Cult Load Words EN 3

Culture Loaded Words

Overview Page of Culture Loaded Words

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Key Words

the Functionalist Skopos Theory； Gary Snyder； Culture-loaded Words；Han Shan

关键词

文化负载词；功能对等理论；华夏集；庞德

Abstract

Since the 1970s, the German functionalist school, represented by Rice, Vermeer, Mantali and Nord school has provided a fresh perspective for translation studies. According to this school of thought, the translation process is governed by various factors. The purpose of the act of translation determines the whole process of the act of translation, and the intended purpose of the translation determines the translator's role in the process of translation. Taking German Functionalist Skopos Theory as the theoretical framework, this paper selects Gary Snyder's translation of Han Shan's poems as the object of study. The study is based on Nida's classification of the cultural factors involved in the translation, namely ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. In this study, a comparative analysis of the cultural factors in the Chinese and English versions of Han Shan's poems is conducted, and the following conclusions are drawn in the translation process. The translators have adopted different strategies and methods of translation for different cultural factors according to different translation purposes. The translation has achieved its intended purpose, for Gary Snyder initiated American people's passion for Han Shan through his translation of Han Shan's works, thus disseminating Han Shan's thinking of the indifference to fame and wealth and persuading American to protect the environment.However, Snyder also partly distorted the image of Han Shan, changing Han Shan's image from a Chinese monk to a representative of hipster.Though it is based on the target of progressing the process of American's acceptance of Han Shan, it has also caused some misunderstanding about Han Shan's culture. The English translation of Han Shan's poems is a successful translation, which proves that the Functionalist Skopos Theory has a practical guiding role in literary translation, and has certain inspirational effects on the "going abroad" of Chinese literature. However, from the distortion of Han Shan's image,we can also find some shortcomings of the Functionalist Skopos Theory.

Introduction

Gary Snyder (1930-) is a contemporary American poet as well as an environmentalist. There are profound ecological awareness and themes in his poems, and he is also well-known as one of the member in “beat generation”，which is a group of people who take an arm against the corrupted and hypocritical American society. In order to save people’s hollow spirit at that time, Gary Snyder resort to other culture. For example, he absorbed the thinking of Zen in Japan, and tried to disseminate the essence of it among American, so he translated Han Shan’s poems, who is a Chinese monk and poet in Tang dynasty showing Zen spirit in his poems. Culture-loaded words can express different ideologies in different countries, and the analysis on Gary Snyder’s translation of the culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems has found that Snyder’s translation is consistent with the idea of Functionalist Skopos Theory. This theory proposes that all the methods and strategies of translating depend on the purpose of the translation，and Gary Snyder didn’t translate the culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems faithfully to meet his own need, which is consistent with the Functionalist Skopos Theory. Through analyzing different strategies used by Gary Snyder in his translation, this paper aims to probe the pros and cons of Functionalist Skopos Theory and the significance of Gary Snyder’s translation in transcultural communication.

Culture-loaded Words

Definition of Culture-loaded Words

Different culture has different histories, and during its historical changes, each country will have its own culture, unique and distinctive. As a result, each country has many unique things, including but not limited to habits, language and rhetoric, religious beliefs, authorities and so on. To a certain extent, the words that describe these things can only be understood by the people who live in that country. The denotations and connotations of these words have been endowed by the indigenous people of different countries，and these words are culture-loaded words. "culture-loaded words are words, phrases and idioms that signify something specific to a culture" (Liao Qiyi, 2000).The birth of these words inevitably comes from the unique habits of different people in different countries" (Liao Qiyi, 2000: 232). For instance, '鱼服', which appears in a famous Chinese poem '采薇', refers to a kind of bag made from fish skin, and this was a tool used in warfare in ancient China to hold arrows. The tool is unique to China and was created through the experience and simple wisdom of the ancient Chinese people. It is unique to China, and such a tool, obviously,is culture-loaded, which people of other nations do not possess and cannot understand. This is a culture-loaded term that needs explanation in order to be understood by other peoples.

