History of Translations

History of Translations

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刘胜楠: Western translation history in the Middle Ages

Key words

The Middle Ages; Translation History; Manlius Boethius; The Toledo School of Translation; Ethnic Languages

Abstract

Looking at the whole Middle Ages, the study of western translation theory was still not systematic. Particularly, the study of translation theory was almost stagnant for a long time after Manlius Boethius put forward the viewpoint of objectivism and pragmatism that paid more attention to practice than theory. Later, the theoretical problems of translation gradually attracted attention mainly in English, German and other national languages. On the one hand, translators repeated the views of Cicero, Horace and Jerome in ancient times; On the other hand, they launched a series of debates on the development direction of national language around the problems of literal translation and free translation, and put forward some new opinions. These opinions can be summarized into two points: (1) translation must strictly imitate the language style and grammar of the Latin original text. In this way, the advantages of the original language will be completely transferred to the target language, and then the target language (referring to the “underdeveloped” national language) will be as elegant and beautiful as Latin. (2) Translation must respect the natural rules of the target language and use the popular spoken language among the people, because only such a language form could be accepted by the people. Translators never agreed on these two opposing views. In Germany, the first view was more popular; In Britain, people generally agree with the second view; In France, Italy, Spain, Russia and other countries, the focus of the debate was not very clear because the contradiction between national languages was not very prominent. In a sense, the translation practice and theoretical research in western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.

摘要

综观整个中世纪，西方翻译理论研究仍是没有系统的。特别是在波伊提乌发表了重实践不重理论的客观主义和实用主义的观点之后,翻译理论研究在较长时间里几乎处于停顿状态。后来,主要在英语、德语等民族语言里，翻译的理论问题才又逐渐引起重视。翻译家们一方面重复古代西塞罗、贺拉斯、哲罗姆的观点，一方面又围绕直译与意译的问题，就民族语言的发展方向展开了一系列的争论,并提出了某些新的见解。这些见解归纳起来，主要有两点:(1)翻译必须严格模仿拉丁原文的语言风格和文法。这样做,原文语言的优点就会全盘移人译文语言，进而促使译文语言(指“不发达”的民族语)像原文拉丁语一样高雅优美。(2) 翻译必须尊重译文语言的自然规则,使用百姓中流行的口语,因为只有这样的语言形式才能为人民大众所接受。对于这两个互相对立的观点，翻译家们不曾取得也不可能取得一致的意见。在德国,第一种观点较为流行;在英国,人们普遍赞成第二种观点;在法国、意大利、西班牙、俄罗斯等其他国家,由于有关民族语的矛盾不很突出，因此争论的焦点不甚明确。从某种意义上说，西方各国的翻译实践和理论研究,直至文艺复兴时期才出现真正的飞跃。

1.Introduction

The Middle Ages is an intermediate period of the three traditional divisions of European history—classical era, Middle Ages and modern times. Generally speaking, Middle Ages ranges from the decline and fall of Western Roman Empire in A.D. 476 to the demise of the Eastern Roman Empire in A.D. 1453. Until quite recently, the Middle Ages were perceived as an era of darkness, ignorance, and superstition, but it didn’t mean that translation career in that special period was stagnant. With regard to translation history, the Middle Ages can be divided into three phrases: the incipient stage exemplified by translator Manlius Boethius (480? -524?), the stage of the Toledo School of Translators and the translation of ethnic languages. In the incipient stage of the Middle Ages, most countries founded in the wreck of the Western Roman Empire had neither made up their own languages nor had annals. Hence, Latin remained the major language for translation and composition. Boethius was the focal point of the translation field in the incipient stage of Middle Ages.

2.The Three Phrases in the Middle Ages

2.1.Translator Manlius Boethius

Boethius was the most important theologian, politician, philosopher and translator in the Middle Ages. He introduced the basic principles of Aristotle's logic to Western Europe, which caused an upsurge of studying Aristotle's philosophical thought and had a great impact on the academic and theoretical circles in the Middle Ages. His views on translation theory were mainly found in the preface to the translation of Boethius's works.

2.2.The Toledo School of Translators

With the establishment of various barbarian countries, ethnic regions were gradually defined, ethnic requirements were becoming increasingly stronger and national languages were formed one after another. During this period, although church writers and monks generally continued to write and translate in Latin, the growing requirements of ordinary people for national language were urgent.The Toledo School of Translators emerged under the background of the “Revendication Movement” of the Christian Kingdom in the northern Spain against Muslim conquerors was originated from the national integration and cultural exchange in the Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages. Based on the achievements of the Graeco-Arabic translation movement， the development of the Toledo School of Translators reached its peak twice with the support of archbishop Raymond of Toledo and Alfonso X，coming with a large number of classical translation and original works in the ancient Greece and Rome, and promoting the development and maturity of Castilian language and the formation of the Spanish nation. The translation movement was an important bridge between Arab and Islamic cultures for Western Europe, as well as the bridge between the East and West civilization, also was a promotion for the development of the Renaissance. Taking the cultural phenomenon of Toledo School of Translators as a microcosm, the social scene of religious tolerance, national integration and cross-cultural communication in Spain in the Middle Ages provides inspiration for the realization of multicultural symbiosis under the current globalization.

李习长 History of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation

Abstract

The development of Chinese translation has a long history. Throughout the history of translation, from the origin of translation, that is, the introduction of Buddhist scripture translation, to the present, Chinese translation can be divided into four stages of development. They are ancient translation history, modern translation history, modern translation history, and contemporary translation history. This article will mainly review the history of modern and contemporary translation, focusing on the three dimensions of translation history, theory, and representatives of translators in various periods. In the rapidly developing contemporary era, only when translation researchers have a clear understanding of translation history can they make outstanding contributions to the rapid development of translation.

Key words

translation history, theories, representatives, modern, contemporary

Introduction

Throughout the history of translation in China, there are five recognized translation climaxes, namely the translation of Buddhist scriptures from the Han Dynasty to the Tang and Song Dynasties, the translation of science and technology from the late Ming to the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, the translation of Western learning from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, and the early days of the founding of New China. Translation of Eastern and Western literature before the "Cultural Revolution", as well as translations that have blossomed in various fields since the reform and opening up. These five translation climaxes show a historical picture from the world of translation to the translation of China, and interpret the great role of translation as a bridge across cultural and language barriers, realizing the interconnection of Eastern and Western ideas and wisdom. As the beginning of modern Chinese translation, the May Fourth Movement gave birth to a group of outstanding translators. Most of them used literature as the subject, so literary translation in this period reached the most glorious moment in history. After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, the history of Chinese translation has entered a contemporary period. During this period, the proletarian culture was the most outstanding. Translators focused their attention on political literature and literary translation, and put their eyes on foreign translations, allowing the West Understand Chinese culture and expand my horizons.

