Cangnan County naturally has left an impression on Japanese people when it comes to China.

If Cangnan hopes to lay a foundation for the future cooperation with Japan through its cause of opening up to the outside world, it is of great importance that we study the methods and techniques to make the translation of Cangnan’s official documents to meet the specific context of the Japanese language, which is also a part of the cultural exchanges that will facilitate economic and trade cooperation between Japan and China. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of regular cities and special wards in Japan, but this does not mean that the official documents of Cangnan County can be regarded as equivalents to the official documents released by the governments of the regular cities and special wards in Japan, and there are huge differences between their respective official documents in form, wording, Cultural connotation and etc. To better translate Cangnan official documents under the context of Japanese language, the following aspects must be paid attention to:

1. Detailed Comparison of Types

In the Japanese official document system, the word “公文” is different in meaning from the word “公文” in Chinese official document system. In Chinese “公文” means government official documents, while in Japanese “公文” generally refer to legal documents that have the force of law and the term “公文書” is the one that refers to government official documents, which roughly includes “外交文書” and “起案文”, “通達” , “命令”, “許可”, “通知書” and so on . When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, attention should be paid to the transformation of the types of the official documents. The classifications of official documents in China and Japan are different from each other. For example, when translating documents such as “proposal letter”, “report” and the like into Japanese, the title should be translated as “建言書” and “報告書”, while “命令(order)”, “通知(notice)”, “提案(Proposal)” and etc. need no translation and can be titled with the original characters directly as “命令”, “通知”, “提案”, and can also be further translated into “命令状”, “通知書”, “提案書”. Those reflect the characteristics of the division of the types of the official document system in Japan.

2. Careful Consideration of the Translation of Chinese Characters

There are a large number of Chinese characters in Japanese. This will for sure be an advantage when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, however, at the same time, this is also a huge disadvantage. After all, those Chinese characters are Japanized Chinese characters, and their meanings and usages are more or less different from the original ones in Chinese.

For example, the expression “设定全县森林防火期(setting the season of forest fire prevention)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”) in could be translated character by character into Japanese as “全県域森林防火期間設定”. However, expressions such as “野外火源如何管理” cannot be translated in the same way, and must be processed accordingly and translated into Japanese as “野外の火の元が如何に処理すること”. When translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese, the translators must reject the preconceived thinking and native Chinese thinking, or it will lead to irreversible misunderstandings and mistakes.

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Chinese is an isolating language, in which the grammatical meaning is reflected by the order of words, while Japanese is an agglutinative language, in which auxiliary words and flexible usages of vocabulary are adopted to reflect the grammatical meaning. This requires the translators to have mastery of the equivalence of semantic meanings when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese and try to achieve perfect equivalence in official document translation.

For example, there is a expression as “全体公民必须认真贯彻‘以人为本、预防为主、积极扑救、有效消灾’的森林防灭火工作方针，一旦发现森林火灾，要立即向当地人民政府或森林防灭火指挥部办公室报告(all citizens must seriously implement the working policy of forest fire prevention and firefighting ‘people-oriented, prevention-focused, active in firefighting, effective in disaster relief’, once a forest fire is detected, it must be reported to the local people’s government or the forest fire prevention and firefighting headquarters office immediately)” in the document 《苍南县应急管理局局长王再忠关于<苍南县人民政府关于做好森林防火期护林防火工作的通告>的政策解读》(“Policy Interpretation Of ‘Notice of Doing Forest Protection and Fire Prevention during the Season of Forest Fire Prevention by the People's Government Of Cangnan County’ by the Director of Cangnan Emergency Management Agency Wang Zaizhong”). When dealing with long and complex sentences, the translator must be flexible in using translation techniques to decompose the sentences and translate them step by step, focusing on the balance between the form of the sentence and its semantic meaning. Based on this principle, the abovementioned sentence could be translated into Japanese as “人間本位、予防軸化、積極救助、有効消災という森林防火作業方針は全県民が必ず強固に守らなければならない。林に火事が発見された際、直ちに所轄人民政府や森林防火指揮部執務室に報告すること。”

There is no doubt that, in terms of four-character idioms, allusions, new words of the era and etc., the translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context of the Japanese language still has a long way to go, but the part that we should pay most attention to in translation is always the differences in culture between the source language and the target language. Only by keeping this basic point in mind at all times, will there be no huge mistakes being made when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Japanese.

Ⅳ. Translation of Official Documents of Cangnan County under the Context of the Korean Language

Zhejiang Province and South Korea have laid a good foundation for economic and trade cooperation projects, and a framework that is comprehensive, wide-ranging, and multi-level has been established for Zhejiang-South Korea cooperation. The advantages of the two regions are obviously complementary and the development potential for both sides and in between is huge. In September 2016, the Zhejiang China-Korea (Quzhou) Industrial Cooperation Park was approved as the first batch of “Zhejiang International Industrial Cooperation Parks” in Zhejiang Province. The total planned area is about 3,000 acres and the total planned investment is 12 billion yuan. Represented by the Zhejiang China-Korea Industrial Cooperation Park, a large number of economic and trade cooperation projects has been carried out with South Korea by Zhejiang Province. As an indispensable part of Zhejiang Province, Cangnan County is facing a huge gap in the cultural exchanges and economic cooperation with South Korea. How to elevate the level of Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world and advancing Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea is a question that is well worth exploring. Although Cangnan is further away from South Korea compared with regions in the north of Zhejiang, geographic location should never be a factor that hindering Cangnan’s economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. In an era of ever-deepening globalization, it is of great significance that we think about how to develop and promote the economic and trade and cultural cooperation between Cangnan and South Korea.

Northern Zhejiang is a key area for economic, trade and cultural cooperation with South Korea. As the south gate of Zhejiang Province, if Cangnan County could open the door of economic, trade and cultural cooperation to South Korea, then this will inevitably bring extraordinary development opportunities to southern Zhejiang and make the pattern of Zhejiang and South Korea’s economic and cultural cooperation more balanced and healthy. The political status of Cangnan County is equivalent to the one of si(city), gu (district), and gun(county) in South Korea. Because of some historical reasons, South Korea is greatly influenced by Chinese culture. From the Three Kingdoms era of Joseon, to the Unified Silla Dynasty, the Wang’s Goryeo Dynasty, and the Yi’s Joseon Dynasty, the basic system of administrative divisions in South Korea is almost the same as the one in China, so the official document system of cities, districts, and counties in South Korea can be regarded as basically equivalent to the official document system of Cangnan County with only slight differences originated from the localized political and cultural traditions and the basic social condition of South Korea. Therefore, there are relatively fewer difficulties of translation when translating official documents of Cangnan County into Korean, aside from the barriers caused by Korean Hangul words. The translation of official documents of Cangnan County under the context Korean language requires attention to the following aspects:

1. The Combination of Chinese characters and Hangul

Modern Korean uses Hangul as the main written characters, but this does not mean that there is no place for Chinese characters in the Korean system. Since the launch of the abolition of Chinese characters movement in South Korea in the 1970s, Hangul did exactly achieved an overall penetration of every aspect of their daily life, but when it comes to important documents, Chinese characters still reserve a seat in the arena of South Korea’s history. Furthermore, a higher level of talent training is required now to meet the need of South Korea’s economic and social development, and the mastery of sinology has become, among all the necessary skills, one of the most straightforward evaluation criteria to access the qualified personnel. Thus, South Korea has restarted the Chinese character teaching movement. Nowadays, the official document system in South Korea has become one in which Hangul serves as the main language and the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul serves as a supplement. Just as how the mixed use of kana and Chinese characters in Japanese official documents may help in its translation, the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul also greatly facilitate the translation of official documents of Cangnan County into Korean. However, because Chinese characters used in Korea are composed of traditional Chinese characters and a small number of Korean self-made Chinese characters, we can not take it for granted that it is advisable to translate them word by word.

For example, the title of the document《苍干任〔2020〕18号 王再忠等同志的任命》(“Cangnan Cadre Appointment [2020] No. 18: Appointment of Wang Zaizhong and etc.”) (the Office of CPC Cangnan Party Committee on March 27th, 2020) can be translated with the mixed use of Chinese characters and Hangul into Korean as《蒼南縣의 幹部任命〔2020〕18號 王再忠등 同志의任命》. Also, it be translated into Korean with Hangul alone as《참남현의 간부임명〔2020〕18호 왕재충등 동지의임명》.

