Cult Load Words EN 10
Culture Loaded Words
Chapter 10 : On Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in The Concubine Market of Yangchow of Lin Yutang's Version from the Perspective of Newmark’s Translation Theory
从纽马克翻译理论看林语堂版《扬州瘦马》中文化负载词的翻译
丁旋 Ding Xuan, Hunan Normal University, China
Abstract
The theme of this paper is to analyze the translation of culture-loaded words in The Concubine Market of Yangchow in Lin Yutang's English version based on Newmark’s translation theory. Surrounding this theme, much background information was initially discussed, such as the introduction of Zhang Dai and The Concubine Market of Yangchow, the definition and categories of culture-loaded words according to Nida and Newmark’s translation theories and so on. Then, translation of culture–loaded words in The Concubine Market of Yangchow are discussed from the perspective of semantic translation and communicative translation put forward by Newmark. Lin Yutang’s English version to The Concubine Market of Yangchow-- an essay written in Ming dynasty, made certain contributions to disseminating Chinese traditional culture all over the world. The question--how to translate culture-loaded words for better transmission of Chinese culture has been probed in this paper.
摘要
本论文的主题是基于纽马克的翻译理论去探析林语堂英译本《扬州瘦马》中的文化负载词的翻译。围绕此主题，预先讨论了大量背景知识，如张岱以及《扬州瘦马》的介绍，文化负载词的定义以及奈达对文化负载词的分类，纽马克的翻译理论等等。此后，从纽马克提出的语内翻译和交际翻译的角度去剖析《扬州瘦马》中的文化负载词翻译。林语堂的《扬州瘦马》的英译本——一篇写于明朝的散文，对中国文化传播走向世界做出了一定的贡献。对于此疑问——如何翻译文化负载词、更好地传播中国文化——在此论文中得到解答。
Key words
Newmark’s Translation Theory; Culture-Loaded Words; The Concubine Market of Yangchow; Lin Yutang
关键词
纽马克翻译理论；文化负载词；《扬州瘦马》；林语堂
Introduction
The Concubine Market of Yangchow, a masterpiece of Zhang Dai, vividly describes the industry of bringing up and selling girls in Yangchow of Ming dynasty. This phenomenon was rare and immoral in Chinese history, which is worthwhile to be probed and discussed. This essay is written in Ming dynasty and we all know that Chinese culture is broad and profound especially in ancient Chinese culture. Therefore, there must be some culture-loaded words in it. When Lin Yutang translated it into English version, how could him deal with these culture-loaded words? We may want to know that what translation theories and methods he used for translating culture-loaded words. This paper combined Lin Yutang’s translation with Newmark’s theory and used Newmark’s theory to deconstruct the methods used by Lin Yutang to translate culture-loaded words. This paper is divided into four chapters which are logically connected and clearly displayed, which helps all readers of The Concubine Market of Yangchow to better understand this work.
1. Introduction of Zhang Dai and The Concubine Market of Yangchow
1.1 Introducation of Zhang Dai
Zhang Dai (1597-1684), ci poet and historian of the late Ming dynasty and early Qing dynasty, born in Shaoxing city, Zhejiang province. He came from a scholarly family for three generations of successful candidates in the highest imperial examinations in his family. In the first half of his life, he indulged in entertainments, living in an extravagant life and doing himself proud for his well-to-do family. He described himself as “I was a dude in early times and I liked prosperity, delicate houses, beautiful maids, clever children, new clothes and delicious food, fine horses, colorful lanterns, fireworks...... (Brook 2005:43)”. When Zhang Dai was 48 years old, Ming dynasty fell and his hometown destructed. He lost everything, went to a mountain temple and lived in a poor life. Because of this huge contrast, he wrote a lot of classical works such as Pottery Recall by Buddhist Nunnery Dreams and Seeking Dreams in West Lake. Besides, he also went to a lot of brothels and Chinese theatrical places in Jiangnan region. However, he acted as a spectator in these places, observing the scene and situation carefully. Especially The Concubine Market of Yangchow discussed here, he accompanied his friends to select and buy “lean horse” many times so that he could write a passage about it, which won universal praise.(Zhang 2021:19)
1.2 Introduction of The Concubine Market of Yangchow
“Concubine market” refers to some people bought beautiful girls from poor family, taught them skills of women and courtesy, cultivated them how to be good wives and sold them to the rich as concubine. “Lean horse” refers to these girls. In the dialect of Yangzhou, “marry a horse” means “marry a wife”, which is the origin of the call of “breed lean horse”. “Horse” is a humiliating word to women and “lean” manifests the low status of women in ancient time.
