20201102 trans

Cao Runxin 曹润鑫

On the Comparison between "Sublimation" an "Functonal Equivalence" Theories

Abstract: Qian Zhongshu and Eugene Nida are outstanding and renowned translators in the history of Chinese and Western translation respectively. It is believed that Mr.Qian’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” theories have a broad and profound impact on Chinese and Western translation theories and practices. This paper will recognize the theoretical value of these two theories from the dialectical point of view by comparing the similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”. It aims to better apply translation theory to translation practice, and advocate us to view Chinese and Western translation theories from a historical and contradictory perspective, and thus making Translation Studies become more systematic and scientific.

Key words: sublimation; functional equivalence; Qian Zhongshu; Eugene Nida

“化境”与“功能对等”理论的比较

摘要：钱钟书与尤金·奈达分别是中西方翻译史上的杰出翻译家。钱先生的“化境”理论与奈达的“功能对等”理论对中西翻译理论与实践方面有广泛深刻的影响。通过比较两者之间的异同，本文将从辩证法角度来认识这两者的理论价值。这种做法旨在更好的将翻译理论应用于翻译实践，并主张我们从历史与对立的角度看待中西方翻译理论，从而使翻译研究更具有系统性与科学性。

关键词：化境；功能对等；钱钟书；尤金·奈达--Cao Runxin (talk) 07:24, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Chang Huiyue 常慧月

Introduction: As a famous master of literature, translation and academy, Qian Zhongshu is considered as “the Kunlun Mountain of culture” by many scholars on account of his remarkable achievements and a wide range of knowledge. His literary masterpieces include “Pipe-awl Chapters” , “Discourses on Art”, “Seven Patches”, “Selected Essays of Qian Zhongshu”, “Fortress Besieged” and so on. What’s more, he proposed “Sublimation” theory in translation field, which does great contribution to traditional Chinese translation theory and make Translation Studies more systematic. As Chinese scholar Chen Fukang said: “He (Qian) has made a great many outstanding achievements in some important fields like literature and academic research. Although the discussion on translation is only a carved railing in his academic palace, it can have a huge impact in the field of translation studies.” (Chen Fukang 2000: 417).

Chen Han 陈涵

Eugene Nida is a famous American contemporary linguist and translation theorist. He has been devoted to the translation of the Bible and has summarized a set of translation theories from his own translation practice. The core point of his translation theory is “Functional Equivalence” (initially called “Dynamic Equivalence”). From his point of view, “Functional Equivalence” is to refer to the type of equivalent reflected in a TT which seeks to adapt the function of the original to suit the specific context in and for which it was produced” (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64).

尤金•乃达是美国当代著名语言学家和翻译理论家。他致力于《圣经》翻译，还从自己的翻译实践中总结了一系列翻译理论，其理论核心是“功能对等”（起初称为“动态对等”）。在他看来，“功能对等”指在目标文本中反映出的对等类型，该目标文本旨在使原文功能适应它得以生成以及为其而生成的特定语境。” （Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 64）--Chen Han (talk) 01:35, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Chen Hui 陈惠

It requires that the translation should focus on the meaning and spirit of the original text, instead of being constrained by formal correspondence. According to this theory, he deems that the translation must have four criteria: (1) conveying meaning; (2) expressing spirit; (3) natural and smooth wording; (4) similar receptor response. In his book “From one language to another”, he replaced “Dynamic Equivalence” with “Functional Equivalence” and put forward two levels of meaning, say, referential meaning and associative meaning.

Chen Jiangning 陈江宁

1.The theoretical origin of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”

1.1 The theoretical origin of “Sublimation”

The idea of Qian Zhongshu’s translation theory of “Sublimation” comes from his book “Lin Shu's Translation” written in 1963 and “The Pipe-awl Chapters” published by Zhonghua Book Company in 1979. He proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”.

1.“化境”及“功能对等”理论起源

1.1 “化境”理论起源

钱钟书在1963年写过一本书，名为《林纾翻译》，并于1979年在中华书局出版了“锥管集”，正是这两部作品让他想到了“化境”这一翻译理论。钱钟书认为翻译过程实际上就是运用“诱惑”，避免“误用”，以及追求“化境”的过程。--Chen Jiangning (talk) 10:31, 4 November 2020 (UTC)--Chen Jiangning (talk) 02:42, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

1.“化境”和“功能对等”的理论起源

1.1 “化境”的理论起源

钱钟书在1963年写下的《林纾的翻译》以及1979年中华书局出版的《管锥集》中提及“化境说”这一翻译理论。他认为翻译的过程实际上是遵循“化”，避免“讹”，以及追求“化境”的过程。--Zhang Yu (talk) 06:45, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣

Then he pointed out: “The highest ideal of literary translation is ‘sublimation’. When you translate the literary works from one language to another, you can not only avoid the trace of stiffness and awkward expressions resulting from the different habits of language use, but also completely preserve the flavor of the original. Then we can say, that's the realization of ‘Sublimation’ ” (Qian Zhongshu, 2002: 77). According to his explanation, it can be easily seen that the core of his translation theory is “Sublimation”.

Chen Jingjing 陈静静

What’s more, we can extract 3 levels of “Hua” (Sublimation) from his theory, the first is to transform the source text to target text, and then use the domesticating method to make the source language be naturally and smoothly expressed in target language without any transparent feeling of translation caused by the differences of culture and language. Finally, it is the ultimate goal of “Sublimation” that is to say, “the transmigration of souls”, replacing the external shell and retaining the inner spirit and style without the slightest deviation. In other words, a translation should cleave to the original with such fidelity that it would not read like a translation, for a literature work in its own language will never read as though it were through a process of translation (Kao, 1975: 8-9).

Chen Sha 陈莎

1.2 The theoretical origin of “Functional Equivalence” Nida first proposed the concept of dynamic equivalence in the 1964 book “Toward s Science of Translating”. He believed that there were two kinds of equivalence in translation, namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Specifically, formal equivalence is the “quality of a translation in which the features of the form of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptor language”.

Chen Sunfu 谌孙福

On the contrary, dynamic equivalence is the quality which characterizes a translation in which “the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors” (Nida & Taber, 1982: 200-201). Nida’s translation theory has its origin from his own translation practice of the Bible, in which he emphasized the communicative function of translation from the perspective of semantics and information theory.

Chen Yongxiang 陈永相

What's more, he regarded translation as interlingual translation, and he stressed the importance of paying attention to the receptors' response, in order to pursue the standard that target readers could have the same response as the original readers. In his book “From one language to another”, he changed the term “Dynamic Equivalence” to “Functional Equivalence” and he emphasized that we should try to achieve formal equivalence on the basis of the accordant information conveyed from the source text to the target language. In addition, he divided the translation process into three steps, say, “analysis, transfer, restructuring and check”. Through these four steps, the original information can be accurately conveyed, the response of the target receptors is also concerned, and the purpose of communication will be well achieved.

Cheng Yusi 成于思

2.Similarities and differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”

2.1 Similarities between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”

(1) The same concern for the translation processes: As we mentioned above, Mr. Qian Zhongshu proposed that the process of translation is actually a process of employing “enticement”, avoiding “misinformation” and pursuing “sublimation”. To put them specifically, “enticement” refers to the role that plays in cultural exchanges by means of translation.

Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞

In this sense, translation can be regarded as a guide that will lead target readers to understand the original language and culture and to better understand foreign excellent works. This process is of great significance because If the readers have little interest in the source language culture and foreign literature; then the translation works will lose its value. So we can say that translation is not only a conversion of two languages, but also a collision between different cultures and thoughts.

Ding Daifeng 丁代凤

The so-called term “Misinformation” refers to the distortion and wrong expression of the translation. Since “Misinformation” is the inevitable shortcoming of translation, no matter how excellent a translator is and no matter how smooth his translations are, he can not avoid making mistakes of one sort or another in one way or another, but he can exhaust every means to reduce misinformation to its minimum (Yu Chengfa,2003: 43). This is due to the gap between different languages, the gap between the translator's understanding, the style of writing and the form of original content, and even the gap between the translator's comprehension and his ability of expression.

所谓的“讹”是指在翻译过程中对原文的歪曲和错误表达。由于“讹”在翻译中是无法避免的，无论一个译者多么优秀，无论他的译文多么流畅，他都不能避免以这样或那样的方式犯这样或那样的错误，但他可以用尽一切手段使原文信息得到最大程度的呈现(余承法，2003: 43)。这是由于不同语言之间的差异，译者理解事物方式的差异，写作风格与原文内容形式的差异，甚至译者理解能力与表达能力的差异。--Ding Daifeng (talk) 03:41, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Fang Jieling 方洁玲

The final step is called “Hua Jing”; here “Hua” means “Sublimation”,which is the highest ideal of literary translation and also the ultimate goal of translation processes. A translator should try to figure out what the original writer means and ponder over what he imagines so so to immerge oneself with the writer(Luo Xinzhang, 1984: 511). Qian Zhongshu's explanation of the process of translation is the essential condition for the realization of “Sublimation” (Hua). Therefore, when doing translation practice, the translator has to make each step be well prepared, which requires a high standard of the translator's ability and quality.

Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉

Similarly, based on the theory of “functional equivalence”, Nida proposed a “four-step model” of the translation process from the perspective of linguistics, namely, “Analysis, Transfer, Restructuring and Check”. Nida and Taber claim that all languages have between six and a dozen basic kernel structures and “agree far more on the level of kernels than on the level of more elaborate structures” such as word order. First of all, “Analysis” denotes that we have to analyze the surface structure of the source text and then to master the grammatical meaning of the sentence, in other words, the referential meaning and connotative meaning of the source text.

同样，奈达基于“功能对等”理论，从语言学角度，提出翻译过程“四步模型”：分析，迁移，重构，检验。奈达和泰伯提出：所有语言都有6～12中基本内核结构，并且，他们在内核层面的一致性远远大于其在更详细结构层面，比如词序上的一致性。首先，“分析”指的是我们要先分析原文本的表面结构，再掌握句子的语法意义，换句话说，就是掌握原文本的概念意义和内涵意义。--Gan Fengyu (talk) 03:48, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

同样，奈达基于“功能对等”理论，从语言学角度提出翻译过程的“四步模型”，即“分析、转换、重组、检验”。奈达和泰伯认为所有语言都有六到十二种基本核心结构，它们在核心层面上比在更复杂的结构层次上更一致”，比如词序的一致性。首先，“分析”指我们必须分析源文本的表层结构，再掌握句子的语法意义，换句话说，就是指源文本的指称意义和内涵意义。--Zeng Liang (talk) 14:22, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Gao Mingzhu 高明珠

In order to convey the original information correctly, the translator must analyze the text from surface structure to the deep structure. Then, “Transfer”, it means that the translator renders the analyzed source text to the target text. This step contains the conversion of two different language symbols and language forms, and it is also an exchange of different thinking modes. Next, “Restructuring” is the re-processing and re-creation of the original text, in which the translator will translate the original text into the target one that conforms to the expression of the target language, getting rid of the constraints of the surface structure of the original text, thus further excavating the meaning of the deep structure.

为了正确传达原文信息，译者必须对原文进行从表层结构到深层结构的分析。然后是“转换”，转换的意思就是将分析过的源文本呈现到目的文本中。这一步包括两种不同语言符号和语言形式之间的转换，同时也是两种不同思想模式之间的转换。接着是“重构”，即对源文本进行再加工和再创造，在这一步中，译者在将源文本译成目的文本时需要遵循目的语言的表达方式，摆脱源文本表层结构的束缚，从而更深层地挖掘源文本深层结构的含义。--Gao Mingzhu (talk) 01:11, 8 November 2020 (UTC)Gao Mingzhu

Gong Yumian 龚钰冕

Restructuring is thus defined as forward translation, or in other words the process which is the reverse of back-transformation (Shuttleworth & Cowie, 2004: 145). Last but not least, "Check" refers to the process of comparing the text of the original language with the target language so as to avoid semantic errors in the translation works, and pursue the maximum equivalence between the content of the target text and the content of the original text. Nida and Taber’s own description of the process (1969: 63–9) emphasizes the ‘scientific and practical’ advantages of this method compared to any attempt to draw up a fully comprehensive list of equivalences between specific pairs of SL and TL systems (Jeremy Munday, 2016: 63).

Gu Dongfang 顾东方

(2)The same concern for the response of the target readers: Since ancient times, the domestic and foreign translators have different opinions on the criteria of excellent translation. Yan Fu proposed his famous three-character guideline, namely, “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” in his translation work “Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays”. Similarly, western translator Alexander Fraser Tytler put forward the “Three principles of translation”. To put it simply, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work; that the style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original; that the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.

Guan Qinqing 管钦清

From the analysis of Yan Fu’s and Tytler’s description of translation criteria, we can see the fact that the study of the principles and standards of translation is precisely the translator’s emphasis on the target readers, and also reflects the translator’s sense of responsibility for the target culture. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory stressed that translators should guide our readers to read foreign literary works or let our readers be attracted by the foreign culture and introduce foreign writers to them.

从严复和泰勒对翻译标准的描述中我们可以看出，译者研究翻译原则和标准正是其重视译入语读者、对译入语文化充满责任感的体现。钱钟书的“化境”论强调译者应该引导我们的读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者受到外国文化感染，了解外国作家。--Guan Qinqing (talk) 12:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

通过对严复和泰勒尔对翻译标准的描述的分析，我们可以看到，对翻译原则和标准的研究，正是译者对译语读者的重视，也是译者对译入语文化的责任感的体现。钱钟书的“升华”理论强调，译者应该引导读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者被外国文化所吸引，介绍外国作家。--Hu Baihui (talk) 04:31, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

通过对严复和泰勒尔对翻译标准的描述的分析，我们可以看到，对翻译原则和标准的研究，体现了译者对译语读者的重视，也是译者对译入语文化责任感的体现。钱钟书的“化境”理论强调，译者应该引导读者阅读外国文学作品，或者让读者受到外国文化吸引，了解外国作家。--Li LIli (talk) 10:37, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Li lili

Gui Yizhi 桂一枝

“Sublimation” is not only a standard for translation, but also a reflection of translators’ care for the target readers. Mr. Qian said: “The translation should be faithful to the original work, so that it does not read like a translation work, because the original work will never be read like a translation in the situation of source culture.” A good translation can stimulate the reader's curiosity about the original work and also give the reader the enjoyment of beauty. What’s more, Mr. Qian also commented the three principles proposed by Yan Fu:

Guo Lu 郭露

“Faithfulness in translation should include expressiveness and elegance. Expressiveness gives full scope to faithfulness, and elegance is not just to adore expressiveness. To convey the original in the same style---that is faithfulness. ...Many have come to understand that a translation is not supposed to beautify or polish to attain elegance. Yet few have realized that a translation has to give up the words for the spirit. A translation can be intelligible without being faithful to the original, yet can be faithful to the original without being intelligible to the reader.”(Qian Zhongshu, 1986: 1101)

“翻译理论当中的信还应包括达和雅。达基于信，但雅并不非靠达才能实现。信是指用统一的风格传递原文信息。许多人认为，翻译中的雅需要靠辞藻的堆砌才能实现。但是很少有人意识到，为保持原文的风格，是需要舍弃对词语的修饰的。即使不忠实于原文，译文也可以清楚明了，但倘若读者读不懂译文，就算不上信。”（钱钟书，1986:1101）--Guo Lu (talk) 12:01, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

翻译中，信应当包含达和雅。达可以充分实现信，但只有达，就不能实现雅。相同风格传达原文信息—这就是信…很多人已经逐渐意识到：翻译不该为了雅，而堆砌辞藻，美化译文。但很少有人认识到：翻译得舍弃这些修饰词来译出原文精神。译文即使不忠于原文，也能明白易懂，但忠于原文，读者反而读不懂了。--Gan Fengyu (talk) 03:27, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

Han Haiyang 韩海洋

In the meanwhile, Nida deemed that the accuracy of the translation depends on the extent to which the ordinary readers correctly understand the original text, that is, whether the target reader can obtain similar or identical feelings when reading the translation works. The purpose of “functional equivalence” is to satisfy the communication needs of the readers. In order to achieve this goal, we have to change the form of the original text if it is necessary and consider the reader's acceptance of the translation work.

