| 人 之 所 教， 我 亦 教 之
|
rén zhī suǒ jiāo, wǒ yì jiāo zhī
|
person POSS REL.PASS declare, 1 also declare 3
|
"What others profess, I will also profess (it)." (Tao Te Ching 42)}
Copular sentences
Classical Chinese typically does not use a copula verb to express positive nominal predication ("X is a/the Y"). Instead, it places two noun phrases (one of which could be a pronoun) followed by a final particle, usually Template:Lang Template:Transl.Template:Sfn The particle can be omitted but rarely is.Template:Sfn
Template:Fs interlinear
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It is the above kind of sentence, with Template:Lang Template:Transl serving to repeat the topic as a resumptive pronoun, that later led to the use of Template:Lang Template:Transl as a copula (already in texts of the early Han dynastyTemplate:Sfn).
However, Classical Chinese did not lack copula verbs, as it not only had the negative copula Template:Lang Template:Transl (used to express "X is not Y"), but also the positive Template:Lang Template:Transl.Template:Sfn The final particle is commonly optional when these verbs are used.
Template:Fs interlinear
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Grammatical Relationships
There are five types of grammatical relationships: topic-comment, verb-object, coordination, subordination, and number complement.
This is a variation of the subject-predicate relation but a little more broad. The topic is the focus of the phrase and most often is placed first. The comment is a statement about the topic. The simplest type of topic-comment phrase is a nominal sentence that identifies one noun with another. Nominal sentences with the pattern A B 也 most frequently mean A is a B or A is a type of B. A 猶 B 也 (A is like B) is another form of nominal sentence.
Topicalization is the transfer of the usual order of a sentence to change the element that is being stressed. This is an important tool in classical Chinese rhetoric. For example, from Zhuang Zi 莊子,
臣之所好者道也
What I, your servant, like is The Way.
Topicalization is one type of a broader movement of sentence elements to the front called exposure. Exposure is often used for rhetorical emphasis or to mark a contrast.
Verb-Object
The simplest case of a verb-object is a verb and a direct object. For example, 飲酒 (to drink wine). Sometimes the object of a verb is another verb. For example, 使歸 (to cause to return).
Time and place information usually expressed through prepositional phrases in English and modern Chinese are expressed using verb-object relations in classical Chinese. The time and place words are locative objects of verbs. For example, 居山中 (to live in the mountains). Sometimes the locative particle 於 will be used. However, some references classify 於 as a preposition in the context of literary Chinese.
Auxiliary verbs are used in a similar way to modern Chinese. Frequently used auxiliary verbs are 應， 能， 必， 肯， 須. For example, 應歸 (should return).
Coordinate Relationships
In a coordinate relationship two terms of the same type are used together. The elements may be nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, or phrases. The conjunctions 與， 且， 而， 或， and 將 are frequently used to join terms in a coordinate relationship. However, conjunctions are also often omitted.
Subordinate Relations
In a subordinate relation the first element modifies the second. The first element is the modifier and the second element is called the head. For example, 青草 green (modifier ) grass (head). The elements of a subordinate relation can be nouns, verbs, or phrases.
之 is a marker for explicit subordination to a noun. It turns a verbal phrase into a nominal phrase. For example, 日出之陽 (the sun at sunrise, from 說苑 Garden of Stories).
Number Complements
A number complement relation has the form (number) + (measure). Here the measure is a noun that is a measure of some kind of quantity. For example, 二人 (two people). Measure words, as found in modern Chinese, originated from this form.
Punctuation
Punctuation in classical Chinese has mostly been added at a later date to make reading easier. In particular, question marks, quotation marks, and semi-colons were not used at all in literary Chinese. Some literary Chinese text used no punctation at all, making it very difficult for modern readers. Some texts used periods in place of both periods and modern commas. This web page uses basic periods and commas in order to make text a little more readable but avoids more modern additions like question marks, quotation marks, and semi-colons.
Basic Sentences
Source: https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klassisches_Chinesisch
Adverbial clauses
Para- and hypotactic relationships between sentences can remain unmarked in classical Chinese:
不奪不饜, bù duó bù yàn - "If they do not rob, they are not satiated.", literally "(they) do not rob - (they) are not to be satiated"[19]
However, there are also various methods of marking such relationships. One very common possibility is to use the conjunction 而, ér, which can also give sentences an adverbial function in addition to a purely coordinating function:
坐而言, zuò ér yán - "He spoke as he sat." (坐, zuò - "to sit"; 言, yán - "to speak")[20]
From 而, ér subordinate clause main clause
鳴 鼓 而 攻 之
míng gǔ ér gōng zhī
sound the drum then attack him
"Attack him while beating the drum."[21]
Conditional clauses are particularly often marked by introducing the following main clause with the conjunction 則, zé - "then":
不 仁 則 民 不 至
bù rén zé mín bù zhì
do not be human then people do not come here
"If one does not act humanely, the people will not come."[22]
Complement clauses
Complement clauses have different forms in classical Chinese depending on the embedding verb. After verbs such as 欲, yù "to want" and 知, zhī "to know", there are nominalized verbs (see section "Nominal phrases"), often with the aspect particle 也, yě:
Main clause Nominalized clause
欲 其 子 之 齊 語 也
yù qí zǐ zhī qí yǔ yě
want his (attributive pronoun) son (attributive marker) qi speak (aspect particle)
"He wants his son to speak in the manner of qi."[23]
After other verbs, including 令, lìng "to command", the subject of the embedded clause appears as the object of the parent verb. This construction is also known as pivot construction:
Main clause Subject of the embedded clause Complement clause
王 令 之 勿 攻 市丘
wáng lìng zhī wù gōng Shìqiū
King command them not to attack them (object pronoun) Shiqiu
"The king ordered them not to attack Shiqiu."[24]
Some verbs such as 可, kě "to be possible" embed clauses from which an object noun phrase coreferent with the subject of the parent verb is extracted, with preposition stranding occurring as with nominal phrases with 所, suǒ (see section "Nominal phrases").