Ancient Yangchow, a crucial harbor for canal transportation of salt, is a prosperous city which attracts a large number of scholars and businessmen to come. As a city of Jiangnan region, the weather here is suitable and scenery is beautiful. The green willows, warm breeze, bright moon, delicate buildings and colorful lighting were very attractive with songs and music throughout the night. The laughter and sound of wine glasses spread over the city and lasted all night. The wandering scholars often indulged in this prosperity and went to the entertaining places such as brothels, however, the rich businessmen despised these places. But they also had the requirement of beauties so that the “lean horse” industry began to operate to satisfy this need. This is the origin and history of “concubine market”.(Wang 1994:80)
The Concubine Market of Yangchow is written by Zhang Dai after observing the transaction of “lean horse” many times. So he wrote this transaction in detail which is regarded as a classical work in later time.
“Concubine market” refers to a place where people bought beautiful girls from poor families, taught them skills of women and courtesy, cultivated them how to be good wives, and sold them to the rich as concubines. “Lean horse” refers to these girls. In the dialect of Yangzhou, “marry a horse” means “marry a wife”, which is the origin of the call of “breed lean horse”. “Horse” is a humiliating word to women and “lean” manifests the low status of women in ancient times. --Gao Mi (talk) 14:02, 14 December 2021 (UTC)
2. Introduction of Culture-Loaded Words
2.1 Definition of Culture-Loaded Words
In Linguistics, Spair-Whorf Hypothesis puts forward that the relationship between language and culture. Language molds our thinking patterns and expresses the unique ways of understanding the world. It is divided into two versions: strong version and weak version. Strong version refers to that language determines our thinking patterns but weak version thinks that the similarities of language are relative. The greater the structural differentiation is, the more divers the conceptualization of the world will be. Language is the key of relative culture and literature and it can be fully understood only to be interwoven in its cultural background (Lyons 1981). Language loads a large amount of culture such as political system, living condition, religion belief and social custom and so on. The research of words meaning should be put in the whole social context to highlight the communicaitve function (Leech 1981). Culture-loaded words are some terms, idioms and collocations full of national culture. Many masters put forward the definition of culture-loaded words. It was initially put forward in Culturally Loaded Words and English Language Teaching by Xu Guozhang in 1980. There are some other statements: “Culture-loaded words are words within a specific cultural range, and are a direct and indirect reflection of national culture in language vocabulary (Hu 1999:64)”; “Culture-loaded words refer to words, phrases, and idioms that mark a particular cultural thing. These words reflect the unique activities of a particular nation that are gradually accumulated in the long historical process and are different from other nations”. We can see that culture-loaded words as a language carrier are the specific words of one nation, which loads rich national information of culture. (Liao 2000:232)
2.2 Categorization of Culture-Loaded Words
Nida E.A. mentioned five cultural categories of translation in his famous book—Language, Cultural and Translation (Nida, 1993:91). They are ecological culture, material culture, social culture, religious culture and linguistic culture. There five culture categories can be used into the concept of culture-loaded words so that the classification of culture-loaded words came out. Further, Newmark P. put forward five kinds of culture words: ecological culture, material culture, social culture, custom and religion and gesture and habit in A Text of Translation. They have many similarities in culture or culture words categories. This paper mainly focuses on Nida’s theory of classification of culture-loaded words. (Newmark, 2001:94)
2.2.1 Ecological Culture-Loaded Words
Ecological culture-loaded words are related with natural geographical environment, weather change, animals and plants in a certain community. For instance, in the perspective of geographical position, China is a land country but England is a water country. If we describe someone spends money without restrictions, Chinese is “挥金如土”but English is “spend money like water”. We use “土”to describe the degree of money but in English, they use “water” to express this image. In addition, “羊肠小径”can be translated into “a small twisting path”. In Chinese, the conception of “羊肠”can be collocated with “小径”. However, in English, “羊肠”cannot be collocated with “小径”so that the literal meaning of “羊肠”cannot be translated directly but translated to “small twisting” to collocated “path”. The other example is “走水”. This word is loaded with Chinese culture, which means fire rather than water. So we translate it as “fire” in English rather than water.(Mei 2016:137)
2.2.2 Material Culture-Loaded Words
