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Chapter 10:French Translation Theories From 16th Century to 18th Century

"十六世纪至十八世纪法国翻译理论"

杨堃 Yang Kun,Hunan Normal University,china.

Abstract

The history of translation is as ancient as the history of language. Since human beings have the ability to communicate with language, translation has begun. It can be said that human translation activities evolve and develop together with human culture and civilization. Whether a culture can survive or not is closely related to translation.French translation theory plays an important role in western translation theory. However, due to various reasons, compared with translation theories in the United States and The United Kingdom, there are very few studies on French translation theories in China, and the only studies are mainly limited to some famous French translators. This paper gives a brief overview of the development of French translation theory from three periods: French translation theory from 16th century to 18th century, combining with some famous French translators and their theories. Stones from other hills may serve to polish the jade of this one. It is hoped that this paper will provide some reference for the development of Translation theory in China. -- corrected by Liu Yunxin (talk) 09:03, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

Key words

French Translation Theory;the Renaissance;the classicism

摘要

翻译的历史与语言的历史一样久远亘古，自从人类有了语言交往的能力，就开始了翻译。可以说，人类的翻译活动伴随着人类的文化、文明一同进化发展。一种文化文明能否历久弥新，与翻译有着密切的渊源。法国翻译理论在西方翻译理论中占有重要的地位。但由于种种原因，相比美国、英国翻译理论研究，我国对法国翻译理论的研究非常少，仅有的研究主要限于一些著名的法国的翻译家。本文从法国文艺复兴时期翻译理论、近代法国翻译理论和当代法国翻译理论三个方面，结合一些著名的法国翻译家及其理论，简述法国翻译理论的发展概况。以“他山之石”为自己“攻玉”，为我国翻译理论发展提供一定参考。

关键词

法国翻译理论；文艺复兴；古典主义

Introduction

The history of western translation originated in the third century BC. The earliest translation is the Seventy Greek texts of the Old Testament, the Bible, translated by seventy-two Jewish scholars in Alexandria, Egypt. But strictly speaking, the first translation in the West was a Latin translation of The Greek Homer's epic Odyssey. Therefore, western translation activities have been going on for more than two thousand years. Since the reform and opening up, China has made great achievements in the study of western translation theories, but the main achievements are English and American translation theories, and there is not much research on the translation theories of France, Germany and other "small language" countries.As Professor Xu Jun said, "Due to various reasons, we have not made a systematic introduction to the translation studies of many countries, let alone an in-depth study. For example, we have little understanding of the translation studies of France." However, it is undeniable that these countries have also made great achievements in translation studies, such as Etienne Dore, Charles Barth, George Munan and the Interpretive School. Therefore, a brief introduction to French translation theory will help us better understand the history of French translation and the history of western translation theory, and also contribute to the in-depth and development of translation theory research in China. The following will be discussed from 16th to 18th century.（Xu Jun,Yuan Xiaoyi 2001:1）-- corrected by Liu Yunxin (talk) 09:22, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

1.Translation theories in 16th century

The Renaissance movement in Europe from the 14th century to the 16th century was a great movement of ideological and literary innovation as well as a great development in the history of western translation.Especially in the 16th century and the following century when the Renaissance movement was widely carried out in Western Europe, translation activities reached an unprecedented peak.Translation activities went deep into the fields of ideology, politics, philosophy, literature and other fields, involving the major works of classicism, and produced a large number of outstanding translators and a series of excellent works in translation.The translation of this period has three characteristics: first, the focus of translation from religious works to classical literature works;Second, the national consciousness of translators of various countries has been strengthened, and they have shifted from mechanically imitating Latin to attaching importance to the unique style of national languages.Third, the translation of national languages in Western Europe has developed in parallel and independently.