同时，奈达认为准确的翻译取决于一般读者在多大的程度上能够正确的理解原文，也就是说，目标读者是否在阅读译文的时候会有和阅读原文一样的感受。“功能对等”的目的就是让读者能达到交流需求。为了使目标得以实现，我们有必要改变原文的形式和考虑读者对译文的接受程度。--Han Haiyang (talk) 11:50, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

同时，奈达认为翻译的准确性取决于一般读者在多大程度上能够正确地理解源文本，也就是说，目标语读者在阅读翻译作品时是否会有着相似或者是一样的感受。“功能对等”的目的是为了满足读者交流的需要。为了达到这个目标，我们可以根据读者对翻译文本的可接受性对源文本的形式进行一定的修改。--Han Wanzhen (talk) 16:05, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Han Wanzhen 韩宛真

Nida's “Functional Equivalence” requires not only the faithfulness to the original text, but also the accountability to the target readers and the original readers. Nida describes various “scientific approaches to meaning” related to work that had been carried out by theorists in semantics and pragmatics. Central to Nida's work is the move away from the old idea that a word has a fixed meaning and towards a functional definition of meaning in which a word acquires meaning through its context and can produce varying responses according to culture.

奈达的“功能对等”不仅需要对原文忠实，而且也要对目标语读者和原语读者负责。奈达描绘了与理论家在语义学和语用学这两个方面所进行的关于各种“意义研究的科学方法”的工作。奈达工作的核心是从一个单词具有固有的意义这样的旧观念转化为意义的功能定义，也就是一个单词可以从它的上下文获得含义，并且不同的文化会产生不同的响应。--Han Wanzhen (talk) 12:47, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

奈达的“功能对等”不仅要对原文有忠实姓还要对目标语堵着和原文读者负责。 在理论学家在语义学和语用学研究的工作中，奈达叙述了各种“意义研究科学方法”。奈达的核心论点是脱离词汇有固定的意义这个旧观念并转向意思的功能定义，也就是根据不同的文化和背景，一个词汇会有相应的不同意思。--Han Haiyang (talk) 01:37, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

He Changqi 何长琦

From what we has discussed above, we can see that both Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” and Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” must take the reader’s reaction into consideration. Therefore, as a standard for translation, these theories avoid mechanical textual equivalence and bilingual conversion, which promotes the development of translation practice.

(3)The Domesticating tendency of the two theories: As we mentioned in the very beginning, Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation”(化) theory has three meanings, namely “Transfer”(转化), “Domesticating”(归化) and “Sublimation”(化境).

Hu Baihui 胡百辉

It can be seen easily that “Domesticating” is a bridge connecting the transformation of source text and the realization of Sublimation in target language. In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original.

由此可见，“归化”是连接原文转换和目标语升华实现的桥梁。在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道：“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向汉语’，翻译总是基于原语国家的语言系统到目的国的语言系统（2002:78）。虽然他没有明确指出翻译应该是“归化导向”还是“异化导向”，但他将翻译与原作的“转世”相比较，认为翻译是原作的“外化”。--Hu Baihui (talk) 04:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

显而易见，“归化”是连接原文转化和在目标语中实现化境的桥梁。在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道：“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向中国’，翻译总是基于从源语国家到目的语国家的语言系统(2002: 78)。虽然他没有明确说明翻译应该是“归化”还是“异化”，但他把翻译比作原作的“转世”，认为翻译是原作的“变形”。 --Chen Han (talk) 01:27, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Hu Huifang 胡慧芳

In addition, he appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, and comments that he would rather read Lin Shu’s translation than read Haggard’s original text. In this way, Mr. Qian Zhongshu seems to prefer the text of “Chinese-oriented” style, which demonstrates the tendency of “Domestication”. In the theory of “Functional Equivalence”, Nida advocates the use of the expression habits of the target language to transform the original text. He believes that language is the means of communication, and communication is the ultimate goal and an important role of translation, so he pays more attention to the receptors' response to the target text.

Hu Jin 胡瑾

In the book “Seven Patches”, he wrote: “whether the target version is ‘European-oriented’ or ‘Chinese-oriented’, the translation is always based on the language system from the original country to the language system of the target country(2002: 78). Although he did not explicitly state whether the translation should be “domestication-oriented” or “foreignization-oriented”, he compared the translation to the “reincarnation” of the original and regarded that the translation was an “out form” of the original.

在《七个补丁》一书中，他写道:“无论目标版本是‘面向欧洲’还是‘面向中国’，翻译总是基于从原国家到目标国家的语言系统(2002: 78)。虽然他没有明确说明翻译应该是“归化”还是“异化”，但他把翻译比作原作的“转世”，认为翻译是原作的“变形”。--Hu Jin (talk) 05:18, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜

In order to allow the target readers to accept the translation, it is necessary to make the translation correspond to the cultural traditions and language habits of the target language. At the same time, the translator has to make the translation natural and smooth under the premise of ensuring loyalty. Nida's “Domesticating” translation tendency can be seen from the above view. Please look at the following example:

Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪

S: “white as snow”

T: “白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”

From the point of view of traditional translation standards, the above example runs counter to the original information. However, for those who have never seen snow will never know what snow is alike, and therefore he can't understand what "white as snow" means. Through the strategy of “Domestication”, the target readers can have a similar response to the original readers, so as to better achieve the purpose of communication.

源语言：“White as snow"

目标语：“白如木棉花” or “白如鹭毛” or “白如蘑菇”

对于支持传统翻译标准的译者来说，以上的翻译是与原文信息相冲突的，但是对于从来没有见过雪的读者，他们完全不能理解“像雪一样白”的意义。通过归化的翻译策略，目标语读者能够达到与源语言读者同样的反应，实现更好的交流。--Jiang Fengyi (talk) 13:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Jiang Hao 姜好

2.2 Differences between “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”

(1) Different theoretical basis: Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory is based on Yan Fu’s criteria of translation “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance”, which is the development of Chinese traditional translation theory. Qian Zhongshu's “Sublimation” theory has pushed the study of translation to the extreme of art from the category of aesthetics. Eventually, the “Sublimation” theory was included in the course of the development of Chinese translation thought, say, “Case - Seeking faithfulness - Spiritual likeness - the Sublimation”.

Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮

These four concepts, are independent, but also interconnected. They developed gradually to constitute a whole translation system and this whole system works as an important part of our traditional translation theory (Luo Xinzhang, 2009: 20).

Nida’s “functional equivalence” was established on the basis of his Bible translation practice. Under the guidance of Chomsky’s transform-generating grammar, Nida’s functional equivalence requires that the translator analyze the given text from the surface structure to the deep structure; then transform it from the deep structure of the original text to the deep structure of the target text, and finally adjust the target language structure to obtain the surface structure of the translated version.

Kang Haoyu 康浩宇

From a series of steps, we can see that the hierarchical and theoretical property of translation studies, so Nida put forward his opinion that translation could be considered as a science. Qian Zhongshu thought that the translated works could surpass the original works and sometimes even should be much better than the original; while Nida did not choose the advantageous version between the original and the target text- his more emphasis goes to the equivalence between the two languages and the response of the target receptors thus more priorities were given to the communicative function.

从这一系列步骤中，我们可以看出翻译学的层次性和理论性。因此奈达提出了他的观点，即翻译可以称为一门科学。钱钟书则认为译作不仅可以超越原著，有时甚至比原著还要好得多；尽管奈达没有表明在原文和译文哪个要更好，但他更强调两种语言之间的对等和目标受众的反应，因此更重视翻译的交际功能。--Kang Haoyu (talk) 13:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

通过一系列步骤，我们可以看到翻译研究的层次性与理论性，因此奈达提出了他的观点，即翻译可以视为一门科学。钱钟书认为译作可以超越原作，有时甚至能比原作更好。而奈达并未表明原文与译文哪个更佳，他的重点更多放在两种语言的对等和受众者的响应方面，因此将研究的优先级放在了翻译的交际功能上。--Cao Runxin (talk) 07:50, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤

(2)Different scopes of their application: “Huajing” (Sublimation) was proposed by Mr. Qian Zhongshu for literary translation standards; hence it may be more appropriate for the translation of literary genre. He considered that translator should “break through” the barriers of cultural differences and make the translation “surpass” the original work. However, it seems unreasonable for the translations of applied styles which relates to politics, economics, law, trade, etc. In addition, some scholars believe that Mr. Qian’s “Sublimation” has over-emphasized the mystery of art and has become a vague standard that could be hard to reach (Gao Huali, 2009: 154).

Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧

The “highest ideal” of the literary translation he described will inevitably produce the problems of “Misinformation”, which would limit the scope of application of “Sublimation”. Despite the fact that scholars and experts of one generation after another have made their fruitful efforts to shed light on “Sublimation” from various aspects, it remains theoretical unexplainable and practical unattainable, like “an attic, in the air” to many people in the translation circle (Yu Chengfa, 2003: 8)

他所描述的文学翻译的“最高理想”会不可避免地产生“信息错误”的问题，而这将限制“升华”的应用范围。 尽管一代又一代的学者和专家做出了卓有成效的努力去从各个方面阐明“升华”，但对很多翻译圈的人来说，“升华”还是无法从理论上解释和实践实现的，这就像“阁楼上的空中”。 （于成发，2003：8）--Kong Xianghui (talk) 04:31, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

他所描述的文学翻译的“最高理想”会不可避免地产生“信息错误”的问题，而这些问题将限制“化境”的应用范围。 尽管一代又一代的专家学者努力从各个方面阐明“化境”，并取得了成果，但对很多翻译圈的人来说，“化境”还是如同“空中阁楼一般”，仍旧无法从理论上解释并通过实践来实现。--Kang Haoyu (talk) 13:06, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Kong Yanan 孔亚楠

On the contrary, Nida’s translation of Bible carries religious culture with integrity and solemnity. He preached to people from all walks of life in order to spread the will of God; therefore, his translation must not only meet the needs of the aristocracy, but also the needs of ordinary people who lack knowledge of religious culture. The target readers of the “functional equivalence” theory is the masses from all walks of life in the society, and its range of application is more practical. Nida’s equivalence of translation is derived from the translation practice of the Bible.

与此相反，奈达对于圣经中宗教文化的翻译带有统一和肃穆的色彩。为了传播上帝的意志，他向各行各业的人们传道；因此，奈达对于圣经的翻译不仅要达到贵族们的要求，还要满足缺乏宗教文化知识的普通公民的需要。“功能对等”理论的目标读者是来自各行各业的大众，其适用范围更趋于实践。奈达的翻译的对等理论来源于圣经的翻译实践。--Kong Yanan (talk) 07:32, 4 November 2020 (UTC) 与此相反，奈达对于圣经的翻译带有统一和庄严的宗教文化色彩。他向各行各业的人传道是为了传播上帝的旨意；正因如此，奈达的翻译不仅要满足上流社会的需要，还要让那些缺乏宗教文化知识的普通大众对此有一定的了解。“功能对等”理论的目标读者是来自社会各阶层的群众，其适用范围也更加实际。奈达的功能对等理论起源于圣经的翻译实践。--Chen Jiangning (talk) 03:00, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆

As we know, western languages have a lot in common in culture and words of expression, so Nida’s “equivalence” is relatively easy to achieve between two European languages. In English-Chinese translation, it may be more difficult to achieve complete “equivalence”, because Chinese and English belong to different language systems, and their cultures are rather divergent. Nida strictly divides the translation steps into four, which can be used as a practical translation method to guide the translation of some scientific and technical articles, announcements, and application articles. For literary genres, such as the translation of poetry and prose, the translator's creativity may be more important. It is difficult to convey the literary nature of the original text by mechanical methods and steps.

众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。在英汉翻译中，因为汉语和英语属于不同语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译步骤严格地划分成四个部分，可视为一种实用性的翻译方法，用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文的翻译。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--Lei Fangyuan (talk) 12:06, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。而在英汉翻译中，汉语和英语属于不同语言系统，并且文化差异较大，所以很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译严格地划分成四个步骤，这可视为一种用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文翻译的实用性翻译方法。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--Kong Xianghui (talk) 04:37, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

众所周知，西方语言在文化和表达方面有许多共通之处，因此奈达的“对等”理论在两种欧洲语言之间相对容易实现。因为汉语和英语属于不同的语言系统，并且两者文化差异较大，所以在英汉翻译中很难实现完全的“对等”。奈达将翻译严格地划分为四个步骤，可视为一种实用性的翻译方法，用于指导一些科技文、公告和应用文的翻译。就文学体裁而言，像诗歌和散文翻译，译者的创造力可能更为重要，用机械的方法和步骤是很难传达原文的文学性的。--Qu Miao (talk) 09:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪

3.A Critical Understanding of “Sublimation” and “Functional Equivalence”

3.1 Is “Sublimation” faithful ?

According to traditional translation theory, the translator is always regarded as the "servant" of both the original and the translated text. He must be faithful to the original author while concerning the target readers. Xu Jun (2003: 321) wrote in his book “On Translation”: “Three points are often emphasized in traditional translation theory: first of all, translators should not incorporate their own subjective thoughts in translation; then they should not express their individuality in translation; in the end, translators should render the text on the basis of original message, and loyally follow the thoughts of the original writer.

3.A 对“化境”和“功能对等”的批判性理解

3.1 “化境”一说法忠实原文吗？

根据传统的翻译理论，译者一直被认为是原文和译文的“仆人”。他必须要忠实原文，在表达出原作者的意思的同时也要考虑目标读者。徐俊（2003：321）在他的书《论翻译》中写道“传统翻译理论中经常强调三点:第一，译者在翻译中不应纳入自己的主观思想。第二，不应该在翻译中表现出译者个人的情感特点。第三，译者应在原文的基础上进行翻译，忠实于原文作者的思想。”--Lei kuangxi (talk) 02:59, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

3.A 对“化境”和“功能对等”的批判性理解

3.1 “化境”就是忠实原文吗？

根据传统的翻译理论，译者总是被认为是原文和译文的“仆人”。在关注目标读者的同时，他必须忠实于原作者。许俊(2003: 321)在《论翻译》一书中写道:“传统的翻译理论往往强调三点:首先，译者在翻译中不应纳入自己的主观思想；其次，他们不应该在翻译中表达自己的个性；最后，译者应该在原文的基础上翻译文本，并忠实地遵循原作者的思想。--Hu Jin (talk) 05:28, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Li Haiquan 李海泉

From the analysis of Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory, it is clear to see that he is more inclined to the translation strategy of “Domestication”, which emphasizes that the target version can surpass the source text. He, himself appreciates Lin Shu’s translation works, because of their common advocacy and similar historical background. From the point of view of historical materialism, “social existence determines social consciousness, and social consciousness has an adverse effect on social existence.” For example, Lin Shu was living in a closed country and at that time , Qing Dynasty was extremely arrogant or even ignorant.

Li Lili 李丽丽

His style and characteristics of the translation were naturally influenced by this national sentiment. Therefore, his translation had tendency to “Domestication” or even an unfaithful translation. Qian Zhongshu lived in a period of prosperity in literature and art since the establishment of People's Republic of China and at that time Chairman Mao proposed the policy of “All flowers blossoming and hundreds of schools contending (百花齐放，百家争鸣). So our Chinese people were overflowing high spirit and proud emotion; some translators’ translation works are more inclined to take the advantages of “Domestication” and make the translation work more excellent than the original one. 他的翻译风格自然受到了名族感情的影响。因此，他的翻译有“归化”的倾向，甚至有不忠实翻译的倾向。钱钟书生活在新中国成立后的文艺繁荣时期，当时毛主席提出了“百花齐放，百家争鸣”的方针，因此，我们的中国人民洋溢着崇高的精神和自豪的情感，一些译者的翻译作品更倾向于利用“归化”，使翻译作品比原作更优秀。--Li LIli (talk) 10:23, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Li Lili

Li Lingyue 李凌月

Such a translation strategy will be somewhat “disloyal” to the original text, and will not “sincerely imitate” the original text as Lu Xun advocates from his “Foreignization” method. It is difficult to concretely implement “Sublimation” theory, because it has become an “unattainable” goal. Whether the translation should be “Chinese-oriented” or “European-oriented”; be “faithful” or “creative”, and whether the translator should be “visible” or “invisible” in translation are all difficult standards to measure since these factors are inevitably affected by the subjective and historical objectivity of the translator.