2. The Usage of Refined Language

In recent years, South Korea has carried out reforms of the official document system, urging that the South Korean government agencies at all levels should use “refined(or purified) language”, that is, to write and publish official documents with words that are easy for the public to understand and have explicit meanings, reducing the cost of communication between the government and the public and, in this way, building a closer relationship between the government and the people, so that civil servants can communicate with the people more effectively. Refined language is a kind of common vernacular that differs from the official language. Although this trend of the wording of Korean official documents is not unconditional, but when compared with official documents of Cangnan County, which emphasize the solemnity and formality of official documents, this trend is the part that the translator has to pay his attention to.

For example, when translating the expression “为加强行政规范性文件管理，切实推进依法行政，加快法治政府建设 (To strengthen the management of administrative normative documents, promote the administration in accordance with law, and accelerate the construction of a government ruled by law)” in the document《苍南县人民政府关于公布县政府及县政府办公室行政规范性文件清理结果的通知（有效）》(“Notice of the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on the Announcement of the Results of the Cleanup of the Administrative Normative Documents of the County Government and the County Government Offices (Effective)”) (the Office of the People's Government of Cangnan County on October 23th, 2020) , blunt expressions may not be that applicable and this expression translated into Korean in a more public-friendly way as “행정 규범적인 문서관리를 강화하기 위해, 법에따라 행정을 철저히 추진하고 법치정부의 건설을 가속화시킨다.”

3. Mastery of the Equivalence of Semantic Meaning

Like Japanese, Korean is also a typical agglutinative language. A sentence is formed by connecting independent words with various auxiliary words, and with a subordinating conjunction at the end of the sentence. Auxiliary words are just like glues, they exist after every subject, predicate, and object component of a Korean sentence to them together. For that these auxiliary words have no substantial meaning themselves, they must stay close to the main body in front, and a space must be put after. Therefore, when translating Chinese, which is an isolated language, into Korean, which is an agglutinative language, it is necessary to have mastery of the equivalence of the semantic meaning of the expression.

For example, when translating the expression “全面实施全民参保计划，做好参保情况清查，提升参保信息质量，清理重复参保，稳定持续参保，减少漏保断保，实现应保尽保。(Fully implement the national social security plan, do a good job in checking the coverage of the social security, improve the quality of the collection of the information of the insured, clean up repeated insureds, stabilize the renewal of the social security, reduce the interruption of the social security, and achieve full social security coverage.)” in the document《关于做好2021年度城乡居民基本医疗保障工作的通知》(“Notice on Doing a Good Job in Basic Medical Security for Urban and Rural Residents in 2021”)( the Office of Medical Security Bureau of Cangnan County on November 5th, 2020), the translator should pay attention to the equivalence of semantic meaning of this long sentence and translated it into Korean as “전국민기본의료보험가입계획을 전면적으로 실시하고 기본의료보험가입상황을 철저히 조사하며 기본의료보험가입 정보의 질을 향상시키고 중복기본의료보험가입을 청산하며 안정적이고 지속적인 기본의료보험가입을 하며 보험누락을 줄이고 기본의료보험가입 을 실현해야 한다.”

Ⅴ. Studies of Official Document Translation and the Cause of Opening-up in Cangnan County

Based on the abovementioned basic characteristics of the official document system of Cangnan County, the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Japanese language and the notes for official documents translation under the context of the Korean language, we can see that official documents of Cangnan County is not as difficult to handle as something untranslatable. Cangnan County enjoys a good geographic location: it is located in the coast of the East China Sea, and is close to both Japan and South Korea, two strong economies in East Asia. However, Cangnan County has not yet made use of these favorable conditions to the fullest to promote cultural cooperation and trade with the two countries. Cangnan’s opening up to the outside world requires innovative thinking and an elaborate layout. Studies on the translation of official documents of Cangnan County, especially the translation of official documents under the context of the Japanese and Korean language, will help to explore the cultural spirit of the government institutions, and play an important role in building a good image of Cangnan County in East Asia and laying a foundation for Cangnan's cooperation with major countries and regions in East Asia .

The world today is undergoing profound changes rarely in a century, and so is China. The tide of history moves on and Cangnan shall not stay out of the matter, but must follow it courageously and strive to open new doors for Cangnan's opening up to the outside world through the study of the official document translation of its own.

References

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[2]Mu Dan. Discussion on Translation Activities Under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory[J]. International Journal of Education and Management,2018,3(2).

[3]李琳琳. 功能对等翻译理论与关联翻译理论比较研究[D].辽宁师范大学,2006.

[4]赵娟廷. 汉韩公文语体对比研究[D].复旦大学,2003.

[5]周萱. 《中国共产党怎样解决民族问题》（节选）中韩翻译报告[D].青岛大学,2017.

[6]张利军. 《教学的游戏性研究》的汉日翻译实践报告[D].广西师范大学,2019.

[7]栾亚琼. 《2015年山东省政府工作报告》汉日翻译实践报告[D].曲阜师范大学,2016.

[8]占丽华. 源流与演变—日本地方公文书馆发展路径研究[D].山东大学,2020.

[9]任清萍. 功能翻译理论视角下政府工作报告日译研究[D].外交学院,2020.

[10]孙慧. 产业竞争力与区域经济增长[D].苏州大学,2006.

--Wu Kai (talk) 04:45, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

The Translation Process and Methods of Translating English Long Sentences 周艺文 Zhou Yiwen

Abstract

The translation of long English sentences is a difficult point in English-Chinese translation. It is very important to understand the features of sentence structure and the translation process and methods of long English sentences. This paper studies the translation process and methods of English long sentences through the comparative study of English and Chinese language characteristics and specific English-Chinese translation analysis. This paper is divided into five parts. The first part introduces the characteristics of English long sentences. The second part contrasts the language features of English with that of Chinese, which can be divided into three aspects: English sentences emphasize hypotaxis, Chinese sentences emphasize parataxis; English is a static language, while Chinese is a dynamic language; English prefers passive voice while Chinese prefers active voice. The third part expounds the characteristics of translating English long sentences, mainly from three aspects: cross-cultural communication, emphasis on form and clear language logic. The fourth part mainly analyzes the process of translating English long sentences through some examples. In the end, five translation methods are discussed, which are liner translation, reorganization translation, splitting translation, synthesis and insertion.

Key words

English long sentences; language characteristics; translation process; translation methods

摘要

英语长句翻译是英汉翻译的难点，了解英语长句的句子结构特点和翻译过程及方法在英汉翻译中十分重要。本文通过对比研究英汉语言特点及具体英汉译本分析对英语长句翻译过程和方法进行研究。本文分为五个部分，第一部分介绍了英语长句的特点。第二部分从英汉对比的角度剖析了英汉两种语言在句子结构上的差异，分为三个方面，即英语句子重形合，汉语句子重意合; 英语是静态语言，汉语是动态语言; 英语喜用被动语态，汉语喜用主动语态。第三部分阐述了翻译英语长句的特点，主要有跨文化交际性、重视形式以及明确逻辑关系三个方面。第四部分主要通过具体的句子分析英语长句的翻译步骤及过程。最后探讨了英语长句汉译时采用的五种翻译方法，即顺序法、变序法、分译法、综合法和插入法。

关键词

英语长句子；语言特点；翻译过程；翻译方法

Conclusion

In the practice of the translation of long and difficult sentences, there is a higher requirement for translators’ English comprehension and expression ability. For the translation of long and difficult sentences in English, the translator should be familiar with the sentence structure and main ideas of long and difficult sentences in English, and make clear the main logical relationship with the content of the original text, so as to effectively analyze the structure of long and difficult sentences in English and choose the correct way of translation. In the specific translation practice, translators should, on the basis of understanding the grammatical features of English, choose reasonable translation methods and skills so as to achieve the accurate translation of long and difficult Sentences. Translation activities require a high level of English reading and comprehension, and the effective translation of long and difficult sentences requires translators to constantly improve their ability to summarize, update their English translation skills, and realize the summary and innovation of long and difficult sentences.

