I am Ye Sitong, 23 years old, major in English translation.

Language: Wenzhou Dialect

叶思彤 202470081583

Abstract

Wenzhou dialect, a subdialect of Wu Chinese, is mainly spoken in Wenzhou, southern Zhejiang. Tracking back to the Kam-Tai language of the ancient Baiyue people before the Spring and Autumn Period, it remains less assimilated by northern Chinese as the city is surrounded by mountains on three sides and facing the sea, preserving abundant ancient Yue vocabularies and cultural features. That's why it is known as one of the most notoriously abstruse dialects. Its linguistic characteristics are distinct: phonetically, it has 35 initials and the eight tones of ancient Chinese, enhancing the rhyming beauty when reciting Tang and Song poems; as for lexical characteristics, it retains lots of archaic expressions; grammatically, it prefers to use inverted sentences, such as post-posed attributes and post-posed adverbs, fully reflecting ancient linguistic traits. Additionally, Wenzhou dialect profoundly influences local culture—for instance, Wenzhou Drum Ballads rely entirely on dialects and local slang for performance, showing strong regional characteristics. The combination of Wenzhou dialect and Wenzhou Drum Ballads together constitutes the cultural identity of Wenzhounese.

Brief Introduction of Wenzhou Dialect

Wenzhou dialect, a subdialect of Wu Chinese, is mainly used by the people of Wenzhou who live in southern Zhejiang province. According to historical records, it can be traced back to the the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period when the ancient Baiyue people already had their own language—Kam-Tai. Later, with the change of dynasties, the shift of political and economic centers, and the closer integration of northern and southern cultures, dialects in the Wu-speaking regions underwent further Sinicization. For example, dialects in other cities of Zhejiang have few remaining Kam-Tai features and are very close to northern Chinese. However, Wenzhou dialect still maintains lots of ancient Baiyue Kam-Tai vocabularies, which is closely related to its special geographical environment. Surrounded by mountains on three sides and facing the sea on one side, Wenzhou was geographically isolated in ancient times, with no land routes connecting it to the outside world. It is very difficult for Wenzhou people to contact with the world for they have to take a boat or climb over the mountains. As a result, restricted by its geographical location, Wenzhou was rarely affected by external cultural changes, and its dialect was less assimilated by northern Chinese. It is precisely because of its well-preserved ancient cultural features and vocabularies that it has become one of the most abstruse and difficult to understand dialects recognized by all.

The Linguistic Characteristics of Wenzhou Dialect

Wenzhou dialect consists of 10-odd branches, mainly used in the downtown and prefectures such as Ruian, Yueqing, Yongjia, Wencheng, and Pingyang. However, these branches are quite different from each other in vocabulary, phonetics, and grammar, featuring the unique trait of "different tones every three miles and distinct pronunciations every ten miles."

Phonetic Characteristics

Wenzhou dialect has a unique pronunciation system. Mandarin has 21 initials, while Wenzhou dialect has 35; mandarin has four tones, while Wenzhou dialect retains the eight tones of ancient Chinese, typically "four tones with eight modulations." This unique phonetic system makes it more catchy and charming than Mandarin when reciting Tang and Song poems.

Lexical Characteristics

In the aspect of vocabulary, Wenzhou dialect preserves a large number of ancient expressions, and many commonly used colloquial words have ancient pronunciations and meanings. For example,the term for "chopsticks" is zhù (箸), a word directly inherited from ancient Chinese texts like Han Feizi, where it was used as early as the Warring States Period. Hot water is called "tāng (汤)", echoing its meaning in pre-Qin literature such as The Analects of Confucius, where "tāng" referred to both hot water and broths. Besides, have breakfast, have lunch and have dinner are respectively expresses as "chī tiān guāng (吃天光)", "chī rì zhòu (吃日昼)", "chī huáng hūn (吃黄昏)". These expressions for meals are particularly distinctive as they use concrete time periods to denote abstract actions. These examples highlight how Wenzhou dialect acts as a living repository of classical Chinese vocabulary, maintaining direct linguistic continuity with ancient texts while showcasing grammatical and rhetorical patterns that have evolved differently in modern Mandarin.