Main clause Complement clause
其 愚 不 可 及 也
qí (attributive pronoun) yú bù kě jí yě
its stupidity cannot be achieved (aspect particle)
"Its stupidity cannot be achieved."[25]
Main clause Complement clause
stranded preposition embedded verb phrase
不 可 與 救 危 國
bù kě yǔ jiù wēi guó
not be possible with save endanger his kingdom
"It is not possible to save an endangered kingdom with him."[26]
Nominal phrases
In noun phrases, the head is always at the end, attributes can be marked by 之, zhī, which is placed between the head and the attribute:
王 之 諸 臣
Wáng zhī zhū chén
King's particles the various ministers
"the king's various ministers"[27]
In noun phrases that do not have an overt head, the morpheme 者, zhě is used instead of 之, zhī:
三 家 者
sān jiā zhě
three family particles
"the (members) of the Three Families"[28]
Verbs can be nominalized by realizing their subject as an attribute and them as the head of a noun phrase:
王來, wáng lái - "the king is coming" > 王之來, wáng zhī lái - "the coming on the part of the king; the fact that the king is coming" (王, wáng - "king"; 來, lái - "coming")
Conversely, the predicate can also be used as an attribute, resulting in constructions that correspond to relative clauses in their function:
王來, wáng lái - "the king is coming" > 來之王, lái zhī wáng - "the coming king" (more literally: "the king of coming")
者, zhě can then also be used in the same functions:
來者, lái zhě - "the one who is coming"
知 者 不 言
zhī zhě bù yán
knowing particles do not speak
"he who knows does not speak"[29]
Relative clauses whose external reference word is coindexed with an object of a verb or a coverb embedded in the relative clause can be formed with the particle 所, suǒ. (for the syntax of this quotation, see the section Nominal predicates):
所 得 非 所 求 也
suǒ dé fēi suǒ qiú yě
Particles do not get Particles look for aspect particles
"what (one) got" "what (one) looked for"
"What (one) got is not what (one) was looking for."[30]
With the exception of 於, yú, prepositions come directly after 所, suǒ if their complement is extracted. The agent of the embedded verb can be placed as an attribute before the 所, suǒ phrase.
亂 之 所 自 起
luàn zhī suǒ zì qǐ
Disorder attributive particle Particle of stand up
"where the disorder comes from"[31]
Textbook: Classical Chinese for Everyone, van Norden 2004
https://web.archive.org/web/20230308061041/http://facultysites.vassar.edu/brvannor/ClassicalChineseEveryone.pdf
Textbook: Robert Eno 2010 - Wenyanwen
Source: https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/items/d8be574e-1ffe-40b0-ab5c-7cf224ba318f
1.1 The equational sentence (X=Y)
仁人心也
This sentence type represents the most basic form of wényánwén [hereafter, WYW]
nominal sentence. It is called “equational” because the basic structure of the sentence
links two nouns or noun phrases X and Y in such a way as to convey the information that:
X=Y
In English, we handle this type of structure through use of the “copula” (the verb ‘to be’):
“X is Y,” and MC uses an identical structure: “X shì 是 Y.” But WYW does not possess a
verb analogous to these copulas. Instead, the equational sentence employs no verb, but
signals the juxtaposition of two noun phrases by appending the particle 也. Thus,
X Y 也
functions identically with,
X is Y
although 也 does not function as a verb or as a copula. It merely signifies the type of
relationship between the two nouns or noun phrases in the sentence.
1.2 Adjunct + Root ( A+R ) phrases (Noun + Noun type)
人心
This compound, “the mind of a human being,” juxtaposes two nouns without further
grammatical indicators to create a complex noun (in English, the phrase “person mind”
would be confusing; we require Adj + Noun: “human mind”). Word order alone must
establish that the first noun is “subordinate to”, or “modifies,” the second. This is a very
common type of phrase.
In structures of this kind, the second element is grammatically indispensable, while the
first element is not. Thus, in speaking of rén-xin, we are essentially referring to a type of
xin, not a type of rén. For this reason, the second element is referred to as the “Root [R],”
while the first element will be called an “Adjunct [A].”
In an A+R phrase that consists of two nouns, we may think of the phrase in two ways.
We may either consider it a case of an ellipsed (omitted) zhi 之 (in this case, picturing 人
心 as a compression of 人之心) or consider that the juxtaposition of the two nouns treats
the first in an adjectival sense (人, “human being,” being used as an adjective, “human”).
It is, of course, common, to find A+R phrases that are composed of an adjective
preceding a noun, as in English or MC.
1.3 Ellipsed subjects
舍其路而弗由
In WYW, it is far more common to construct sentences without explicit subjects than in
English, or even than in MC. In such cases, we say the subject is “ellipsed” (“ellipse”
means “omit”). In the sentence above, we need to ask what the qí refers to. The only
antecedent subjects available are rén 仁 and yì 義, and neither of these candidates will
serve the sentence well. In fact, here qí 其 seems to be resuming the modifier of lù 路,
that is, rén 人. The ellipsed subject is also rén 人, even though it has not previously
served as a subject in this passage – we must infer it from context.
Thus the fully explicated sentence phrase would read:
人 舍 人 之 路
|
|_| |________|
S V O
Most of the time, the identity of ellipsed subjects is obvious (that’s why they can be
ellipsed). But if you are having trouble understanding a sentence or phrase, check to see
whether you may not have presumed the wrong subject.
1.4 Juxtaposed Root-words (R+R)
雞犬
This phrase, which is actually a binome, exemplifies a unique feature (well, at least a neat
feature) of WYW. Although it is composed of two juxtaposed nouns, and so resembles an
A+R phrase (as in 1.2 above), it is not. In this structure, the juxtaposed nouns are more
tightly bound together and there is no modifying adjunct. Rather, the two words are
combined in order to point towards a third concept. The structure may be best conveyed
through further illustration:
牛馬 níumă: [cow + horse =] livestock
山水 shanshǔi: [mountain + water =] landscape
干戈 gange: [spear + halberd =] warfare
R+R binomes may also be composed of words other than nouns:
大小 dàxǐao: [big + small =] size
來往 láiwăng: [come + go =] movements
We will see later that the tendency in WYW to build meaning on the basis of symmetry
in rhetoric extends beyond the level of the word. We will find structures of the R+R type
at the levels of complex phrases and sentences.