In the 16th century, there was a boom in translation in France. As a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation, and translators are faced with many new problems, so the translation theory arises at the historic moment. Etienne Dolet and Jacques Amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter is especially successful in translation. Both of their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are convincing to some extent.(Chen Shunyi,2014:12)

Etienne Dolet

Etienne Dolet (1509-1546) established himself as a translator, humanist and linguist in the history of French translation.He was born in 1509 in Orleans, France, studied in Paris, travelled to Italy and returned home at the age of 21.In the field of French translation, he is honored as "the father of French translation theory" and "the first one who put forward translation theory systematically in the modern History of Europe".Dolet returned to France at a time when the Renaissance was sweeping Western Europe and he actively participated in the humanist movement.During this period, the study of Greek and Latin flourished in the country, and ancient Greek and Latin writers were respected and valued.Translation activities became more frequent and the focus of translation shifted from religious works to classical literature works. Erasmus,a contemporary Dutch translator, exerted a certain influence on the formation of Dolet's translation thoughts, such as his emphasis on language and style.At the same time, Dolet was also deeply influenced by his contemporary German translator Martin Luther, who stressed that the translation should use the language with its own characteristics so that the general public can accept it.When it comes to specific translation skills, they all agree that the desired effect can be achieved by adjusting the word order.

Dolet's translation principles were his translation thoughts which were put forward in his article How to Translate Well from One Language to Another in 1540. He listed the following basic principles of translation: 1.The translator must understand perfectly the content and intention of the author whom he is translating; 2.The translator should have a perfect knowledge of the language from which he is translating and equally excellent knowledge of the language into which he is translating; 3.The translator should avoid the tendency to translate word for word, for to do so is to destroy the meaning of the original and to ruin the beauty of the expression; 4.The translator should employ the forms of speech in common sense; 5.Through his choice and order of words the translator should produce a total overall effect with appropriate “tone”.（Etienne Dolet,1540）

The first principle is aimed at the meaning of faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental principle that can not be ignored in translation.The second principle is the language requirement for the translator. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both languages. In principle, there is no primary or secondary distinction between the two languages, and the translator should be a language expert who is good at reading and writing in the target language.The third principle shows that Dolet did not advocate literal translation or word-by-word dead translation, but advocated free translation and live translation.In the fourth principle, Dolet, like all humanists, stressed the importance of using national languages and idioms to serve the general audience so that the translation can be understood by the common people.The last principle refers to the style, which requires the translation to be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. The translation itself must be natural, smooth and harmonious, so as to give readers "aesthetic enjoyment".

Dolet's translation theory is quite modern in its principles.It involves the basic principles and problems of translation put forward by the later theorists.Gallix, a famous contemporary French translator, believes that Dolet's principle is "concise and clear, he was the first person who really put forward the theory of translation art in Europe".Ballard, another famous French translation theorist, believes that Dolet's translation propositions constitute the embryonic form of French translation theories, and his principles are of universal significance (Tan Zaixi, 2004:71).

However, due to the brevity of Dolet's articles, he did not elaborate on the principles after they were put forward, and he did not write or have time to write more similar works or papers to reiterate his views, so he did not form a school of theory, and did not have a great influence at that time.

Jacques Amyot

Jacques Amyot (1513-1593) was another outstanding French translator of the Renaissance.Born into a small merchant family, Amyot studied ancient Greek and Latin languages and literature at the French School.He was appointed professor at Bourges University on the royal recommendation and served as tutor to two princes.His later years were bleak because of the religious wars.Amyot's achievements are mainly the translation of several ancient Greek and Roman literary classics, but because of the great influence of the translation and the pursuit of "trying to be comparable with the original work" in the translation of the lofty ambition, he is generally regarded as a writer in the history of literature.