这种翻译策略对原文有些许“不忠”，不会像鲁迅所倡导的“异化”方法那样“真诚地模仿”原文。“升华”理论很难具体实施，因为它已经成为一个“无法实现”的目标。翻译是“汉化”还是“欧化”；是“忠实”还是“创新”，而译者在翻译中究竟是“有形”还是“无形”都是难以衡量的标准，因为这些因素不可避免地受到译者主观和历史客观性的影响。--Li Lingyue (talk) 10:09, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

这种翻译策略对原文或有“不实”，或不像鲁迅所倡导的“异化”方法那样“真挚地模仿”原文。要具体应用“化境”理论还有点难度，因为它已成为一个“遥不可及”的目标。翻译应该是“汉化”还是“欧化”，是“忠实“还是”创新“；译者在译文中应该”现身“还是”隐形“，这些标准都难以衡量，因为这些都不可避免的受到译者主观和历史客观性的影响。--WuQiong (talk) 08:24, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Li Liqin 李丽琴

Is “Sublimation” really a faithful translation to the original text? Perhaps just as Mr. Qian himself said: “The translator’s ability to use his native language is more flexible and smooth than the original author’s ‘source language’ and that is what always happens in the history of translation.” We can consider that such “disloyal” is “faithful” in a certain sense.

“化境”是否能做到忠实于原文本呢？或许正如钱钟书先生所说：“ 译者在使用母语时往往比使用原作者的源语言更加灵活通顺，这种情况在翻译史中是很常见的。” 在某种程度上，我们认为这种“不忠”就是忠实于原文。--Li Liqin (talk) 02:47, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

“化境”真的是忠实原文的一种翻译方法吗？也许就如钱钟书先生所说的那样：“相较于原作者的源语言，译者运用其母语的能力要更加灵活通顺。”而这就是翻译历史上经常出现的现象。我们可以认为这样的“不忠实”其实是特定意义下的“忠实”。--Yang chenting (talk) 07:50, 4 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Li Luyi 李璐伊

3.2 Problems of Nida’s “Functional Equivalence”

The questions of meaning, equivalence and translatability became a constant theme of translation studies in the 1960s and were tackled by a new ‘scientific’ approach followed by one of the most important figures in translation studies, the American Eugene Nida. Eugene Nida’s theory of translation developed from his own practical work from the 1940s onwards when he was translating and organizing the translation of the Bible, training often inexperienced translators who worked in the field.

Li Meng 李梦

As for Nida's “functional equivalence” theory, praise and opposition to his theory are always existing in the translation circle. Some people think that the theory is a representative of the science of translation science and has a good guiding role in translation practice. However, there are also some scholars who disagree with this theory and for example Peter Newmark is one of its critics. He believed that Nida’s equivalence theory takes the reader too seriously, but sometimes sacrifices the actually original thoughts of the writer. It is also doubtful whether “functional equivalence” can be applied to the original texts of various subjects.

Li Yongshan 李泳珊

If the translator partially pursue “functional equivalence”, which will makes it difficult for the target readers to fully understand the original cultural information and it is not conducive to the mutual communication between different countries and cultures. For the above example: if we render “White as snow” as “白如鹭毛”, target readers may understand the meaning of the original author, but they still have no idea of what the word “snow” actually means.

Li Yu 李玉

This has become a situation where we cannot get two things at the same time, or in Chinese “鱼和熊掌不可兼得”. However, If the original text is literally translated as “white as snow”, then the translator continues to explain what substance a “snow” is and what characteristics it may have and why we say its color is as white as egret’s feathers.

Lin Min 林敏

In this way, not only can the readers of the translation work have the same response as the readers of the original, but also it is conducive for them to learn to understand new things and new concepts, which will gradually promote the communication of different cultures and the mutual interests of different countries.

这样，翻译作品的读者不仅能获得与原著的读者相同的反应，而且有利于他们学习理解新事物和新概念，从而逐步促进不同文化之间的交流，增加不同国家的共同利益。--Lin Min (talk) 01:52, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Lin Xin 林鑫

4.Conclusion

Mr. Qian Zhongshu’s “Sublimation” theory and Nida’s “Functional Equivalence” respectively represent huge progress in Chinese and Western translation studies, and they played an important role for the reference of translation studies and practice. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Their theory is likened a treasure-house that requires more investigation and more exploration. Furthermore, we must learn their theories with a critical view, so as to strive for innovation and establishment of a new era for translation studies.

Ling Zijin 凌子瑾

Translators' Views on Translation Influence Their Translation Behavior

A translator plays an essential role in the translation process. Translators’ views on translation is their understanding of translation, embodied in their translation strategies and value orientations, which are different from each other due to their social and cultural context and also their personal experience and philosophy. And “translation behavior”, in a broad sense, includes the translators’ linguistic translation behavior and the social transcend-translation behavior. In a narrow sense, it only means the translators’ translation as a “pure” translator (Zhou 18).

Liu Bo 刘博

The “translator behavior” in this thesis is a broad one, that is, translators’ translation behavior can be influenced by their social and cultural context, their motivations for translation, their views on translation and the linguistic translatability of the SL and their translation competence (Xu Jun 199-254). Specifically, the translation behavior we will discuss is “what to translate (what works they translated)” and “how to translate (their translation principles)”.

Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦

According to A. Lefevere, ideology and poetics together dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems (39). The translators’ view on translation, as a part of the translators’ ideology, exert a great influence on their translation behavior.

So how is translation behavior associated with translator’s views?

From the very beginning the research of translation was limited in a certain extent, and then there were some scholars starting to study on the relationship between translation and other systems, including Even-Zohar, Bassett, Lefevere and Venuti.

Liu Liu 刘柳

I.Some Previous Studies

A.Even-Zohar’s Polysystem

According to Introducing Translation Studies:

“Polysysten theory was developed in the 1970s by the Israeli scholar Itamar Even-Zohar borrowing ideas from the Russian Formalists of the 1920s and the Czech structuralists of the 1930s and 1940s . . . For the Formalists, a literary work was not studied in isolation but as part of a literary system . . . Literature is thus part of the social, cultural, literary and historical framework . . .” (Munday 165).

|.以前的一些研究

A.伊文•佐哈尔的多元系统理论

根据《翻译研究入门》：以色列学者伊塔马•伊文•佐哈尔借鉴了20世纪20年代俄国形式主义者以及20世纪30和40年代捷克结构主义者的观点，使得多元系统理论在20世纪70年代得以发展。对于形式主义者来说，一部文学作品不能孤立地而是要作为文学系统的一部分来研究。因此，文学是社会框架、文化框架、文学框架和历史框架的一部分。（芒迪 165）--Liu Liu (talk) 15:30, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Liu Ou 刘欧

In 1978, Even-Zohar in his “The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem”, first gives a new term, the polysystem (Even-Zohar 22), emphasizing the translated literature operates as a system in itself:

(1)in the way the TL culture selects works for translation;

(2)in the way translation norms, behavior and policies are influenced by other co-systems (Even-Zohar 22).

Thus, translation is not isolated, but associated with other systems, for instance, the TL culture. And the ST that chosen by a culture correspond to the organized system rather than arbitrary decisions made by individuals. Also translation works occupies different position in different cultures and has something to do with the position of the national literature.

1978年，Even-Zohar在“翻译文学在文学多元系统中的地位”中，第一次提出了一个新术语，即多元系统（Even-Zohar 22），强调翻译文学本身就是一个系统：

（1）以译入语文化选择的方式进行翻译;

（2）在翻译规范，行为和政策上受到其他共同系统的影响（Even-Zohar 22）。

因此，翻译不是孤立的，而是与其他系统（例如译入语文化）相关联的。 文化选择的源语对应于有组织的系统，而不是个人任意做出的决定。 同时，翻译作品在不同文化中的不同地位，与该国文学的地位也有关。--Liu Ou (talk) 05:53, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺

B.Bassett and Lefevere

Later, “Bassett and Lefevere go beyond language and focus on the interaction between translation and culture, on the way in which culture impacts and constrains translation and on ‘the larger issues of context, history and convention (11)’ ” (Munday 192).

C.Lefevere: Rewriting and Manipulation

Furthermore, “Lefevere focuses particularly on the examination of ‘very concrete factors’ that systemically govern the reception, acceptance or rejection of literary texts; that is, ‘issues such as power, ideology, institution and manipulation (2)'.

Liu Yi 刘艺

The people involved in such power positions are the ones Lefevere sees as ‘rewriting’ literature and governing its consumption by the general public. The motivation for such rewriting can be ideological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant ideology) or poetological (conforming to or rebelling against the dominant/preferred poetics)” (Munday 194). And translation is the most obviously recognizable type of rewriting (Lefevere 9).

Translator’s view on translation, for example, reflecting the translators’ ideology, can conform to or rebel against the social dominant ideology.

参与这种权力地位的人，就是莱弗维尔认为的 "改写 "文学并支配大众消费的人。这种改写的动机可以是意识形态的（顺应或反抗主流意识形态），也可以是诗学的（顺应或反抗主流/偏好的诗学）"（Munday 194）。而翻译是最明显可识别的重写类型（Lefevere 9）。

例如，译者的翻译观，反映了译者的意识形态，可以顺应或反抗社会主流意识形态。--Liu Yi (talk) 00:16, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜

For Lefevere, the literary system in which translation functions is controlled by two main factors, which are: (1) professionals within the literary system, who partly determine the dominant poetics; and (2) patronage outside the literary system, which partly determines the ideology. The “professionals within the literary system” include translators themselves, who decide on the poetics and at times influence the ideology of the translated text (Munday 194).

Thus, the role of translator is essential and the translator’s ideology have an great influence on the translation text and the text reader.

Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟

“For Lefevere, the most important consideration is the ideological one. In this case, it refers to the translator’s ideology or the ideology imposed upon the translator by patronage. The poetological consideration refers to the dominant poetics in the TL culture. Together, ideology and poetics dictate the translation strategy and the solution to specific problems” (Munday 197).

D.Venuti

Then Venuti insists that the scope of translation studies needs to be broadened to take account of the value-driven nature of the sociocultural framework.

Lou Cancan 娄灿灿

“Norms may be in the first instance linguistic or literary, but they will also include a diverse range of domestic values, beliefs, and social representations which carry ideological force in serving the interests of specific groups. And they are always housed in the social institutions where translations are produced and enlisted in cultural and political agendas” (29).

Munday suggests, the groups and social institutions to which Venuti refers would include the various players in the publishing industry as a whole . . . Each of these players has a particular position and role within the dominant cultural and political agendas of their time and place. The translators themselves are part of that culture, which they can either accept or rebel against (217).

Luo Weijia 罗维嘉

Therefore, being part of the culture, translators are influenced by the social and patronage ideology, and the poetics. Nevertheless, translators more or less enjoys some autonomy. For example, translators’ views on translation, i.e. the understanding of translation, can be conformed to or rebellious against the culture. And then their views on translation, influence their specific translation behavior such as the works they choose to translate and their translation principles. Next are three examples for us to discuss how the translators’ views on translation immediately influence their translation behaviors.

Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴

To narrow the differences of the social ideology down, three translators in modern period of China (after 1949) will be discussed in this thesis. However, because they are born in different climate and stage of the society, no doubt that they have distinctive world outlook from each other, resulting in their distinctive views on translation. But focus will still be on the influence exerted by their views on their translation behavior.

Ma Juan 马娟

II.Three Examples in Modern Period of China

A.Xu Yuanchong (1921-): Translation is translators’ responsibility.

For Xu Yuanchong, Chinese translators have a responsibility to translate the foreign masterpieces into Chinese and Chinese excellent works of literature into foreign languages, in order to introduce the advanced ideas to China and also bring the foreigners the splendid culture of China, during which the world will be more culturally rich and diversely civilized.

Ma Shuya 马淑雅

In this case, Xu Yuanchong further puts forward that the histories and evolution of the two cultures are very different from each other, with distinct advantages and disadvantages If they can learn the strong points from each other to offset their weakness, they can both be improved. In this respect, translation can be considered as a rivalry between two different cultures. The translation can even surpass the original work. If we make full use of the advantages of one culture to perfect another , the culture of all the humanity will be developed. This is the ultimate goal of the translator (“Surpass” 47). Based on this view, Xu Yuanchong proposed the Rivalry Theory and the Theory of Advantage.

Ma Zhixing 马智星

Therefore, in order to exchange the advantages between cultures, the foreign works Xu Yuanchong had translated are some western masterpieces includes: Madame Bovary, Le Rouge et le Noir, Jean Christophe, etc. And also some Chinese classical works especially the classical Chinese poetry: 150 Tang Poems, 100 Tang and Song Poems, 300 Poems Chinois Classiques, Selected Poems of Mao Zedong, The Romance of Western Bower, Earth-shaking Songs (the selected poems written by Chinese modern revolutionists), etc.

Meng Ying 孟莹

By translating the essence of one culture and ideology into another languages, he demonstrates our advantages and at the same time offers Chinese people the opportunities to enjoy the classics of another culture.

Xu Yuanchong’s view on translation also influences his translation principles. Take the first sentence of Jean Christophe as an example:

Le grondement du fleuve monte derrére la maison. (Jean Christophe)

From behind the house rises the murmuring of the river. (English)

江声浩荡，自屋后上升。(Fu Lei)

江流滚滚，声震屋后。(Xu Yuanchong)

Mo Ling 莫玲

The french word “grondement” means “roaring” or “murmuring” in English. The English translation seems to be coherent in the paragraph and the following content. However, as to the whole work, Xu Yuanchong considers that “浩荡” in Fu Lei’s translation is more powerful and symbolic of the spectacular river cutting through Europe, and some readers even take Fu Lei’s translation as “the classical opening sentence” of the work, which proves it a translation that surpasses the original one.

法语中的“grondement”在英语中的意思为“咆哮”或是“低吼”。在段落中和接下来的语境中英语翻译的版本似乎都是比较合理的。然而，就通篇文章来看，许渊冲认为傅雷翻译的“浩荡”更加形象地描绘出了这条横跨欧洲的大河的力量。一些读者甚至把傅雷翻译的版本当作这一作品的经典开头，这也从侧面表明傅雷的译文的确比原始翻译版本好。--Mo Ling (talk) 15:03, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

法语单词“grondement”在英语中的意思是“咆哮”或“喃喃自语”。英文版译文在段落之间和以下内容中似乎是连贯的。但是，就整个作品来看，许渊冲认为傅雷在其译文中所使用的“浩荡”一词更具力量，能更加形象地描绘这条横贯欧洲的壮观河流，有些读者甚至将傅雷的译文当成了这一作品的“经典开篇句”，证明了其译文已经超越了原作。--Ding Daifeng (talk) 03:58, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Mo Nan 莫南

And then Xu Yuanchong also translated this sentence (as above), replacing “浩荡” with “滚滚” for its more similar sound to “grondement”. And “声震屋后” is also a symbol of the impact of the great achievement of the musician in the work (Yang et.al 35-38). Here appears another translation principle of Xu Yuanchong: “literary translation is art (Art 20)” and “beauty in three aspects”, namely, “beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form”, having developed Lu Xun as well as Lin Yutang’s theory of beauty.

Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼

This is the reason why Xu Yuanchong emphasizes the similar sound of “滚滚” to “grondement”. Another example is still a sentence in Jean Christophe:

Il marchait sur le monde. (Jean Christophe)

他踏着全世界直立着。（鲁迅）

他顶天立地的在世界上走着。（傅雷）

(qtd. “Re-creation” 222)

Which translation corresponds to the original best? Lu Xun’s translation is similar in from while Fu Lei’s is in style. In this case, Xu Yuanchong considers there is one solution, that is to change the question as “Which translation is more beautiful and delightful for readers?”