Chinese-English Translation of News Headlines From the Perspective of Skopos Theory 张维虹 Zhang Weihong No.202070080648

Abstract

In recent years, with the rapid development of the society and economy, the exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasingly frequent. In this process, massive information is transmitted through the translation of news reports. As the eye of news, the translation quality of news headlines directly affects the effectiveness of news dissemination. Under the guidance of Skopos Theory of German Functionalist Translation School, this paper analyzes the characteristics of Chinese and English news headlines, illustrates the functions of news headlines and the translation criteria of news headlines, and puts forward translation strategies for Chinese-English news headlines, aiming at restoring the concise feature of news and realizing the purpose of news dissemination and social value.

key words

News headlines translation; Skopos theory; translation strategies

摘要

近年来，中国社会经济飞速发展，与外界交流日趋频繁，在此过程中大量信息传递需通过新闻报道翻译完成。而新闻标题作为新闻的眼睛，其翻译质量直接影响新闻传播的有效性。本文以德国功能翻译学派目的论为指导，分析中英新闻标题的特点，阐述新闻标题功能以及新闻标题翻译准则，并提出汉译英翻译策略，旨在还原新闻简明本色从而实现新闻传播目的和社会价值。

关键字

新闻标题翻译；目的论；翻译策略

1. Introduction

With the further development of world economy and culture, news is playing an increasingly important role in people's lives. We read news through TV, the Internet or newspapers and magazines to learn about current events. But we are confused by thousands of news and the information they carry, because we are all exposed to a world where the massive information is surrounding. There is no doubt that because we can read too much news, some news has been ignored. Therefore, a proper headline is the most important element which can be regarded as the only way to attract the target readers. Headlines are compared to the eyes of news reports, in which a clear, concise information must be contained to generate interests. (Hu Shuzhong, 2012: 199) That is to say, headlines are always vivid and eye-catching in newspapers, in order to attract readers and provide reading guidance. So, the translator must learn how to effectively screen and reconstruct the information in the Chinese-English translation of news headlines, so as to make it attractive to the target language readers.

In addition, news translation is playing a significant role in the promotion of cross-cultural communication and mutual understanding as China are having more and more exchanges with the rest of the world with the rapid development of society and economy, the implementation of reform and opening-up and “go global” strategy. As the soul of news, headline and its translation are what the translator should pay attention to.

There are lots of researches about C-E news translation and news headline translation. However, researches on Chinese-English news headlines translation are very few. According to statistics from CNKI, there are only two pages of researches on Chinese – English news headlines translation. Therefore, this paper is of great importance. As functions for headlines are obvious, this paper takes Skopos as the theory guide to conduct the research. First, the paper will discuss the features and functions of news headlines. Then the paper tells some translation methods of Chinese-English news headlines from a perspective of Skopos Theory. At last, it draws a conclusion.

2.1 Definition of news and news headlines

News refers to the timeliest report of events that have just happened, are happening, or are going to happen and it is born to meet the need of propagation and communication of information in human society. (Xu Mingwu, 2003: 4) This definition prescribes the features and functions of news. News should be timely and propagate ideas and express information.

News headlines are compared to the “eye” of news. According to the dictionary, “A head of a newspaper story or article, usually printed in large type and devised to summarize, give essential information about, or interest readers in reading the story or article that follows.” (Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, 1961: 1042) From the definition, we can see that news headlines tells the essence of the news; the function is to attract readers’ interests. The paper will discuss features and functions of news headlines in detail in the following part.

2.2 Features of news headlines

As a text genre, news headlines have their own features. Chinese and English news headlines share much in common, though they differ from each other in certain areas. Understandings about the differences and similarities of Chinese and English news headlines are important for translators. So, this chapter will analyze features of news headlines from the following aspects: grammar, rhetoric, culture and structure.

2.2.1 Grammatical features

2.2.1.1 Lexical Feature

a. Midget words

A good headline must be clear to attract readers and be strong to save space. In other words, the headline should convey the intends of the news without confusion or ambiguity; the words should be powerful to persuade the headline consumer to read on. Theses two requirements determine the prevalence of powerful, or strong worlds – mostly verbs and nouns – in headlines. (Shen Jinbo, 1989:52) That is to say, powerful words are short, simple and concrete, for extensive or abstractive words can only lead to dullness and confusion. There are no such powerful words in Chinese, but Chinese headlines, on the premise of conveying the exact meanings also put emphasis on the shortness of words.

[1]: Dancing gets Olympic status (China Daily Dec 9, 2020) [2]: 霹雳舞成巴黎奥运项目 (China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

b. Numeral words

Numbers are used in news headlines to highlight the key information, especially in economic and sports news.

[3]: Pink diamond sold for $26.6M (China Daily Nov 23, 2020) [4]: 外储余额创4年多新高(China Daily Dec 9, 2020)

c. Abbreviations

The limitation of page space leads to the frequent use of abbreviation in headlines. English abbreviations, according to Lu Guoqiang (陆国强, 1984), consist of two major types: lipped words and initialisms or acronyms. The common types of abbreviation found in Chinese headlines, nevertheless, are mostly number-assisted summarizing, blending and subsituting. (Chen Lizhao, 2002:36)

[5]: Intl student enrollment falls (China Daily, Nov 19, 2020) [6]: 第二届“一带一路”国际合作高峰论坛举行圆桌峰会 (People’s Daily, April 28, 2019)

d. Vogue words

“Freshness” is the life of news, which lies in the contents of the report. As the gist of the news, headline would certainly revel some of the new ideas or hot topics in order to catch the reader’s attention. Therefore, vogue words are frequently seen in headlines.

[7]: 'Cooling-off period' added (China Daily Dec 8, 2020) [8]: “离婚冷静期”新规将施行 (China Daily Dec 8, 2020)

2.2.1.2 Syntactical features

a. Omission

Omission appears in almost every headline. Eliminating the meaningless words can shorten the length of a headline and highlight the core information. In English headlines, all articles and some auxiliary verbs, lexical verbs, pronouns, and the subject and the predicate are often omitted, as they weigh little in giving information. Chinese headlines also omit those unimportant words, including individual measures, conjunctions, and auxiliary words as well.

[9] Biden declares victory (China Daily, Nov 10, 2020) [10] 研究：医患“互粉”对治疗不利 (China Daily, Nov 25, 2014)

b. Voice

Active voice is frequently adopted in news headlines. [11] UK approves Pfizer vaccine (China Daily Dec 4, 2020) [12]英国批准辉瑞新冠疫苗 (China Daily Dec 4, 2020) [13] Biden unveils economic team (China Daily Dec 2, 2020) [14]拜登拟提名耶伦任财长 (China Daily Dec 2, 2020)

c. Tense

One of distinct feature of news headlines, particularly in English news headlines, is the wide use of present tense, which save the space of “-ed” in the past tense. But sometimes past tense is used to indicate the timeline. While Chinese news headlines use different tenses, as they are not revealed by the different forms of verbs as in English. So, the auxiliary verbs or adverbs in Chinese news headlines tells the time of happening from.

[15] COVID vaccine distribution (China Daily Dec 1, 2020) [16] 英美即将启动疫苗分配 (China Daily Dec 1, 2020)

2.2.2 Rhetorical Features The usual figures of speech found in headlines, English and Chinese alike, includes metaphor, simile, pun, alliteration and rhyme, repetition, allusion etc... They aimed at creating musical sound as well as vivid images to provide spiritual enjoyment to the readers. [1] 苹果发新机加入5G战局 (metaphor) (China Daily Oct 16, 2020) [2] 美国加州火灾蔓延 居民仿佛置身火星(simile) [3] This is what the Bay Area's skies looked like during the wildfires (simile) (China Daily Oct 16, 2020)

2.2.3 Cultural Features

Language is the carrier of culture. News, as a practical text genre, also bears cultural characteristics of a certain country or nation. These culture elements also appear in news headlines,

2.2.4 Structural features

To achieve headline’s peculiarity and simplicity, some punctuation marks are used in English news headlines, which are not often used in Chinese news headlines. Though differences exist in this area, the pursuit of using punctuation marks in the same – to make the news headlines clear and easily perceptible. The usual rule for headlines is that the fewer punctuation marks, the better. [1] 世界精神卫生日：超半数英国员工最担心就业问题 [2] World Mental Health Day: More than half of UK workers worry about finding a job

2.3 Functions of news headlines

According to the theory of text-style function by Peter Newmark, new headlines fulfill the following four functions: informative function, expressive function, aesthetic function and vocative function, which will be illustrated in this section.

2.3.1informative Function

“The core of the informative function of language is external situation, the facts of a topic, reality outside language, including ideas or theories” (Newmark 2001: 40) That is to say, news headline tells readers the basic information and facts of the news.