Amyot's first translation, Heliodorus's novel, Theagnes and Calicerea (Aethiopica), was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus's seven-volume History Series (Bibliotheca Historica), Longos's pastoral novel Daphnis and Heloa in 1559, Plutarch's Moral Treatises (Moralia) in 1572,Before that, he also translated Plutarch's The Lines of The Noble Grecians and Romans (Vies des hommes illustrus ) in 1559, which is Amyot's most famous work. In the process of translating The Lines of The Noble Grecians and Romans, Amyot was always supported by the king and had favorable conditions.In 1542, When Francois I assigned him the task of translation, he chose to translate The Noble. Undoubtedly, this choice played an important role in the success of the subsequent translation.In order to ensure the accuracy of the content and clarify the ambiguous areas in the translation, he went to Venice and Rome to collect and study the manuscripts of ancient books, and compared various versions.It is not a very long book, but it took 17 years to translate from the time it was commissioned in 1542 to its publication in 1559. His translation was a success, providing material for contemporary and later writers in France and other western European countries, such as Racine and Shakespeare.Montaigne, a famous contemporary French writer, once spoke highly of Amyot's achievements, believing that without his translation, no French would have known how to write. He said, "If this book had not pulled us out of the mire, we ignorant people would have been over."(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi, 1998:228)

Amyot's principles in translation are : 1.The translator must understand the original text thoroughly and work hard on the transfer of the content; 2.The translation must be simple and natural, without embellishment.

In his opinion, "the task of a competent translator is not only to faithfully restore the author's meaning, but also to imitate and reflect to some extent the mood of his style."It can be seen that he emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation.Under the guidance of this principle, he fused the language of the people and the language of scholars into one furnace, and paid attention to the simple beauty of the text, so that the style of the translation is independent.As a result, some people commented that Amyot adopted creative free translation, and The Noble became Amyot's The Noble, rather than someone else's "The Noble".In his translation, he borrowed from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on, thus greatly enriching the French vocabulary.At that time, the French language was still in a state of confusion, the country has not a unified French language.The famous Seven-Star Poetry Society (La Pléiade) and other humanists made great efforts to unify the French national language. But there is no doubt that Amyot also made an indelible contribution to the purity and standardization of French through his translation.The unique literary style of the translation later became the object of imitation by Montaigne and other writers at the end of the 16th century. It also played a great role in the form of classical French prose and in improving the literary literacy of readers.(Chen Shunyi,2014:79)

2.Translation theories in 17th century

After the Renaissance, translation practice and theoretical research in France continued to develop.In the 17th century, classicism occupied the mainstream position of French literature, and writers took ancient Greece and Rome as models in their writing practice and theory.This trend of thought not only swept the field of literary creation, but also swept the field of translation.Influenced by it, translators engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale.However, compared with the Renaissance period, the background of translation at this time has changed significantly.

At that time, France was under the rule of Louis XIV, with strong national strength, development of production and economic prosperity. The number of educated people kept increasing, and more and more people had the requirement of reading, writing and translation, which created favorable conditions for the development of translation activities.At the same time, France became the ideological center of Europe, and The status of French as a national language continued to rise, even on a par with Latin, a religious and cultural language, and its influence radiated throughout Europe.The strong cultural confidence of the French made the French literary creation model gradually replace the ancient Greek and Roman model.In addition, the famous "struggle between historicism and presentism" in the history of literature divided the French translation circle into two schools: presentism who admires free translation;and historicism who advocates accurate translation.The historicism believes that the translation of classical works involves the attitude towards the ancient writers and works (that is, whether to respect the classical writers and works), and they regard the translators who are not faithful to the original works as their number one enemy. However, presentism believes that modern translations can and should surpass those of the ancients and be comparable to the original texts as society continues to progress. In French translation circles at that time, the free translation method dominated, especially famous for Perrot d'Ablancourt's "les belle infideles" .(Chen Wei,2015:91-100)