Ou Rong 欧蓉

He also quotes “Qu’ importe celui qui crée? Il’y a de réel que ce qu’on crée” said by Romain Rolland to indicate that the translator ought to make the translation more of art to give readers an enjoyment of beauty rather than to captiously keep the author’s style. So he is in favor of Fu Lei’s translation.

The last example goes to the translation of the last sentence of Uprising Songs (《起义歌》) written by Sun Zhongshan, collected in Earth-shaking Songs:

Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰

顶天立地奇男子，要把乾坤扭转过来。(Uprising Songs)

Heroes of indomitable spirit, arise!

Let us transform the old world and reverse the tide! (previous translation)

Heroes who would move heaven and earth, arise! (Xu Yuanchong)

Xu Yuanchong suggests that in the previous translation, translating “顶天立地” only into “indomitable spirit” is in want of the image of “天” and “地”. Also, as it were, the readers cannot enjoy the beauty of the SL, which is thus a failure in the rivalry of two cultures. So he translated the sentence as above, keeping the impression of “天地” to have the readers appreciate the beauty of the original work, in other words, to win the rivalry between the ST and TT (“Re-creation” 221-222).

Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between tow cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized. The translation not only should be faithful to the original, but also be powerful and infectious to readers, even giving an much more profound impression than the original work.

B.Liu Zhongde (1914-): Translation is a way to make foreign masterpieces to serve China.

许渊冲认为翻译是一种艺术，也是两种文化的碰撞，所以他选择翻译那些中西经典作品并且强调翻译要体现美感。翻译不仅要忠实于原文，还要能影响并感染读者，让他们产生比对原作品更深刻的印象。

B.刘重德（1914-）：翻译外国著作是为服务于中国。--Ouyang Ling

许渊冲认为,翻译既是一种艺术，也是两种文化的碰撞，所以他选择翻译那些中西方经典作品，并强调在翻译的同时，还要体现译文的美感。翻译不仅要忠实于原文，还要能够感染读者，让他们对译文产生比对原作品更深刻的印象。

B.刘重德（1914-）：翻译是为外国著作服务于中国。--Guo Lu (talk) 12:23, 3 November 2020 (UTC) 许渊冲认为翻译是一种艺术，是两种文化间的碰撞。所以在翻译选材时，他选择那些中西方经典作品，并强调翻译应当体现译文的美感。翻译不仅要忠实原文，还要有魅力感染读者，让他们对译作产生比对原作更深刻的印象。--Zhang Peiwen (talk) 07:22, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

Peng Dan 彭丹

In order to make the western masterpieces more popular in China, Liu Zhongde decided to devote himself to a career in translation. By translating the western works into Chinese, as far as he concerns, the advanced thoughts can serve Chinese intellectuals and further improve the whole country. He was the first person who introduced Jane Austin’s Emma to China. But he were not satisfied with his first translation of Emma and at last in 1990s he re-translated it and corrected the errors he had made, which reflected his spirit of improving himself constantly and his rigorous scholarship (Ten 178 ).

Peng Juan 彭娟

Thus, most works Liu Zhongde translated were the western classics such as Uncle Tom’s Cabin, Confessions of an English Opium-Eater, Emma, Darwin, etc. He seldom translated Chinese works into English.

In order to convey to the Chinese readers the exact ideas and original style and content of the ST, Liu Zhongde puts much emphasis on the “closeness” of the translation. He says the translator should always remember what he is working at is a literacy work written by somebody else and try his utmost to turn his translation into a work of art which is in conformity with the thought, feeling and style of the original.

Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏

Thus, the translation will be as moving and vivid as the original work and the reader may be aesthetically entertained as well (Ten 122-123).

Therefore he developed from Yan Fu’s three principles－“信达雅 (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance)” into “信达切 (faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness)” as a set of principles for translation reference: “The style of your translation must correspond, or at least, be close, to that of the original you are working at . . . the ideological content, linguistic expression and stylistic characteristics of a literary work constitute a unified entity, and the translator should reproduce the three elements as a whole” (Ten 122).

因此，翻译将像原始作品一样动人且生动，读者也可以从美学上得到快感（“十” 122-123）。

因此，他从严复的三个原则“信达雅（忠实，表现力和优雅）”发展为“信达切（忠实，表现力和亲密）”，作为一套翻译参考原则：“翻译风格必须 与您工作的原件相对应或至少相近...文学作品的思想内容，语言表达和文体特征构成一个统一的实体，译者应将三个要素作为一个整体加以再现”（“十” 122）。--Peng Ruihong (talk) 10:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲

Being different from Xuyuanchong, Liu Zhongde holds that “literary translation has a double nature. That’s to say, on the one hand, it is a science with its own laws and methods and on the other, it is an art” (Ten 2).

So how exactly does Liu Zhongde’s views on translation influence his translation principles? There are two examples as follows.

Here is a translation of “回乡偶书” by Liu Zhongde:

回乡偶书 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。 (the original poem)

Homecoming I left home quite young, and I come back very old. My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray. Kids don’t know me when one another we behold. “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say. (Liu Zhongde’s translation)

和许渊冲不同，刘重德认为“文学翻译具有双重性。也就是说，“一方面，它是一门有自己规律和方法的科学，另一方面，它又是一门艺术”（Ten 2)。

那么，刘重德的翻译观点究竟是如何影响他的翻译原则呢？有以下两个示例。

这是刘重德对《回乡偶书》一诗的翻译。

回乡偶书 少小离家老大回，乡音无改鬓毛衰。 儿童相见不相识，笑问客从何处来。 (原诗)

Homecoming I left home quite young, and I come back very old. My accent remains the same, but my hair turns gray. Kids don’t know me when one another we behold. “Where do you come from?” with a smile to me they say. (刘重德的译文)--Peng Xiaoling (talk) 08:15, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Peng Yongliang 彭永亮

This translation adapts so well the style and features of TT to the ST that it seems to be an original work written by Liu Zhongde himself. We can appreciate the same meaning and emotion the original work expresses. The TT keeps the the same number of lines just as the ST: each of the sentence has 12 syllables. The rhyme pattern of ST is also kept: the first line rhymes with the third, and the second with the forth. The TT is exactly an expression of sound, form and sense of the ST (Jiang 196-197).

Peng Yuzhi 彭育志

The next two examples are from Liu Zhongde’s re-translation of Emma:

(1)The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(Previous translation)

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(Liu Zhongde)

“神乎其技” in the previous translation does not correspond to the plain style of “much beyond it” in ST. It is true that a Chinese four-character-word can embody a complex meaning, but the style it can be applied to is supposed to be formal and academic. In this sentence, the style of “神乎其技” is not appropriate at all, while a simpler word should be used. Thus Liu Zhongde replaced “神乎其技” with “大大超过我的弹奏”.

以下两例来自刘重德对Emma的重译：

（1）The truth is, Harriet, that my playing is Just good enough to be praised, but Jane Fairfax’s is much beyond it.

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却是神乎其技了。(前译)

事实是，赫蕊埃特，我的弹奏恰恰好到值得称赞，但简·凡凡可斯的弹奏却大大超过我的弹奏。(刘重德)

前译中的“神乎其技”与原文本中"much beyond it" 体现的平易文风不相符。中文的四字词确实可以表现复杂的含义，但它应该用于正式文体和学术文体中。在此句中，“神乎其技”体现的风格与原文毫不相称，应该用更简单的词代替，所以刘重德用“大大超过我的弹奏”替换了“神乎其技”。

Qi Kai 漆凯

(2)“Just as they always do-very vulgar.”

还不是像他们平常那样——俗不可耐。(Previous translation)

还不是像他们平常那样——很庸俗。(Liu Zhongde)

(Jiang 278-279)

The four-character-word “俗不可耐” in the previous translation does not conform to the plain or colloquial style of ST, either, just like “神乎其技” mentioned above. Liu Zhongde changed it into “庸俗” to be in line with the original style.

Qu Miao 瞿淼

For Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected by him and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original.

C.Li Jihong (1980-): Translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings.

对于刘重德来说，翻译是一种科学，是一种中国人学习西方人长处的方式，因此他选择西方杰作来翻译，并强调译作的“切”，以此来切实地传达原文意思和风格。 李继宏（1980-）：翻译终究是一种人类的素材生产活动。--Qu Miao (talk) 09:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

刘重德认为，翻译是一门科学，通过翻译，中国人可以学习西方人的长处。因此，他挑选西方杰出的文学作品来翻译，并强调译作的“切”，以此来切实地传达原文意思和风格。 李继宏（1980-）：翻译终究是人类的一种素材生产活动。--Xu Jia (talk) 02:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

Quan Meixin 全美欣

As to Li Jihong, translation after all is one of the material production activities of human beings. In an article called “The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace with the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay” against the view of another translator, Shi Kangqiang, he says that the pay of translation in the new period is different from that of the old times, mainly because of the translation tools which belonging to the production tools, have already been developed today into computers, digital data, Internet, etc. As a result, the translation speed is supposed to be improved. Therefore, a professional translator nowadays can definitely earn a decent life by translating 1000 words each hour, 8 hours a day. And for every 1000 words they can earn 60 yuan.

Sagara Seydou

The article aims to oppose to Shi Kangqiang’s opinion that the appalling pay translators receive influence the quality of the translation, but it also reveals Li Lihong’s view on translation from his borrowing lots of economic theories and activities, numbers, calculation of the pay to support his opinion, his favors to the publishers’ increasing reward on the sales of the translation work and his announcement that he have translated The Kite Runner (written by Khaled Hosseini), 195190 words, for only 10 days, 15 hours a day.

Shi Diwen 石迪文

In this article he also says: “Any responsible translators will not translate for the personal income,” but he adds next, “ In fact, the support for his translation is the letters from readers, in addition to the high income.” Although the total contradiction in his saying is confusing, it still can be inferred that money is an important motivation for his translation, if not the most important one.

Shi Haiyao 石海瑶

The works Li Jihong translated are foreign classics such as Le Petit Prince, The Old Man and the Sea, Animal Farm, The Great Gatsby, Walden, The Moon and Sixpence, Pride and Prejudice and The Sound and Fury. However, all those works and the values of them have already been well received in China, with several translations in market.

To begin with the work that he have translated “for only 10 days, 15 hours a day” as he says, The Kite Runner written by Khaled Hosseini:

Si Yu 司妤

(1)We left the old man on the steps of that building. I meant to take him up on his offer, come back and see if he’d unearthed any more stories about my mother. But I never saw him again (Hosseini 251).

我们离开了坐在那座房子台阶上的老人。我原想带他到他的办公室去，看看他能否想起更多关于我妈妈的事情。但我再也没有见到他 (Li 243)。

In this text, “take somebody. up on something” means “to accept an offer, an invitation that somebody has made 接受（提议或邀请）” in Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (438). Also according to the whole context, the old man, a beggar, had been a colleague of “my” mother who I had never met. He told me a story about “my” mother and promised me more details about her: “ The old man smiled. ‘I’ll try to remember and that’s a promise. Come back and find me ’ (Hosseini 250).”

Song Jianru 宋建茹

It can be inferred that the old man offered the narrator a chance to know more about his mother. Thus, the “offer” means “邀请” instead of “办公室 (office)”. What’s more, It seems like the word “offer” is misread as “office” by the translator. Perhaps the translator is too busy translating as fast as possible to check his translation carefully.

我们可以推断出，这位老人给了叙述者一个了解他母亲更多信息的机会。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”这个词似乎是被译者误读成了“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，而没有仔细检查他的译文是否正确。--Song Jianru (talk) 14:48, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

由此推断，这位老人让叙述者可以更好地了解他母亲。因此，“offer”的意思是“邀请”，而不是“办公室 (office)”。此外，“offer”一词似乎是被译者误读成“office”。也许是译者忙着尽快翻译，所以没有仔细检查其译文是否正确。--Zhang Weihong (talk) 06:10, 7 November 2020 (UTC) Zhang Weihong

Su Lin 苏琳

(2)“Your job today is to pass gas. You do that and we can start feeding you liquids. No fart, no food.” He laughed again (Hosseini 297).

“你今天的工作是排便。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不见粪便，不给食物。”他又哈哈大笑 (Li 287)。

The speaker was a staff in hospital, and he was asking the patient who had just come to himself from a surgery “to pass gas”. The relevant meaning of “gas” in The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary is “[物理]气体、瓦斯” (726), of “pass” is “通过” (1338). And “fart” as a noun means “放屁 (emit wind from the anus)” (632). In conclusion, “排便” does not correspond to the original meaning of the ST. So the translation can be righted as “你今天的工作是排气。你完成之后我们才能开始喂你吃流食。不放屁，不给食物。” This is also a very small and simple mistake. The translator should be more cautious about translating.

Tan Xingyue 谭星越

This summer holiday I have read another book translated by Li Jihong: The Moon and Sixpence written by William Somerset Maugham, and also find some odd translation and neglect. Here are two examples:

(1)“Do you think it’s likely that a man will do any good when he starts at your age? Most men begin painting at eighteen.”

“I can learn quicker than I could when I was eighteen (Mauguam 48).”

你认为一个人从你这个年纪开始学画能学得好吗？大多数人从十八岁就开始画了。”

“如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些 (Li 54)。”

The second sentence, a very simple one, means that even if “I” am old now, I can learn even quicker than I could when I was at eighteen. In Chinese it can be translated as, for instance, “我能比我十八岁的时候学得还快.” But Li’s translation “如果我今年十八岁，我可以学得快一些” means “I can learn quicker if I were eighteen,” which has a totally different meaning from the ST.

Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁

(2)...for they felt themselves freemen of a country whose frontiers include them all, the great country of Cockaigne (Mauguam 169).

因为他们觉得大家都是自由民，同属于想象中的天堂之国 (Li 203)。

According to Encyclopedia Britannica, “Cockaigne, also spelled Cockayne, imaginary land of extreme luxury and ease where physical comforts and pleasures are always immediately at hand. References to Cockaigne are especially prominent in medieval European lore. These accounts describe rivers of wine, houses built of cake and barley sugar, streets paved with pastry, and shops that gratuitously give goods to everyone. 因为他们觉得自己是这个国家的自由民，这个国家包括他们在内，这个国家就是伟大的“Cockaigne”（安乐乡）。 根据《大英百科全书》，“Cockaigne“也拼作“Cockayne”，这是一个极度奢华舒适的想象之地，物质享受和快乐总是近在咫尺。在中世纪的欧洲传说中，关于“Cockaigne“的提及尤为突出。这些故事描述了流淌着酒的河流，用蛋糕和大麦糖建造的房屋，铺满糕点的街道，以及向每个人免费赠送物品的商店。--Tan Xinjie (talk) 10:17, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛

Roast geese wander about inviting people to eat them, and buttered larks fall from the skies like manna.” Being ignorant of the rich meaning of this word, Li Jihong translated it to “天堂之国” without any explanation. In fact, in this book, Li Jihong adds 206 explanatory notes for the words like “Shakespeare (莎士比亚)”, “Balzac (巴尔扎克)” and “Footnote (生丁)”, however, “Cockaigne” is not included.

烤鹅徘徊着邀请人们吃掉自己，黄油百灵像甘露一样从天上落下。” 李积宏不知道这个词的丰富含义，没有任何解释就将其翻译成“天堂之国”。 实际上，在本书中，李继宏为“莎士比亚”，“巴尔扎克”和“生丁”等词添加了206个解释性注释，但其中不包括“鸡尾酒”。--Tan Yuanyuan (talk) 09:01, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

烤鹅徘徊着邀请人们吃掉自己，黄油百灵像甘露一样从天上落下。”李积宏不知道这个词的丰富含义，没有任何解释就将其翻译成“天堂之国”。事实上,在这本书中,李继宏为“莎士比亚”，“巴尔扎克”和“生丁”等词添加了206个解释性注释，但其中不包括“鸡尾酒”。--XiaoXi (talk) 11:38, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

Tang Bei 汤蓓

Li Jihong’s translation is popular for his elaborate introduction of the work and explanatory notes, which as he says, can help readers to understand the work easier. And some famous people also recommend his translations for his translation is more understandable than others. However, as far as I am concerned, being understandable is not the essence of a translation.