Material culture-loaded words refer to the special material objects in different cultures. These words include food, clothes, buildings, vehicles and so on. For example, some Chinese food like “饺子”、“馄饨”、“包子”, some Chinese clothes like “旗袍”、“中山装” , some Chinese buildings like “长城”“故宫” and some Chinese vehicles like “黄包车”“轿子”. These objects only exist in China and other countries do not have such objects. So such words as material objects loaded with national culture are called Material culture-loaded words. (Chen 2011:144)
2.2.3 Social Culture-Loaded Words
Social culture is inclusive of tradition, custom, social rules, moral principles, history backgrounds and ideology and so on (Chen 2011:144). Besides, some words connected with social decorum, social status and some entertaining activities are also regarded as social culture-loaded words. In a word, if some words engage in society and load the special culture of one certain country, they are social culture-loaded words. For example, from the perspective of Chinese culture, “三跪九叩”—this kind of social decorum in ancient China. Some Chinese traditional festivals like “七夕节”“端午节”and so on. Some ancient Chinese political status like “状元”“举人”“榜眼”“探花”and so on. (Mei 2016:137)
2.2.4 Religious Culture-Loaded Words
Religious culture-loaded words refer to some words loaded with some ideas, beliefs and ceremony related to religions. As to religion, oriental countries have much difference with western countries. Even in western countries, they also have different religious beliefs. For example, from the perspective of Chinese religion, we have the special culture religion called “八字”“算命先生”“看风水”. These things do not exist in western countries. Some “八字先生” can forecast one’s life fortune with the birth date, which is critical miraculous. So we call “八字先生” fortune-teller. Other instances are “观音菩萨”“如来佛祖”“法师”and so on. (Mei 2016:137)
2.2.5 Linguistic Culture-Loaded Words
Linguistic culture-loaded words refer to that different spoken manner and habits in different ethnics, which are manifested in phonological, lexical and syntax levels. The examples are naming and the use of idioms. Linguistic culture-loaded words treat words from the perspective of language characteristics. For example, Chinese and English have much difference in perspective of the two languages. Chinese is made up of many short sentences and lack of structure but English are long sentences made up of a lot of clauses and have strict structures. Chinese uses many verbs while there are many stative words like nouns, prepositions and adjectives in English. In a word, there are so many linguistic differences in Chinese and English. For example, the translation of“二月二，龙抬头，大仓满，小仓流”is “When dragon raises its head, abundant harvests of crops are promised ahead". (Mei 2016:137)
3. The Translation Theory of Mewmark
3.1 Semantic Translation
Semantic translation, similar to foreignization, struggles to keep the linguistic characteristics and original expressive manner of original works and transmit the thought process of the author. It should be initially faithful to the author and transmit the correct meaning of the original work with the permission of words and phrases structures. The focus of semantic translation is the original work and author, which tries to achieve the original text’s effect. In other words, on the basis of not undermining the meaning of original text, translators should keep the original text’s grammatical rules, semantical and syntactic structures as much as possible. Semantic translation preserves the cultural characteristics of the original works to achieve the transmission of social culture. (Zhang 2008:143)
The art value generated by translation is as eternal as original work. For example, when Wen Xianliang translated Li Bai’s The Trader’s Wife—“Lang rides a bamboo horse and makes green plums around the bed” （郎骑竹马来，绕床弄青梅）, he translated “青梅”into “green plums”, which uses semantic translation to preserve the unique expression of the original text. The other example is put forward by Feng Jiajia-- Lu Xun’s novel.(Zhang 2008: 143)
The True Story of Ah Q: “所以不敢僭称,便从不入三教九流的小说家所谓“闲话休提言归正传”这一句套话里,取出“正传”两个字来,作为名目”。
I will take as my title the last two words of stock phrase of the novelist, who are not reckoned among the Three Cults and Nine Schools. ——Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie tranlasted. From that we can see, they translated “三教九流”into “Three Cults and Nine Schools”, which uses the method of semantic translation. “三教九流”is an saying in Chinese, foreigners cannot understand its true meaning, but Yang Xianyi also uses an annotation to interpret it. It is one method to make expression more clear when using semantic translation.(Feng 2010:109)
3.2 Communicative Translation
Communicative translation, similar to domestication, focuses on the target readers rather than the original author. The translator moves closer to the target language by adjusting syntactic structures and logical relationship without destroying the original text. As to the national culture, the translator should fully understand the culture of target language so that the target readers can understand the work better. It focuses on the meaning and content rather than the text form itself any more, which transmits the information for reader to think, feel and act. It is used in the non-literary text, technical text and textbooks and so on. (Zhang 2008: 143)
There is an advertisement example of alcohol put forward by Zhang Jianhui for us to understand what communicative translation is——
"爽口顺喉，和醇耐味，名贵高尚"——Sensuously Smooth; Mysteriously Mellow; Gloriously Golden.