Perrot d'Ablancourt

In the 17th century, France was in vogue for "rewriting the original work according to the aesthetic requirements of that period and the standards of classicism", even at the expense of "damaging the characteristics of the original work", which was called "les belles infideles" by the translation critic Gilles Ménage at that time.He used this metaphor when he was commenting on the translator Perrot d'Ablancourt. He said that when d'Ablancourt's translation was published, "many people complained that it was unfaithful," and that "it reminded me of a woman whom I had been very fond of in Tours, who was beautiful but unfaithful" and "whom I called 'la belle infidele'".Since then, "les belles infideles" has become a synonym for "beautiful and unfaithful translation", and has become a weapon used by translators and critics who advocate literal translation to attack free translation.(Gilles Ménage,1715:186)

Perrot d'Ablancourt was a famous French translator of the 17th century. He was famous for his erudition, his knowledge of Latin, and his succinct and vigorous translation, which was neither crude nor difficult to understand.In terms of methodology, he was the general representative of liberal translation, and the debate between free translation and accurate translation in France in the 17th century was mainly based on his translation principles and methods.

D'Ablancourt was born in 1606.After he finished school, he became a lawyer.Instead, he traveled to Holland (1634-1635) and England (1636).After returning to France, he established close contacts with French scholars such as The first permanent secretary general of the French Academy.In 1637, on the recommendation of Valentin Conrart, he translated Felix Marcus Minucius' Octavius, and was elected a member of the Academy of France that year.From then on, d’Abelancourt devoted himself to translation and became "the translator most admired by the French" for the next thirty years.(Andrei Fedorov,1968:48)

D'Ablancourt's career as a translator can be roughly divided into three stages: the first stage (1636-1638), mainly translated some speeches, for example, in addition to Felix Marcus Minucius' Octavius, he also translated Cicero's Eight Speeches.In the second stage (1639-1651), he spent thirteen years working on the translation of historical works, including Publius Cornelius Tacitus' "Collected Works", Xenophon's "Long March", Gaius Julius Caesar's "Gaul Wars", etc.The third stage (1652-1664) mainly translated books on ethics, such as The Collected Works of Lucian and Thucydides.In addition to the authors mentioned above, d'Ablancourt translated a number of ancient Greek and Roman writers, including Arrian, Frontinus, Homer, Plutarch, Polyaenus, etc., during a career of nearly thirty years.

D'Ablancourt wrote a total of eight prefaces to his translated works, explaining and defending the principles and methods of translation, from which we can see his thoughts on translation.

In his preface to the translation of Tacitus's The Annals (1640), he expressed three views: first, differences between the original language and the target language lead to differences between the original and the translation;Secondly, The Annals is vague in expression, loose in structure, lacking in order and inconsistent, which reflects the author's poor writing style.Thirdly, in order to maintain the overall style and effect of the work, the translator has the right to make free treatment of the original work: "What I translate is not a text, but a work, and each part of the work must constitute a whole."(Ballard Michel,2013.)

In 1654, d’Abelancourt translated Lucian's True History.It was this translation that gave rise to Ménage's comment about the "les belles infideles" and gave the prevailing liberal translation method its permanent name.D'Ablancourt's introduction to the translation clearly answers two criticisms: the author's unrestrained style and the translator's own translation methods.In response to the first criticism, d'Ablancourt points out that translators should delete the original text if necessary because of the original text.He defended himself by saying, "I am not to blame, and it is the dirtiest sentences that I cut out, the overly indulgent passages that soften ..."(see preface to the book).For a second attack,d'Ablancourt spent a lot of ink, and expounds the translator can't according to the original, or at least need to change the original several circumstances, namely: when the content of language form in category (e.g., word games), when the original content against time code of ethics, when author use outdated or reference trite text rhetoric means.

D'Ablancourt translation thoughts, therefore, - the core is the core of "les belles infideles " - is to please readers: "take an original, seize the effect, regardless of the original style, as long as the translation be literature and readability, make contemporary readers love, popular, is desperate to add or delete any content, can modify the modification, can play to play,Without any regard for the accuracy of the translation." He had done to the original all cuts, change, the objective is to make it more beautiful and elegant, clear and easy to read, more in line with the taste of the age: "I don't always focus on the author's expression and ideological content, but according to the author wants to achieve, to deal with the original, and the way to make the translation conform to our age.Different periods require not only different expressions of language, but also different ideas [...] (preface to True History).