Tang Ming 唐铭

From Xu Yuanchong and Liu Zhongde we know there are various translation principles, for instance the former’s “beauty in three aspects: sense, sound and form” and the latter’s “faithfulness, expressiveness and closeness”, nevertheless, the “faithfulness” to the original is emphasized.

III.Conclusion

This is how the views of translation influence the translators’ behavior, specifically the translation work choosing and their translation principles demonstrated by the translation examples of the three translators.

Tang Yiran 汤伊然

For Xu Yuanchong the translation is an art, a rivalry between two cultures, so the classics works of western world and China are chosen and the feeling of beauty in the translation is emphasized; while for Liu Zhongde, translation is a science, a way for Chinese to learn the advantages of westerners, thus the western masterpieces are selected and the “closeness” in translation is underlined to convey the closet meaning and style of the original. In fact, for both of them translation should be a responsibility that should be treated serious by translators, while as for Li Jihong, translation is just a production activity, a tool to make money or to gain the population, fame and the sense of superiority. Therefore, the economic effect and the speed is highlighted, the minor mistakes were made, and the translator’s personality was manifested so much that it even overshadowed the style and meaning of the original work.

许渊冲认为翻译是一门艺术，是两种文化之间的较量，因此他侧重翻译西方和中国经典作品，并强调翻译的美感；而刘重德认为翻译是一门科学，是中国人学习西方人长处的一种方式，因此他偏重于翻译西方名著，强调翻译中的 “贴近性”，以传达原著的贴近意义和风格。其实，于两者而言，翻译是译者的一种责任，应认真对待，反观李继宏，翻译于他只是一种生产活动，一种赚钱或者获得人气、名气和优越感的工具。因此他注重经济效益和速度，译文多有瑕疵，译者的个性得到极大彰显，甚至掩盖了原作的风格和意义。--Tang Yiran1 (talk) 01:17, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

许渊冲认为翻译是一门艺术，是两种文化之间的竞争，因此他侧重翻译西方和中国经典作品，并强调翻译的美感；而刘重德认为翻译是一门科学，是中国人学习西方人长处的一种方式，因此他偏重于翻译西方名著，强调翻译中的 “切合性”，以传达切合原著的意义和风格。其实，于两者而言，翻译是译者的一种责任，应认真对待，反观李继宏，翻译于他只是一种生产活动，一种赚钱或者获得人气、名气和优越感的工具。因此他注重经济效益和速度，译文多有瑕疵，译者的个性得到极大彰显，甚至掩盖了原作的风格和意义。--Lin Min (talk) 01:57, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Tao Ye 陶冶

For those responsible translators, their translations, imprinted all their individual ideology, experience and reflection, almost like an original work, are supposed to be a special thing. As Thomas C. Foster puts at the end of his How to Read Literature Like a Professor, “My favorite was the apology to the poem itself: ‘Well, little book, you’re not that much but you’re the best I could make you. Now you’ll just have to make your way in the world as best you can. Fare thee well.’” (129), a lot of care and attachment will be taken to the work you made, whatever it is, a poem, a fiction or a translation work. Only if you devote yourself to the translation with painstaking effort, can the translation be respected and appreciated by your readers.

Wang Meiling 王美玲

Fu Lei had ever said, “translation should be based on the knowledge of art: without a sensitive soul, earnest sympathy, appropriate appreciation, relative social experience or sufficient common sense (i.e. broad knowledge), a translator neither will understand the original work thoroughly nor grasp the essence of it” (qtd. Xu Jun 253). Because that translators’ views on translation have a great influence on his translation, he should first be earnest to “translation”, and then be diligent, especially when the translation work is carrying the weight of the original work. For translators, translation is never a individual activity, but a responsibility to the author, the SL culture, the reader, the TL culture and eventually themselves.

Wang Xuan 王轩

Work Cited（文献不需要翻译）

胡塞尼· 卡勒德. (Hosseini, Khaled). 《追风筝的人》 (The Kite Runner). 李继宏译 (Tran. Li Jihong). 上海: 上海人民出版社, 2008.

蒋坚松 (Jiang Jiansong) 彭利元 (Peng Liyuan), ed. 《刘重德翻译思想及其他》(Liu Zhongde’s Tanslation Theories and Others). 长沙(Changsha): 湖南师范大学出版社 (Hunan Normal University Press), 2003. Print.

李继宏 (Li Jihong), 《文学翻译也需与时俱进：谈谈翻译速度和稿酬问题》 (“The Literary Translation Should Keep Pace With the Times: The Translation Speed and Pay”). 豆瓣网 (douban). 13 Jan. 2013 <https://site.douban.com/179084/widget/articles/10191245/article/23864139/?dt_dapp=1>

刘重德 (Liu Zhongde), ed.《文学翻译十讲》(Ten Lectures on Literary Translation). 北京(Beijing): 中国对外翻译出版社 (China Duiwai Translation Press), 2000. Print.

毛姆·威廉. (Maugham, William). 《月亮和六便士》 (The Moon an Sixpence).李继宏译 (Trans. Li Jihong). 天津 (Tianjin): 天津人民出版社 (Tianjin Renmin Press), 2018. Print.

许钧. (Xu Jun).《翻译论》(Translation Theory). 武汉 (Wuhan)： 湖北教育出版社 (Hubei Education Press), 2003. Print.

许渊冲. (Xu Yuanchong). 《译文能否胜过原文》(“Can the Translation Surpass the Original”). 《教学研究》(Teaching Method Research), no. 2 (1982): 39-47. ---. ed.《再创作与翻译风格》(“Re-creation and Translation Style”). 《文学与翻译》 (Literature and Translation). 北京 (Beijing)：北京大学出版社 (Beijing University Press), 2016. 221-229. Print.

---.《翻译的艺术》(The Art of Translation). 北京 (Beijing): 五洲传播出版社 (Wuzhou Chuanbo Press), 2006. Print.

杨绛(Yang Jiang), 李文俊 (Li Wenjun, et al.) 等. 《一本书和一个世界》(A Book and A World). 北京 (Beijing): 昆仑出版社 (Kun Lun Press), 2005: 35-38. Print. 周领顺. (Zhou Lingshun). 《译者行为批评：理论框架》(A Theoretical Framework for Translator Behavior Criticism). 北京 (Beijing)：商务印书馆 (The Commercial Press), 2014. Print.

Bassnett, S. and A. Lefevere. Translation History and Culture. London and New York: Pinter, 1990. Print.

Cockaigne. Encyclopedia Britannica. 27 Jun. 2013. Web. 17 Nov. 2019 <https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cockaigne >

Even-Zohar, Itamar. The position of translated literature within the literary polysystem. Papers in Historical Poetics. Tel Aviv: The Porter Institute, 1978. 21-7. Print.

Fart. The New Oxford Illustrated English-Chinese Dictionary. Beijing: Renmin University of China, 2004. Print.

Foster. C. Thomas. How to Read Literature Like a Professor. New York: HarperCollins Publishers Inc. 2003. Print.

Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: The Berkley Publishing Group, 2003. Print.

Lefevere, A. Translation, Rewriting and the Manipulation of Literary Fame. London and New York: Routledge, 1992a. Print.

Maugham, William. The Moon an Sixpence. London: Pan Books Ltd, 1974. Print.

Munday, Jeremy. Introducing Translation Studies. New York: Routledge, 2012. Print.

Take sb. up on sth.” Phrasal Verbs Dictionary. 2013. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd, 2017. Print.

Venuti. L. The Scandals of Translation: Towards an Ethics of Difference. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Print.

Contemporary Translation Studies An Analysis of the Book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications

摘要：爱德温·根茨勒的《当代翻译理论》和杰米里·芒迪的《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》被视为翻译史上不可多得的巨作。本文通过对两本巨著的介绍之后，节选了其中有名的翻译理论即尤金·奈达的形式对等理论和功能对等理论以及亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒和严复的翻译原则进行比较，来阐述了翻译的基本准则。通过对比尤金·奈达的形式对等和功能对等理论，找出其优缺点并结合适当的例子，有利于读者把握奈达的翻译思想来更好地指导其翻译实践。同时，通过分析亚历山大 弗雷泽·泰特勒的翻译原则的优缺点再将其与严复的翻译理论做比较，有利于读者理解中西方翻译的差异，来更好地理解在跨文化的语境中如何做好翻译。

关键词：爱德温·根茨勒、《当代翻译理论》、杰米里·芒迪、《介绍翻译理论：理论与实践》、尤金·奈达、形式对等、功能对等、亚历山大·弗雷泽·泰特勒、严复、翻译原则

Wang Yu 王煜

Abstract: Edwin Gentzler’s Contemporary Translation Theories and Jeremy Munday’s Introducing Translation studies: Theories and Applications are both regarded as the masterpieces in the discipline of translation. After giving a brief introduction of these two great works, this paper tends to select the famous translation theories from the book namely Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and functional equivalence and the translation principles of Alexander Fraser Tytler and Yan Fu to define the basic principles of translation.

Wang Yuan 王源

After analyzing the Nida’s theories of formal equivalence and functional equivalence, it is better for the readers to understand the Nida’s translation ideas to better guide him in the translation practice by combining the concrete examples to illustrate its advantages and disadvantages. In the meantime, by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages of Tytler’s translation principles and the comparison between the translation principles of Tytler and Yan Fu, it’s better for the readers to understand the influence of difference in the eastern and western cultures on translation. In such a way, it’s better for the translators to do the translation practice in the cross-cultural situation.

Wei Honglang 韦洪朗

Key words: Edwin Gentzler; Contemporary Translation Theories; Jeremy Munday; Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications; Eugene Nida; Formal Equivalence; Functional Equivalence; Alexander Fraser Tytler; Yan Fu; Translation Principles

'Introduction:

In this essay, it presents the author’s understanding of the two books: Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper tends to concentrate on the discussion of four important translation theories.

Wei Yafei 魏亚菲

This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: Contemporary Translation Theories, and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation.

Wen Sixing 文偲荇

This paper will be divided into three parts. Firstly, after a brief introduction of the great book: Contemporary Translation Theories, and then it will focus on the analyzing of the Eugne Nida’s two famous translation theories namely formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. By giving out its definition, it’s easier to find the advantage and disadvantage of these two concepts. Then, this paper will go on introducing briefly the Chomsky’s translation studies. And then it will find some commonness and distinction in Nida’s and Chomsky’s opinions in translation.

本文将分为三个部分。首先，在简要介绍了伟大的著作《当代翻译理论》之后，重点分析了奈达的两种著名的翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等。通过给出它们的定义，我们更容易发现这两个概念的优点和缺点。然后，本文将对乔姆斯基的翻译研究进行简要介绍。然后在翻译中找出奈达和乔姆斯基观点的共性和区别。--Wensixing (talk) 11:39, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

该论文将分为三个部分展开。首先，对巨著《当代翻译理论》进行简要介绍之后，此论文将着重分析奈达的两大著名翻译理论，即形式对等和动态对等。通过给出这两大概念的定义，我们更易于发现它们的优缺点。其次，该论文将简单介绍乔姆斯基的翻译研究。最后找出奈达和乔姆斯基的翻译观之间的同和异。--Zhu Suyao (talk) 01:18, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺

I Analysis of the book Contemporary Translation Theories

Recently, it is a great pleasure to read a very famous book called Contemporary Translation Theories whose author is called Edwin Gentzler. The second edition of this book has received great success. The publication of this book is significant to the global translation study academia. “Since the mid-19th century, translation theory has maderapid progress, Edwin Gentzler finds out what is useful and rejects what is useless on the translation of today's theories in this book”(Li 2014:111).

Wu Kai 吴恺

He also makes a Detailed description in detail several major schools of translation:The North American Translation Workshop, the “Science” of Translation, Early Translation Studies, the Polysystem Translation and Deconstruction. In this book, it presents what is happening in different parts within the discipline. “Gentzler uses his provoke thinking viewpoint to trace the development of literary translation studies from the American translation workshop program, through the polysystems research to deconstruction and postcolonial translation theory and beyond”(Xu and Wang 2000:42).

他还详细介绍了几种主要的翻译学派：北美翻译研讨会，翻译的“科学”，早期的翻译研究，多元系统翻译和解构。 在这本书中还介绍了该学科不同部分的情况。“根茨勒用他发散的思维观点，从美国翻译研讨会计划，到从解构主义和后殖民翻译理论及以后的多元系统研究来追溯文学翻译研究的发展”--Wu Kai (talk) 12:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

他还详细介绍了几种主要的翻译学派：北美翻译培训学派，翻译科学学派，早期翻译研究派，多元体系学派和解构主义学派。本书介绍了该学科不同学派中的情况。 “根茨勒阐述了他发人深省的观点，从多元系统研究的角度，追溯了从美国翻译培训学派至解构主义学派以及后殖民翻译理论中文学翻译的发展”(Xu and Wang 2000:42)。--Xu Jing2 (talk) 08:27, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Wu Qi 吴琪

This book not only provides us with a deep way of theorizing the translation but also is effectively a translation practice . At the end of this book, he also points out the future of translation and sends his positive attitude about the translation’s future. The author turns a whole number of the complex theoretical material into accessible language, so that everyone who doesn’t read any books about translation can read this book freely. Apart from that, each chapter in this book is separated so you can read each chapter alone without relying on your understanding of the other chapters. By this way, it is more convenient for us to find the topic of translation that we are interested in to read and find valuable informationfor us. Gentzler’s book provides us with a precise analysis about what the translation school achieved so far and gives his insight into the future of translation.

Wu Qiong 吴琼

“This book stands as a continuing translation textbook with some of the most important theories in the field such as “the same aesthetic experience, dynamic equivalence, corresponding literary function, or the deconstruction theory of Derrida”(Li 2014:112). Despite distinct focus, each theory is completed by a conceptual framework that thinks original existence and an understanding of it in the target society. At present, “all translation theories have kept rigid distinction between original texts and their translations text”(Xu and Wang 2000:43).

In the chapter 2, this book introduces the American translation workshop. In this chapter, it mainly introduces the A. Richard’s new criticism and translation, Ezra Pound’s theory of luminous details, Frederic Will’s the paradox of translation and Lawrence Venuti’s rethinking translation.

“这本书是翻译教材的续本，涵盖了此领域最重要的理论，例如‘相同美感经历、动态对等、相应的文学功能，以及德里达的结构理论‘。尽管有不同的重点，但每种理论都是在思考初始存在和了解目的社会的概念框架中形成的。如今，‘所有的翻译理论对于原文和译文的区分都很生硬。‘“

在第二章，这本书介绍了美国翻译工作坊。这一章主要介绍了A.里查德的新批判主义和翻译，艾滋拉庞德的细节翻译理论，弗雷德里克翻译和劳伦斯韦努蒂的反思翻译。--WuQiong (talk) 08:05, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Wu Xiang 邬香

In it workshop, “it emphasizes that translation is a marginal activity, not considered as a proper field of study”(Gentzler 2001:5). However, as time goes by, the process of growth and acceptance of translation boost when many translation courses and workshops were being offered at many universities. There appears many works about this translation workshop but it does not have many books about the translation theories. “In this workshop, the personal opinions may offer some help, but it still lacks the consistent theory to support translation”(Gentzler 2001:44).

Wu Yilu 吴一露

Therefore, it needs urgently a classified theory for the translation and it yields the coming of the “science” of translation. In this book, it mainly introduces Eugene Nida’s formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence and Noam Chomsky’s syntactic structure and generative-transformation grammar. Here, it will illustrate my understanding of these two concepts about formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Edwin Gentzler illustrated the concept of dynamic equivalence in his book Contemporary Translation Theories, Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. The relationship between the target language receptor and the target text should generally be equivalent to that between the source language receptor and the source text(2001:48).