2.3.2 Expressive Function

“The core of the expressive function is the mind of the speaker, the writer, the originator of the utterance. He uses the utterance to express his feelings irrespective of any response” (Newmark 2001: 39) The expressive function of a news headline is to reveal the writer’s or the editor’s attitude toward the news by using subjective words or rhetoric devices.

2.3.3 aesthetic function

“This is language designed to please the sense, firstly through its actual or imagined sound, and secondly through its metaphors. The rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences, clauses and words also play their part. (Newmark 2001: 42) As the eye of the news, headlines use elegant words, abbreviations, punctuations and so on to strengthen its aesthetic function.

2.3.4 vocative function

The vocative function is reader-oriented. Here, the term “vocative” is interpreted as “calling upon” the readership to act, think or feel, in fact to “react” in the way intended by the text. (Newmark 2001: 41) Vocative words in news headlines can attract the readers to read the whole article, and in certain circumstances call upon the readers to take some actions after reading the news.

3. Skopos Theory

As has been mentioned in the last section, news headlines and their translation are function-oriented. The fundamental function or the “Skopos” is to attract the readers. Therefore, in this section, we will discuss Skopos theory and its three rules.

3.1 Development of the Skopos Theory

Skopos Theory was initially proposed by Katherina Reiss in her 1971 book Possibilities and Limits of Translation Criticism, which formed an early theory. According to Reiss, the ideal translation would be “one in which the aim in the target language is equivalence as regards the conceptual content, linguistic form and communicative function of a source language text” (Reiss 1977, translated in 1989: 112). Even though Reiss takes the concept of equivalence as the main focus of her analysis, she realized that in some cases, equivalence is impossible and, in some situation, not even desired. Therefore, she indicated that when we translate, we should in view of the function of the text. The idea of text typology including content-focused, form-focused and appeal-focused text put forward by Reiss, is another contribution of her to the Skopos theory. It is supposed to be the starting point for Skopos theory.

Later, Hans Vermeer, the student of Reiss, made a major breakthrough in the limitations of equivalent theory and laid the theoretical foundation for it. He first mentioned the basic principles of Skopos Theory in 1978. He and Reiss jointly published Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation in 1984. In this book, Vermeer argues that translation should be seen as a fundamental action of transformation of the source text. As all actions are generally purposeful, translation also has purposes, which could have influences over the culture of the target language. (Groundwork for a General Theory of Translation, 1984) For Vermeer, translation cannot be treated as one-to-one transfer between source language and target language. In his research, on the basis of the source text, translation is a form of action. Some of other forms of translational action may relate to actions which giving like a consultant. Every translation is directed at an intended audience, since to translate means “to produce a text in a target setting for a target purpose and target addresses in target circumstances” (Vermeer, 1987a: 29). Vermeer’s Skopos Theory serves as the foundation for his general theory of translation.

Later, two other German translators, Christiane Nord and Justa Holz Manttari, enriched and refined the Skopos theory. Mantarri’s theory is based on the rules of action theory and is intended to contain all forms of intercultural transmission, as well as those source or target texts which do not involved. (Nord, 2001: 12-13) Her theory reflects the role of the participants in the process of translation and the environment in which the process takes place. Nord, as the latest batch of German researchers, summarized the “Fidelity rule” and applied the Skopos theory extensively in the study of translation from multiple perspectives and related fields. Besides, Skopos theory has three principal rules which will be illustrated in the following section. In conclusion, Reiss laid the foundation of Skopos theory. Vermeer, who summarized and outlined the rules to be followed in the process of Skopos theory in practice, became the founding father of the theory. Manttari focused on the specific issues of translation behavior and context in the translation process, while Nord made many contributions to the refinement of the theory and greatly expanded the practical application of this theory.

3.2 Three Rules of Skopos theory

There are three significant rules of Skopos theory including Skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule, which will be discussed respectively as follows.

3.2.1 Skopos Rule

The Skopos rule is the top-ranking rule for any translation. That is to say, Skopos determines any translation action. “The translators should finish the task in a way that enables your translation to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function. All in all, the end justifies the means.” (Nord, 2001:29)

Translating is an international interaction as it is just said, and the Skopos rule has stable position after it appeared. In Vermeer’s term, intention is thought as an “aim oriented plan of action” (Vermeer, 1983:41)

According to Vermeer, Skopos rule is that “Each text is produced for a given purpose and should serve this purpose. The Skopos rule thus reads as follows: translate in a way that enables your text to function in the situation in which it is used and with the people who want to use it and precisely in the way they want it to function.” (Vermeer, 1989a: 20, translated by Luo Dan) Skpos theory is the foundation for Chinese-English news headline translation model. All efforts made are intended for the Skopos of news headline translation because “the end justifies the means”

3.2.2 Coherence Rule

The coherence rule, another important rule of the Skpos theory indicates that “the target text must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver’s situation”. (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 113) That is to say that the target text must be translated in a way that it is clearly understood by the target readers, taking consideration of their existing knowledge and situation.

3.2.3 Fidelity Rule

Apart from intratextual coherence, there is intertextual coherence which refers to the relationship between the target text and the source text, which is presumed as a further principle, fidelity rule. The fidelity rule by Vermeer indicates that there have to be coherence between the target text and the source text. This means that target text should be faithful to its source text in a certain level of features, such as grammatical features, special collocations and rhetorical devices, or to some degree between a complete imitation and deviation. In accordance with the Skopos theory, the source text is no longer considered as the “sacred original”, and it is up to the translator to determine the aspect and the degree of the fidelity. In Vermeer’s opinion, any text is just an offer of information, and thus, any target text is an offer of information formulated by a translator in a target culture and language about an offer of information formulated by someone else in the source culture and language. (Nord 2001: 32)

Three principal rules of Skopos theory have been illustrated as above.

As for the relationship between the three rules, Reiss and Vermeer believe that the fidelity rule is subordinate to the coherence rule and both belong to the Skopos rule. If the skopos of the target text demands a change of function, the fidelity with the source text will no longer be taken as the only standard, but adequacy and appropriateness will be supplemented as the standard with regard to the skopos (Reiss and Vermeer, 1984: 139)

3.3 Summary

This chapter introduced the development of Skopos theory and its three main principles, which intends to lay a theoretical foundation for Chinese-English news headlines translation. The function and skopos of news headline is to convey information and attract readers. In light of these, C-E news headlines translation, guided by Skopos theory, is a faithful re-creation.

4. Application of Skopos theory in Chinese-English Translation

As mentioned in the last chapter, Skopos theory specifies the purpose of translation. As far as the author concerned, the skopos of Chinese headline translation is to transfer information of latest events happened in China to English readers. All sorts of translation strategies and techniques can be adopted under the guidance of the skopos theory. Based on the dominant informative function of news headlines, new information should be transferred with fidelity and clarity. Moreover, considering the aesthetical function of headlines, the source text should be aesthetically handled to the target readers. This chapter will explain how skopos theory in applied in the translation of Chinese-English news headlines. Before that, the criteria of C-E news headlines translation will be discussed.

4.1 Criteria of News headline translation

According to the basis of translation criteria, the author discussed four criteria for Chinese news headline translation, including fidelity, readability, adaptability and rapidity.

4.1.1Fidelity

Fidelity means to accurately convey the message of the source text. The translation of news headlines from Chinese to English is a kind of intercultural communication in which messages should be transferred objectively and accurately by reflecting the reality. For a translator, the first and foremost thing is to be loyal to the content of the source language and convey it in a precise way, particularly for the translation of news headlines. Considering this point of view, fidelity can be acted as a main rule for translating news headlines.

4.1.2 Readability

Readability means the translation version is smooth for reading. This means, the translation should be easy for readers or audiences to read and understand. According to a survey on Beijing citizens’ newspaper reading and willingness by Chinese People’s university, vividness and readability ranked at the top of reasons for buying and reading newspaper. Therefore, translation of news headlines should consider about readability. If the rule of fidelity is viewed from the perspective of translation content, then the rule of readability can be treated as put forward from the perspective of translation form. The primary aim of news headline is to arouse readers interests as much as possible.

4.1.3Adaptability

Adaptability means that the translated headline should be in an appropriate writing pattern related to news language. In other words, the style of target language and the source language should remain the same. Style is considered to be an essential and important portion in translation. Translation of news headlines is without exception. So, the translator must take serious consideration to the grammar and diction of English, and make sure that the version of new style is suitable when translating a Chinese news headline.