D'Ablancourt's beautiful and unfaithful translation was praised by many.The famous orator and translator Patru said: "D'Ablancourt initiated the translation method which is admired by all the masters of our time, he proposed the true goal of a good translator....""His French style is more elegant than the Latin style."Likewise,d'Ablancourt's translation principles have attracted many followers.Under his influence, many translators blindly pursued the beauty of the translation, made arbitrary changes to the original work, and covered the plain and simple classical works with elegant and gorgeous coat.In the 17th century, "Les belles infideles" became the mainstream concept of French translation, and its influence even crossed the border and spread to other European countries.（Roger Zuber 1995:120）

3.Translation theories in 18th century

In the 18th century the force of France was much weaker and so as the culture. During this period, France began to look to other powerful countries such as Britain for advanced culture. Although the number of translations in this period is quite large, the quality is generally not high. There were few translation theorists in this period and their influence was not great. Notable among them is the literary theorist Charles Batteux.

Charles Batteuxt

Charles Batteux (1713-1780) made the greatest contribution to the study of translation theory in France in the 18th century.He was a professor of philosophy at the Royal Academy of France and one of the most influential figures in literary theory and translation theory in France and throughout Europe in the 18th century.He edited and published a variety of translation books, translated Aristotle, Horace and many other classical works of ancient Greece and Rome, wrote Principes de litterature and Cours de belles-lettres,etc.Among them, Cours de belles-lettres was translated into English less than 10 years after its publication in 1750, and Principes de litterature is a work of great influence in the field of translation.Batteux elaborated his thoughts and views on translation in this book. His original views and excellent exposition made this book an important milestone in the development of western translation theories in the 18th century.

Principes de littérature has six parts and the fifth part deals with translation problems.Batteux's theory obviously has the characteristics of philosopher, linguist and translation.In other words, Batteux discusses the principles of translation mainly from the perspective of general linguistic skills, rather than literary creation.For example, one of the main points of his discussion is the treatment of word order in translation.He believed that there is a natural word order prevailing in language, and the "natural word order" depends on "human characteristics".The universal element of language is not grammar, but word order, and grammatical structure is dominated by sentence order.Therefore, if there is a contradiction, grammatical structure should give way to sentence order.He proposed the following 12 rules for dealing with word order in translation: 1.The order in which we place the things stated in the original, whether in fact or inference, cannot be altered; for the order of things is the same in all languages, and depends not on the personalities of different nations but on the generalities of men. 2.The sequence of ideas in the original text should also be preserved.There must be a reason why the original author uses one way of expression rather than another, so the translator should not easily destroy it. 3.No matter how long the original sentence is, it should be kept intact in the translation, because a sentence is a thought, and the different elements in the sentence are related to each other, and their correlation constitutes a kind of harmony.If we mix up the phrases in a sentence, or break them up, we may get the idea of the original, but not the coherence of the original ideas. 4.All junctions in the original text should be retained.It is these conjunctions, so to speak, that hold the sentence elements together.The translator shall not change their meaning or their position, and shall delete conjunctions only when they may affect the understanding or hinder the sorting out of the phrase relationship in the sentence. 5.All adverbs should be placed next to the verb, either before or after it, depending on the harmony and momentum of the sentence. 6.Symmetrical sentences should be translated into symmetrical sentences.The symmetry of the expression form can be expressed as the symmetry of sound, the symmetry of the number of syllables, the symmetry of the boundary or length of words, the symmetry of the arrangement of sentence elements, etc., and the symmetry of the original text must be maintained, which is what the translation must strive to achieve. 7.Colorful ideas should be expressed in as much space as possible in the translation so as to maintain the same brilliance.Shorter pages may make the translation difficult to understand, while longer pages may dull its luster. 8.The figures of speech and the forms of speech by which thoughts are expressed must be preserved in translation, for thoughts are the same in all human brains: they can carry everywhere in the same order, in the same arrangement, in the same posture.Because of this, we can translate questioning, duality and so on.As for rhetorical devices and forms of expression, such as metaphor, repetition, and cadence of nouns and verbs, it must be noted that different languages differ: in general, equivalents can be used to express them.If the figurative usage in the original text cannot be translatable, or cannot be replaced by an equivalent, then we must turn to the natural form of expression and convert the original figurative into other forms with similar meanings, so that the translated sentences will not lose the charm of the original text on the whole. 9.We must use proverbs to translate short and pithy sayings that people like, or translate them into words that are natural and can be used as proverbs.Proverbs are translatable in almost all cases because they involve things that people use repeatedly in communication occasions, and many proverbs are common among different nations, even if they are not the same in the form of language expression, at least in terms of meaning. 10.Interpretation is incorrect and incomplete because it is no longer a translation but a comment.However, if there is no other way to convey the meaning of the original text, the translator has no choice but to use interpretation.For this deficiency, the problem lies either in the original language or in the target language. 11.For the sake of meaning, we must abandon all forms of expression in order to speak intelligibly;Abandon emotion in exchange for a lively translation;Give up harmony for the pleasure of translation. 12.Under the condition that the essence of the original text remains unchanged, it can be expressed in different forms, can be combined or decomposed by the words used to express it, can be expressed by verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs.We should let the translator use the scales, let him put the form of expression on either side of the scale and balance the scales in every way.The translator can make changes, but only if he keeps the original thought the same essence, the same life.The translator is only a traveler, sometimes exchanging a piece of gold for a few pieces of silver, sometimes exchanging a few pieces of silver for a piece of gold.（Tan Zaixi,2004:98）