当时迫切需要一个翻译分类理论，翻译“科学”就因此而诞生。本书主要介绍了奈达的形式对等和动态对等，以及乔姆斯基的句法结构和生成转换语法。在这本书中，我将说明我对形式等价和动态等价这两个概念的理解。埃德温•根茨勒在其著作《当代翻译理论》中阐述了动态对等的概念，他认为翻译就是用接受者的语言再现与源语信息最接近、最自然的对等，首先在意义上，其次在风格上。一般来说，译语接受者和译文之间的关系要与源语接受者和原文之间的关系对等。--Wu Yilu (talk) 02:10, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

因此，它迫切需要一个翻译分类理论，而翻译“科学”也在这一理论的孕育下诞生。本书主要介绍了尤金•奈达(Eugene Nida)的“形式对等”和“动态对等”，以及诺姆•乔姆斯基（Noam Chomsky）的句法结构和生成转换语法。在这本书中，我将说明我对“形式对等”和“动态对等”这两个概念的理解。埃德温•根茨勒（Edwin Gentzler）在其著作《当代翻译理论》中阐述了动态对等的概念，他认为翻译就是用最接近、最自然的语言从语义到文体再现源语的信息。一般来说，译语接受者和译文之间的关系要与源语接受者和原文之间的关系对等。--Yuan SHiqi (talk) 08:03, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Wu Zijia 吴子佳

In the dynamic equivalence, Nida focus on the correspondence of the feeling between the target language and the receptor and the source language and the learner. By his understanding, these two feeling should be the similar. More specifically, “dynamic equivalence considers more about the relationship between the reader and the information, which means that the target reader's response to the target text should be the same as that of the source reader's response to the source text”(Liu 2012:242). “Any foreignness and translationese should be avoided in the target text”(Ju 2000:203). Now, it will list the advantages of dynamic equivalence.

Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲

“On the one hand, the dynamic equivalence is “somewhat like the free translationwhich emphasizes the translation should achieve the same effect instead of being limitedin the content and form” (Li 2014:112). “It concentrates on the correct way of translating the content of the original text”(Shakernia 2013:2). On the other hand, “it focuses on readers' reaction and analyzes the translation process from the viewpoint of target readers”(Nida 1995:225). In this way, translation is not a single activity, but more social elements are added to make the translation concrete and specific. Moreover, in the dynamic equivalence, due to its classified translation principle it is more suitable to the translation of technology and science essays.

“一方面，动态对等和意译有点像，它强调的是翻译应达到原文一样的效果，而不应受到原文内容和格式的限制。” (Li 2014:112).“它侧重于翻译原文内容的正确方式”(Shakernia 2013:2)另一方面，“它注重读者的反应，并从目标读者的角度分析翻译过程。”(Nida 1995:225)从这方面来看，翻译并不是一项单一的活动，它增加了更多的社会元素从而使翻译更加明确和具体。此外，由于动态对等理论中的分类翻译原则，这一理论更适用于科技类文章的翻译。--Xiao Shuangling (talk) 07:20, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

“一方面，动态对等和意译有点相似，它强调译文实现和原文同样的效果，而不受限于原文内容和格式。” (Li 2014:112).“它侧重于翻译原文内容的正确方式”(Shakernia 2013:2)另一方面，“它注重读者反应，并从目标读者角度来分析翻译过程。”(Nida 1995:225)从这方面来看，翻译并不是一项单一的活动，通过增加更多社会元素,翻译变得更加明确更加具体。此外，由于动态对等理论中的分类翻译原则，这一理论更适用于科技类文章的翻译。--Yao Cheng (talk) 10:52, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Xiao Ting 肖婷

The dynamic equivalence provides us a detailed rule of translation during our process of translation so when we translate, we can find the reasonable principles to rely on. These essays should be more formal and official.

However, although the dynamic equivalence has gained a lot of praises it still deserves some limitations. Firstly, “it is just a language conversion and ignores the cultural information taken by the language, resulting in cultural domestication”(Liu 2012: 245). In fact, cultural differences are objective and can not be inevitable, and no one can avoid them.

动态对等理论为我们在翻译过程中提供了具体的翻译规则，这就让我们在翻译时有法可依，有理可据。这些文章应该是比较正规和正式的。 然而，虽然动态对等理论享誉良多，我们也应对其进行一定的限制。首先，“它只是一种语言转换，忽略了语言承载的文化，导致了文化驯化的现象”（刘2012:245）。事实上，文化差异是客观存在的，谁也无法避免。--Xiao Ting (talk) 09:29, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Ting

动态对等为我们在翻译过程中提供了一个详细的翻译规则，以便在翻译过程中找到合理的翻译原则。这些文章应该更加正规和正式。

然而，尽管动态对等理论得到了广泛的赞誉，但仍存在一些局限性。首先，“它只是一种语言转换，忽略了语言所承载的文化信息，导致了文化归化”（刘2012:245）。事实上，文化差异是客观存在的，不可能被避免，任何人都无法避免。--Xiao yining (talk) 12:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Xiao Xi 肖茜

If you have to maintain a dynamic equivalent translation, it will definitely have a negative impact on cultural communication. For example, “‘dongfeng’ is a positive image in Chinese culture while in western society it thinks the west wind is goodmorality”( Shakerni 2013:2) Therefore, it is strange that Shelley's singing of the west wind is translated into "ode to the east wind", because it will hinder the Chinese readers' understanding of the western world. 如果要保持动态对等的翻译，势必会对文化交流产生负面影响。例如,“在中华文化中‘东风’是一个积极的形象，在西方社会认为西风是良好品德”(Shakerni 2013:2)因此,奇怪的是雪莱的西风的歌唱是翻译成“歌唱东风”,因为它会阻碍中国读者对西方世界的了解。--XiaoXi (talk) 11:33, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Xi

如果要坚持动态对等翻译，这势必会对文化交流产生负面影响。例如，“东风”在中国文化中是一个积极的形象，而西方社会则认为西风代表着良好的道德”（Shakerni 2013:2），因此，将雪莱的《西风颂》翻译成《东风颂》就非常奇怪，因为这会阻碍中国读者对西方世界的了解。--Zhang Ling (talk) 12:06, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Xiao Yining 肖伊宁

What's more, to judge whether the target readers have similar effects is uncertain and unpractical because they are different in gender, age,educational background and life experience, etc. Strictly speaking, the reader's response is a variable that cannot be regarded as equivalent to the standard effect. Finally, dynamicequivalence information in the text does well, just like the Bible, but it is difficult to realize literary translation, text language is different from general language.

此外，由于目标读者在性别、年龄、学历、生活经历等方面的差异，判断目标读者是否具有相似的效果是不确定和不现实的。严格地说，读者的反应是一个变量，不能被视作等同于标准效应。最后，文本中的动态对等信息做得很好，就像圣经一样，但是却很难实现文学翻译，文本语言不同于一般语言。--Xiao yining (talk) 12:28, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

更重要的是，由于目标读者的性别、年龄、教育背景、生活经历等不同，判断他们是否具有相似的效应是不确定的，也是不现实的。严格来说，读者的反应是一个变量，无法将其视为等同于标准效果。最后，文本中的动态对等信息做得很好，就像《圣经》一样，但很难实现文学翻译，文本语言与一般语言不同。--Liu Yi (talk) 00:19, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Xie Fan 解帆

Dynamic equivalence, as a concept, puts an .an overly narrow focus on the response of the active hearers, perhaps sometimes at the expense of other factors which are also crucial to adequate translation, such as the accuracy of the message, the uniqueness of the original historical setting.

Next, it will list the definition of formal equivalence. “Formal equivalence is simple and source-oriented. It is like a word for word literal translation”(Shakernia 2013:2). Formal equivalence concentrates on the message itself, in both form and content.

Xie Ziyi 谢子熠

“One is concerned that the message in the receptor language should match asclosely as possible the different elements in the source language”(Shakernia 2013:3).The use of formal equivalents might at times have serious implications in the target text since the translation will not be easily understood by the target readership. For example, “in the translation of the sentence of greet others with a holy kiss, these two different equivalence can have distinctly different translation”(Shakernia 2013:3).

Xu Jia 徐佳

In the formal equivalence translation, we need to translate it into the translation of saying hello to others with a holy kiss. But it seems strange to others because what’s the meaning of holy kiss. Then, we need to add one explanation of holy kiss which is in the old testament the holly kiss is usually treated as a usual way to greet others.

在讲求形式对等的翻译中，我们要把这句话译为“用圣洁的亲吻和别人打招呼”，可这样的译文似乎有些奇怪，因为读者不明白何为“圣洁的亲吻”。因此，我们需要对此进行解释——在《旧约》中，“圣洁的亲吻”是人们常用的问好方式。--Xu Jia (talk) 13:03, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Jia

在形式对等的翻译中，我们要把这句话译为向他人圣吻问安。但这对读者来说似乎有些奇怪，因为他们不知道圣吻是什么意思。所以我们需要对圣吻进行解释，即在《旧约》中，圣吻通常是人们常用的问好方式。--Song Jianru (talk) 15:08, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Xu Jing 许晶

However, in the dynamic equivalence, we need not to take the correspondence of the structure into consideration. We only need to pay attention to the reaction of receptorsof language. We can translate it into the translation of shaking hands with others enthusiastically. From the above example, it’s clear to find the focus of these two equivalences is very different therefore the translation can be different.

但是，在动态对等中，我们无需考虑结构的对应关系，唯一需要注意的是译语受众的反应。 我们可以将它翻译成“与他人热情地握手”。 从上面的示例中，不难发现这两种对等的侧重点非常不同，因此两者的翻译也会有所不同。--Xu Jing2 (talk) 07:17, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

然而，在动态对等中，我们不需要考虑结构的对应性。我们只需要注意语言受众的反应。我们可以把它翻译成“热情地与他人握手”。从上面的例子中，很明显可以发现这两个对等的重点是非常不同的，因此翻译可能会有所不同。--Wensixing (talk) 11:42, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Xu Jing 许静

Here, it will try to figure out the advantages and disadvantages of formal equivalence. One of the most distinguished advantage of the formal equivalence is that in this translation, “the formal equivalence is keenly oriented towards the source language structure, which exerts strong language influence in determining accuracy and Correctness”(Nida 1995:223).

在此，将试着弄清形式对等的优缺点。形式对等最突出的优点之一是，在这种翻译中，"形式对等更加注重源语结构，强调了翻译的准确性"。(Nida 1995:223)。--Xu Jing (talk) 05:49, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

在此，将试图找出形式对等的优缺点。形式对等最显著的优势之一是，在该翻译中，“形式对等以源语言结构为导向，这对语言的准确性和正确性产生强烈的影响”(Nida 1995:223)。--Xiao Shuangling (talk) 07:38, 6 November 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶

Because the formal equivalence emphasizes the completetranscript of the original text’s content and form so it will have the consistent structure of the original text.Another advantage of formal equivalence is that it put much focus on the accuracy.Because in such translation theory, the target language will try to find a equivalent in the source language.

Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞

For example, in the sentence of “Please fetch me a glass of water” when translating it into Chinese, we will try to find each word equivalent in Chinese. We will try to find each word such as “please”“fetch”“me” and so on. Then we can find the equivalent in Chinese which can be transliterated into Chinese as “Qing gei wo yi bei shui”. Apart from that, let’s move on to the disadvantages of formal equivalence

例如，在把“Please fetch me a glass of water”这个句子译成中文的时候，我们会尽量找到每个词对应的中文词汇。我们会尝试找到每个词，如“请”，“拿来”，“我”等。在汉语中我们可以找到对应的音译为“qing gei wo yi bei shui”。除此之外，让我们看看形式对等有哪些缺点。--Xu Pengfei (talk) 12:35, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

例如，当我们把” Please fetch me a glass of water”这句话翻译成中文时，我们会尽量找到每个词在中文中所对应的词汇。我们会尝试找到每个词，例如“请”，“拿来”，“我”等等。然后我们就可以找到其在中文中所对应的词汇，将其音译为“请给我一杯水”。除此之外，让我们再来看看形式对应的缺点。--Yang Yue (talk) 14:17, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Yang Chenting 杨晨婷

One of the obvious disadvantage of the formal equivalence is that sometimes it will neglect the intent of the original text. Because the formal equivalence isreferred as to the literal translation and in such way it may overlook the author’s intent. For example, we often hear Chinese people say:“Ni chi le ma?” In fact, it’s a way to greetpeople in Chinese custom while we cannot translate it into English as “Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”. Instead we should translate it into English as “Hello!”or “Hi!”

形式对等一个很明显的缺点就是有时候会忽视原文的意图。因为形式对等也被称之为直译，而作者的意图就有可能被忽视掉了。举例来说，我们经常会听到中国人问，“你吃了吗？实际上这是中国打招呼的一种习惯，那么我们就不能把它翻译成英语的“Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”， 而是要译成“Hello！”或者“Hi！”--Yang chenting (talk) 09:22, 3 November 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

形式对等的一个明显的缺点是有时会忽略原文的意图。因为形式对等也被称之为直译，这样可能会忽略作者的意图。例如，我们经常听到中国人说：“你吃了吗？实际上这是中国打招呼的一种习惯，那么我们就不能把它翻译成英语的“Have you eat your dinner or lunch?”， 而是要译成“Hello！”或者“Hi！"--Li Lingyue (talk) 10:15, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

Yang Hairong 杨海容

Among these two theories, Nida puts the dynamic equivalence in the first place. It has been viewed as his core contribution to the modern translation filed. “Nida pays attention to readers' response and advocates replacing the expression of foreign culture in the original text with the expression habit of the receiving language, namely, domestication”(Nida 1995:224).

Yang Hui 阳慧

By far, “Nida has achieved a lot in translation study. He simplifies Chomsky’s theory and adopts only the later two part of the model in order to validate his science”(Gentzler 2001:52). “He is aware of the nature of a practice-oriented approach, attempts to scientifically validate his methodology and apply it to translation as a whole” (Panou 2013: 1) .

到目前为止，“奈达在翻译研究中取得了很大的成就，他简化了乔姆斯基的理论，只采用了模型的后两部分来验证他的科学” (Gentzler 2001： 52)。“他了解以实践为导向的方法的性质，试图科学地验证他的方法，并将其应用于整个翻译” (Panou，2013： 1)。 --YangHui (talk) 12:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC) 迄今为止，“奈达的翻译研究取得了很大成就。他简化了乔姆斯基的理论，只采用了模型的后两部分来验证其科学性”（根茨勒 2001: 52)。“他了解以实践为导向的方法本质，试图用科学的方式验证他的方法，并将其作为一个整体应用于翻译。”（帕诺 2003: 1)。--Zhou Siqing (talk) 14:15, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Yang Yi 杨逸

In this chapter, it also talks about Noam Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic and translation. In Chomsky’s opinion, the linguistic is a study of science and we can apply many linguistic principles to translation, therefore, the translation can also be said a study of science. Among the Noam Chomsky’s contribution is his transformational-generative grammar. “It is a theory that talks about why people can talk and how people can learn new sentences. It is a theory about language ability. Chomsky holds his opinion that basics and transformation form grammar” (Zhou 2019:5). 本章还讨论了诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)对语言学和翻译的贡献。在乔姆斯基看来，语言学是一门科学的研究，我们可以把许多语言学的原则应用到翻译中，因此，翻译也可以说是一门科学的研究。诺姆·乔姆斯基的贡献之一是他提出的“转换生成语法”。“这个理论探讨了人们为什么会说话以及人们如何学习新句子。它是一种关于语言能力的理论。乔姆斯基认为基础和转换构成语法。”(周2019:5)--Yang Yi (talk) 12:00, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

在本章中还讨论了诺姆·乔姆斯基(Noam Chomsky)对语言学和翻译的贡献。在乔姆斯基看来，语言学是一门科学的研究，我们可以把许多语言学的原则应用到翻译中，因此，翻译也可以说是一门科学的研究。诺姆·乔姆斯基的贡献之一是他提出的“转换生成语法”。“这个理论探讨了人们为什么能够说话以及人们如何学习新句子。它是一种关于语言能力的理论。乔姆斯基认为基础部分和转换过程构成了语法。”--Xu Pengfei (talk) 12:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

Yang Yue 杨悦

The basics form deep structure and deep structure transforms to surface structure. Word’s meaning belongs to deep structure . Besides, “he thinks thatlanguage is a unique human natural constitution. Language ability should be more focused on not rather language behavior”(Zhou 2019:6). “The TG Grammar tries to reveal the unity of particular grammars and universal grammars, to explore the universal rules with the hope of revealing the human cognitive system and the essential nature of human being”(Zhu 2018:241).