Grammatical Characteristics

Grammatically, its word formation encompasses distinct characteristics of the ancient Baiyue language, preferring to use inverted sentences. Among them, it is typical to place attributes after nouns while mandarin usually puts attributes first. For example, in Mandarin, we usually say "热(rè)闹(nao)"（boisterousness）, but in Wenzhou dialect, it is expressed as "闹(nào)热(rè)". "咸(xián)菜(cài)" (pickled vegetables) is "菜(cài)咸(xián)" in Wenzhou dialect. "饭(fàn)焦(jiāo)"(burnt rice) is expressed as "焦(jiāo)饭(fàn)". It is completely different from the conventional word order of modern Chinese but highly consistent with the grammatical rules of the ancient Yue language, serving as a powerful testimony to the ancient Yue language in Wenzhou dialect.

Placing adverbs after verbs and adjectives is also another important indicator. In Wenzhou dialect, "吃(chī)添(tiān)" means eat a little more, "走(zǒu)好(hǎo)" means good bye, and "红(hóng)显(xiǎn) means very red. These post position adverbial expressions are rare in modern Chinese but widely used in Wenzhou dialect, becoming part of its unique grammatical structure and fully demonstrating the profound influence of the ancient Yue language on the grammar of Wenzhou dialect.

Wenzhou Dialect and Wenzhou Drum Ballads

Wenzhou Drum Ballads, a folk art popular in Wenzhou, Zhejiang, are commonly known as "singing verses". Historically performed by blind artists, they are also called "blind verses". The performance and creation of Drum Ballads rely entirely on Wenzhou dialect, forming a deeply integrated "language-art" connection. Ruan Shichi, a representative inheritor of Wenzhou Drum Ballads, once said in an interview: "Wenzhou Drum Ballads and the local culture that nurtured them form an inseparable cultural complex." Through its locally distinctive narratives, Wenzhou Drum Ballads convey rich cultural meanings, offering future generations a window into the unique characteristics of Wenzhou.

The lyrics of Wenzhou Drum Ballads are deeply embedded with local dialect, a feature rooted in its audience—predominantly ordinary citizens with limited formal education. Using dialect aligns with listeners’ linguistic habits and cultural level, creating a sense of intimacy and resonance. For example, the lyrics are interwoven with folk sayings like chī yáo kōng yáo (吃爻空爻，"gone once eaten"), jiǎng bái dā (讲白搭，"idle chat"), and dàng Wēnzhōu (宕温州，"wandering Wenzhou"), vividly reflecting the local social image.

Combining singing and speaking (with singing as the core), Wenzhou Drum Ballads fully showcase the unique phonetics, vocabulary, and grammar of Wenzhou dialect. The dialect's four tones with eight modulations endow the ballads with rhythmic melody and cadence. Performers can use tonal variations to vividly convey characters' emotions and narrative plots. For example,in sorrowful scenes, they adopt low, somber tones alongside expressive dialect phrases like kǔ xī kǔ (苦兮苦，"extremely bitter"); in joyful contexts, they employ bright, upbeat intonations, such as shuǎng xī shuǎng (爽兮爽，"delightfully refreshing"), to create a lively atmosphere.

As veteran artists often say:" If Wenzhou dialect survives, so will Wenzhou Drum Ballads." The dialect is the voice and soul of this art form—without its tonal nuances, there would be no melodic beauty; without its slang and wisdom, there would be no oral legacy. Together, they construct a cultural identity for Wenzhounese, where "The melody of hometown dialect whispers one's roots at first listen."

File:Wenzhon drum ballads.png

Terms and Expressions

温州话：Wenzhou dialect

温州人： Wenzhounese

普通话：Mandarin

侗台语：Kam-Tai

春秋战国时期：the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period

温州鼓词：Wenzhou Drum Ballads

民间俗语：folk saying

四声八调：four tones with eight modulations

《韩非子》：Han Feizi

《论语》：The Analects of Confucius

Questions

1. Why is Wenzhou dialect called the "devil dialect"?

2. What does "four tones with eight modulations" in Wenzhou dialect refer to?

3. What challenges do the younger generation face in using the Wenzhou dialect?

4. What is the connection between the expressions for meals in Wenzhou dialect ("chī tiān guāng (吃天光)", "chī rì zhòu (吃日昼)", "chī huáng hūn (吃黄昏)") and ancient Chinese?