1.5 “If... then...” sentences with zé 則
Zé is a complex word with a variety of functions as a syntactical marker (it also has
meanings as a noun and verb that we will not address here). At this point, we treat only
its most common function: as a marker of an “if... then...” sentence.
There are a number of potential markers for “if” that may be placed at the start of an “if...
then...” sentence. We will encounter some of these, but most often, they are ellipsed.
When that is the case, only zé remains as a syntactical marker of the hypothetical
structure. Thus, it would be correct to represent the basic pattern of an “if... then...”
sentence as:
Phrase1 則 Phrase2
We will discover later that even zé may be ellipsed, creating a situation where the syntax
must be understood solely through devices such as parallelism, symmetry, or rhetorical
balance (as in cases in English such as, “No shirt, no shoes, no service!”).
1.6 Parsimony in grammar and context-driven readings
學問之道無他求其放心而已矣
The closing sentence of this passage reflects the basic fact, apparent at almost all points,
that WYW is generally very spare in providing explicit grammatical markers. The
sentence consists of three phrases and a sentence-suffix bound form at the end:
Basic meaning
• 學問之道 the dao of learning
• 無他 is no other
• 求其放心 seek [its] loosed heart-mind
• 而已矣 that is all
But there are a number of ways in which these elements may be joined to make a
meaningful sentence. The reader is expected to use the constraints supplied by context to
find the sole, coherent reading for this case.
The sentence may be partially analyzed as follows:
學問之道 無他 求其放心 而已矣
|
|____| |________|
S Predicate1 Predicate2
2.1 The particle zhĕ 者
Zhĕ is a very common particle in WYW. It is always a nominalizer – it is bound to the
word or phrase that precedes it and either reinforces its nominal character or transforms it
into a noun.
Zhĕ may generally be considered a short form of one of three phrases:
之人 zhi rén
之物 zhi wù [wù: thing, affair]
之事 zhi shì [shì: affair, situation, case]
(Additional possibilities might include 之時 zhi shí [shí 時: time; season], 之處 zhi chù
[chù 處: place, location]; the three general formulas should be viewed flexibly.)
Any phrase that ends with 者 is a noun phrase. For example, in this passage, we
encounter the noun-phrase:
惑之甚者
If we replace 者 with the phrase zhi shì, 之事 we can read the phrase as:
惑之甚 之 事
|
|__| |__|
A + R
(adjunct) (root)
Now the Root of the phrase is revealed to be shì 事: “a case,” and hùo zhi shèn is the
adjunct modifying clause describing the type of case referred to: “a case of utmost
confusion.” (See 2.4 below for further analysis of this phrase.)
Zhĕ is redundant after phrases that are already clearly marked as nouns (as in the case of
天爵者, since 爵 is principally employed as a noun), but such usage is nevertheless
frequent and rhetorically acceptable.
2.2 Topics and subjects
公卿大夫 此 人爵也
|
|__| |______|
Topic S Predicate
|
In this sentence, the core element is the second phrase, which in itself constitutes a
complete sentence: “These are the offices of man.” In this smaller sentence, the subject is
cǐ 此: “these,” and the predicate [what is said about the subject] is rénjué 人爵. What,
then, is the grammatical status of the first four characters?
This initial phrase is called a “topic.” In this full sentence, the topic serves as an
antecedent specifying the reference of the pronoun 此. A literal translation of the entire
sentence might be:
“Duke, high minister, grandee: these are the offices of man.”
Topics are not subjects – they are best thought of as introductory adjunct clauses that
have the effect of saying, “Here’s what the upcoming sentence has in mind as the
background topic upon which it will comment.” In the case of the sentence we have been
considering, the topic is, in fact, identical to the subject (此 simply “resumes” the topic
and fixes it in the subject position). But consider the following very similar sentence:
公卿大夫人善之矣
“Duke, high minister, grandee: people consider these [ranks] to be good.”
Here, the identical topic is not equivalent to the subject of the sentence, it is, instead,
equivalent to the object of the verb shàn 善 (represented in the sentence by 之). The
subject of this sentence is rén 人; gong qing dà-fu 公卿大夫 is resumed by zhi 之.
公卿大夫 人 善之 矣
|
|__| |____|
Topic S V-O [O=Topic]
|
In WYW, it is extremely common for sentences to begin with topics, and one very
productive way to approach a sentence which you find difficult to read is to ask whether
you may not be mistaking the topic for the subject. (This is most useful in topic-sentences
with ellipsed subjects.)
2.3 The coverb yǐ 以
A “coverb” is a verbal element that cannot stand alone and must be an adjunct to another
verb; the coverb binds a modifying phrase to the main verb. The word 以 can function as
an independent verb, “to take, to use”; from this root meaning the word developed a set
of usage patterns that are more appropriately considered “coverbal.”
The three most common coverbal senses of 以 are:
modern equivalent
by means of 用
in order to 來
on account of 因為
Consider the following sentence, which shows the link between 以 as a full verb and as a
coverb:
王以犬求卿
wáng yǐ quán qíu qing
Let the prior context indicate that the qing 卿 in question is a minister who is, for some
reason, hiding from the king. This sentence may be translated by taking 以 as a full verb:
“The king took a hound and sought the high minister.”
However, this fails to convey the point that the king was, apparently, using the hound as
a means of finding the minister. It would be more accurate to translate the sentence:
“The king sought the high minister with a hound.”
Here, 以 is rendered in English by a prepositional phrase (“with a hound”); it is no longer
a full verb.
N.B.: Let the context for this same sentence be that the minister had coldbloodedly killed the king’s favorite hound and then sought to
escape. In such a context, the sense of 以 as “on account of” might
be more appropriate:
“The king sought the high minister on account of [his killing] a hound.”