基础形成深层结构，深层结构进而转化成表层结构。词义归属于深层结构。除此之外，“他认为语言是人类独特的自然构成，我们应该更加关注语言能力而不是语言行为”（Zhou 2019: 6）。“TG语法试图揭示特定语法和普遍语法的统一性，探索普遍规则，以期揭示人类的认知系统和人类的本质”（Zhu 2018: 241）。--Yang Yue (talk) 14:09, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

基础形成深层结构，深层结构转换为表层结构。词义属于深层结构。此外，“他认为语言是人类独特的自然构成。应该更多地关注语言能力而不是语言行为”（Zhou 2019：6）。 “ TG语法试图揭示特定语法和普遍语法的统一性，探索普遍规则，以期揭示人类的认知系统和人类的本质。”--Tan Yuanyuan (talk) 09:05, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Yang Ziling 杨子泠

Both Chomsky and Nida believe that deep, coherent and unified entity exists behind whatever manifestation language takes. However, there exists some difference between their opinions. “Chomsky would not jump to conclusions based on correlations between just two languages, nor assume that a grammar to a particular to one language would work systematically for another” (Li 2011:395). While Nida holds the belief that deep structure and transformatio-nal rules which is divorced from all the problems of translation are similar across languages. All in all, these two great persons all make a big contribution to translation and their theories are still widely used today.

Yao Cheng 姚诚

II Analysis of Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications

As for the second book: Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications , it is a very populary book which has undergone through the fourth edition. Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications remains the definitive guide to the theories and concepts that make up the field of translation studies. This fourth edition has been fully revised and continues to provide a balanced and detailed guide to the theoretical landscape. “Each theory is applied to a wide range of languages, including Bengali, Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Punjabi, Portuguese and Spanish”(Liu and Deng 2010:54).

分析：翻译研究概论：理论与应用 “翻译研究概论：理论与应用”是第二本书。这本书出版了四次，非常受欢迎。 《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》仍是翻译研究领域相关理论和概念的权威指南。 第四版已经过全面修订，并继续为理论界提供均衡而详细的指南。 “每种理论都适用于多种语言，如孟加拉语，中文，英语，法语，德语，意大利语，葡萄牙语，旁遮普语，葡萄牙语和西班牙语”--Yao Cheng (talk) 10:39, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

分析 翻译研究概论：理论与应用

至于第二本书《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》。这本书出版了四次，非常受欢迎。 《翻译研究概论：理论与应用》仍是翻译研究领域相关理论和概念的权威指南。 第四版已经过全面修订，并继续为理论界提供均衡而详细的指南。 “每种理论都适用于多种语言，如孟加拉语、中文、英语、法语、德语、意大利语、葡萄牙语、旁遮普语、葡萄牙语和西班牙语”--Wu Kai (talk) 12:14, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Yao Jia 姚佳

It starts with the definition of translation and then presents us the translation theory before the twentieth century to the modern translation theory. It focus on many important translation theories such as systematic translation theory, polysystem theory translation, functional theories of translation, and so on. There are three reasons why I like this book very much. Firstly, this book is full of content which is arranged carefully and skillfully for the readers to read. It contain an introductory table clearly presenting key terms and ideas, the main text, describing in detail the models and issues under discussion, an illustrative case study, which applies and evaluates the main model of the chapter, suggestions for further reading, a brief evaluative summary of the chapter and a series of discussion and research points to stimulate further thought and research.

Yi Huan 易欢

I am extremely fond of the case study in this book which is also a unique feature of this book. In the case study, it will list a related case about the translation issue in this chapter for readers to think and then this book provide us with a discussion of case studies for us to reflect our thinking. I think it’s a good way for us to relate the knowledge of book into reality which it’s more helpful and useful for us to remember the knowledge in the book. And by applying our knowledge to the real problem in reality, it’s more helpful for us truly understand the essence of translation studies.

Yi Zichu 义子楚

Secondly, there are a large number of charts are cited, and the names of the charts are listed on a special page after the table of contents at the front of the book for easy reference. In this way, it is easier for readers to absorb much information contained in the charts. In the meantime, it is clear for the readers to relate the knowledge with the information in the charts. It is also a good way to sort out the large number of information in an ordered way for the readers to have a quick way to absorb the information.

You Yuting 游雨婷

Thirdly, the book includes an appendix to the web sites relevant to translation studies before the final notes and index. These include two web sites that publish information about conferences, recent publications and research, six web sites for international translation journals and four web sites for translation organizations that often contain useful links. In this way, it becomes much easier for the readers to search the information on the websites for further reading and studying.

第三，在最后的注释和索引之前，书中囊括了一个与翻译研究相关的网站的附录。这些网站包括两个发布会议、最新出版物和研究信息的网站，六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个通常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，读者能够更容易地在网站上搜索信息，进行进一步的阅读和学习。--You Yuting (talk) 10:29, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

第三，在最后注释和索引之前，该书包括与翻译研究相关的网站附录。其中包括两个公布会议信息、最近的出版物和研究的网站、六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个经常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，读者就更容易在网上搜索信息，以便进一步阅读和学习。--Zhao Xi (talk) 05:12, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

第三，在最后注释和索引之前，该书收录了有关翻译研究的网站。其中包括两个公布会议信息、最近的出版物和研究的网站、六个国际翻译期刊网站和四个经常包含有用链接的翻译组织网站。这样，方便读者在网上检索信息，以便进一步阅读和学习。--Wu Yilu (talk) 14:00, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Yu Ni 余妮

Now, let’s move on to talk about the content of this book. In the second chapter, this book lists the debate about the word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation which is debate that dominated much of translation theory. “Faithful translation” is an attempt to reach a compromise between the two. Many great translators object to word-for-word translation and they advocate the sense-for-sense translation”(Munday 2013:18).

Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦

For example, Cicero oppose the word-for-word translation strongly by saying “that I did not hold it necessary to render word for word, but I preserved the general style and force of the language”(Munday 2013:19). “The issues of free and literal translation were for over a thousand years with the translation of the Bible and other religious and philosophical texts”(Munday 2013:22). As for the translation of Bible, there must mention the Martin Luther whose major influence is made by his translation of the New Testament and later the Old Testament.

例如，西塞罗强烈反对逐字翻译，他说：“我认为没有必要逐字逐句地翻译，但我保留了语言的一般风格和力量”（Munday 2013:19）。“随着圣经和其他宗教、哲学文本的翻译，直译和意译的问题已经持续了一千多年”（Munday 2013:22）。至于《圣经》的翻译，必须提到马丁·路德，他对《新约》和后来《旧约》的翻译产生了重大影响。--Yuan SHiqi (talk) 07:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

例如，西塞罗强烈反对逐字翻译，说“我认为没有必要逐字呈现，但我保留了语言的一般风格和力量” (芒迪，2013： 19)。“自由和文字翻译问题与”圣经“和其他宗教和哲学文本的翻译一起存在了 1000 多年” (Munday 2013： 22)。至于“圣经”的翻译，必须提到马丁 · 路德的主要影响是他对“新约”和后来的“旧约”的翻译。--YangHui (talk) 12:35, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼

Martin Luther advocates the revolutionary nature of translation. “At that time, the Bible was only available in Europe in a Latin translation. This meant that the majority of the people had no access to the Bible in their native languages”(Stolt 2014:373). He is concerned with the German readers. “Here, he supports the idea of using of “pure, clear German and the building of new languages in translation. Therefore, he used a non-literal translation in his translation of Bible”(Stolt 2014:373). Also, his use of a regional yet socially broad dialect went a long way to reinforcing that form of the German language as standard.

马丁·路德（Martin Luther）呼吁对翻译的本质进行根本性变革。“在那个年代，欧洲人只能阅读到《圣经》的拉丁文译本。这就意味着大多数人无法阅读到母语版本的《圣经》。”(Stolt 2014:373). 斯托尔特（Stolt）尤为关注德国读者。此处，他支持“在翻译中使用纯粹、直白的德语，也支持在翻译中构建新的语言”。因此，斯托尔特在他自己翻译的《圣经》译本中使用了非文学翻译方法。(Stolt 2014:373). 斯托尔特虽然使用的是一种方言，但是这种方言在社会上使用甚广。他意在促使在翻译中使用德语，开创这样一种新的标准，不过他花费了漫长的时间。--Yuan Tianyi (talk) 02:48, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨

“His aim is to keep communication with readers and listeners, but the audience for his new translation of the scriptures was composed not of scholars but plain speakers of vernacular German”(Stolt 2014:374). And thanks to Martin Luther’s efforts of translating Bible, the Germany people now could read Bible freely. Later, the book talks about the translation principle of Dryden, Dolet and Tytler. Here it will put emphasize on the Tytler’s translation principles. As for Dolet has five translation principles while Tytler proposes his three translation rules.

Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘

They are the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work. Secondly, the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original. Thirdly, the translation should have all the ease of the original composition.” (Munday 2013:26) Here, we can see that Tytler pursues the balance between the source language and target language. The translator must have the capacity of employing the exact manner and skill in translating his target language. 第一，译者应该完全复写出原作的思想。第二，译者的风格和笔调应与原文的性质相同。第三，译文应和原文同样流畅。（芒迪 2013:26）这里我们可以看到，泰特勒追求的是源语与目的语的平衡。译者在翻译时必须能够运用恰当的笔调和技巧。--Zeng Fangyuan (talk) 06:24, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Zeng Liang 曾良

For example, “there are two sentences which express the same meaning but they are different in their writing style”(Xi 2009:41). One is on Monday morning, the park is usually crowded with too many people. The other is on Monday morning, the park attracts many people. It’s obvious that the first sentence is in a negative mood while the second sentence is in a positive mood. These two sentences all convey the same meaning but they differs each other in the mood and style. To be a good translator, you need to be skillful in bringing the same style of the source language to the target language.

例如，“两个句子表达相同的含义，但是它们的写作风格不同”（习 2009:41）。一个句子是“星期一早上，公园通常人满为患”，另一个是“星期一早上，公园吸引了很多人”。显然，第一句语气消极，而第二句语气积极。这两句都传达相同的含义，但语气和风格不一。要成为一名优秀的译者，你需要熟练地将源语的风格引入到目的语中。--Zeng Liang (talk) 08:34, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

例如，“有两个句子表达相同的意思，但它们的写作风格不同”(习 2009:41)。一个是在星期一早上，公园里通常挤满了人。另一个是周一早上，公园吸引了很多人。很明显，第一句表达消极的情绪，而第二句是表达积极的情绪。这两个句子表达的意思相同，但语气和风格却不同。要成为一名优秀的译者，你需要善于将源语言的相同风格引入目标语言。--You Yuting (talk) 10:33, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛

The advantages of his translation principle are as follows. First of all, “he abandons the traditional translation idea of dichotomies and he tries not to use these controversial term such as literal translation, free translation to give his translation rules a better and clear way to present”(Bie and Huang 2007:164). Here, in his translation principles, we cannot see the mentioning of the literal translation and free translation which can cause misunderstanding in the translation studies.

他的翻译原则优点如下：首先，“他摒弃了传统翻译二分法，试图不用有争议的术语例如直译、意译以更好、更清晰地呈现其翻译原则（別和黄 2007:164）。在此，在其翻译原则中，我们看不到直译及意译这种在翻译学中会引起歧义的词。--Zeng Xinyuan (talk) 14:32, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

他的翻译原则优势在于：首先，“他摒弃了传统的翻译二分法，尽量避免使用直译、意译等有争议的术语，以更好地呈现其翻译原则”（白和黄 2007：164）。因此，我们在其翻译原则中看不到直译、意译这种在翻译学中会引起歧义的词。--Li Liqin (talk) 02:08, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖

Secondly, “he clarifies and extends people’s understanding of the metaphor that translators are painters. In his opinion, he advocates that the job of a translator is distinct different from the painter” (Bie and Huang 2007: 166). Although the translator does not use the same color as the original, he must give his "picture" the same power and effect. The translator cannot copy the original style, but must use his own style to translate the perfect script. The more he studies a imitation, the less his copy will reflect the ease and spirit of the original.

Zhang Hu 张虎

Now, let’s move on to talk about the disadvantages of his translation principles. Tytler’s translation thoughts are mainly on the base of his exact experience and subjective observation. “Some people even say that the book just looks like a textbook addressing the translation arts. In the meantime, from his translation theories, we can know that he imitates other translator’s theory, especially Dryden”(Firdaus 2012:285). For example, his first principle “That the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, which is almost same as the Campbell’s accurately reproduce the original meaning”(Firdaus 2012:286).

Zhang Hui 张慧

Tytler, “points out that the three principles are in a necessary order. The order arrangement is appropriate, natural and is arranged according to their importance to the translation which cannot change casually”(Firdaus 2012:287). In this way, we can concluded that his idea that if in a case of need to sacrifice a certain principle, the translator should notice the importance of order of translation principle. The translator cannot try to get a beautiful and fluent translation at the expense of the faithful translation of the script. Tytler’s translation has exerted great influence on the later translation studies and left a big influence on the later translators such as our Chinese great translator-Yan Fu.

泰特勒指出，“这三个原则有一个必要的顺序。 顺序安排适当，自然，并根据其对翻译的重要性进行安排的，不能随便更改。”（Firdaus 2012：287）。 这样，我们可以得出结论，他的想法是，在需要牺牲某种原则的情况下，翻译者应注意翻译原则顺序的重要性。 译者不能以牺牲原文翻译的忠实性为代价来获得优美流畅的译文。 泰特勒的翻译对后来的翻译研究产生了很大的影响，对后来的译者，例如我们中国的伟大译者严复，也产生了很大的影响。--Zhang Hui (talk) 07:36, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

泰特勒指出，这三个原则有一个必要的顺序。 顺序安排需要适当、自然、并根据其对不能随便更改的翻译的重要性进行安排”（Firdaus 2012：287）。 这样，我们可以得出结论，他的想法是，在需要牺牲某种原则的情况下，翻译者应注意翻译原则顺序的重要性。 译者不能以牺牲原文翻译的忠实性为代价来获得优美流畅的翻译。 泰特勒的翻译对后来的翻译研究产生了很大的影响，对后来的译者，例如我们的中国伟大译者严复，也产生了很大的影响。--Zhao Xiaoyan (talk) 07:56, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Ling 张玲

Here, it will list the Yan Fu’s translation theories and then we can have a brief comparison between Yan Fu’s translation principles and Tytler’s translation principles. “Yan Fu is our Chinese great scholar and translator, most famous for introducing western ideas, including Darwin’s natural selection to China in the late 19th century”(Wang 2008:70). Just as Shi Chunrang and Zhao Wei proposed their opinions in their essay Thoughts on Yan Fu's “Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance” and Tytler's Three Principles—a Case Study of Comparative Translation that Yan Fu proposed three difficulties in translation: faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance in the preface to his translation of Evolution and Ethnic.

这里我们将列出严复的翻译理论，然后我们可以对严复的翻译原则和泰勒的翻译原则作一个简单的比较。“严复是中国伟大的学者和翻译家，他将19世纪末达尔文的自然选择学说等西方思想引入中国，并因此声名鹊起。”（王2008:70）正如史春兰、赵薇在《论严复的“信达雅”和泰勒的翻译三原则——以比较翻译为例》中提出的观点一样，严复在其译著《天演论》的序言中提出了翻译的三大难点：信、达、雅。 --Zhang Ling (talk) 12:00, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻

“Faithfulness” means the full and complete conveying or transmission of the original content or thought. It emphasizes the right way of expressing content of the original source. “Expressiveness” demands that the version must be clear and follow without any grammatical mistakes or confused logic and sense. The translation should convey freely the content of the original source. “Elegance” means that the target translation should be similar to the source text in style(2005:96).