4.1.4Rapidity

Rapidity as the fourth request of news headline translation is the most significant one. It implies that the news headline translation should be carried out and complete at a given period of time without any delay. The news is more valuable if the time between happening and reporting is shorter. So, timeliness of news determines the rapidity of news translation, especially the translation of news headlines.

4.2 Strategies of E-C News Headlines Translation

News headlines is considered to be the soul of the news. Since Chinese and English readers are different in thinking patterns, education and cultural backgrounds, some proper translation methods should be taken into consideration to enable the readers to understand the news headlines easily. Under the guidance of Skopos theory, translations strategies including literal translation, free translation, amplification, omission, amplification, restructuring and adaptation are applied in news headlines translation.

4.2.1 Literal translation

Literal translation, also called word-for-word translation, is the basic approach used in Chinese news headline translation, since it can retain both the form and contents of the original to the maximum. Here are some examples:

[1] 疫情致牛仔裤销量骤减

Pandemic leads to jeans sales slump (China Daily Aug 10, 2020)

The headline introduces that Covid-19 pandemic has led to jeans sales slump. “疫情”is translated into “Pandemic”, “牛仔裤销量”is translated to “jeans sales”, and “骤减” is translated into “slump”, which is exactly a literal translation. There’s no change of the form or style between the source text and the target text.

[2] 新冠抗原检测试剂获批

COVID antigen tests approved (China Daily Nov 10, 2020)

This example is a typical word-for-word translation. “新冠”, an abbreviation for “新冠病毒” is translated to “COVID”, short for coronavirus. “抗原检测” is translated into “antigen tests”, “获批”is translated to “approved”. We can see that in this example, the form and style and even the tense and voice of the source text and target text are the same. So, it is literal translation.

[3] 成都将建首个大熊猫主题公园

Chengdu Set to Get Unique Panda-themed Park (China Daily, Jan 17, 2018)

This is a literal translation, remaining the original form and style of the Chinese version. It uses midget words “set” and “get”, taking consideration of the style of English news headlines, in order to attract readers from different walks of life. At the same time, the Chinese noun “大熊猫主题” is converted to the English adjective “Panda-themed”, which is very concise and accurate.

4.2.2 Free translation

Free translation is applied when the news headline of the source text is obscure and difficult to understand or there’s no equivalent words in the target language. Sometimes it is preferred because it adapts the original headlines to the target language.

[4] 不要人夸颜色好，只留清气满乾坤

Xi: China Welcomes Constructive Suggestions (China Daily, Oct 25, 2017)

The source text is a poem, cited by President Xi at the press conference of 19th CPC Central Committee Political Bureau to hear constructive suggestions from people both at home and abroad. The poem, Ink Plum written by a famous Chinese ancient poet, Wang Mian, carries rich cultural connotations and shows cultural confidence of China. If it is directly translated as “Not angling for compliments, we should be content that integrity fills the universe”, it will cause confusion to the target readers. Obviously, such a mechanical translation will discourage the reader from understanding the meaning of the poem. Therefore, the translation of this news headline should be based on the content of the news – Xi: Welcomes Constructive Suggestions. So, it is a typical example of free translation.

[5]姜瑜：外资应凭实力在华竞争

Foreign investors told to sharpen edge

This example takes consideration of the reading habits and backgrounds of the target readers. “凭实力竞争” is translated to “sharpen one’s edge”, which is more understandable. “姜瑜”(Jiang Yu”, a heroic character in Chinese history is omitted. So, it is a free translation.

4.2.3 Amplification

Most of news headlines carry certain backgrounds, which are familiar to the source language readers, but alien to those who read the target language. So, translators have the responsibility to turn information rich in cultural connotation into something understandable to target readers. This is particularly significant in translating news headlines from the perspective of Skopos theory, because the purpose of such translating is to convey the information useful to target readers. As mentioned in the chapter before, Chinese news headlines usually carry rich cultural contents. Therefore, amplification is frequently used in Chines-English news headlines translation.

[6] 水陆两栖飞机AG600首飞成功

China’s First Large Amphibious Aircraft Makes a Successful Maiden Flight (China Daily, Dec 25, 2018)

Amplification is used in this translation. AG600, as called Kun Lun600, is the world’s largest amphibious aircraft developed by China. The translator adds a modifier “China’s first large” as a supplement of background to better inform the targe readers.

[7] 共享单车来到“世界屋脊”

Shared Bikes Climb to the “Roof of the World” (Tibet)

“Roof of the World” is confusing for some target readers, so the translator adds “(Tibet)” at the end of the sentence to avoid ambiguity.

4.2.4 Omission

Omission is a translation method to make the news headline simple and concise by eliminating the redundant verbs, pronouns, and other words in the source text. As Chinese usually use unnecessary modifiers, this method can highlight the main point of the news.

[8] 对外汉语专家齐聚京城 共议国际汉语教师缺口问题

Beijing forum addresses Chinese teacher shortage (China.org.cn, Jul 21, 2021)

In this example, the first sentence is translated into a phrase, so as to shorten the length of the news headline and more it more concise. What’s more, redundant words like “齐聚”, “共议” “问题” are omitted to point out main contents of the news.

[9] '大流行病'当选年度词汇

Word of the year: pandemic

(China Daily, Dec 12, 2020)

In the example, the verb “当选”(elected) in the source text is eliminated to save space.

4.2.5 Restructuring

Because the literal meaning the sentence does not work in the situation of the utterance, the translators have to find the vague information and convey it to the target readers. In news headline translation, special information needs to restructure.

Restructuring refers to the rearrange of the words in logic order to make the translation more consistent and coherent. The target text should be acceptable and meaningful in a sense that it is coherent with the situation in which it is received. Once translated, the translator revises the order and rearranges all words into a perfect sentence. In doing so, the news is more logical and tuned with the habit of native readers’ thinking and reading. It is frequently used in translating news headlines from Chinese into English.

[10] 疫情期间夫妻关系改善

Marriages benefit from lockdown (China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

The English version changes the structure of the Chinese news headline, and adds a preposition to show the logic of this sentence. By restructuring, English readers can better understand this news headline.

4.2.6 Adaptation

Adaptation is a translation method, which refers to selecting, adding, deleting and constructing cautiously instead of simply translating one word to another word. In order to make the translated version more proper to a certain readers or audiences, adaptation always make some essential changes for a special aim. Specific to C-E news headlines translation, the translator can take the Chinese news headlines as the basis and refer to the key news facts of the report, in order to offer as much information as possible to the target readers.

[11] 高考将不再是 “一考定终身”

Changes to Uni Eligibility （People’s Daily, 2014）

In this example, “高考” refers to the National College Entrance Examination in China, which is an expression with Chinese characteristics. Therefore, based on the main idea of the news, the translator translated it into “Uni Eligibility”

[12] 中国女性主导财务决策

'She' to power wealth management (China Daily, Nov 23, 2020)

Adaptation is used in this translation. According to contents of the news, women in different countries are mentioned. So, instead of translating “中国女性” into Chinese women, the English version adapted it into “she”, which adds interest and fun to the headline and thus can attract more readers.

5. Conclusion

News translation is a cultural transformation with certain purposes(skopos). While conveying the connotation of the information, news translation must also take into account the reception habits of readers into the target language. The purpose-oriented approach helps translators to break the language barriers in translation, and helps to convey culture and facilitate communication. The purposes and functions of translation determine the translation methods. In translation, the standard of translation should not be how to be faithful to the source text, to highlight the main points of the news and attract English readers. Therefore, there is more to be explored when applying the Skopos theory to Chinese-English news headlines.