To sum up, Batteux' basic idea of translation is: translation is a process of expressing things, ideas, words and styles in one language in another;In this process, the translator shall not add or subtract anything from the original text or change the meaning of the original text.Ideologically, the translation should keep the color, degree and nuance of the original.In style, the translation should keep the passion, humor and anger of the original;In terms of diction, the translation should be natural, vivid and persuasive, and rich, beautiful and elegant words and phrases should be selected.The original author is the absolute master of thoughts and words, and is free to write according to his own talents and the materials he has gathered.Material gave him a basis for his imagination, which he could accept or reject at will;If one idea or expression does not suit him, he can find another.But the translator is not the master but the "servant" of the original author, who must follow the original author everywhere and reflect the original author's thoughts and style faithfully.Otherwise, the translator ceases to be a translator and becomes an author.Obviously, this view is consistent with the thought of Tande in the 17th century, which can be regarded as the inheritance and development of Batteux' previous thoughts.

Batteux not only put forward the theory, but also put it into practice, which is fully reflected in his translation of Aristotle's Poetics.The translation has always retained the original word order, and the sentence length is close to the original, achieving formal equivalence. Batteux's theory of valuing form over content is biased, but its grammatical principles have exerted a certain influence on the translation circles of not only France but also other western European countries.(Xu Jun,Yuan Xiaoyi,2001:86)

Conclusion

The change of French translation theory is closely related to the development of the period. Whether French translation theory was influenced by the thought of Renaissance in the 16th century or by the thought of classicism in the 17th century, it is closely related to the background of that period. Although translation theory was a comprehensive reflection of political, economic and cultural factors in literary and translation circles at that time, it also reflected people's different views on language, culture and translation philosophy. In the eighteenth century, although French translation theory was not as rich as that of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it was still in a developing trend and did not stagnate. As the saying goes, "Take history as a mirror, we will know how the things rise and fall." In the context of globalization and pluralism, the study of the history of French translation theory from the 16th to the 18th centuries can serve as a reference for Chinese translation theory.

References

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