History of Modern Chinese Translation

During this period, under the promotion of the New Culture Movement and the May Fourth Movement, the New Literature Movement was in full swing, spawning many literary schools and literary societies, as well as translation propositions representing different literary positions. Translation served society, politics, and the people. The role is increasingly evident. This period gave birth to many famous translators, such as Lu Xun, Yan Fu, Lin Shu and other famous translators. Their appearance has enriched the translation content of this period. 2.1 Lu Xun's translation thoughts With the rise of the May Fourth New Culture Movement in 1919, many translators tried to draw nourishment from foreign literature in order to achieve the purpose of transforming literature and society. Lu Xun is one of them. Lu Xun chose the path of literature because of his sense of national crisis. He hopes to use translation as a medium to arouse people's revolutionary enthusiasm, advocate new literature and transform old literature. Lu Xun's translation thoughts were formed through continuous reflection and exploration. Under the control of the fundamental purpose of ideological enlightenment and political salvation, Lu Xun began his translation process. His choice of translated text reflects his sense of social responsibility as a translator and his special pursuit of cultural values. Lu Xun's translation emphasizes literal translation, focusing on "faith", "preferring faith rather than compliance". He admired hard translation and kept the "foreign" and "exotic" of the translation. For Lu Xun at that time, literal translation was not only a question of translation and language construction, but also the construction of ideas and concepts, and new ideas. The introduction of new ideas means the transformation of Chinese values and world outlook. Lu Xun's choice caused an uproar in the intellectual circles at that time. At that time, the famous scholar Liang Shiqiu also sarcastically said that he was a "dead translation" or a "hard translation". Sometimes, Lu Xun's articles have unreadable sentences, and even the order of the sentences is rarely reversed.

Chinese contemporary translation history

After the founding of the People’s Republic of China, China’s translation industry quickly flourished. The practice of Chinese-to-foreign translation organized by the government and the practice of foreign-language translation were carried out in full swing, with Yang Xianyi, Fu Lei, Qian Zhongshu, Ye Junjian, Xu Yuanchong, Yang Bi, etc. A large number of excellent translators active on the cultural front. They have not only rich translation practice, but also solid theoretical knowledge, they have made great contributions to the cultural construction of New China and promoted the all-round development of socialist economy, politics, and culture. 3.1 Xu Yuanchong's translation thoughts The standard for Xu Yuanchong's translation of Chinese poetry is the theory of "three beauties" put forward by him, that is, he believes that translating poems should pay attention to the "three beauties", that is, the beauty of meaning, the beauty of sound and the beauty of form. The basis of the three beauties is the three similitudes: similarity of meaning, similarity of sound, and similarity of form. Implication is to convey the content of the original text. Mistranslations, missed translations, and multiple translations are not allowed, but implication does not necessarily convey the beauty of the original text. To convey the beauty of meaning, you can choose wonderful words that are similar to the original text, you can borrow words that British and American poets like to use, and you can also use the beauty of sound and shape to express the beauty of the original text. Sound beauty means that the poetry must have rhythm, rhyme, smoothness, and soundness. Translators can use the metric used by British and American poets to choose rhymes that are similar to the original text. They can also use double tones, repetition, repetition, and antithesis to express the beauty of sound. . However, the communication of Yinmei is often difficult, or even sound-like. The beauty of form mainly has two aspects: the contrast and neatness, and the length of the sentence, it is best to be similar in shape, at least to be roughly neat. Among the three beauties, the beauty of meaning is the first, the beauty of the sound is the second, and the beauty of the form is the third. On the premise of conveying the beauty of the original text, the translator should convey the beauty of sound as much as possible, and on this basis, convey the beauty of form as much as possible, and strive to achieve the three beauties. If this is not possible, first of all, it is not necessary to require similarity in form or sound, but in any case, it is necessary to convey the beauty and sound beauty of the original text as much as possible.

Cultural Features of Modern and Contemporary Chinese Translation

With the development of society, the exchanges and cooperation between contemporary China and foreign countries are increasing, and the translation culture will become more prosperous. It is even more important to study the unique social and cultural phenomenon of translation culture. As a carrier of cultural transmission, translation activities have far-reaching influence in human history. The characteristics of modern and contemporary Chinese translation culture mainly include the following four points: 1) Cultural penetration. The development and changes of translation culture are closely related to all aspects of social life and permeate our daily lives. The essence of translation is the exchange of different languages and different cultures. 2) Inheritance and reference. The inheritance of translation culture is determined by the characteristics of social culture itself. Translation is not only a conversion between languages, it is also a way to imitate and learn from. Fu Lei’s "similarities" and Qian Zhongshu's "contextualization theory" all inherited and developed traditional Chinese translation thoughts such as "faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance", Lu Xun's "Ningshun but unbelief", and Lin Yutang's "expressiveness and vividness", etc. It also broadens the field and horizon of translation studies. 3) Nationality. Any culture bears the national color and national imprint, and reflects the national cultural characteristics in the language. Translation culture is the product of the accumulation of a national cultural tradition. The nationality of Chinese translation culture is mainly manifested in various aspects of psychology and thinking. 4) Timeliness. Words with Chinese characteristics involving all aspects of Chinese politics, economy, and society sometimes have distinctive characteristics of the times.

黄柱梁 The Translation of Buddihist Sutra in Chinese Translation History

Abstract

Abstract: the translation of Buddhist Sutra is a major event in the history of Chinese translation. The introduction of Buddhism and the translation of Buddhist Sutra have not only had a great impact on ancient Chinese society, but also promoted the cultural exchange between China and India. Firstly, starting from the history of Buddhist Sutra Translation in China, this paper focuses on the contributions of several famous translators to Buddhist Sutra translation; Then it analyzes the “translation field” of Buddhist scripture translation; Finally, it analyzes the impact of Buddhist Sutra translation on Chinese culture and cultural exchanges.

Key words

Key words: Buddhist Sutra translation, “translation field”, cultural exchange

Introduction

I. Introduction Buddhism is one of the three major religions in the world. It was founded by Sakyamuni in ancient India in the 6th century BC. Soon after the establishment of Buddhism, it began to spread abroad. With its spread, some Buddhist ideas and works also spread abroad. Buddhist Sutra is the abbreviation of “Buddhist Classics”. Buddhist Classics: collectively; Tibetan Sutra, commonly known as; Buddhist Sutra, also known as the Da Zang Sutra, is generally composed of Sutra, Law and Theory. “Sutra” refers to the Dharma script personally said by Sakyamuni and integrated by his disciples, “Law” refers to the commandments formulated by the Buddha for his disciples, and “Theory” refers to the experience gained by the disciples of the Buddha after learning the Sutra. For Buddhists, the status of Buddhist scriptures is equivalent to the influence of the Bible on Christians. In China, Buddhism was introduced from the Silk Road at the end of the Western Han Dynasty. With the introduction of Buddhism, Buddhist scripture translation activities also began. According to the data cited in Pei Songzhi's note in the annals of the Three Kingdoms, “in the first year of emperor AI's Yuanshou's life in the past Han Dynasty, the doctor's disciple Jinglu was dictated the Sutra of the floating slaughter by Yicun, the envoy of King Dayue.” in the first year of emperor AI's Yuanshou's life in the Han Dynasty, that is, in 2 BC, that is, China began the translation of Buddhist scriptures more than 2000 years ago. Liang Qichao cited the general record of magic weapon exploration in the Yuan Dynasty to record that from the tenth year of Yongping in the later Han Dynasty (AD 67) to the Song Dynasty, the translation only lasted until the early year of Zhenghe (AD 1111), 194 translators participated in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, 1335 scriptures and 5396 volumes. There are 3673 Tibetan sutras and continued Tibetan sutras carved in Japan, including 15682 volumes, excluding those added to the Dazheng Tibetan Sutra, and 150 volumes of the complete book of Buddhism in Japan. Hu Shi believes that there are more than 3000 Buddhist scriptures and more than 15000 volumes preserved, including the annotations and commentaries made by the Chinese people. When Buddhism first entered China, it was incompatible with Confucianism. In order to cater to China's Confucianism and Taoism culture, the word “Buddhism and Taoism” was used in the translation of Buddhism. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Buddhism spread by relying on the Taoism popular in China at that time. During the Three Kingdoms period in the late Han Dynasty, Buddhism began to attach itself to metaphysics. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the southern and Northern Dynasties, the translation of Buddhist scriptures changed from individual translation to collective translation, from private translation to official translation, and there was a translation field organization. In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism, metaphysics and Neo Confucianism were complementary and integrated with each other. The Sui Dynasty to the middle of the Tang Dynasty was the heyday of Buddhist scripture translation. During this period, kumarosh, Zhendi, Xuanzang and Bukong were known as the “four translators”. Buddhism in the Tang Dynasty has developed into Chinese Buddhism. After the late Tang Dynasty, Buddhism gradually declined in India, and there were no large-scale Buddhist scripture translation activities in China after the song and Yuan Dynasties.