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On Chinese-English Translation of Public Service Advertisements From the Perspective of Text-type Theory 司妤 Si Yu Student No.202070080606

Abstract

Public-service advertising is an advertising activity that provides free services to the community without the purpose of making profit. Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, public-service advertising activities have increased and played an important role in the moral and ideological education of society as a whole, such as fire and burglary prevention, forest protection, birth control, maintenance of public order, no spitting and so on, all of which are in the nature of public-service advertising. With the improvement of China's status in the international society, the accuracy of the translation of PSAs, as a medium to convey Chinese culture, is attracting more and more attention. Accurate translations help to showcase Chinese culture to foreigners and promote communication, while incorrect translations can be laughable. In some public occasions, I have noticed that there are many excellent PSAs, but there are also some "Chinglish" PSAs. This paper analyzes the text of PSAs using the Text-type theory, gives suggestions to improve the messy translation phenomenon, and summarizes several translation methods, hoping to provide reference for the translators of PSAs.

key words

Public-service advertisement;Text typeTheory;Translation methods

摘要

公益广告是不以营利为目的而为社会提供免费服务的广告活动。我国建国以后，公益性的广告活动日益增多，对全社会进行道德和思想教育发挥了重要作用，例如有关部门进行的防火防盗、保护森林、节制生育、维护公共秩序、不要随地吐痰等广告宣传，均属公益广告的性质。 随着中国在国际社会地位的提高，公益广告作为一种传递中国文化的媒介，其翻译的准确性日益受到人们的关注，翻译准确有利于向外国友人展示中国文化促进交流。翻译错误则容易贻笑大方。 在一些公众场合，笔者注意到不乏优秀的公益广告翻译，同时也仍有一些“中式英语” 公益广告存在，本文运用文本类型理论对公益广告文本进行分析，对乱译现象提出改进建议，总结了几点翻译方法，希望能够为公益文本译者提供借鉴。

关键字

公益广告；文本类型理论；翻译方法

Introduction

Research Background

Economic and social development and the improvement of people's living standards have brought many unprecedented changes to people, making their lives more convenient and colorful. But along with it comes a series of social problems such as indiscriminate dumping of urban garbage, neglect of wildlife protection, lack of care for public property, smoking in public places, etc.These social problems have also been magnified by the advance of urbanization. At this time, public service advertisement (PSA)can offer help if we want to activate more people to solve them. There are many forms of public service advertisements, such as public service advertisement (PSA) clips, public service messages, and public service slogans. Each of these PSAs has its own textual characteristics, such as the PSA short film in the form of a short video, using a fascinating plot to illustrate the concept of public welfare; public service messages are simple but informative; public service slogans are neat and thought-provoking. The translation of these texts should be done according to the characteristics of the text in order to achieve the public service effect of the text. With China playing an increasingly important role in the international community, a large number of international conferences are being held in China, and the number of foreign travelers arriving in the country is on the rise. The accuracy of the translation of public service advertisements is especially important at this time, not only to help foreigners in their travel work in China, but also to promote Chinese culture and enhance their understanding of China.

It is worth mentioning that the overall quality of the Chinese people has been significantly improved compared to a few years ago, and the appearance of more and more elites has made the society think more deeply about the accuracy of translation, which is conducive to building a good city image and improving the aesthetic level of city residents and tourists.

Advertisements can be divided into commercial advertisements and public service advertisements according to content and purpose. Commercial advertisements are mostly published by enterprises, and their main purpose is to stimulate consumers and arouse their desire to consume, and their content is mostly product information.(Liu Xiaofang 2014)

There are some definitions from different people. Berkowitz, a famous scholar, who makes a thorough study of advertisement for more than 25 years, states that PSA is generally sponsored by a non-profitable institution, civic group, religious organization, trade association, or political group with a central focus on public welfare (Berkowitz, 2004). In China, according to Zhang Minxin‟s definition, PSA is a sub-branch of non-commercial advertisement whose purposes are to serve the public interests. This kind of advertisement can push the public to change their attitudes and behaviors (Zhang Mingxin, 2004). There are some researchers at home and abroad trying to discover how public service advertisements work, such as: Judie Lannon (2008), Nancy Lee (2006), Josephson (2005) and other scholars hoping to discover the secrets behind public service advertisements and society, such as Charles Atkin (2001) and Pan Zehong (2001).

Research Significance and Objectives

As the influence of Chinese culture increases internationally, more and more foreigners want to learn about China. Some want to learn the Chinese language, others want to know more about the social situation. Public service advertisements (PSAs) provide such an opportunity to help them learn and better understand China. At the same time, some social problems, such as the new Cov-19 epidemic, SARS, and AIDS, may not only be a problem for China, but also for the whole world, and the PSAs can provide a Chinese perspective and Chinese wisdom to solve these problems. In addition, when a disaster occurs, such as the Wenchuan earthquake, which aroused the attention and sympathy of the internationalcommunity, and some friendly countries want to provide assistance, PSAs are extremely important. In this paper, the writer will analyze different public service advertisements from the perspective of text type theory and suggest translation suggestions.

Public service advertisement texts are common texts in daily life, and many scholars have discussed them from various perspectives, including the theory of purpose, aesthetic perspective, semantic translation and communicative translation perspective. However, no scholars have analyzed them from the perspective of text type theory. The writer boldly proposes to look at public-interest text translation from such a perspective, which may lead to new insights.

Methodology

The texts in this paper are mostly from public service advertisements released by CCTV, publicservice text messages received by the public, and public service slogans around them. This paper adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the content and purpose of the texts in detail, and also gives its own suggestions on how to translate the public service texts.

Framework of this paper

This paper is divided into seven chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the background, significance and purpose of the research, methodology, and general framework of this thesis. Chapter 2 introduces the theoretical perspective used in this paper. Chapter 3 analyzes the characteristics of public service texts from the perspective of content and text. Chapter 4 gives examples of texts according to the three categories of text type theory and analyzes the more appropriate translations. Chapter 5 lists the obvious mistranslations in PSAs and gives suggested versions of the translations. Chapter 6 summarizes the methods that can be used to translate PSA texts. Chapter 7 summarizes what has been discussed throughout the essay and reflects on the limitations of the essay.

Overview of Theoretical Foundation and Comparisons

Reiss’s View of Text Type Theory

Katharina Reiss is the founder of the German functional school of translation, and in her book Possibilities and Limitations in Translation Criticism (1979) she presented the prototype of the functional school's theoretical ideas. Reiss's text types are divided into four main categories. She points out that content texts emphasize the depictive function, formal texts emphasize the expressive function, operative texts emphasize the persuasive function, and audio-visual texts emphasize the audio-visual function. function). Therefore, these text categories can also be referred to as informative text, expressive text, operative text, and audio-visual text, respectively. Correspondingly, there are four types of functions.(Li Zhi 2008)

1. Content-based text This type of text is content-based, and the text can be used to convey information and so on. When translating, the content should be restored to the greatest extent possible. These texts mainly include news reports and commentaries, business letters, cargo lists, instructions for use, operating instructions, and other professional works in technical fields.

2. Formal texts The focus of formal texts is on their aesthetic significance. When translating such texts, the translator should aim to create a similar text effect in the form. Formal texts include literary prose (short essays, biographies, pure literature), imaginative prose (anecdotes, short stories, novels, romances), and all forms of poetry (from didactic poetry to narrative poetry to purely emotional poetry). If the form is not preserved in translation, the content of the text may be lost as a result.

3. Operative texts Operative texts are concerned with the response of the recipient of the text. This type of text clearly appeals to the recipient of the text through a certain point of view and with a certain purpose, expecting to receive the desired response. The representative texts are all operative texts in which the appealing element predominates, using advertisements, propaganda, sermons, debates, agitation or satirical texts that have an expressive purpose or linguistic expression.

4. Audiovisual texts Generally speaking, any text that requires some degree of non-verbal communication with the audience is an audio-visual text. This includes mainly radio and television scripts, such as radio news and reports, overviews of hot topics, and theater productions. In these texts, not only grammar and narration techniques, but also sound effects and visual devices (in television and film) play an important role.

Peter Newmark’s View of Text Type Theory

Peter Newmark is one of the leading figures in the linguistic school of British translation theory. Newmark also made a detailed classification of texts, and he summarized them into the following three types according to their contents:

1. Expressive texts This type of text focuses on the content of the text and the author's own point of view. Newmark divides them into three types of texts. (1) serious and imaginative literature, including lyric poetry, short stories, long novels, and plays; (2) authoritative texts, including a variety of texts whose authority comes from the author's status or linguistic ability, such as speeches and statements by senior government officials and political party leaders, legal regulations, documents, and literary and academic works written by authorities; (3) autobiographies, essays, and private letters that are straightforward and have no direct readership.(Jia Heping 2015)

2. Informative texts The text often contains some content that does not involve the emotional and opinion part, and this part of the content can have its practicality, which is the information function of the text. Typical informative texts include textbooks, technical reports, newspaper articles, scientific papers, conference proceedings, etc.

3. Operative text The function focuses on the response of the text receiver, and the text is set to get the desired response from the receiver, to produce certain influence on them or even change their concepts and behaviors. Typical vocative texts include notices, advertising campaigns, instructions, and persuasive texts (such as requests, appeals, etc.).