Though coverbs most often precede the main verb, this is not invariably so. They
may follow, and when they do, it often reflects a different semantic emphasis (though
again, not invariably; context is more significant). For example, in any of its possible
senses, our sentence about the minister and the hound could be framed thus:
王求卿以犬
In placing 以 after the main verb, we can expect that the stress is less on the search than
on the means of the search or its cause. For example, rather than, “The king sought the
high minister on account of the hound,” we might render the sentence, “It was on account
of the hound that the king sought the minister.” But again, context would be a more
important factor than word order in determining our reading.
2.4 Partitive zhi 之
The particle 之 is chiefly used to create noun phrases. One of the most common forms in
which 之 is used is:
X 之 Y
which routinely means, “The Y of [belonging to; characteristic of] X.” However, when
the particle 者 is appended to this structure, the grammar is different. The phrase
X 之 Y 者
generally means, “Those of X that are Y,” or “That portion of X that is Y.” That is to say,
the pattern is used to denote a particular part of a greater whole, hence the term “partitive
zhi.” To illustrate:
X that are Y Oxen that are big
(X 之 Y 者) (牛之大者)
In this text, we encounter the partitive in the phrase:
惑之甚者
“utmost confusion,” or “the extreme of confusion.” This pictures hùo 惑 as a body of
confusion, and picks out a sub-portion of that body: confusion of an extreme nature. Note
that whereas in the “X 之Y” structure, the Root is noun Y, which is modified by noun X,
in the partitive the root noun is X rather than Y (contrast “the Y of X” in the first case,
with the partitive sense, “that X which is Y). For example:
王之惑
The king’s confusion. (惑/confusion is the Root word)
王之惑者
Those kings who are confused. (王/those kings is the Root word)
Moreover, while “X zhi Y” links two nouns, the partitive basically links a root noun to a
modifying phrase that is basically verbal (or adjectival), but nominalized by zhĕ.
The partitive 之 is common, but is sometimes difficult to recognize because the Y-phrase
may be a complex verbal phrase, whose length masks its relationship to the 之, and, in
such cases, the 者 is often ellipsed.
3.1 The conjunction yŭ 與
Yŭ is most generally, and correctly, explained as the conjunction equivalent to “and”
when two nouns or noun phrases are linked. For example:
翟黃與任座魏文侯臣也。
Zhai Huang and Ren Zuo were ministers of Marquis Wen of Wei.
Here, yŭ simply links two nouns in parallel to create a complex subject.
However, yŭ frequently is better translated as “together with,” as in the opening phrase of
the text of this lesson:
魏文侯與士大夫坐。
Marquis Wen of Wei was sitting together with his knights and grandees.
The distinction is that in this sentence, the phrase yŭ shì dàfu is adverbial. It described the
“manner” in which the Marquis sat; it is not part of a complex subject (that is, the
sentence is not to be read, “Marquis Wen of Wei and his knights and grandees were
sitting”). The subject is not a compound of the Marquis and his courtiers; the subject is
simply the Marquis.
Thus when a phrase including yŭ precedes a verb it is always necessary to be sensitive to
whether the subject of the verb includes both elements linked by yŭ or only the first.
3.2 The interrogative hé 何
Hé is the most common question word in WYW. Its meaning is very flexible, according
to context and the verb or coverb with which it is paired. Syntactically, 何 most often
occurs as the object of a verb, or modifies the object of a verb. However, in general, 何
precedes the verb or coverb of which it is an object – that is, it is “preposed.” Hé may
also serve as an adverb, modifying a verb (e.g., “how was this verb-ed?”).
In this selection, 何 occurs in two contexts:
何如君: “in what manner [do I] perform [the role of] ruler?”
Here, 何 is best taken as adverbial, modifying rú (to perform) or, perhaps better,
modifying a binomial verb phrase, rú jun (to act as a ruler).
In the second instance,
子何以言之: “why do you say it?”
何 serves as the object of the coverb yǐ 以, “on account of” (thus, “on account of what do
you say it?”).
3.3 Sentence adjuncts
“Sentence adjunct” is a handy jargon term to denote a very common feature of WYW.
Many sentences begin with a type of “stage setting” phrase, which, like a “topic” at the
start of a sentence, underlies the meaning of the rest of the sentence, but is not engaged in
any further grammatical relationship with the remainder of the sentence, as a sentence
subject would be.
In this passage, the phrase:
君伐中山: [When] you, my lord, attacked Zhongshan . . .
serves as a sentence adjunct. Like many sentence adjuncts, the phrase is a marker of time,
and so contextualizes all that follows. Were we to interpret this same phrase without
reference to its place in the full sentence, we might render it, “You, my lord, attacked
Zhongshan,” which in this context would be a misreading. The distinction could be
clarified by restoring an ellipsed shí 時 ([N] time, season) as follows:
君伐中山時 ．．．
3.4 Ellipsed objects
君伐中山，不以封君之弟．．．．
The fully stated sentence would read:
君伐中山，不以之［中山］封君之弟．．．．
The redundancy of the particle zhi 之 has led the authors to ellipse those instances which
are not strictly necessary. The result has left the coverb yǐ 以 without an explicit object.
3.5 “If... then...” expressed through parallel structure
其君仁，其臣直
Aphorisms, which are very common in WYW, are usually composed of brief and parallel
phrases (often rhymed – this one is not), much as in English. In the case of this
sentence, all explicit markers of the contingent “if . . . then. . .” have been ellipsed, but
context and parallelism still allow the reader to understand the deep structure. The
formula encountered here could easily have been rendered:
國君若仁則其臣直矣
[Voc.: 若 rùo: (Conj) if; (V) to resemble]
but the latter would lack the rhetorical punch provided by the snappy phrases that begin
with two parallel uses of 其. (By the way, can you state what 其 signifies here? There is
more than one viable answer.)
4.1 The preposition yú 於
The preposition 於 is among the most flexible words in WYW. Its appropriate translation
is determined by the surrounding semantic and syntactic contexts. It may be best to
introduce the word through examples:
a. 吾未至於魏 wú wèi zhì yú Wèi
“I have not yet arrived at (reached to) Wèi.”
[Voc.: 未 wèi: (Adv) not yet, never yet]
b. 臣受爵於王 chén shòu júe yú wáng
“Officers receive rank from the king.”