The first Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures appeared in the middle of the 2nd century (some researchers believe it was A.D. 70). Few Buddhist missionaries who came to China in the first century A.D. were proficient in Chinese, and few Chinese knew Sanskrit at that time. Therefore, the Chinese translation of early Buddhist Scriptures was completed by many people: foreign monks recited scriptures, usually with the participation of interpreters, first produced a rather rough translation, and then modified and polished by Chinese assistants. This process made Buddhism sinicized from the very beginning of its introduction into China, and was therefore rapidly absorbed and assimilated by Chinese culture. This form of collective translation has lasted for nearly nine centuries, sometimes with a large number of participants, but the vast translation work can usually be sponsored by the ruling class. Due to the change of time span and the number of translators involved, translation methods and means are often not fixed, and with the passage of time, the cultural and linguistic background of translators will also change. Despite all kinds of obstacles, Chinese Buddhist believers are still committed to the translation of Buddhist scriptures, which has preserved many lost scriptures. It is worth mentioning that some Chinese versions are closer to the original Sanskrit texts than the later Sanskrit texts of India and Nepal. Buddhist missionary translation not only played a constructive role in the spread of Buddhism in the Far East, but also contributed to the establishment of literary languages in various countries and had a great impact on Asian culture. The translation of Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit to Chinese can be roughly divided into three stages: the late Eastern Han Dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period (AD 148-265), the Dong Jin Dynasty, Xi Jin Dynasty and the Northern and Southern Dynasties (AD 265-589) and the Sui, Tang and Northern Song Dynasties (AD 589-1100).

李怡 Brief history of French translation

Abstract

The purpose of this article is to make a brief introduction to the translation history of France. The history of French translation began in the Middle Ages: with the development of Christianity and nationalism, the royal family hired translators to translate the Bible. The Renaissance in the 16th century, as well as economic and educational development, increased the demand for reading and writing, thus promoting the development of translation, most of the translated works are classical works. Then two religious films appeared in France: Jansenism and Jesuit, which had a great influence on the translation schools of that time. During the Enlightenment in the 18th century, France was deeply influenced by Britain, so most of the works in this period were British progressive thoughts and literature. The Industrial Revolution in the second half of the 18th century increased French scientific and technological translation. With the progress of the French Revolution, French translators are more inclined to the economic and political and judicial fields. After the Second World War, the translation industry in France recovered and developed vigorously. France even set up ISIT(Institut supérieur d’interprétation et de traduction)to train senior translators. In the 20th century, there appeared many translation theorists in France, which promoted the professionalization of translation.

Key words

Renaissance, French translation, contemporary, French Revolution

Introduction

In the middle ages, translation in various countries was deeply influenced by religion, especially the translation of the Bible, which greatly promoted the development of translation. In France, the royal family specially hired translators to translate various Latin and Greek works for the imperial court. The most prominent court interpreter was Nicholas Oresme of the Charles V Dynasty (1325-1382). Aristotle's works translated by him in 1377 had a great impact on the French translation and philosophy circles at that time. Jean de Vigne translated the Latin Bible in French in 1340. In addition, Jean de malkaraume, J argyropylos and others translated the works of Virgil, Ovid, Aristotle, Plato and contemporary writers at the same time. The Renaissance (14th-16th century) is the development period of French translation theory. The main representatives are Dolet and Jacques Amyot, especially the former. In the 16th century, there was an upsurge of translation in France. During this period, the focus of translation shifted from religious translation such as the Bible to classical literature translation. Religious translation abides by the translation principle of "word to word" . Its purpose is to follow the will of God and avoid blasphemy. This is irrefutable, so there are not many translation theories to speak of. However, as a new genre, the translation of literary works is different from the previous religious translation. Translators face many new problems, so translation theory came into being. Dolet and amyot are the most prominent representatives of translation theory in this period. They are both translators and translation theorists, and the latter wins especially by translation. Both their translation theories come from translation practice, so they are persuasive. Dolet is famous for his "five principles of translation". "Five principles of translation" comes from his paper on how to translate well published in 1540 ,La manière de bien traduire d’une langue à l’autre. 1. the translator must fully understand the content of the translated work; 2.The translator must be familiar with the target language and the target language; 3.The translator must avoid word by word translation; 4.The translator must adopt the popular language form; 5.The translator must select words and adjust word order to make the translation produce the effect of appropriate tone. These five principles involve the criterion of "faithfulness" in translation, the translator's bilingual ability, translation methods, style and style of translation. Amyot is one of the greatest translators in the history of French translation. He is known as the "king of translation". His translation has had a great impact on that time and future generations. He follows two principles in Translation: 1. The translator must understand the original text and make great efforts in the translation of content; (2) The translation must be simple and natural without any decoration. The first involves the standard of faithfulness in translation, and the second involves the style of translation. These two principles are similar to the first and fifth of Dolet's five translation principles. After the Renaissance, classicism deeply influenced France. In the translation circle at that time, people were engaged in the translation of classical works on a large scale. Translation has launched a magnificent "dispute between ancient and modern" around the translation methods of classical works. Some translators pay more attention to the past than the present: they pay attention to the imitation of words with sentences, and praise the so-called accurate translation method. Some translators prefer to use the opposite translation method. In the 17th century, the most famous French translator was Perrot d’Ablancourt,, His translation is sophisticated and elegant, both meaningful and beautiful, and easy to understand. There are no words that need to be explained in order to clarify the meaning in the translation, and there are no annoying cliches. Therefore, he has a great reputation for a long time. His characteristic is to take an original work and grasp the main idea. No matter what the original style is, as long as the translation is literary and readable and can make contemporary readers love and welcome, he will do whatever he can to add or delete the content at any cost, and modify it if he can, regardless of the accuracy of the translation. At that time, this literary and beautiful translation method attracted many followers, but it was also criticized by many people as "beautiful but unfaithful".

李新星

Abstract

The spreading of Western learning to the east is an extensive and far-reaching influence of modern Western culture on eastern civilization, which started from translation as a means of cultural communication.Scholars in China and Korea have always recognized the influence of the eastward spread of Western learning on the development of translation in their countries.However, most studies on modern and contemporary translation take the country as the boundary and rarely talk about the comparison and exchange between the two countries.In fact, although there are some individual differences between Chinese and Korean translation in modern times due to different national conditions, there are also many similarities and connections worthy of attention and research.From the perspective of translation history, this paper will explore the history of literary translation in China and Korea under the trend of western learning to the east, compare the commonness and individuality of the two countries' literary translation practices, explore the historical information behind the translation practices, and finally achieve the purpose of restoring the history of cultural (literary) exchanges between the two countries.