He classifies language functions into six categories, based on what the philosophers of language Bühler and Jacobson have said about language functions. He believes that a text may have one function or several functions, but that one of these functions is the main one, as explained below.

1. Expressive function Expression is a fundamental property of language. Expression is the process by which people use language to express their feelings, attitudes, and opinions. Expression focuses on output of the writer, not on the other person's reaction and feelings.

2. Informative function The content of the text is mainly fixed, not with emotion, can be used by people in certain situations.

3. Operative function This function focuses on the reaction of the recipient of the text, and the writer envisages the reaction of the recipient of the text when writing, in order to achieve the corresponding purpose.

4. Aesthetic function Language contains traces of history, which represents a certain aesthetic of people. The first means used for this function is sound, and the second is metaphor. In addition, the rhythm, balance and contrast of sentences and words also have a role. The aesthetic function is present in most of the text categories, moreover, it is indispensable for poems, nursery rhymes and some advertising campaigns.

5. Interpersonal function The interpersonal function is reflected in people's daily interactions and conversations. That is, language helps people establish relationships with each other.

6..Meta-linguistic function Meta-linguistic function is a special function of language, refers to the language of the language itself to explain, name, analyze, comment on the function. Some expressions in the text, such as “strictly speaking, literally, so called, so to speak, by definition, etc.”, are manifestations of the meta-linguistic function.

Of the above six functions, the first three are the main ones, but within a text, there may be multiple functions, but the text itself has a focus, and rarely does textual knowledge contain purely one function.(Li Zhi 2008)

Similarities and Differences Between Reiss's and Newmark's View of Text Type Theory

Similarities

Both theories are based on Bühler's triadic approach to language function. Both have the same understanding of the division and characteristics of different kinds of texts. Differences

Differences

First of all, language used in lived interaction is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, on the other hand, regards such lived language as a special linguistic function, and many experts consider this understanding by Newmark problematic.

Second, there is a significant difference in their views of instructions, with Rice classifying them as informative texts because of their ability to provide certain information to readers. Newmark, on the other hand, classifies it as a operative text because of its ability to guide people and thus change their behaviors. In my opinion, the text of instruction manuals is due to the nature of the product itself, and the readers have the will to act before reading the text, and the manuals only provide them with certain information, so they should belong to the information category.

Furthermore, the language used in living interactions is the main basis for Rice's definition of text types, and these are classified as text types that value content. Newmark, however, regards this lived language as a special language function, and many experts think that this understanding of Newmark is problematic.(Jia Heping 2015)

Similarities and Differences Between Chinese and English PSA texts

Similarities

1. Public service texts in both languages often use certain rhetorical techniques, such as personification, alliteration, and end-rhyme, in order to evoke a call to action.

2. Public service texts in both languages often use short sentences, especially in public service slogans, which are easy to remember and achieve the desired effect.

3. Both languages use idioms and sayings that have been around for a long time.

Differences

1. Chinese public service texts are good at using strong words such as "forbidden", while English texts use more euphemisms such as "Please". When translating, we should respect the habits of the translating countries in order to better play the role of public welfare texts.

2. Chinese public service texts tend to use poetry-like forms, with seven or five characters in order to be neatly matched. In English, they mostly use phrases of the same number of words to match each other.

3.The translation of advertising slogans also needs to respect certain cultural differences, as Western societies emphasize the individual while the Chinese value collectivism. For example:

Example 1：保护生态环境，造福子孙后代。

Translation 1:Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.

Such a slogan in Chinese emphasizes the impact on future generations without specifying whose children and grandchildren it is, but in the translation, the translator translates it as "Leave a sound ecological environment to your children.” to call on people to protect the environment.

4. Westerners focus on direct expressions, while Chinese expressions are more subtle. For example:

Example 2: 司机一滴酒，亲人两行泪。

Translation:Drink and drive costs your life.

The sentence contrasts the words "酒" and "泪" without directly pointing out the possible serious consequences, leaving the reader to think about them and take actions. Instead, the translator simply translates it as "Drink and drive costs your life.”(Li Qingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

Features of Public Service Advertisements

As an advertising method, public service advertisements have their own characteristics in many aspects. By analyzing the characteristics, we can accurately convey the idea that the PSA is trying to convey.

Content Features

1. The public welfare nature of PSAs is their essential feature, which is concerned with the common interests of the entire society. By observing the theme and content of the PSAs in both China and abroad, it can be seen that the topics of PSAs cover ecological protection, care for the earth, quality birth and education, opposing cults, advocating science, opposing war, advocating polite social mores, patriotism, and so on.

2. Public service advertisements are non-profit in nature. It does not exist for an organization or a business entity, but rather to draw people’s attention to and activate action on social issues. Commercial advertising, on the other hand, exists for financial gain.

3. Popularity. The public service advertisements are made for the general public. As the audience's cultural level, the ability to understand different, so public service advertisements must be easy to understand. It not only requires the spread of advertising content to have universal significance, but also the form of popular, concise, accessible language, easy to understand. Only in this way, the public service advertisement can really serve the purpose of the public.

4. Creativity. The advertising market is so diverse that the only way to make advertisements spread to the public is to design them in a creative and meaningful way that will make them known to more people.

The Features of Text Forms

1.Advertising texts that we see in our daily lives include slogans, public service messages and public service videos, and so on. Advertising slogans are usually short and meaningful, with simple counterpoint sentences, and are operative texts. On the other hand,public service messages are mostly preventive messages issued by social organizations to help disseminate precautions and draw people’s attention to an unexpected situation in order to maintain social order. They are mostly informative texts. Most PSAs have a complete storyline, thought-provoking dialogue, and a short slogan that summarizes the message of the ad.

2. Public service advertisements are often designed with certain rhetorical techniques to enhance the aesthetics of the ad, make it catchy to read, and ultimately leave a deep impression on the public.

Examples of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertisements

Operative Text

Most of the PSAs are operative texts, and the pupose of operative texts in PSAs is to affect the public in order to attain the desired response from the advertisers. PSAs are created to publicize something of common social interest in order to attract attention and action, so the creative design of the advertisement should take this into account and retain the appealing elements of the original text when designing the advertisement.

Example 3: 爱心播散 希望萌芽

Translation: Spread love Sow hope

The public service advertisement slogan is from a public service advertisement released by CCTV in 2016, which tells the story of Zhao Xiaoting, a student from Wuhan University, who volunteered to go to Guizhou to teach in the mountains. It was her selfless love that sowed hope for the children in the mountains. The ad reflects the great power of ordinary people and promotes the core values of socialism. It shows the power that volunteering can bring. The ad is very short, with a neat counterpoint, and the verb and noun have been swapped in the translation, with the verb being in front of the noun, indicating a dynamic process that can arouse the public's recognition of the act and inspire them to join in and contribute to the poor areas. The second verb in the original text is "萌芽", but the translation uses "sow" to indicate the growth of hope, which is similar to the original text.(Jin Haibing 2005)

Example 4: 有你在，就是家。

Translation：You bring me warmth of home.

In this short film, a father in a rural area has never been away from home, and because he misses his son, who has not been home for a long time, he sets out on his own to visit him. The father has to change various means of transportation to get to the city, and encounters many difficulties because his being unable to speak mandarin well. The helpless father finally gets help from the staff, through whom he contacts his son. Eventually they both cry, and the short film ends with the father sitting on his son's motorcycleand going home together. The short film is very touching, and through the process of going into the city to look for his son, it shows us how brave and gentle people can be for love. If we translate the text word by word in the original order, we can't express this meaning, so we use phrases like "bringing sb warmth" to express the meaning of the original Chinese.(Ye Qiuling 2020)

Informative Text

Public service messages are informatiive texts, mainly used to convey certain information, with straightforward and concise text content, and the translator only needs to express its literal meaning directly when translating.

Example 5：请您收到来自境外、国内新冠疫情中高风险地区的邮件、包裹，先对物品表面进行消毒，或在阳台等室外空旷处放置一段时间再打开。处理完包裹、邮件后，应立即用肥皂或洗手液清洗双手，或用免洗手消毒剂进行消毒。洗手前双手不触碰口、鼻、眼等部位。疫情防控有您的参与才能胜利！

Translation: If you receive mail or parcels from overseas or domestic areas at high risk of Cov-19 outbreak, please disinfect the suface of the items first, and leave them on the balcony or other outdoor open space for a period of time before opening them. Immediately after handling parcels and mail, wash your hands with soap and hand sanitizer, or disinfect them with hand sanitizer. Do not touch your mouth, nose, eyes or other parts of your body before washing your hands. Outbreak prevention and control can only be won with your participation!