Classification of Culture-loaded Words

A number of scholars, both nationally and internationally, have classified culture-loaded words. Given that Eugene A. Nida’s classification of culture- loaded words has been influential, who is a distinguished American linguist and translator，and his five categories of texts are relatively parallel. This paper classifies the culture-loaded words in Gary Snyder's translation of Han Shan's poems according to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words. According to Naida's classification, culture-loaded words can be divided into five categories: ecocultural-loaded words,physical material culture-loaded words, sociocultural-loaded words, religious culture-loaded words, and linguistic culture-loaded words(Nida,1993)

The Translation methods of culture-loaded words

By its very nature, translation is an intercultural activity, and as such the aim of translation is to transmit what is expressed in the culture of the original language to the culture of the target language. In fact, there is no strictly fixed formula for this process of cultural transmission. However, after many years of translation activity, there are broad categories of translation methods that people use. These classifications can help translators to clarify their thinking and to translate better. Therefore, some of the translation methods used by Gary Snyder are listed here as follows. Firstly, A direct translation, as the name suggests, is a word-by-word, sentence-by-sentence translation. The direct translation method is a way that can best preserve the meaning of the original text among all translation methods, and it is also the method that is most frequently used in translation. Due to differences in culture, lifestyle and other aspects, there may not be many identical correspondences between Chinese and English, but if possible, using a direct translation is literally the best strategy. For instance, the Chinese phrase "大锅飯" can be translated directly as "big pot system"; Chinese readers also mostly understand the English phrase "black horse "in English.Secondly,Substitution,the replacement of culture-loaded words in the original language with words from the target language, is a method with mixed advantages and disadvantages The advantage of the substitution method is that it makes it easier for readers of the target language to understand the meaning of the original text by using words that are familiar to them.However, the disadvantage of this method is that it is difficult to find a proper relevant cultural expressions in the culture of the target language, making it difficult to disseminate the culture of the original country, and even causing the readers of the target language to misunderstand the culture of the original country and believe that the cultural habits of the two countries are the same.Thirdly,Phonetic translation means using words with a similar or identical pronunciation to the original language instead of the words used in the original language in order to achieve the translation effect desired by the translator. The use of phonetic translations can actually help a country's culture to reach out, but they are not easily understood by readers in the target language. This is why transliteration is often used in conjunction with an annotation, while it is not always necessary. For example, '沙发' in Chinese is a phonetic translation of the English word,and the Chinese word '粽子‘ can also be directly translated as “zongzi” in English. Fourthly，Paraphrasing refers to the use of the target language to explain the original text. Paraphrasing can, to the greatest extent， possible preserve the meaning of the original language. The paraphrase, however, has its disadvantage that it is difficult to preserve the structure of the poem in its lucidity and elegance. This includes the difficulty of preserving some of the rhythmic and prosodic forms, so sometimes lucidity and elegance need to be sacrificed to preserve expressiveness. For example, the Chinese phrase "八寶粽子", when translated into English, is translated as "Glutinous Rice Dumpling with Eight-Treasure".Fifth,Creative rebellion refers to the process of translation in which the translator consciously 'distorts' the meaning of the original language so the translation can become more understandable to the reader or can be more easily expressed by the translator himself. For example, Zhai Lisi（Herbert Allen Giles）In his translation of Early Spring in the East of the City, he translates the word '新春' as 'early May'.This seems to be a 'mistranslation' of the original text, but the fact that the chronology is different in Central Europe makes this translation more helpful to Western readers. Thus, although such a translation "distorts" the apparent meaning of the original, it is a better way of conveying the true meaning of the text.Sixth, In literary translation, 'annotation' is a common method of translation because it is difficult to translate the 'quotations' of Chinese and Western cultures in just a few words. The translator will therefore often add annotations in their translations. For example, in the beginning, when Chinese readers were not aware of cloning technology,the term clone was translated as "cloning (a method of asexual reproduction)" ,which is a combination of "phonetic" and "apostrophe". Seventh, Generalisation refers to a method of translation in which a more refined range of things is translated to encompass a wider range of meanings. Generally speaking, such translations lose the nuance and precision of the original. However, it can be used when necessary. For example, the translator translates "lily" as "flower",which is a kind of "generalisation".Eighth,Omission is not a very common translation technique,However, when translating from Chinese to English, in order to make the translation more concise and easier for Western readers to read, translators will choose to use omission.

the Functionalist Skopos Theory

Definition

the Functionalist Skopos Theory is the founding theory and mainstream of German functionalism. It was proposed by the famous German translation theorist Hans Vermeer in the 1970s on the basis of behavioural theory. the Functionalist Skopos Theory holds that the act of translation and the nature of translation is a purposeful intercultural communication with its purposive, communicative and intercultural nature.