取於臣謂之取 qǔ yú chén wei zhi qǔ
“When one takes from one’s minister one calls it `taking.’”
c. 王居於宮中 wáng ju yú gong zhong
“The king lives in the palace.”
[Voc.: 居 ju (V) to dwell; 宮 gong: (N) a palace, a mansion]
d. 鳥鳴於樹上 nǐao míng yú shù shàng
“The bird called on the tree.”
[Voc.: 鳥 nǐao: (N) bird; 鳴 míng: (V) to chirp; shù: 樹 (N) tree]
NOTE: 於 . . . 上 may generally be rendered “on” or “above”
於 . . . 下 may generally be rendered “under” or “beneath”
This type of straightforward propositional use of 於 creates few problems, so long as you
bear in mind that the English equivalent will vary with context. However, the sense of 於
is actually broader than is the range of common English prepositions. The basic meaning
of 於 is something closer to “in relation to,” in an extended sense. Thus this same
syntactical marker can also signal use of the passive voice:
e. 王治臣臣治於王 wáng zhì chén, chén zhì yú wáng
“The king rules ministers; ministers are ruled by the king.”
[Voc.: 治 zhì: (V) to regulate, to rule]
季孫受教於孔子 Jìsun shòu jìao yú Kǒngzǐ
“Jisun received teaching from Confucius.”
[Voc.: 教 jìao (N) a teaching (N.B. jiao: (V) to teach)]
Another manner in which yú relates two elements is in comparative constructions.
f. 魏強於齊而無德 Wèi qíang yú Qí ér wú dé
“Wei is stronger than Qi, but possesses no virtue.”
[Voc.: 強 qíang: (SV) strong; 德 dé (N) virtue,
character, personal power]
4.2 “Class cleavage”
“Class cleavage” is the odd term that describes the situation where a word ordinarily used
in one grammatical category may be appropriated for use in another. WYW is ideally
constructed for class cleavage because words are uninflected; that is, their grammatical
function is not indicated by such features as prefixes, suffixes, or phonetic markers, as in
Indo-European languages. Hence, where in English, class migration of a word like “take”
may create no ambiguity (e.g., the verb form “take” and the noun form “taking” are
distinguished by suffix), the same is not true in WYW (see d. below). On the other hand,
WYW-style class cleavage is becoming more common in English – as in, “The wonder is
that WYW can impact English long-distance. Cool!”
We will consider four ways in which words exemplify class cleavage.
a. Sometimes one word/graph is regularly employed in two closely related senses that
differ chiefly in terms of syntactic function. In such cases, dictionaries will generally give
the graph multiple definitions, according to its different grammatical functions. For
example, the word zăi 宰, which means “steward,” or “chief-of-staff” in our passage,
may equally well be used as a verb meaning “to be in charge of”; “to supervise.”
Dictionaries will routinely note that 宰 may serve as a noun or as a verb, but in terms of
its textual usage, there is no marker of this distinction other than context.
b. Sometimes the same graph is used to denote closely related words, as in “a.”, but the
two uses will be distinguished phonetically, marking them as fully independent words.
For example, the word shǐ 使 in our passage in used in a coverbal sense, “to make
[someone do something]” (we could also render it as the full verb “to depute”).
Elsewhere, however, the same graph denotes the noun shì: “a deputy, an emissary.” Here,
the difference in word class is marked in the spoken but not the written language.
c. Sometimes a cleavage in syntactical function may become so regular that the
difference is marked by the introduction of a new graphemic element to correspond to
one of the usages. For example, the word dì 弟: little brother, also possessed a verbal (or
stative verb) sense of “to behave like a little brother should.” Objectionable as that notion
may have been to little brothers, this verbal usage came to be marked by both a phonetic
distinction (it is pronounced tì) and by a graphemic addition: the heart element was added
to it to create the graph 悌. Many cognate words that share phonetic graph elements and
semantic properties evolved through class cleavage in this way.
d. Class cleavage is most challenging to WYW readers (and also often most rhetorically
powerful) when a word regularly used in one syntactical manner is used in another word
category without the precedent of regular class cleavage. Take this example from the
present text:
君有取謂之取
jun yǒu qǔ wèi zhi qǔ
When a ruler has a ‘taking’ we term it ‘to take.’
Here, the phrase 有取 requires that 取 be interpreted as the nominal object of the verb 有.
Although this is not the only instance of 取 being employed as a noun, the usage is
neither common enough nor significant enough for dictionaries to note; 取 is generally
considered to be exclusively a verb (ignoring certain specialized uses not relevant here).
Because of the last variety of class cleavage, it is difficult ever to judge a WYW sentence
as syntactically incorrect (one may always allow syntactically inappropriate word choices
to migrate to the appropriate word class). And in fact, one of the great literary devices
that renders texts powerful is that the best writers often intentionally employ words in
syntactically innovative ways. When learning WYW, this feature of the language is
“challenging.” The best procedure is to rely on the guidance of dictionaries, but to be
prepared to go beyond the dictionary guidelines if the context seems clearly to demand it.
4.3 Yĕ 也 in mid-sentence
What follows is a detailed explanation of an apparently minor grammatical anomaly. If
you find it dull, skip it!
必也正名
“What is necessary is to rectify terms.”
Although the most common role of the particle 也 is as a terminal marker of an
equational sentence, it also performs several types of functions mid-sentence. In the body
of a sentence, 也 most often comes immediately after a topic clause, and serves, by
means of a caesura (that is, a pause) to clarify that the initial word or phrase is a topic
rather than a subject.
In the case of this sentence, 也 functions differently. It is best in this case to clarify the
function of 也 by comparing the structure as it is found to a reconstructed simple
sentence. Two such simple sentences may serve as possible underlying structures of our
sentence:
a. 必正名 “[One] must rectify terms.”
b. 必為之事正名也 “The thing that must be done is rectifying terms.”
Though these sentences are not equally brief, both are grammatically simpler than our
current sentence.