Example 6：应急公益短信:为严防新型冠状病毒感染的肺炎疫情，山东省严禁任何形式的野生动物交易活动，严禁野生动物对外扩散和转运贩卖。对于违反规定的经营者、经营场所将予以停业整顿、查封，涉嫌犯罪的，将移送公安机关。社会各界如有发现违法违规交易野生动物的，欢迎拔打12345等投诉举报。

Translation: In order to prevent the outbreak of pneumonia due to new coronavirus infection, any form of wildlife trade is strictly prohibited in Shandong Province, and the proliferation and trafficking of wildlife is strictly prohibited. The company's main goal is to provide the best service to the public. If you are suspected of committing a crime, you will be transferred to the public security organs. If any illegal trade of wild animals is found, the community is welcome to call 12345 to report complaints.

Expressive Text

The purpose of an expressive text is to express emotions and attitudes, the language focuses on aesthetics, and the focus of the text is on the form of expression, which requires attention to equity in translation. With the development of the economy and society and the improvement of people's living standards, the aesthetic level of the masses is also improving, and accordingly, the translation of advertising slogans should also change to adapt to the improvement of people's aesthetics.

Example 7：善行无痕 一种习惯的美丽

Translation: Kindness is traceless. A habit of beauty.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement by CCTV in 2016. In the short film, a wife walks into a room to rest after stopping on the balcony for a long time, and her husband comes back and intends to tum off the balcony light to save electricity. The wife stops the husband, and the camera turns to two elderly sanitation workers who are finishing their meal by the light of the lamp she left for them, which the young couple lit for them in the night.Such kindness is obviously not accidental,but has been a habit of the wife in the short film, and is therefore natural and touching. The ad is intended to call attention to good deeds and habit formation through a story like this one. The ad's slogan is a literal translation, with "善行" translated as "Kindness" and "无痕" as "traceless"."The use of end-rhyme rhetoric, which pursues equivalence of expressions and enhances the rhythmic beauty of the language, impresses readers and influences their perceptions and habits of good deeds, serving as a public service advertisement.(LiQingxue, Wang Huaiwang 2019)

Example 8：保护肺脏，珍爱生命。（禁烟广告）

Translation: Save your lung, save your life.

The slogan comes from an anti-smoking advertisement that uses the alliteration, “lung” and “life”, to emphasize that quitting smoking is about protecting your lungs and your life. The two “saves” remind people that smoking is harmful to their health and that they should quit smoking as soon as possible to save themselves.

Misinterpretation of Public Service Advertisemnts

Chinglish

Chinglish refers to word-for- word translations that do not consider translation strategies from the perspective of the receiving language and cultural differences, and often cause difficulties in comprehension for the receiving readers.

Example 9：小心地滑

Misinterpretation: Foot Care.

Suggested translation: Mind your step.

The above misinterpretation is translated word-for-word, which not only makes it difficult for the recipient readers to read, but also affects the image of the city as a whole, so more citizens are taking notice and taking action to reject "dead translation" and "Chinglish".

Grammatical errors

Most grammatical errors are caused by the translator's own incompetence, mainly in the use of articles, subject- predicate inconsistencies, mis-matching of verb phrases, and word confusion.

Example 10：珍爱生命 远离毒品。

Mistranslation: Yes to life, no to drugs.

Suggested translation: Cherish life and avoid drugs.

The public service advertisement came from an anti-drug advertisement, obviously the mistranslated structure of the translation does not fit English conventions.

Inappropriate Use of Words

There are some words in English that are very similar to each other, and improper use of words means that the translator uses words haphazardly without clearly distinguishing between similar words, resulting in a misinterpretation.

Example 11：关爱残障人士

Improper translation: Care for the handicapped.

Suggested translation: Care for the disabled.

The slogan is from a public service advertisement in which the word "handicapped," which translates to "the handicapped," is now somewhat outdated and contains a certain amount of offensive language that sometimes causes people to be It would make more sense to change it to "the disabled", relatively speaking.

Redundancy

The redundancy is due to the fact that the translators do not fully understand the differences between Chinese and foreign cultures and the purpose of the text.

Example12：一花一草皆生命 一枝一叶总关情

Improper Translation: Alive as all living things each flower and leaf of grasses require our care.

Suggested Translation: Please give me a chance to grow.

The original translator intended to present a vivid description of the original slogan in front of people, but failed to consider that the slogan was intended to arouse people's love for flowers and plants. We suggest that the translation should start from the operative textual features of the slogan and combine it with the straightforward expression habits of foreigners to call on people to take care of flowers and plants in a more euphemistic way.

Methods of C-E Translation of Public Service Advertising

Literal Translation

The main characteristics of literal translation are twofold: in the treatment of word meanings and rhetoric (e. g., metaphors), it does not use transitive techniques (this distinguishes "literal translation"from "free translation"); in the treatment of linguistic forms (i.e., lexical-syntactic structure), it allows appropriate changes and shifts (This distinguishes "literal translation" from "word- for-word translation").(Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 13: 我的盛开需要你的关爱

Translation : Luxuriant flowers need your care.

The translation retains the personification of the original, treating flowers as species with emotions, but directly specifies that "I" means "flower", which is in line with the habit of expression of the target audience and serves as a reminder.

Example 14: 节约用水就是珍爱生命

Translation : To save water is to save life

The original text translates "conserve water" and "cherish life" into a neat pairing, and the translation also translates them into a neat pairing, and the expression is in line with the habits of expression of the people in the receive language. Both the original text and the translation equate "conserve water" with "cherish life" to arouse the attention of the masses and advertise the importance of saving water.

Paraphrase

A paraphrase translation is one in which the translator does not stick to the details of the meaning of the original text, much less to its vocabulary and syntactic structure, but "uses the original text as a reference model" and either translates only the general meaning, gist or key information (or selectively some of it) by condensing it, or translates it into a text with more information compared to the original article. (Xiong Bing 2013) For example.

Example 15:爱我,追我,千万别吻我。

Translation: Drive carefully!

The original text is from a public service advertisement advocating cautious driving. The translation does not follow the literal meaning, but rather the translator uses a paraphrasing technique after understanding the meaning of the sentence and chooses two words to express the meaning. It is short and serves as a warning to motorists.

Example 16：手下留情花自香，脚下留意草如茵。

Translation: Take care of grass and flowers, please.

The original text is a public service slogan with Chinese cultural characteristics, but it is difficult to find a corresponding expression in English when translating. Here the translator uses an invocation to remind the masses.

Borrowing Translation

A borrowing Translation is an explanation that replaces the original word or phrase by borrowing the idiom of the target language. For example.

Example 17: 爱心传递你我，文明就在身边。

Translation: Where there is a love, there is a virtue.

The original is a slogan from an advertisement for the Olympic Games, which is a medium for promoting the spirit of the Games and the country's outlook. The translator chose a well-known proverb from the translated country, "Where there is a will, there is a way," to expand the publicity effect.

Example 18: 让世界倾听我们的声音

Translation : Let our voice be heard in the world.

The original text was a slogan from a CCTV public service advertisement, which was based on the lyrics "Let our voice be heard.

Conclusion

In this paper, the writer divides and analyzes different texts and explain the approaches they take in translation. This perspective of using text type theory to analyze and discuss how to translate public service texts may be of some help to scholars.

According to different texts, the text type theory has its own emphasis in translation, and different PSA texts are mostly operative texts, and sometimes one text has multiple textual characteristics, which translators can take into full consideration when choosing the emphasis and translation methods. Public service translation is very different from commercial advertising translation, which is mainly used to educate the public, convey correct and positive values, encourage people to take actions to help others, and create a good social environment to resist bad behaviors. Generally speaking, it is necessary to consider the actual situation when translating the PSAs.

Through analyzing the texts of PSAs, the author has made the following discoveries, and the translation of PSAs can be done according to the text type theory. Although there are some cultural differences between the two languages, the differences do not make translation difficult to achieve. If literal translation cannot translate the meaning of the source text, then paraphrase,borrowing translation and other translation methods can also be used.

Limitation

In this paper, I put forward some personal ideas, but in the final version, I can still find my own shortcomings. First of all, there is still a lack of richness of information due to the limitation of space. Secondly, the depth of my ideas is still insufficient, and I only hope that this article can provide some research ideas for researchers and contribute to the translation of public service texts.

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