Key words

History of literary translation；“Western Learning”;China;Korea

刘沛婷 Western Translation history in Renaissance)

Introduction

The period from around the fourteenth until the mid-seventeenth century has conventionally been designated as the Renaissance,referring to the rediscovery and revitalization of the literature, art and science of ancient Greece and Rome. The term was devised by Italian humanists who sought to reaffirm their own continuity with the classical humanist heritage after an interlude of Middle Ages(literary criticism from plato to the present :An Introduction M.A.R.Habib 2011).It was a great revolution in intellect and culture. It is also “the greatest progressive revolution that mankind has so far experienced, a time which called for giants and produced giants”(Engels, 1972:445 the Dialects of Nature).Renaissance takes spreading humanism thought as one of the main forms of expression, involving all aspects of the cultural field, including the ancient Greek, Roman works and contemporary European works. In the process of studying and reviving classical culture, as well as developing and spreading new ideas, translation obviously plays an important role. The magnificent Renaissance itself included and depended on an unprecedented scale of translation activities. Therefore, it marks not only a great development in literature, art and science, but also an important milestone in the history of translation.

Originated in Italy in the 15th century, and in the 16th century Renaissance swept Europe, (especially Western European countries) and gradually formed a climax. At that time, western society was filled with a spirit of seeking and conquering the objective world. When this spirit was reflected in the translation field, translators were full of ambition and spared no effort to constantly discover new literary styles, excavate new cultural heritages and transplant new ideas to their motherland. Many translators translated classic works related to politics, philosophy, social system, literature and art of past glorious countries into their national languages as reference for the development of their own countries. All achievements in translation were compared to "trophies" in literature and knowledge. Next, we are to have a review on translations history of France, Britain and Germany, three major Western European countries in the high tide of Renaissance.

2.History of Translation in France

In France, during this period, the wind of restoring ancient styles began to prevail, ancient languages were valued, and ancient writers were respected. A large number of literary works of Italian humanists, such as Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio, were introduced to France, which opened people's eyes and promoted the development of French humanist movement. Therefore, the focus of translation in France shifted from religious works to Italian classical literature works. The increasingly translation activities constituted a climax of translation history in France.Translators generally believed that translating literary works was much more difficult than translating religious works. Although translation began to reach a new climax, most of the translations were the "by-products" of literary creation, with low quality and little influence. However, in the climax of translation in France in the 16th century, there were two outstanding contributors , one is Jacques Amyot and the other is Etienne Dolet.

Jacques Amyot was considered the king of translation in France. His first translation, Heliodoros’ Aethiopica, was completed in 1547. Later, he translated Diodorus Siculus’s Bibliotheca Historica and, in 1559 he translated Ploutarchos’s Vies des Hommes illustrus, which was Amyot’s most famous work. Amyot advocated translators’ thorough understanding of the original text and plain expressions without embellishment. He emphasized the unity of content and form, free translation and literal translation. In his translation, he borrowed words from Greek and Latin and simultaneously created a large number of words in politics, philosophy, science, literature, music and so on. He fused common people language and academic language, and therefore formed an independent style of translation and greatly enriched the French vocabulary. At that time, the French language is still in a state of confusion, Amyot and other humanists made tremendous contributions to unify the French national language.

Another great man in translation history of France was Etienne Dolet. As a famous translation theorist, Dolet advocated targeted texts’ faithfulness to the original work, which is the fundamental and indispensable principle in translation. Dolet believed that an excellent translator must be proficient in both source language and target language. He was aware of the weakness of word-by-word translation and emphasized that the translation should be consistent with the original text in style through various rhetorical devices. Ballard,a French translation theorist, argued that dolet’ translation principles constituted the rudiment of the French translation theory. What he proposed was the universal principles for translation.(Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi 1998:284)

Jacques Amyot set an example for the following translation works in France in the 16th century; Etienne Dolet’s translation theories were of great significance and were the first systematic principles of translation, which were ahead of those of Germany and Britain and advanced translation studies into a higher level. Thanks to their efforts, France had earned a place in translation history during Renaissance period.

3.History of Translation in Britain

In Britain, the Renaissance came later than in the main countries of continental Europe, but Britain gradually kept up with others countries. During this period, the British capitalist economy developed rapidly, productivity improved greatly, and the country became increasingly prosperous , which has laid a solid material foundation for the development of literature and translation. Especially since Elizabeth came to the throne in the mid-16th century by the early 17th century, translation was flourishing. On the one hand, religious translation is in the ascendant, on the other hand, a great deal of literature from Greece, Rome and other contemporary countries was translated into English, which made English translation activities in this period one of the peaks of translation activities in Europe and even the world. Literary translation ranged from history and philosophy to poetry and drama, with the occurrence of a large number of excellent translators,who introduced ancient ingenuity to Britain, offering serious lessons not only to the Queen and politicians, but also plots and materials for dramatists and readers with the purpose of serving their country. At that time, many translators were not scholars, they were not bound by any strict translation theory, they could translate what they had at their own will. Many translations are not directly from the original texts, but from the translations or even the translation of the translation. Therefore, the scope and quantity of translation are unprecedented in Britain.In the aspect of religious translation, the translator was also influenced by humanism and the Reformation, a new understanding of the Bible arose, as well as a new attitude and a new way of dealing with the translation of the Bible. People advocated accurate translation in religious works, while for literature, the unbridled freedom of traditional translation methods persisted throughout the Elizabethan era.

Gavin Douglas (1475-1522), a famous Scottish poet and translator, published his translation of Virgil’s epic Poem The Aeneid in the early 16th century. He began his preface with a eulogy of Virgil and then launched into a serious critique of the overly liberal medieval translation. He criticized Caxton's French translation as unfaithful, as far from Virgil's original work, and "as different from the devil as st. Austin" (quoted in Amos, 1920/1973:129). Douglass did not translate word by word, but freely translated. He said that if translator encountered difficult words, sentences, rhymes, one had to deviate from the original text. Douglass had added new content and new meaning to translation principles, and thus had a certain value.

Towards the middle of the 16th century, an important figure in translation was John Cheke (1514-1557). He was a humanist and supporter of the Reformation, as well as a polyglot authority on Greek at the time and served as Principal Regent Chair Professor at Cambridge university. As a result of his popularity, Cambridge became one of the academic centers in Britain, and its students were well versed in translation and language studies. Cheke was a tireless translator,who had translated many Greek works and the Bible. Characteristically, he used only pure English words or words of Saxon origin in any case, and did not adopt any foreign words. He thought the English language was rich enough without borrowing foreign words. Because of his insist on pure English words and expressions in his translation, he sometimes had to use vulgar, old and remote words, so that the style of his translation was sometimes forced and stiff. Cheke's theory had a great influence on contemporary translators. Many other translators often mentioned Cheke's translation views in their own translations. At that time, the main criterion for evaluating a translated work was whether it was authentic and easy to be understood by compatriots. At the same time, the study of foreign grammar and contrastive vocabulary also appeared in language studies. The translator aimed to turn the translation into a textbook for students of language and translation to imitate. Some translators also use word-for-word translation to provide guidance to students. Abraham Fleming, for example, translated Virgil's Poems "according to grammatical rules." He "used plain and understandable words so as to accommodate those who are slow in comprehension, since the translator's aim is to use straightforward language structures to ease the difficulties of those whose grammatical concepts are vague, rather than to devise ways to satisfy the desires of grander humanists" (as quoted in Amos, 1920/1973:109). However, in the translation of classical masterpieces, translators tended to shift from one extreme to another. In order to avoid word-for-word translation, translators adopted excessively free translation, which was not only for the expression of words but also for the treatment of the substance of the content. Nicholas Udall(1505-1556) created the first British comedy Ralph Roister Doister. In 1542 he translated Erasmus's Book of Proverbs, and later presided over Erasmus's Latin translation, including the Gospel of Luke, which was published in 1548. In the preface to the translation of the New Testament, he discussed various issues related to translation: the treatment of translators, the expansion of English vocabulary, the treatment of sentence structure of the translation, Erasmus's style and the stylistic characteristics of different authors. In his opinion, translation should not follow rigid rules. He advocated the use of liberal translation without deviation from the original meaning, and the translation should be readable and understandable to the general readers.