If we regard case a. as the root sentence, then we may say that 也 has been added after
the adverbial 必 strictly for emphasis: “[One] must, indeed, rectify names.” If we take
case b. as the root sentence, then the key factor is that half the verbiage has been removed
and the rhetoric greatly strengthened. The transition process could be reconstructed in
this way:
Stage 1: 必為者正名也 [之事 becomes 者]
Stage 2: 必者正名也 [“That which is necessary is rectifying terms”]
Stage 3: 必者也正名 [here, the 也 is added to set off the topic and
removed from the end because the sentence is no
longer equational: “As for that which is necessary,
rectify names!”]
Stage 4: 必也正名 [the 者 is unnecessary because 也 as topic marker
already marks 必 as standing for a nominal unit]
Although the latter of these two theories is more complex, this sort of sentence
transformation is so common in WYW that it appears more likely.
4.4 Pattern: kĕ bù X hu?
可不慎乎
“May one be not cautious?”
This is an example of a very common form of rhetorical question. Its thrust is, “One must
be X!”
5.1 (R+R) structure at the phrase level
Parallelism is a prominent aspect of WYW. In the clause
先王有至德要道
the object of the verb 有 is composed of the four characters that follow. These may be
analyzed as two sets of two, each composed of an (A+R) phrase: 至德 [utmost virtue]
and 要道 [pivotal Way] (here, the A+R phrases are not composed of nouns, as in
Grammar 1.2, but are Adj + N).
The firmly nominal nature of the root words (德 and 道), which frequently appear in
parallel, make it easy for the reader to understand that 至 (which may be a verb) and 要
(which may be a noun or a verb) are here modifying the nouns as adjectives. The two
phrases are linked by no conjunction; they are merely juxtaposed. In this way, the phrases
themselves become an R+R construct, serving as the complex object of 有; in a sense,
utmost/virtue-pivotal/Way has been formed into a single complex nominal, much in the
way that ji-quăn 雞犬 was formed of simpler elements in Lesson 1.
5.2 False parallelism
False parallelism is the product of the high valuation of balanced phrasing in WYW. It is
frequently the case that texts will include strings of four- or five-character lines which lull
the reader into a mistaken sense of parallelism through their metric balance. While in
simple texts the context and diction may make the meaning transparent, unless one is
alert to the traps of false parallelism it is easy to misread more complicated texts.
As an example of false parallelism, two linked phrases from the 孝經:
以順天下，民用和睦
At first, it may appear that these clauses are parallel. On closer examination, however,
they turn out to be very different in structure:
a. ［先王］以［至德要道］順天下
“[The former kings] by means of [utmost virtue pivotal Way] made compliant all
the world.”
b. 民用［=以］［先王之順天下者］和睦
“The people, on account of [the former kings’ making compliant the world], were
in harmonious cooperation.”
In a. the subject is implicit (先王), whereas it is explicit in b. (民). The similar verbs 以
and 用 turn out to have very different implicit objects. The verb in a. is transitive with an
object; in b. it is a binomial stative verb (和睦).
In the case of this passage, the likely error into which false parallelism may guide the reader
is the assumption that the objects of 以 and 用 are identical (that is: 至德要道).
5.3 The use of sǔo 所
No single word causes more confusion than 所. There is no reason why this should be so.
Sǔo performs a simple grammatical function and is used with great consistency.
Basically, 所 acts as a substitute for the object of a verb; it precedes that verb, and in
doing so, creates a noun phrase denoting “that which is Verbed”. A 所 sentence often
represents the transformation of a straightforward S-V-O sentence into a sentence with a
complex noun as subject and a predicate which either identifies or characterizes that
subject. Here is an example of how 所 transforms a simple sentence:
吾 教 王
wú jiao wáng “I instruct the king.”
S V O
吾 所 教 者 王 也
wú sǔo jiao zhĕ, wáng yĕ “He whom I instruct is the king.”
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|______|
nominal subj. predicate
The use of 所 allows the writer to refer to an object whose name is unknown, or whose
identity he wishes to withhold:
汝 所 教 者 誰 也
rǔ sǔo jiao zhĕ, shéi yĕ “Who is it whom you teach?”
[Voc.: 誰 shéi (Pronoun) who]
Notice, that by using 所 the writer can refer to the persons who are being taught even
though he cannot name them. This is a perfectly ordinary feature of languages, and 所 is
a perfectly ordinary syntactical device.
What makes 所 sometimes difficult is that it may occur in complex sentences. Let’s
consider the sentence in our text:
夫孝德之本也教之所由生也
which, for the sake of clarity, may be simplified to:
孝，教之所由生也
This is an equational sentence. Xìao 孝 is the subject, and the remainder of the sentence
forms the predicate – that which is said about (predicated about) the subject. Since this is
an equational sentence, its structure is basically:
孝 X 也 xìao [is] X
X is a noun. We know, of course, that 所 creates a noun-phrase, therefore it makes sense
that 教之所由生should be a noun unit. Literally, the phrase 所由生 means: “that out of
which [something] is born.” Therefore the entire X-phrase is “the teaching’s that-out-ofwhich- [something]-is-born.” But we can simplify this. The 之 is superfluous here: 之too
creates noun phrases, like 所. There is no need for both, and if we disregard the 之, our
X-phrase would translate “that out of which the teaching is born.” This is clearly a noun,
but what is the identity of this noun, or, in WYW:
教所由生者，何也？
The answer:
教所由生者，孝也！
This sentence first refers to 孝 without naming it by using 所 to create an equivalent
noun-phrase out of a verbal aspect of 孝 – then it reveals the identify of 孝 by name.
“That which gives birth to the teaching is . . . filiality!” (Ta-daa!) But, really, this is
hardly a surprise, since the sentence we began with was simply the inversion, “Filiaility is
that which gives birth to the teaching.”
(N.B. We will see that it is common to include both 之 and 所 is phrases such as this one;
although it is logically redundant, it helps the rhetoric flow.)
6.1 Sentence adjuncts and topics
The following sentence is grammatically complex:
君安驪姬，是我傷公之心也．
The sentence must be understood as a response to Chóngĕr’s suggestion. The first four
characters here serve as a “sentence adjunct.” This means that they “set the stage” for the
sentence, but do not further engage in the syntax. The word shì 是: “[in] this [manner],”
which in this context means following Chóngĕr’s suggestion, is the topic of the sentence.