Three Principles of the Functionalist Skopos Theory

the Functionalist Skopos Theory consists of three principles: the principle of purpose, the law of coherence and the law of fidelity. The principle of purpose means that the translation should work in the context and culture of the language into which it is translated The purpose principle means that the translation should function in the way that the recipient of the translation expects it to function. The principle of coherence means that the translation must be internally coherent, so that the translation is readable, meaningful and relevant in the culture and communication of the target language. The principle of fidelity means that the translation must be faithful to the original, that it must be interlingually consistent with the original, and that the translation must be faithful to the extent and in the way that the recipient understands it. The degree of fidelity and the form of fidelity are determined by the purpose of the translation. The principle of purpose is the primary principle of all translations.

Gary Snyder’s Translation of the Culture-loaded Words in Han Shan’s Poems

ecocultural-loaded words

According to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, ecocultural- loaded words include words related to plants, animals, monsoons, hills, and so on. Through analyzing the translation methods adopted by Gary Snyder in his translation of the ecocultural- loaded words in Han Shan’s poems, this paper found that he mostly used the way of direct translation when he translated the natural sceneries. For instance，he translated“溪长石磊磊，涧阔草蒙蒙” into “The longgorge choked with scree and boulders, The widecreek, the mist blurred grass.”Snyder used“choked”to express the original meaning expressed by“石磊磊”，which means “so many rocks”. Moreover，Snyder didn’t stiffly directly translated “石” into rocks，instead，he creatively divide the types of the rocks by the stream into scree and boulders, thus making more vivid image. And he adds mist in the second sentence, which has explained the reason for why the grass is blurred. There are many other translations where direct translations also appear. Such as he translated “沓嶂恒凝雪，幽林每吐烟” into “Jaggedscarps forever snowed in. Woods in the dark ravines spitting mist.” He reserved the personification in his translations, and the words he used are also adequate enough to restore the calm and quiet context in the original text. There are also some direct translations that have changed the original meanings, such as in the first poem titled《可笑寒山道》，Snyder wrongly interpretated “寒山道” into “the path to Han Shan’s place”, while “寒山”is a name of Chinese mountain in Chinese Zhe Jiang province, and the path is the mountain’s path. And in the poem titled《重岩我卜居》，Snyder directly translated “幽石”into “vague stone”. According to Chinese culture, “幽石“ means funeral stones. And in the original poem，Han Shan used the image of the funeral stones to show the quietness of the mountain. Snyder’s translation can’t totally express the quiteness，so it need to be improved. Also, in the poem titled《我家本住在寒山》，Snyder directly translated “寒山” into “Cold Mountain”. This translation is not good for Chinese cultural dissemination，because American readers can‘t know the real name of the mountain. Apart from direct translation，which is mostly used by Snyder in his ecoculture-loaded words’ translation，Snyder also used the way of generalizations. For instance, he generalized “畅岩” appeared in《一自遁寒山》to “cliffs ”，making “畅岩” lost its Chinese geographical background information. All in all, direct translation is the mostly-used way adopted by Snyder in ecoculture-loaded words’ translation. Though there are some inconsistencies caused by direct translation, to a great extent, Snyder still reserved most original meanings. According to the Functionalist Skopos Theory, the act of translation and the nature of translation is based on the target of the author. On the one hand, considering the identity of Gary Snyder as a nature protector and the beautiful and tranquil nature images showed in Han Shan’s poems, we can find that Snyder choose direct translation to restore the original artistic conception so as to persuade American people to protect the environment, because direct translation is the best way to achieve the goal of expressiveness. On the other hand, according to three principles in the Functionalist Skopos Theory, the law of purpose is superior to fidelity and coherence, and the law of coherence is superior to fidelity. We can see that in order to accelerate American’s understating and acceptance process, Snyder deliberately sacrificed fidelity in some cases mentioned above so as to achieve his translation target, that is to save American’s environment by directly presenting the beautiful landscapes in Han Shan’s poem, and he didn’t translate some names of the Chinese landscapes is because that it’s unnecessary.

physical material culture-loaded words

According to Nida's classification of culture-loaded words, material culture-loaded words include words related to clothing, food, housing and transport. There are many material culture-loaded words in Han Shan’s poems, and Snyder used different kinds of ways of translation to achieve his different goals. On the one hand, in order to make American easier to understand the original meanings, Snyder used a way of domestication. For instance, in the following sentence of the second translated poem, the original writer has showed that he himself is a man who stays away from the fame and wealth, which is literally the value emphasized by Snyder: 寄语钟鼎家，虚名定无益。 Go tellfamilies with silverware and cars