The most famous translation work of the whole Elizabethan period was the English version of The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans by translator Thomas North (1535-1601).He studied at Cambridge University in his early years, and later worked in London, where he met many translation lovers and gradually became interested in translation. In 1557 he translated Diall of Princes from a French translation and later he translated an oriental allegory from an Italian translated version in 1601. The live of the Noble Grecians and Romans was translated in 1579. This translation was not from the original Greek version, but from Amyot's French translation. However, it was still considered as an excellent epoch-making translation. North did not express any unique views on translation, but he was famous for his excellent translation in the western translation circle with three main characteristics:

钟义菲 The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age

Abstract

Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War.

The cause of translation in modem China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modem politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history.

The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modem Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society.

The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation  works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modem translation on Chinese society.

This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modem translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modem translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modem translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modem society.

Key words

Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

Introduction

Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purposes.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.

Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as The Beauty Adventures and The Fifteen Little Heroes, which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as Heaven and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of Heaven, Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s The Lady of the Camellias, Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not  limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. 

The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous.The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life.

魏楚璇: Western Translation History in Modern and Contemperary Ages

Abstract

Under different historical background, the modern and contemporary translations in western countries show their different characteristics and traits which cen be concluded from several perspectives.

Keywords

Western translation; translation history; modern; contemperary

Introduction

In this paper, western translation history in modern and contemporary ages will be introduced. Here the modern age refers to the nearly half century before the Second World War. The contemporary age refers to the half century after the Second World War. That is to say, the modern and contemporary translation in this paper refers to the translation in the 20th century. Under different historical background, the modern and contemporary translations show their different characteristics and traits which will be concluded and discussed in detail in the following.

The General Situation of Translation in the Modern Age

Into the 20th century, the capitalism in the developed countries developed into imperialism. On the one hand, the imperialist countries intensified their foreign expansion to oppress and exploit the weak countries and colonial people, while on the other hand, they were engaged in a fierce battle among themselves for international markets and spheres of influence. Thus, in less than half a century, two world wars broke out. Under this historical background, translation in western countries will inevitably be seriously disturbed and destroyed. However, in some specific fields and countries (such as the Soviet Union), the translation of this period also has its own traits, which can be summarized from the following four aspects.

Simplicity, smoothness and accuracy became the translation criterion.

In the translation of classics, translators no longer emphasized the elegant style of the original work, but took the simplicity, smoothness and accuracy as the criterion to measure the translation. Translators not only in France, but also in Britain, Germany, Italy, Russia and other countries began to break the tradition of poetry translation, generally advocating translating the original poem into prose, not into verse; Even when translating the works of the great poets of the past, they did not employ strict rhythm. The popular practice in translation was to translate the original poem into prose using plain language so that the translation can be understood by the reader without annotation. For example, E. Y. Rieu’s translation of Odyssey in 1946 and R. A. Knox’s translation of Bible in 1948 were typical popular translations.

The emphasis of translation was clearly on modern and contemporary literature, especially Russian and Nordic works.

From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, the literature of Russia and the Nordic countries developed greatly with the emergence of Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoyevsky, Leo Tolstoy, Chekhov, Andersen, Ibsen, Strindberg and other world-renowned great writers and dramatists. Their works had attracted the attention of the people in Western Europe and North America so they were competing to learn Russian, Danish and Swedish and had these works translated into English, German and French. In the process of translation, many excellent translators emerged in various countries, among which Garnett is the first to be mentioned.

Translation of Russian literature

Constance Garnet is the most famous female translator in Britain in this century. She translated almost all classic Russian novels and is widely regarded as the most important Translator of translating Russian literature into English.

She published her first translation of Turgenev's novel Ru-Din in 1894. In the following decades, she devoted almost all her energy and time to the translation of Russian literature. She was the first person to translate Turgenev, Dostoyevsky and Chekhov into English, successively translating all the major works of Turgenev, Goncharov, Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol and Chekhov including 12 volumes of Dostoyevsky's Selected Works translated from 1912 to 1920, 15 volumes of Turgenev's Selected Works translated from 1894 to 1899, 15 volumes of Chekhov's Novels and Plays translated from 1916 to 1922, and 6 volumes of Gogol’s Selected Works translated from 1922 to 1928. In particular, her translations of Turgenev, Chekhov, Dostoyevsky and other works were widely welcomed by the English reading community, and thus gave rise to the Russian literature craze in English literature before the First World War. She translated 70 Russian works in her lifetime, making her the most prolific translator of Russian works.

Two other translators who did not translate as much from Russian to English as Garnett, but who had no less influence, were the couple——Louise and Aylmer Maude. They are famous in western modern literary circles for their research and translation of Tolstoy's works. From 1928 to 1937, they spent nearly ten years translating and publishing 21 volumes of The Complete Works of Tolstoy. Later, from 1940s to 1950s, they supplemented or retranslated some of Tolstoy's works, such as What I Believe and Resurrection. In 1952, their work of War and Peace was accepted as a standard English translation and was selected for the prestigious Western Classics Series, thus establishing them as the authoritative English translators of Tolstoy.

In addition, R. S. Townsend, R. Edmonds, Samuel Koteliansky, Ethel C. Mayne, Boris Brasol, Richard Renfield and so on were famous for translating the works of Tolstoy, Dostoevsky, Turgenev, Chekhov, Goncharov into English.

Translation of Nordic literature and drama

In the first half of the 20th century, in addition to Russian literature, western European translators showed great interest in Nordic literature and drama, including the works of Andersen, Ibsen and Strindberg.

When Hans Christian Andersen was alive, one of his works was published simultaneously in 15 languages, including English, German, French, Italian, Spanish and almost all the major languages of Western Europe. Later, all of his works were translated into different languages, and there were many re-translations in English, French, German and other countries. The first English translator was Mary Howitt, who began translating Andersen’s fairy tales in 1846. Later translators include Charles Boner, Caroline Peachey, Lady Duff Gordon, Paul Leyssac, R. R. Keigwin and R. Spink. Some of the best translations are Leyssac’s translation in 1937, Keigwin’s translation from 1950 to 1960 and Spink’s translation.

The main English translators of Ibsen’s plays are William Archer and James MacFarlane. Archer translated 12 volumes of The Collected Works of H. I. from 1906 to 1912, including almost all of Ibsen’s plays and some of his previously unpublished papers. Macfarlane compiled translated eight volumes of The Oxford Ibsen from 1960 to 1977. In addition, F. E. Garrett translated Lyrics and Poems from Ibsen in 1912. Mary Morison translated The Correspondence of H.I. in 1905. Evert Sprinchorn translated H. I. Letters and Speeches in 1964.