Thus the sentence may be analyzed as follows:
Context: The duke loves Lí Ji
Topic: Acting as you [Chóngĕr] have suggested
Comment on the topic: I shall [thus] break the duke’s heart
There are other ways to analyze the sentence, but this analysis should serve to highlight
the way in which sentences sometimes seem more a series of phrases governed by colons
than a syntactically coherent utterance. Compare ordinary English with a literal rendering
of the WYW:
Because the duke loves Lí Ji, if I act as you suggest, I shall break the
duke’s heart.
[Given] the duke loves Lí Ji: [as for acting] thus: I shall break the duke’s
heart.
6.2 The adjunct rán 然
Rán 然 (“this being so”) frequently serves as a sentence adjunct. Following a statement,
its consequential aspects may be preceded by the adjunct 然, which “resumes” the entire
preceding statement or discussion in a single word, thus highlighting that what is about to
follow is precisely the consequence of what has been discussed before.
As a sentence adjunct, 然 is generally followed by zé 則. There are two ways to analyze
the function of 則 and they are about equally persuasive. The first is to treat 則 as
marking a hypothetical clause. In that case, sentences that begin with 然則 may be
thought of as starting, “If this be so, then . . . .” However, 則 is sometimes better
explained as a weak marker of logical or action progression (as in the general, “once this
is so, then . . .” or the specific instance, “once this was so, then . . .”). This use of 則 may
often be rendered by something like, “well, then . . .” carrying a force close to “well,
naturally . . .” Therefore, it may sometimes be more appropriate to think of 然則 as
carrying a sense like, “This being so, well . . .” followed by a shrug, signifying, “what did
you expect?”
6.3 Sui 雖 and sui rán 雖然
Unlike Modern Chinese, where the sense of “although” is carried by the compound 雖然,
in WYW, the word 雖 alone carries this sense. In WYW, the adverb 雖 in an initial
clause is often found in combination with the adverb yì 亦 in a subsequent clause. The
two together convey the meaning: “Although . . . still/nevertheless . . .” An equivalent
pattern in MC would be: 雖然 . . . 還 . . . . For example:
MC: 我雖然不喜歡我的老師，還不要殺死他！
WYW: 吾雖不好師，亦不欲殺之！
The meaning of the phrase 雖然 in WYW is very different from that of MC. 雖 itself
carries the meaning of “although,” a meaning conveyed in MC by the binome 雖然
(wherein 然 performs as a suffix-adjunct indicating manner); 然 retains its original sense
in WYW, “it being so.” Thus in WYW, 雖 and 然, though frequently occurring together
at the outset of a sentence, remain independent. Their meaning is: “Although it is so.”
吾不好我師．雖然，亦不欲殺之！
6.4 Inversion with shì 是
Shì 是 serves as an emphatic form, denoting either “this” or “truly.” It is not infrequently
“preposed” – placed in front of the verb of which it is an object – for purposes of
rhetorical emphasis. This inversion is especially frequent when 是 appears with the
coverb 以, as is the case in this text. 是以, literally: “this on account of,” simply means,
“on account of this,” or “hence.”
6.5 Relationship between wéi 為 and wèi 謂
There is a frequent overlap between the two very different terms wéi 為 (“to be, to do, to
act as”) and wèi 謂 (“to refer to, to characterize”). It is not always clear whether this
overlap is a semantic one (the meanings of “to be” and “to be characterized as” can be
nearly indistinguishable) or a case of phonetic loan. In this text, 為 in the final clause may
be interpreted either way, but because the implicit subject is dead, inferring the sense of
“to be referred to as” makes greater sense. (N.B. This particular loan relationship does
not appear very often.)
7.1 Yǔ 與 with ellipsed subjects
The conjunction 與 is used to link nominals. In some cases, 與 links an ellipsed subject
with a co-subject before a verb, as in line 2 of this poem.
7.2 The conjunction qǐe 且
Qǐe 且 links two verbs or verb phrases in parallel. Context sometimes suggests that the
second phrase is somewhat emphasized, letting 且 carry some of the weight of MC ĕrqǐe
而且 or bìngqǐe 並且, but other times the two phrases seem to carry equal weight, as here
in line 5. Here, we see 且 linking to simple SVs, but it may elsewhere link more complex
V-O phrases, such as:
駭獸且害人
hài shòu qǐe hài rén: “. . . frightens animals and harms people.”
(駭 hài: [V] to frighten; 獸 shòu: [N] wild animals; 害 hài: [V] to harm)
7.3 Pre-pivotal verbs
The phrase:
令人老
illustrates the function of what are known as pre-pivotal verbs. Here, 令 functions as such
a verb. Pre-pivotal verbs are verbs that take an object which becomes the subject of a
second verb.
V1 O/S V2
The object/subject word is called the “pivot” of the phrase, because the phrase turns on its
shift from object to subject. In this phrase, the pivot is 人 (which in this particular
context actually refers to the speaker, and functions as “I”); it is the object of 令 and the
subject of 老.
There are a set of verbs that commonly function as pre-pivotal verbs. These include:
令 lìng: to order or cause someone [to do something]
命 mìng: to order someone [to do something]
使 shǐ: to cause someone [to do something]
Other verbs with meanings such as “force,” “compel,” and so forth can function in this
way as well.
7.4 Poetic parallelism
Perfect parallelism is a feature of Chinese poetic composition and frequently
characterizes prose as well. We have earlier examined false parallelism. Lines 7 and 8 of
this poem exemplify the perfect parallelism that was highly prized in all sorts of
composition. Lines 9 and 10 show a more common and entirely acceptable rough
parallelism.