The consonant “s” imitates a lot of oohs and aahs after drinking, the consonant “M” symbolizes the expression of wine-tasting and the explosive “G” manifests the deep exaltation from wine-tasters. This advertisement uses the method of communicative translation to transmit a kind of elegance. (Zhang 2008: 143)
4. Analysis of the Translation of Culture-Loaded Words in The Concubine Market of Yangchow
4.1 Semantic Translation Theory in The Concubine Market of Yangchow
The Concubine Market of Yangchow is an essay in classical writing style belonging to the category of literature. In Newmark’s opinion, literary works should use the method of semantic translation to show the exotic custom and flavor to readers. The original linguistic characteristics and custom should be preserved. In order to disseminate Chinese culture around the world, a lot of culture-loaded words in semantic translation can be discovered in Lin Yutang’s translation version.
(1) 扬州人日饮食于瘦马之身者数十百人。(Line 1)
At Yangchow, there were hundreds of people making a living from activities connected with the “lean horses”. (Line 1)
In classical style of writing, “饮食”cannot be translated into “eating and drinking” in modern Chinese. Here, “饮食”means “make a living” in classical style of writing and Lin Yutang translated it properly. “瘦马”in this passage does not refer to the lean horse in literal meaning but the thin girls brought up to be the nobles and the rich’s concubines. But Lin Yutang translated “瘦马”according its literal meaning rather than “concubines”, which reflects the ancient Chinese cultural characteristic. Readers may be confused when reading this word but they can understand its meaning after looking through the whole passage or the content below. (Zhao 2019:36)
(2)牙婆驵侩，咸集其门，如蝇附膻，撩扑不去。(Line 2)
The professional agents and go-betweens, both men and women, would swarm about his house or hotel like flies, and there was no way of keeping them off. (Line 4)
Here, “如蝇附膻”is translated semantically. Lin uses a metaphor to compare professional agents and go-betweens with flies crazy about the flavor of mutton, reflecting their snobbishness and worship of money. The interpretation of “如蝇附膻”in deep meaning is to describe that people serve the time and seek fame and fortune. But Lin does not translate the connotative meaning but the denotative meaning because the image of “flies” is the same in all culture and foreigners can understand in that context. This measure keeps the original feature and makes read understand easily.
(3) 牙婆扶瘦马出，曰：“姑娘拜客。”下拜。曰：“姑娘往上走。”走。(Line 4)
At once the woman agent would come out with a girl and announce, “Kuniang (mademoiselle), curtsy!” The girl curtsied. Next was said, “Kuniang, walk forward!” She walked forward. （Line 11）
Here, “姑娘”is translated into “Kuniang” in transliteration rather than “girl”, but Lin adds an annotation in the follow for interpretation. So transliteration with an annotation is one resort to semantic translation. In Chinese, we often use Kuniang to refer to a girl, which is our tradition since the ancient China and loads a long historical culture. Actually, the meaning of“上”in “姑娘往上走”is not walking upward but forward because “上”in ancient Chinses means “forward” in modern Chinese. I think Lin uses the semantic translation here to preserve Chinese culture.(Zhao 2019:36)
(4) 高系其裙，人未出者而趾先出者，必小。（Line 9）
But if she wears her skirts relatively high and reveals her feet as she takes a step forward, you already know that she has a pair of small feet that she is proud of. (Line23)
In Chinese historical and cultural tradition, from ancient times to 1911, women should bind their feet because men regarded three- inch “golden lotuses (woman’s bound feet in feudal age) was beautiful. It was Sun Yat-sen who overthrew this system in his revolution and women were free from their feet. So in The Concubine of Market in which the story happened in Ming dynasty, women were still need to bind their feet. Lin translates “必小”into “a pair of small feet” with an annotation “she is proud of”, which helps foreigners to better understand the tradition of small feet of women in ancient China.