In Germany, the standard German translation is The Collected Plays of Ibsen in ten volumes edited and published by G. Brandes, J. Elias, and P. Schlenther from 1898 to 1902. The standard French translation is The Complete Works of Ibsen in 16 volumes translated and published by P. G. la Chesnais from 1914 to 1945.

Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation

This paper is a journey to the history of Persian language and the presence of translation into/from Persian in different historical eras. Translation has been influenced by many social and intercultural factors throughout history; in this paper, its functions from ancient Persia to the contemporary era will be surveyed.

Key Words: Translation history, Persian language, Arabic influence, Medieval era

Persian Language, known as the language of great literary works by Hafez, Khayyam, Rumi and many other classical and modern poets and writers, has always been an interesting subject to study. Looking for its roots and origins and how it is changing and developing has been the interest of many linguists around the world. Like other important languages, Persian has developed and gradually changed in different eras in history. It seems that writings on translation history suffer from severe shortcomings. What is overlooked by the researchers of Persian translation history is to clarify the distinction between oral and written translation. These two have proved to be completely different subjects while they have been mixed when the writers judge its ups and downs in a specific period of time. Moreover, in the relatively limited knowledge of Persian translation history, the thematic classification of translations (e.g. literary, scientific, etc.) have not been considered.

Another common but important deficiency of such historiography is the lack of scientific consideration of the source and target texts, based on advances in the study of translation during the past three decades. The socio-cultural aspects of translation have rarely been surveyed, nor has the linguistic process of evolution of Persian historically been studied. Despite the importance of such inquiries, in most studies done by the Persian writers we could rarely find traces of identifying the direction of source and target texts, let alone contemplating the process and product as two imperative factors in any study of translation. Abdolhossein Azarang, whose history of translation comes with these problems admits that none of available historical books, including his, could be mentioned as a survey without offering at least a set of simple comparisons between the source and target texts in each era (Azarang, “Tarikhe” 9).

To our knowledge Persian has gone through three main changes over the years: starting from Old Persian, in transformed into Middle Persian, also known as Pahlavi, and was finally modernized into contemporary Persian—which is in use today in Iran, Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia. Persian is a branch of the Indo-European languages. As Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak (493) mentions “Over a millennium this language has been the primary means of daily discourse as well as the language of science, art and literature on the Iranian plateau.” He indicates that “Old Persian was brought into Iranian plateau in the second millennium BC by Eurasian steppes. In time, it became the language of the Achamenians (559-339 BC), a dynasty of kings who established the largest, most powerful empire in the ancient world” (493).

Among the encyclopedic references, Britannica has put forward a good remark for the root and divisions of Middle Persian with more detailed information. It mentions that: Middle Persian is known in three forms, not entirely homogeneous—inscriptional Middle Persian, Pahlavi (often more precisely called Book Pahlavi), and Manichaean Middle Persian. The Middle Persian form belongs to the period 300 BCE to 950 CE and was, like Old Persian, the language of southwestern Iran. In the northeast and northwest the language spoken was Parthian, which is known from inscriptions and from Manichaean texts. There are no significant linguistic differences in the Parthian of these two sources. Most Parthian belongs to the first three centuries CE.

Nonetheless, the Middle Persian script was abandoned in favor of the Arabic script and led to many new linguistic alterations in Persian. According to Karimi-Hakkak “The new script was far simpler and more advanced. In addition, where the Arabic script lacked essentially Persian consonants these were added to it. In short, the adoption of the Arabic script for Persian did not give rise to ruptures as significant as certain modernist reformers have assumed it did” (494). Therefore, the start of the most significant change in the Persian language dates back to the seventh century when Islam started to take over the Iranian plateau. This led Persian to find many new scopes. By adopting the Arabic alphabet, Persian became even stronger and further blossomed into many classical literary works in the following centuries.

The need for translation soon of course rose in a language like Persian spoken by large populations and used by different dynasties. Persian language had remained consistent and independent by asking the translation firstly and more importantly from Arabic. The language itself has neither been replaced by any other languages nor substantially changed during the centuries. That is why a Persian speaker today can effortlessly understand and enjoy the language of Hafez or Rudaki, the famous poets who lived in the 14th and 9th centuries, respectively.

Akira Jantarat：History of Chinese-Thai Translation

Abstract

Translation has been around for a long time. Because people on this planet have different languages and cultures. However, historical evidence suggests that shortly after the birth of human civilization, Humans have begun to know the translation. The first translation is evidenced around 3000 BC. In the early days of translation, there were no theories of scholarly ideas, so translations were the subject of philosophers, poets, or aristocracy. Most of the translations are related to religion or literature. and as the translation becomes more extensive the scope of translation is expanding. The translation is no longer limited to sages. but has become a tool to promote the exchange of knowledge in various fields between people who use different languages There are different cultures and different lifestyles. However, the relationship between China and Thailand in history dates back to around the Han Dynasty or the Tang Dynasty, which is considered the most prosperous and golden age in literature. causing literature, art, and literature to be transmitted to neighboring countries including Thailand Thus, in those days, Thailand had to translate literature and literature from Chinese into Thai. and other translation works have been produced until the present but if counted by time How did Chinese-Thai translations begin? What is the story of each era? And what role did famous translations of that era play in its long history? This article will provide answers to those who are searching for these questions. This article will divide the topics according to important eras. It will talk about the beginning of translation from Chinese into Thai. Famous stories or translations of each era , including the role of translation, have impacted society and the way people live in the present. including the relationship between the two countries Therefore, we cannot deny that translation has played a very important and important role in Chinese and Thai history.

Key words

翻译，中泰翻译，翻译历史

1.1 Wei Jin Southern and Northern Dynasty

    Wei Jin Southern and Northern era is the era that corresponds to the Ayutthaya period of Thailand. Although at that time in China Buddhism was revered. but is still limited in a narrow circle is among the civil servants and the upper classes It is not widespread among the people of the city. Chinese-Thai translations in that era were mostly translations in the field of Buddhist scriptures (Ma 1986:1) Because the translation of Buddhist scriptures at that time was considered a bridge in the exchange between Chinese and Thai Buddhists. thus promoting the development of Buddhist cultural works of both countries. Therefore, at that time, most of the translations were made to the translation of Buddhist scriptures, such as the Mandala of the guru and the translation of the Phra Bharat. It can be considered that Wei Jinnan Bei Chao is a historic moment for the prosperous exchange of Buddhist culture between China and Thailand.