"What'sthe use of all that noise and money?" In this poem，“钟鼎” originally comes from the ancient rich Chinese families，and “钟鼎家”thus means those Chinese rich people. Gary Snyder used the way of substitution, that is to replace “钟鼎” with “silverware and cars”, which is closer to the modern society. Snyder changed the image to let American better understand the meanings of the poem, thus achieving his target, which is to extricate people from the money-grubbing society. In the following poem, Snyder also showed his will of domestication: 手把两卷书，一道将一德。 住不安釜灶，行不赍衣裓。 His handholds two book scrolls, One the Wayand one its Power. His shack'sgot no pots or oven, He goes fora long walk with his shirt and pants askew. “一道将一德” alludes to the classical book Tao Te Ching. Here Snyder didn’t use phonetic translation or annotation to reserve its exotic meaning, instead, he substitutes it with the American translated version the Way and one its Power published in 1934. Gary Snyder did this based on his culture confidence. Moreover, he substitute “釜灶” with “pots or oven”. “釜” is ancient cooking utensils, equivalent to today's pots and pans，and the character of “灶”is first found in the Golden Texts of the Spring and Autumn Period, and is explained in Shuowen Jiezi as "from cave and drab (cù, meaning toad) to save the sound." Later on, the word "zao" (灶) was coined as a common character, which is a synonym for "fire". The original meaning of zao is a device for cooking food over a fire. The derivation is that of a device for burning or forging. Here，in order to let people quickly know the meaning，Snyder used common materials in American society to replace the ancient Chinese materials. With a modernized tone, Snyder further changed the meaning of the sentence “行不赍衣裓”,which originally means without bringing any clothes when travelling into “with his shirt and pants askew”, forming an image of hippies. Here, Snyder adopted the way of creative rebellion to popularize his translation in American society, for there is a popular stream of “hippies culture” in American society against the dominating American social value at that time. In general, we can infer that Gary Snyder mostly used substitution so as to meet his own target of getting his translations easier accepted.

sociocultural-loaded words

According to Nida's classification, socio-cultural load words refer to the socio-cultural aspects of socio-cultural load words. The socio-cultural load words include titles, social rules, social customs, etc. In Han Shan’s poems, there are many culture-loaded words expressing Chinese social customs, while Snyder changed some terms to meet his own needs. For instance, the following translated poem has shown Snyder’s translation skills: 不学田舍翁，广置牛庄宅。 I've got nouse for the kulak With hisbig barn and pasture – “田舍翁”is a traditional Chinese title, which refers to old farmers, usually signifies aged farmers with a collection of fortune when appearing in traditional Chinese culture. And the whole sentence listed above can be understood as follows: I don’t want to learn from those rich farmers, who ambitiously collect cattle, lands and houses. Gary Snyder replaced this Chinese ancient term with kulak, which is a term borrowed from Russian language. And it has been widely used by American referring to those rich farmers. Gary Snyder domesticated the term so as to express his ideas of staying away from those greedy men more accurately. And he replaced “牛庄宅“ with barn and pasture. Here we can see Snyder merged his own childhood experience to his translation, because he used to stay in the farm in Oregon when he was a child. In his translated poem《山中何太冷》，Snyder also comply with domestication to let target text better accepted by target text reader: 草生芒种后，叶落立秋前 Grass isstill sprouting at the end of June, Leavesbegin to fall in early August. In this translation，“芒种”，the ninth of the twenty-four solar terms is translated into “the end of June”，while in China，the time referred by “芒种” is the early June in Gregorian calendar. Gary Snyder adopted the method of creative rebellion to let the term “芒种” fit for the chronology in America，which is different from Chinese chronology. In the following poem，in order to create a kind of hippies image，Snyder also creatively changed the original meaning of the text： 炼药空求仙，读书兼咏史。 Trieddrugs, but couldn't make Immortal; Read booksand wrote poems on history. In the original text，“炼药“ is a professional term in Chinese Buddhism, which means spoiling some selected materials in a big pot to purify the substance inside them thus creating a kind of medicine for special usage. For example, the immortal pill is to extend one’s life expense. If it is taken, one can shun death and acquire immortality. In Snyder’s translation, which has totally changed the original meaning, he substituted it with “tried drugs”，which can be usually seen in the group of hippies. They tried drugs to extricated themselves from the secular pain, similar to the deed “炼药“. Gary Snyder’s rebellious translation has created a kind of cynical hippies image, quite different from the original monk image of Han Shan. Though it to some extent, had distorted Han Shan’s image, he successfully won the popularity for his translation among American society. Some people even called Gary Snyder “American Han Shan”.