(5)看中者，用金簪或钗一股插其鬓，曰“插带”。（Line 12）
If the gentleman decided he would take a certain girl, he would put a gold hairpin or ornament on her hair, this was called tsatai. (Line 18)
As for the translation of “插带”, Lin translated it into “tsatai”by means of transliteration. This a special call used by people of Ming dynasty. “带”refers to a gold hairpin or ornament. The action of “插带”refers to put a gold hairpin or ornament on one girl’s hair. Lin preserves the pinyin of “插带”because he has interpreted this before. From that, readers can know more about ancient Chinese culture.(Zhao 2019:36)
(6)用笔蘸墨，送客点阅。（Line 18）
The owner would dip the brush in ink and hold it ready for the customer to check and make any amendments he might wish.(Line 48)
“笔”here refers to “毛笔”which is used by Chinese and there is no “毛笔”in western countries. So Lin translated it according to our own object rather than finding some similar object to equalize it.
(7)礼币糕果俱齐。（Line 21）
Ceremonial papers, fruit and pastry also arrived.(Line 52)
“礼币”of the wedding in foreign countries means the gifts or money offered by guests or relatives. In China, it also has this meaning but there is a special action in ancient China or even today that hosts will record the name of gifts and givers on the papers. So Lin translated “礼币” into “ceremonial papers”, which preserves the unique Chinese wedding characteristic. (Zhao 2019:36)
(8)而花轿花灯、擎燎火把、山人傧相、纸烛供果牲醴之属，门前环视。（Line 21）
There came back with the band, floral sedan chair, floral lanterns, torches, handled torches, sedan chair carriers, bridesmaids, candles, more fruit and roasts. (Line 54)
“花轿”is a special sedan chair used to carry the bride in Chinese traditional wedding. It is always decorated gorgeously and made in red to symbolize the celebration and auspiciousness. “花灯”, a traditional folk art, is made up by paper outside, candles inside and bamboos as the lantern bone. When at wedding, it is usually in red because red is the symbol of Chinese wedding. Lin translated the two words according to each Chinese words like “花”and “轿”, “花”and “灯”.
4.2 Communicative Translation Theory in The Concubine Market of Yangchow
If the translator uses communicative translation, he must stands on the side of readers for the purpose that readers can better understand the text. The translator must think deeply and try to find some equivalent words in other cultures. Then he uses these equivalent words which could be understood by readers to replace the original words. In Lin Yutang’s translation version of The Concubine Market of Yangchow, he used communicative translation many times.
(1) 牙婆驵侩，咸集其门，如蝇附膻，撩扑不去。(Line 2)
The professional agents and go-betweens, both men and women, would swarm about his house or hotel like flies, and there was no way of keeping them off. (Line 4)
“牙婆”refers to the women making profits from selling young girls. The original meaning of “驵侩”is go-betweens in horse sales and it refers to the between businessmen introducing the deals later. So Lin translated these in “the professional agents and go-betweens” so that English readers can understand Chinese special appellations in their thinking patterns.(Zhao 2019:37)
(2) 牙婆扶瘦马出，曰：“姑娘拜客。”(Line4)
At once the woman agent would come out with a girl and announce, “Kuniang (mademoiselle), curtsy!”(Line11)
“拜客”, one kind of Chinese etiquette, refers to kneel on the ground and kowtow. It is not the meaning in western countries of visiting guests. So Lin translated it into “curtsy” accurate to its original meaning.