1.2 Sui and Tang Dynasty to Qing Dynasty

    From the Ming dynasty to this moment, there have been some of the most frequent exchanges and visits between the two sides in the history of China-Siamese relations. In addition to coming to politics, economy, relationships, Coming to the exchange of arts, culture is becoming more frequent. Since the Sui dynasty, Chinese-Thai translations are not limited to religious culture only. but also related to diplomatic relations between the two countries. During this period of the Ming dynasty, A place to teach the Thai language was established in China named “暹罗馆”（xianluoguan）. It was added to "四夷馆" （siyiguan）, where the establishment of this language teaching facility led to diplomatic exchanges. and exchange students and is considered to cultivate the ability to translate Chinese into Thai.
    The establishment of this language teaching facility not only cultivates students' ability to translate languages. But it is also considered a cultural exchange between the two countries. First, the ambassador in “四夷馆” (siyigaun) gave the people of the Ming dynasty an opportunity to learn and understand the culture of Thailand. It is a platform for cultural exchange between the two countries. Thailand has divided learning into 18 chapters so that Chinese translators can learn quickly. And there are two books translated at that time, is “华夷译语”(huayiyiyu) and “暹罗馆译语”(xianluoguanyiyu)
    In this age, the Romance of the Three Kingdoms novel is considered a very famous translation work. The coming of Romance of the Three Kingdoms novel has many different assumptions. Some say that Chinese people bring to Thailand. In the Ayutthaya period And have some evidence that the King Buddha Yot Fa Chulalok the Great (Rama I) of Thailand Ordered to translate two books of Chinese chronicles: 1 Sai Han 1 and  1  the Romance of the Three Kingdoms novel.
    The nature of translating a book from Chinese into Thai in ancient times was quite difficult. Because those who are proficient in Chinese are not proficient in the Thai language. Thai experts do not know Chinese. In translation, it requires the cooperation of both parties to translate together. Chinese expert department Translating the content out for the scribes to take notes on paper. And later, Thai language specialists bring the content that has been written and compiled into the Thai language again. to rearrange the words so that the words are beautiful and neat Therefore when Thai people read the legend of the Three Kingdoms. That version feels that the expressions are neat, consistent, easy to read The Three Kingdoms of China that Thailand has translated are of two types. because of has different translators. 
    The novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms that mentioned above. It played a huge role in the people of that era. Because the plot in the Three Kingdoms novel reflects many concepts. whether it reflects the idea of ​​war in China values ​​in social beliefs of people society or even the customs and traditions of Chinese society, For this reason, the novel The Three Kingdoms became famous. and has been translated into Thai From the past to the present, the literature of China has influenced the feelings and minds of the general public, including the Thai people, whether the literary power will affect whether or not it depends on the values ​​and social conditions at that time.

Jawad Ahmad：

Abstract

Humans live in a diverse environment, and communication is at the centre of human community, with language serving as the means of communication. In a society characterized by globalization and global connectivity, there is a strong desire for individuals of many cultures and languages to understand one another. Translation fulfills this need in the scarcity of a shared global language for everybody. When it comes to communicating ideas and knowledge between languages, translation is essential. This study seeks to provide a broad historical overview of translation studies and common techniques in the west from ancient times to the present, in the form of a temporal survey that includes significant theoretical advancements, with an emphasis on approaches established during the modern period.

Keywords

Translation, History, Theories, Approaches

Introduction

To convert or turn from one set of patterns to someone else is to transfer or turn by one set of symbols to another; is translation. But what is the history of translation? Despite the fact that researchers and scholars have long contested the history of translation, it is unanimously acknowledged that translation predates the Bible. Translation has been evolving since the dawn of human contact, and it is now more than ever permitting cross-cultural connections, trade, economic globalization, and knowledge sharing through time. The globe has become more of a melting pot because to translation. As a result, translation becomes a more important function, covering many philosophies, mediums, and cultures. James S. Holmes, an American-Dutch poet and poet translator, invented the term "Translation Studies" in his foundational work "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies" (1972). Holmes translated several works by Dutch and Belgian poets into English while producing his own poetry. The method of transforming the language that is recorded being spoken in another language is known as translation. In a broad sense, translation can be described as a word, phrase, or sentence in another language that has the same meaning as the original. Translation is one of the many branches of learning, and it has evolved into a significant field that comprises a distinct body of knowledge that is widely used in a variety of human activities. If we think about the translation that is not so simple, to translate a single word from one language to another but it describes the difference theory, applications and different translation. Translation studies are the linguistics discipline that deals with the theory, description and application of translation. Translation is one of the many branches of learning, and it has evolved into a significant field that comprises a distinct body of knowledge that is widely used in a variety of human activities.

A mental process in which the meaning of a particular linguistic conversation is transferred from one language to another is known as translation. It is the process of converting linguistic entities from one language to their equivalents in One another. Translation is both a method and a finished thing. Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.[1] The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community. These lines have been taken from the (Wikipedia). Simply we can say in translation that a text or word translate from one place to another. As I mentioned in the above paragraph and the area of translation studies draws together research from linguistics, literary studies, history, anthropology, psychology, and economics. Of course, translation is a rewrite of an original text whatever their goal, all rewritings reflect a certain ideology and poetics, and as a result, modify literature to work in a specific way.English is the most widely spoken language on the planet. As a result, one may doubt the value of translation and wonder here we have a raised question regarding the English language; the question is why everyone doesn't just speak English? However, the truth is that not everyone can speak English, and even fewer can speak it well enough to converse successfully, and perhaps more crucially, language is much more than just the exchange of words. It's also a reflection of one's culture, society, and faith. As a result, promoting a global language will almost certainly result in the loss of culture and legacy transmitted through national languages.The transmission of information, knowledge, and ideas necessitates the use of translation. It's a must for effective and sympathetic cross-cultural communication. As a result, translation is essential for societal peace and harmony. Translation is also the one and only way for people to learn about new works that will widen their horizons. As an illustration for example:

Throughout the middle Ages, Arabic interpreters were able to care for the concepts of ancient Greek thinkers alive. The bible has been translated into at least 531 languages. English speakers may learn from some of the world's top educators through TED Sessions (Technology,Entertainment, design) open translation programmes,which allow people all across the world to comprehend their talks. Sports teams and organisations use translation to overcome linguistic barriers and cross international borders. To be continued... ......

Benjamin Wellsand：

Title: Bible Translation in the History of Christianity

==Abstract== The history of Christianity is rich in translations. Why is this the case? What is the motivation behind all of this translation effort? The present work will explain the rationale behind the perceived need for translation. It will also deal with key moments within biblical translation history and what impact it had on the church.

Key Words

Grassroots theology—the lived experience of the church that then develops into a theological framework Vernacular language—an expression or mode of expression that is a part of everyday communication and not yet in written form Heart language—the native language of a person from which the deepest emotional meanings are expressed

Introduction

Translation of the biblical text has been a practice of the Christian church since its very origin. The founding of the church during the Jewish festival of Pentecost, as recorded in the Bible itself, involved Jesus’ disciples communicating the gospel message in the language of Parthians, Medes, Mesopotamians, and Egyptians, among others (cf. Acts 2.7-11). The final vision of the multitude of the saved in heaven are described as a “people of God from every tribe and language and people and nation (Rev. 5.9).” The New Testament, although authored by primarily Hebrew-speaking Jews, was first written in the lingua franca, koine Greek, of the day[1]. Whereas Buddhists and Muslims identify the sacred texts and faiths inseparably from the original languages of Sanskrit or Pali and Arabic, the Christian faith has sought to translate the biblical texts immediately and directly into the vernacular language of the people to accelerate its global spread.

On a historical basis, the Christian faith has been criticized in regard to colonialism and the destruction of cultures. One such case occurred in the sixteenth-century with the Japanese. Giant ships (in comparison to the Japanese) came to dock on the island from Portugal. Many transactions were made between the Portugese traders and the local Japanese damaiyo. When trade agreements went south, as it did in the case of Portugal and Japan, the Portugese missionaries were associated with the politics and ousted from the country. They were ousted under the accusations of encouraging the eating of horses and cows, misleading people through science and medicine, and trading Japanese slaves (l. 1064).” Although the missionaries had done no such things, they were targeted with the accusations along with the Portuguese government.