7.5 Classical allusion
The degree to which allusion to prior texts dominates the world of Chinese poetry (and
prose, for that matter) far exceeds anything comparable in the West. Although these
poems are early products of the literary tradition, they still regularly import allusive
language, particularly that of the Shijing 詩經, or Book of Poetry. The choice of the
somewhat ambiguous word zhì 致 in line 6 is governed by the needs of allusion. The
prior text, from the Shijing, reads:
豈不爾思，遠莫致之
qǐ bù ĕr si / yǔan mò zhì zhi
Allusions often do not capture the original sense of the source (this is not considered a
literary flaw). In this case, the Shijing text, which concerns a woman longing to return to
her family, might be translated, “How could it be that I do not long for you; it is that you
are distant and I cannot reach you.” In our poem, 致 seems to be used in the sense of “to
transport [something],” referring to the blossom and the inability of the woman to find a
courier to transport it to her lover. (In case you’re wondering how you are supposed to
recognize allusions, for the most part they are provided by traditional and modern
commentators in modern editions of traditional literature.)
7.6 The particle hé 何 as an adverbial intensifier
There are times when 何 does not function as a question word. In these cases, although it
is often appropriate to translate 何 as “how,” the sense of “how” is not interrogative but
exclamatory. For example:
四顧何茫茫 “How barren everywhere!”
Here 何 precedes an SV, which is the most common mode in which this usage occurs.
Frequently, if the subject is understood, 何 in this sense may be followed by 其, which
resumes the subject:
何其茫茫 “How barren it is!”
7.7 Reduplicated words
This poem includes two words composed of a reiterated character, “reduplicated words.”
Reduplicated words are common in poetry, and may occur in prose as well. The most
common form is that found in this poem. Both youyou 悠悠 and mángmáng 茫茫 consist
of an SV whose original sense is preserved but intensified in the reduplicated word. The
reduplication in the first poem, xíngxíng 行行, is a less common instance of a repeated
verb expressing continuing action.
7.8 Numbers as semantic modifiers
The phrase sì gù 四顧, which appears in line 3, does not mean, as it might appear,
“looked four times.” When 四 is used in an adverbial position, it generally means “in all
four directions,” or simply, “all around.” Other numbers are also used in figurative senses.
The numbers 3, 9, and sometimes 7 are used to mean “many” (deciding when these
numbers mean “many” and when they are to be read literally is often difficult). The
number 100 means “the many” on a larger scale, generally when pointing towards a
variety of species (thus băicăo 百草 in line 4 of this poem is best rendered not in the
sense of “the many blades of grass” – and certainly not “the 100 blades of grass” – but
rather, “the many sorts of grass”). The number 10,000, of course, is also used to mean
“the many” or “all,” especially in the phrase wàn-wù 萬物: the world of things.
7.9 Binomes
The term “binome,” when applied to WYW, generally has a meaning distinct from
“compound” or “combination,” which terms are used to refer to two- or three-character
words composed of units that make independent semantic contributions (for example,
zhidào 知道: “to know,” is a compound derived from a V-O phrase where both elements
carried full meaning). Binomes are true two-syllable words whose units cannot be
analyzed as etymologically independent – in some cases, the characters that compose the
binome actually possess no independent meaning at all (as in the case of the character díe
in húdíe 蝴蝶 butterfly). When true binomes rhyme, as is very often the case, they are
imaginatively named “rhyming binomes.”
Both páihúai 徘徊 and pánghúang 傍徨, which occur in this poem, are rhyming binomes
and their meanings seem very similar (it is hard to pin down the concrete meaning of
binomes such as this). A binome of similar meaning, which does not rhyme, but which is
alliterative, is the frequently encountered chóu-chú 躊躇, which carries more of the sense
of “hesitating.” All of these binomes are sometimes written with variant characters,
which is characteristic of binomes, whose graphs were principally determined on
phonetic grounds.
The presence of true binomes in early Chinese disproves the standard claim that Chinese
was originally a “monosyllabic language” (meaning that its lexicon was purely composed
of monosyllabic words). Binomes were polysyllabic words from the start. Their
representation in written WYW demonstrates that the spoken language of early China
was more varied than is usually recognized. However, the relative rarity of true binomes
in WYW still provides support for the claim that the spoken language was predominantly
“monosyllabic.”
This grammar book continues on page 73: https://scholarworks.iu.edu/iuswrrest/api/core/bitstreams/248cccaa-1147-443e-845a-7c8a9b4e8ac8/content
Session 4 FRI Mar 22, 9:45-11:15 s. 424 SIN III
C3 Mar 29
Mar 28 - Apr 2: Easter Holiday in Poland
Session 5 FRI Apr 5, 8:00-9:30 s. 400 SIN III
Session 6 FRI Apr 5, 9:45-11:15 s. 424 SIN III
Apr 4-6 is Qingming holiday in China, the Chinese students make up for the missed classes on Sun (!) Apr 7 and 28.
C4 Apr 12, C5 Apr 19
Session 7 FRI Apr 26, 8:00-9:30 s. 400 SIN III
Session 8 FRI Apr 26, 9:45-11:15 s. 424 SIN III
May 1-3 are Workers' and Constitution holidays in Poland. (May 8 is sports holiday.)
May 1-5 is an extended May 1st holiday in China, the Chinese students make up for missed classes on Sat May 11.
Session 9 FRI May 10, 8:00-9:30 s. 400 SIN III
Session 10 FRI May 10, 9:45-11:15 s. 424 SIN III
C6 May 17, C7 May 24, C8 May 31, C9 Jun 7
May 30-31 holiday Corpus Christi in Poland.
June 8-10 is Duanwu holiday in China.
Session 11 FRI June 14 8:00-9:30 s. 400 SIN III
Session 12 FRI June 14, 9:45-11:15 s. 424 SIN III
Mon Jun 17 (Thursday classes), Tue Jun 18 (Friday classes) in Poland.
Session 13 TUE Jun 18, 8:00-9:30 s. 400 SIN III
Session 14 TUE Jun 18, 9:45-11:15 s. 424 SIN III
Session 15 FRI Jun 21, 8:00-9:30 s. 400 SIN III
Final Exam FRI Jun 21, 9:45-11:15 s. 400 SIN III
Exam session: Jun 24-Jul 7. Retake session Sep 1-15.
Jul 20-22 Chinese Studies Conference.
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