(3) 用金簪或钗一股插其鬓。(Line 12)
He would put a gold hairpin or ornament on her hair. (Line 18)
Lin used semantic translation to interpret“金簪”into “gold hairpin”. But as for “钗”, he did not find the equivalent in western culture but used “ornament” to replace it. “钗”is indeed an hair ornament used by ancient women to make their hair beautiful. (Zhao 2019:37)
(4) 出钱数百文，赏牙婆或赏其家侍俾。(Line12)
A tip of several hundred cash was given the woman agent or the maids of the house.(Line 31)
“文”is the unit of money in Ming dynasty. But Lin translated “文”into cash, which uses the communicative translation so that readers can understand the meaning of “文钱”(Zhao 2019:37).
(5) 心与目谋，毫无把柄，不得不聊且迁就，定其一人。（Line 16）
One does not know what to decide or which to take, and eventually makes his choice on one of them. (Line 40)
“心与目谋” means the customer is tired of watching and selecting the girls and“毫无把柄” means the customer has no thought and cannot make the decision. Lin translated these difficult phrases in their connotative meaning which can be easily understood by readers.
(6) 归未抵寓，而鼓乐盘担，红绿羊酒在其门久矣。（Line 20）
Before he arrived at his own place, drummers and musicians and carrier-loads of lamb and all kinds of wines were already here. (Line 50)
“鼓乐” means drum and song sound. “盘担” refers to huge boxes loading the precious food. “红绿”is not to replace the color of red and green but to describe the color of food especially wine are various rather than only red and green. So Lin use “盘担”to describe “羊”and “红绿”to describe wine. Besides, metonymy is used by translating“鼓乐”into “drummers and musicians”. Such adjustment and change can make the original sentence clearer.(Zhao 2019:37)
(7)而花轿花灯、擎燎火把、山人傧相、纸烛供果牲醴之属，门前环视。（Line 21）
There came back with the band, floral sedan chair, floral lanterns, torches, handled torches, sedan chair carriers, bridesmaids, candles, more fruit and roasts. (Line 54)
“擎燎” means holding the torch in hand. “傧相”means bridesmaids in modern Chinese and Lin also translated in its modern meaning so that readers can better understand. The wedding supplies of “纸烛供果牲醴”, which are special in Chinese traditional wedding because there are some unique wedding ceremonies in ancient China such as “bowing to the groom and guests” and “entering the bridal chamber” and so on. Though Lin cannot translate its full meaning, he also find some equivalent words in English.
(8)未去半里（Line 21）
Before they had gone a quarter mile.(Line 54)
“半里”, one method of calculating distance, refers to 250 meters. Lin used “mile” , this call often used by English people, to refer to “半里”(Zhao 2019:37).
(9)则蔬果、肴馔汤点、花棚糖饼、酒壶杯箸、龙虎寿星。（Line 23）
Vegetables, meats and sweets, followed by awnings, table service, longevity stars. (Line 58)
Though “肴馔”“糖饼”does not manifest their full meaning by “meats and sweets, westerns countries can understand this appellation. The original meaning of“酒壶杯箸”is that wine pots, cups and chopsticks. But Lin translated it into table service because these are tools for eating and drinking. “龙虎”in Chinese means longevity but in western culture, they are bad things and have inauspicious meaning so that Lin just translated them in “longevity star”. (10)新人拜堂。(Line 26)
The bride came up and performed the wedding ceremony (by bowing to the groom and guests). (Line 64)
“新人”cannot be translated into “new men” because “新人”means “bride” here. “拜堂” is a Chinese traditional wedding ceremony rather than visiting a house. Lin interpreted these words with new words rather than translating their meaning word by word. (Zhao 2019:37)
Conclusion
The Concubine Market of Yangchow, an essay written by Zhang Dai, helps Chinese know more details about “lean horse” industry in Ming dynasty and Lin Yutang’s translation version helps western people know more about Chinese traditional culture. As for the question, how Lin Yutang translated such passage full of Chinese culture for English readers and achieved the successful cross-culture communication is probed in this paper. I used Newmark’s translation theory inclusive of semantic translation and communicative translation to analyze Lin Yutang’s translation for culture-loaded words. This paper made some contributions to analysis of culture-loaded words and enriched the realm of culture-words research.
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