There are cases where the colonial form of the church has not come to intentionally destroy but has assumed cultural superiority and inadvertently added to the host culture their own country of origin’s cultural forms. Late 19th century missionaries to Africa felt that the Western-style structure of a dwelling was an indicator of modern progress. In 1879, the magistrate of Gatberg declared: It is not only that the requirement of modesty necessitates the providing of some sort of clothing, however simple; but Christian morality desires also a dwelling corresponding to human dignity, decency, and purity. Building plays an important part in the mission. First the missionary builds a simple small house for himself, to which he soon adds a school and a church. Generally, he must himself superintend this work; often enough, indeed, he must execute it with his own hand, and it stands him in good stead to have been a tradesman at home. But he induces the natives also to help him, and much patience as it requires on his part, he undertakes to instruct them. Gradually his word and his example produce their effect, and the converts from heathenism begin to build new and more decent dwellings for themselves (p80).

There is no denying that the church has struggled to decontextualize the faith from their home culture and properly contextualize it into the host culture. This has led to the host culture’s Christianity looking eerily similar to the missionary’s, at best, or a faith that forever remains foreign to the host culture, at worst. Yet, as Lamin Sanneh notes, Christian missionaries have often played a key role in the preservation of cultures: The translation enterprise had two major steps. One was the creation of a vernacular alphabet for societies that lacked a literary tradition. The other step was to shake the existing literary tradition free of its esoteric, elitist predilection by recasting it as a popular medium. Both steps stimulated an indigenous response and encouraged the discovery of local resources for the appropriation of Christianity (1987:333). The translation of the biblical text into another language is not simply a greater convenience to the reader in the target culture but accomplishes far more as language extends much deeper than a mere form of communication.

Benjamin L. Whorf’s theory of linguistic relativity holds that language influences thought and not thought that influences language. For him, “linguistics is essentially the quest of meaning (p73).” George C. Lichtenberg, another pioneer of linguistics, is famously quoted as saying, “Our false philosophy is incorporated in our whole language; we cannot talk, so to say, without talking incorrectly. We do not consider that speaking, irrespective of its content, presents a philosophy (Loewenberg, p102).” Richard D. Lewis illustrated this point with an interaction between himself, an Englishman, and a former Zulu chief who received a doctorate in philology at Oxford as they discussed the color green. As the Zulu pointed to a leaf in the sun, a leaf in the shade, a wet leaf in the sun and one in the shade, bush leaves, leaves in the wind, rivers, pools, tree trunks, and crocodiles, all to which Lewis responded with a single answer: green. Yet his Zulu friend had reached thirty-nine different terms for green with no trouble at all (2006:9). Paul G. Hiebert writes, “We examine the language to discover the categories the people use in their thinking (p.90).”

Christians, like Hiebert, recognize that true conversion of a person’s mind can only happen if it takes place on three levels of the individual: belief, behavior, and worldview. “Too often conversion takes place at the surface levels of behavior and beliefs; but if worldviews are not transformed, the gospel is interpreted in terms of pagan worldviews, and the result is Christo-paganism (Hiebert p69).” And, since worldview is linked to language, it goes without saying that the biblical text and Christian terminology must be placed in the language of the people in order for one to be truly Christian within their culture.

Grassroots theology is a term coined by Simon Chan. While it is true that theology is something that is viewed as coming down from God in the Christian faith, theology cannot be totally divorced from what happens on the physical earth among humanity. The idea behind grassroots theology is that theology takes place within the community of the faithful and will necessarily carry cultural characteristics of the host culture. The African context finds a great deal of suffering through poverty and illness and filial concerns extend to deceased ancestors. This has led African Christians to recognize Jesus as the Healer who can bring help for those suffering from disease. They will point to Messianic prophecies like, “the eyes of the blind shall be opened, and the ears of the deaf unstopped; then shall the lame man leap like a deer, and the tongue of the mute sing for joy (Isa. 35.5-6).” They also find him to be the fulfillment for their need of an ancestral role as a mediator between the earthly and spiritual realms. They draw attention to Paul’s letter to Timothy, “For there is one God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus (1 Tim. 2.5).” The same can be said of Latin Americans attraction to the Holy Spirit and those giftings associated with him and South Asia’s attention to fear-power aspects of the gospel message coming from a culture steeped in animism and folk religions.

Randy Dignan has learned from his own bilingual experience “that language isn’t understood only by the mind. Language can also be heard with the heart (p13).” The term heart language holds to the conviction that, while one can read and communicate in a second language, when in the most intimate and troubling circumstances an individual will automatically revert to his or her native tongue. This is since our native form of speech is not only natural but the language in which we communicate most deeply and freely. When the Japanese Christian, Shusaku Endo, reflected on the 250 years of suffering that the church in Japan had to endure and how the church was forced to recant their faith publicly and remove all religious symbols, he reverted to his native language to express his spiritual thoughts. The Japanese character chin (meaning silence) stood as a symbol as one “looks starkly into the darkness, but [creates] characters and language that somehow inexplicably move beyond” that darkness (p74). What in Shusaku Endo’s mind best describes the Japanese Christian’s experience of suffering? Chin. When speaking of things closest to us, humans, all of us, speak from the language closest to our heart—our native one.

The early church set the pattern as it was birthed within a multilingual context and immediately entered translation efforts. Colonialism remains a constant threat as one culture takes the Christian faith into another foreign cultural context. Conversion is defined by the church as an experience that involves an individual who possesses a former way of life modeled after a specific pattern of behavior and a particular spiritual influence and then that way of life is abruptly interrupted and overturned by an encounter with Jesus (cf. Eph. 2.1-7). That experience involves a love for God with all of one’s heart, soul, mind, and strength (cf. Mk. 12.30). What reaches to the depths of heart and soul is one’s language that reaches to worldview levels. Christianity is a faith that is intended to engulf the entire person from head to toe and from belief to action. The development of a grassroots theology involves the heart language of the people and has historically manifested the capacity to preserve cultures. This is a work on the history of translation in the church.

[1] Papias’ writings are only available to us through the records kept by Eusebius. In these records, there are two extant quotes regarding authorship of the gospels. In regard to the gospel of Matthew, he writes, “Matthew composed the gospel in the Hebrew dialect and each translated them as best he could.” The early church understood this to mean that Matthew had originally written his gospel in Hebrew and it was soon after translated into Greek. However, scholars, such as D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, have brought the validity of this interpretation of Papias’ statement into question (See 2005:161-162).

References

Carroll, John B., ed. 1956. Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge: MIT Press. Carson, D. A. & Douglas J. Moo. 2005. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Chan, Simon. 2014. Grassroots Asian Theology: Thinking the Faith from the Ground Up. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. Dignan, Randy. 2020. Heart Language: Let’s Communicate Like Jesus and Change the World! Daphne: River Birch Press. Doughill, John. 2012. In Search of Japan’s Hidden Christians: A Story of Suppression, Secrecy, and Survival. Rutland: Tuttle Publishing. Hiebert, Paul G. 2008. Transforming Worldviews: An Anthropological Understanding of How People Change. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. Fujimura, Makoto. 2016. Silence and Beauty: Hidden Faith Born of Suffering. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press. Loewenberg, Richard D. “An Eighteenth Century Pioness of Semantics.” ETC: A Review of General Semantics. 1 (2): 99-104. Institute of General Semantics. Sanneh, Lamin. 1987. “Christian Missions and the Western Guilt Complex.” The Christian Century. 104 (11): 331-334. The Christian Century Foundation. Warneck, Gustav. 1888. Modern Missions and Culture: Their Mutual Relations. Edinburgh: James Gemmell.