It means that the mood of the target translation should be almost same as the source language. By analyzing carefully, it’s clear to find there are many things in common between these two translation theories. “信”意味着对原文或者原意的一种全方面完整的表达或者转换。“信”要求巧妙地表达出原文意思。“达”要求译文清楚，在语法和逻辑上没有错误。译文要灵活地表达原文的内容。“雅”意味着译文和原文在风格上有相似性。也就是说，译文的措辞要和原文尽可能相似。仔细分析就会发现，这两种翻译理论很明显有着许多相似的地方。--Zhang Peiwen (talk) 07:05, 4 November 2020 (UTC)

“信”意指全面透彻地传达原文本、原思想。“信”强调用正确方式表达出源信息的内容。“达”要求译文必须表意清晰，没有任何语法错误，没有混淆逻辑，没有混淆时态。“达”还要求译文必须自如地传达源信息的内容。“雅”指目的译文必须在风格上与原文本类似。(2005:96)--Yuan Tianyi (talk) 03:02, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Qi 张琪

Firstly, “the first principle and second principle of Tytler are the same as the saying that translation should be faithful to the source language’s content and mood which is similar to the first principle of Yan Fu that emphasizes on the full and complete conveying of the original content”(Shi and Zhao 2005:97). Secondly, these two translation theories all focus on stressing the conveying the thought and content of the source language. And the translation should be available for people to read. “These two theories all emphasize on the conveying the complete transcript of the source text”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98).

Zhang Weihong 张维虹

It’s clear to see many differences between these two translation theories. Firstly, “they are different in thinking mode. Yan Fu does not make a clear and detailed explanation of his translation theory. Instead it relies on others’ explanation of his translation theory”(Xi 2009:41). Just as a saying, “Everything is clear without saying a word”. To better understand Yan Fu’s translation theory, we need to have the associated “relation and reflection about the great thought of our great ancestors.

这两种翻译理论之间的差异是显而易见的。第一，“两者思维方式不同。严复并未对其翻译理论做出明确而详细的阐释。相反，这依赖于他人对其翻译理论的解释（Xi 2009:41）。正如一句话，“一言不发，万事大吉”。要更好地理解严复的翻译理论，就必须联系与反思各位先知的的伟大思想。

这两种翻译理论之间有许多差异，这是清晰明了的。第一，“思维方式不同。严复并未对其翻译理论做出明确详细的阐述， 反而是他人对其翻译理论进行解释”（Xi 2009:41）正如常言道：“一切尽在不言中”。要更好地理解严复的翻译理论，就必须联系与反思祖先的伟大思想。--Zeng Xinyuan (talk) 14:46, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪

As we all know, “traditional Chinese mode of thinking is perceptual which tends to make the theory obscure and received. However, westerners attach great importance to rational thinking which makes the theory more concrete”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). The thinking mode of western is putting emphasize on the rational thinking and it emphasizes one’s rational understanding of the objects and people. Also, “it concentrates on the formal explanation of the objects and people”(Shi and Zhao 2005:98). Therefore, the Tytler’s three translation principles all give respect to the object to the original text.

Zhang Yinliu 张银柳

And it repeatedly emphasizes on the importance of the original text and treat the original text as it start point. Apart from that, it also gives the literal explanation in a detailed way. In this way, after analyzing the different thinking between the western and eastern, we can say that Yan Fu do not give a literal explanation of his translation principle. Thus, we can say that his translation principle understands tacitly.

Secondly,“they are distinctly different in the importance. Since the three principles of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance are presented, the importance of them has not been clearly classified”(Shi and Zhao 2005:99).

Zhang Yu 张瑜

One of the most important features of Yan Fu’s translation standard is its ambiguous semantic meaning. But in fact, “Yan Fu put emphasizes on the free translation and he proposed the principle of expressiveness to support the principle of faithfulness”(Xi 2009:41). “Since during the process of translation, except adhering to the expressiveness of the original text, the principle of faithfulness is the most difficult task to finish as to the conveying the original text’s mode and style”(Xi 2009:42). Therefore, we can draw a conclusion that principle of expressiveness is vital in his three principles and then is the expressiveness and the last is elegance.

严复翻译标准的最大特点之一是语义含混。但事实上，“严复偏重于意译，为达，即所以为信也”（席，2009:41）。因为在翻译的过程中，传达原文的形式和风格时，除了追求原文的“达”，其次求“信”亦大难矣（席，2009:42）。因此，我们可以得出一个结论：求信乃译事之根本，其次求“达”，最后求“雅”。--Zhang Yu (talk) 06:31, 5 November 2020 (UTC) 严复翻译标准的一个重要的特征是语义模糊。但事实上，“严复偏重于意译，为达，即所以为信也。”（席，2009:41）“因为在翻译的过程中，传达原文的形式和风格时，除了追求原文的‘达’，其次‘信’亦大难矣。”（席，2009:42）因此，我们可以得出结论，在他的三个原则中，求“信”乃译事之根本，其次求“达”，最后求“雅”。--Yang Yi (talk) 12:19, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Yujie 张毓婕

We should stick to the general principle of “original meaning”, only then can we have a reasonable logic to give an order on the importance of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “While Tytler thinks the order of his three principles is suitable, natural and could not be changed”(Wang 2008:71). Tytler proposes that we can make the conveying the faithful translation of the content at the expense to pursue the beautiful and fluent translation of the original text.

我们应当遵循“原意”的一般原则，只有这样，我们才能有合理的逻辑去对信达雅的重要性排序。尽管泰特勒认为他所提出的三原则的顺序是恰当的，自然的并且不能更改的，但他仍然建议，为了忠实的传递原文内容，必要时我们可以牺牲掉其流利度和优美性。--Zhang Yujie (talk) 01:26, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Yuxing 张宇星

“If we must give up one of principles he proposes, he advises that we can give up the least important principle namely the third principle”(Wang 2008:71). In other words, it is the first sacrifice of the original “style and effectiveness”. What's more, the style and mood of the original painting must be conveyed in order to convey a faithful picture of the sense.

Thirdly, “these two translation theories are different in the aspect of value orientation. The reason of this difference is due to the difference in the academic tradition of the emphasizing on the practice and theory level of the east and west”(Wang 2008:73).

Zhao Xi 赵茜

As is known to all, traditional Chinese translation paid more attention to practice rather than theory. The idea of translation should guide translation practice and should be of reference value. Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance” was originally used to describe the difficulty of translation, not as a translation standard. He summed it up from his own practice and was concerned with practice rather than theory. However, western translator put practice and theory at the same level. Tytler's three principles are three levels of difficulties in detail, from the content loyal to distinct style.

众所周知，中国传统翻译更注重实践而非理论。翻译思想应指导翻译实践，具有参考价值。严复的“信达雅”起初是用于描述翻译中的困难，而不是作为翻译标准。他从自己的实践中总结，关心的是实践而非理论。然而，西方译者把实践和理论放在同一层次上。泰特勒的三原则是三个层面的困难，从内容忠实到鲜明的风格。--Zhao Xi (talk) 05:08, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

众所周知，中国的传统翻译重实践而轻理论，认为翻译思想应指导实践并具备参考价值。严复的“信达雅”原本是用于描述翻译的困难，而不是作为翻译标准。他从自己的实践经验中进行总结，关心的是实践而非理论。然而，西方译者把实践和理论置于同等地位。泰特勒的三原则对三个层次的困难作了详细描述，包括从内容的忠实到不同的风格。--Peng Xiaoling (talk) 08:34, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕

The reflected logical form is clear and obvious, which is significantly different from the implicit three translation principles of “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”. “Western translation theories focus on detailed analysis, rational abstraction and theoretical deduction, and pay attention to logical organization, hierarchy and clarity of content in language expression”(Wang 2008:73). Influenced by traditional philosophy, western translation theories have a strong sense of subject and object throughout the whole process. Taking “expressiveness” as an example, Yan Fu's “expressiveness” and Tytler's third principle “translation should have all the ease of the original composition” have roughly the same meaning, but it’s obvious that they are different in thinking mode.

所反映的逻辑形式清晰而明显，与隐含的“信、达、雅”的翻译原则有明显的不同。 “西方翻译理论侧重于详细的分析，合理的抽象和理论演绎，并注重语言表达中逻辑的组织、层次和清晰度”（Wang 2008：73）。 在传统哲学的影响下，西方翻译理论在整个过程中具有强烈的主体客体感。 以“达”为例，严复的“达”和泰特勒的第三条原则“翻译应还原译文原始结构”具有大致相同的含义，但显然它们的思维方式是不同的。--Zhao Xiaoyan (talk) 07:36, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

所反映的逻辑形式清晰而明显，与隐含的“信、达、雅”三个翻译原则有明显的不同。 “西方翻译理论侧重于详细的分析，合理的抽象和理论演绎，并注重语言表达中逻辑的组织，层次和清晰度”（Wang 2008：73）。 在传统哲学的影响下，西方翻译理论在整个过程中具有强烈的主观客体感。 以“达”为例，严复的“达”和泰特勒的第三条原则“翻译应还原译文的原始结构”具有大致相同的含义，但显然它们的思维方式是不同的。--Zhang Hui (talk) 07:48, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

Zheng Huajun 郑华君

“The Chinese adopt a thought pattern of intuition and understanding while the Englishmen follow a thought pattern of logic and reason, which makes a profound impact on each language”(Chen 2012:126). To this extent, the difference between understanding and rational thinking, as well as the degree of respect for the original text can be best reflected. At last, “these two translation theories are distinct in their motivation. Yan Fu’s criterion is purposeful which aims to attract the elite’s attention”(Wang 2008:73). The literature works that Yan Fu translated from the western world are mainly the great and famous work in the period of western capitalism.

Zhou Luoping 周罗平

“He fully understand this mode of thinking is difficult for the Chinese intellectuals at that time so in this way, he need to make the translation principles easier for the Chinese intellectuals to absorb”(Chen 2012:127). In this regard, he chose this way of spreading his translation ideas which makes his translation principles purposeful. While Tylter just wants to make the whole translation system more systematic and cover content, form and text these three aspects. “His aim in his translation principle is simply trying to make his translation principle known by people and suggest a reasonable translation principle for translators to follow”(Xi 2009:42).

Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿

III Comparison between the book of Contemporary Translation Theories and Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications

1.From the aspect of arrangement of the content

Both of these two books all take the line of main translation workshops as its main chapter and then list its contribution to illustrate the content. “In the contemporary translation studies, the author compare the translation group’s advantages and weakness and then give out his own understanding of the study of the translation group” (Li :2014 111).”

Zhou Shuyao 周书尧

In the Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications , the author lists the introduction of each translation workshop’s contribution and achievement to translation” (Liu and Deng 2010:54). While these two books’ difference in arrangement is that in the book Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications adds a case study to extend the readers’ inflection about the translation study listed in the book. Apart from that, this book also adds the discussion of case study, summary, further reading and discussion and research points into the book which are lack in the Contemporary Translation Studies.

Zhou Siqing 周思庆

These added parts to the book Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications helps extend the readers’ personal study and help the readers relate the theoretical knowledge with the translation practices.

2.From the content of the material

Both of the books all list the major contribution of each translation workshop but they differ in their focus and approach. In the contemporary Translation Theories, the author will “analyze the advantage and weakness of the each translation workshop and then study the interrelationship between these translation workshops and at last describe the importance of each translation theory to the world and then pose its questions to the presupposition of each translation theory”(Li 2014:111). 这些对《翻译研究导论:理论与应用》这本书的补充部分帮助读者拓展个人研究，也帮助读者把理论知识与翻译实践联系起来。 2.从文本内容看 两本书都列举了各自翻译培训班的主要贡献，但是他们的关注点和方法不同。在《现代翻译理论》中，作家将“分析各自翻译培训班的优缺点，并且研究这些翻译培训班之间的相互关系，还至少描述了各自翻译理论对世界的重要性并且对各翻译理论的假定提出了问题。”(李 2014:111)--Zhou Siqing (talk) 14:07, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

《翻译研究导论：理论与应用》的补充部分帮助读者拓展个人研究，更好结合理论知识与翻译实践。

2. 从内容上看： 这两本书都列举了各自翻译工作坊的主要贡献，但它们的侧重点和方法有所不同。在《当代翻译理论》中，作者先“分析各翻译工作坊的优劣势，然后研究工作坊之间的相互关系，再描述各翻译理论对世界的重要性，最后针对这些理论成立的前提发问。”(李 2014:111)--Tang Yiran1 (talk) 01:40, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhou Yiwen 周艺文

While in the Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, the author firstly gives a brief introduction of the chapter content and then illustrates the introduction of each translation workshop in a detailed way. To make the book in a more precise way, the author also lists the summary, case study, discussion of study, further reading and discussion and research points in his book to make the readers to have a more comprehensive way of the book.

Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲

Apart from that, these two books all take a method of incorporating the theories and practices into the whole. In these two books, each book all include the material of theories and practices as its contents. For some important parts, the authors all give out their questions in the book. For example, in the Contemporary Translation Theories,

Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟

the author poses his question about Pound’s translation idea“ Was he talking about intuition, guessing the author’s original intention, or something else?(Gentzler 2001:20) After this question, the author gives out his opinions about Pound’s translation idea emphasizing the translator should both inside a tradition and outside any institutionalized logic.

作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问：”“他是在谈论直觉，揣测作者的意愿，还是在做什么?”(Gentzler 2001:20) 继这个问题之后，作者就庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的观点，强调译者既应该在传统之内，也应该在任何制度化逻辑之外。--ZHOUYUJUAN (talk) 07:43, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问，“他是在说直觉，猜测作者的原意，还是别的什么?”(Gentzler 2001:20) 在这个问题之后，作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的看法，强调译者既应该在传统之内，也应该在任何制度化逻辑之外。--Tan Xinjie (talk) 10:21, 7 November 2020 (UTC)

作者对庞德的翻译思想提出了疑问，“他是在谈论直觉，揣测作者的意图，还是在做什么别的?”(Gentzler 2001:20) 在这个问题之后，作者就庞德的翻译思想提出了自己的看法，强调译者既应在传统之内，也应在任何制度化逻辑之外。--Zhang Yujie (talk) 01:35, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhu Meimei 祝美梅

While this point of asking question in the Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications is more obvious. At the end of each chapter, the author will give several questions in his part of discussion and research points. Some of these questions can find the answers in the textbook while some will require the readers to do some additional researches.

在“翻译研究导论：理论与应用”提问题这一点上更为明显。 在每一章的末尾，作者将在讨论和研究要点中提出几个问题。 这些问题中的一些可以在教科书中找到答案，而另一些则需要读者进行其他研究。--Zhumeimei (talk) 07:49, 5 November 2020 (UTC)

在“翻译研究导论：理论与应用”提出问题这一点上尤为显著。在章节末，作者会在讨论部分和研究要点上给出他的几个问题。这些问题中的一些可以在课本中找到答案，而另一些则需要读者做一些额外的研究。--ZHOUYUJUAN (talk) 07:50, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶

Conclusion:

All in all, after this paper’s careful introduction of these two books and detailed analyzing of the translation theories, it hopes to help the readers to have better understanding of these two books.

结论 总之，本文通过对这两本书的详细介绍和对翻译理论的详细分析，希望有助于读者更好地理解这两本书。--Zhu Suyao (talk) 00:10, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

结论

总而言之，本文对这两本书做了详细介绍并对翻译理论进行详尽分析，目的在于希望能够有助于读者更好地理解这两本书。--Li Liqin (talk) 02:12, 8 November 2020 (UTC)

Zhu Xu 朱旭

After the deep analysis of the two theories of Nida’s translation theories and the comparison between Tytler’s three translation principles and Yan Fu’s translation rules, it’s better for the readers to understand the basic rule of translation.

Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨

And also after analyzing the two big translation theories, it’s clear to draw a conclusion that to be able to be a good translator, the translator should not only be skillful in adapting to two kinds of different language and also he needs to have the solid translation practice experiences. He needs to have the complete transcript of the original text by conveying the content of the original text, but also he should imitate the style and mood of the original text.