Answers

1. Due to geographical isolation, it is difficult for Wenzhou to exchange cultures with other regions.As a result, northern Chinese can exert few impact on Wenzhou dialect and the dialect still retains abundant archaic linguistic features. Coupled with its more complex initials and tones compared to modern Mandarin, Wenzhou dialect is extremely difficult for people from other regions to understand, hence it is called the "devil dialect".

2. Four tones refer to level tone, rising tone, falling tone, and entering tone. Eight modulations refer to yinping (level tone with voiceless initials), yangping (level tone with voiced initials), yinshang (rising tone with voiceless initials), yangshang (rising tone with voiced initials), yinqu (falling tone with voiceless initials), yangqu (falling tone with voiced initials), yinru (entering tone with voiceless initials), yangru (entering tone with voiced initials).

3. Fewer and fewer young people can speak Wenzhou dialect and even those who can understand it are getting fewer. This largely relates to the popularization of Mandarin. Currently, parents often use Mandarin to communication with their children instead of the dialect; teachers also teach in Mandarin and dialect is forbidden in school, providing unfavorable language environment to learn dialect; young generations are also unlikely to be exposed to traditional cultural programs such as Wenzhou Drum Ballads that rely on local dialect to perform.

4. Such expressions use specific time periods to denote meal times, preserving the linguistic features and habits of ancient Chinese.

References

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[4]庄丹华.遗传学视角中的温州鼓词方言基因保护研究[J].浙江工商职业技术学院学报,2022,21(01):1-6.

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语言：温州话

叶思彤 202470081583

摘要

温州话是吴语的一种方言，主要分布于浙江南部温州地区，其起源可追溯至春秋战国前的百越侗台语。受三面环山、一面临海的地理环境限制，温州话较少受北方汉语同化，保留了大量古越语词汇及文化特征，成为公认的晦涩方言之一。其语言特色鲜明：语音上有 35 个声母和古汉语八声调，读唐诗宋词更押韵；词汇中留存大量古语表达；语法上惯用定语后置和副词后置，充分体现古越语特征。此外，温州话也深刻影响了当地文化，如温州鼓词完全通过方言俗语来表演，展现出浓厚的地域文化，二者共同构成温州人的文化认同。

温州话简介

温州话是吴语的一种方言，主要由居住在中国浙江南部的温州人使用。根据历史文献的记载，温州方言的起源可以追溯到春秋战国以前，当时的百越人就已经有了自己的语言——侗台语。后来，随着朝代更替，政治经济中心转移，南北融合更加紧密，吴语地区的方言受到了更进一步的汉化，如宁波、杭州、嘉兴等地，这些地区的方言已经鲜少有侗台语的特征了，与北方汉语十分接近。但是，温州方言中仍然保留着许多古代百越侗台语词汇，这和温州地理环境的特殊性有很大关系。温州三面环山一面朝海，古时交通闭塞，没有陆路与外界相通，想要与外界接触必须走水路或者山路，非常困难。因此，受到地理位置限制的温州鲜少受到外界文化变迁影响，其方言也较少被北方汉语同化。而正是因为温州方言较好的保存了古老的文化特征及词汇体系，它也成为大家公认的最晦涩难懂的方言之一。

温州话的语言特色

温州方言包括十几种分支，使用区域主要集中在温州市区、瑞安、乐清、永嘉、文成和平阳，但它们彼此在词汇、语音和语法上完全相异，有着“三里不同调，十里不同音”的特点。

语音特征

在语音方面，温州话有着独特的发音体系。普通话有21个声母，而温州话有35个声母；普通话有四个声调，温州方言却留存了古汉语八个声调，属于典型的四声八调。这种独特的语音系统使得温州话读唐诗宋词时比普通话更加押韵、富有韵味。

词汇特征

温州话保留了大量的吴语古词，许多常用口语词汇有着古音古义。例如，“筷子” 一词在温州话中称为 “箸”（zhù），该词直接继承自《韩非子》等古代文献，早在战国时期便已使用。“热水” 被称作 “汤”（tāng），这与《论语》等先秦文献中的含义一致，当时 “汤” 既指热水，也指汤汁。此外，“吃早饭”“吃午饭”“吃晚饭” 在温州话中分别表述为 “吃天光”（chī tiān guāng）、“吃日昼”（chī rì zhòu）、“吃黄昏”（chī huáng hūn）。这些关于餐食的表达用具体的时段来代指抽象的行为，尤为独特。这些例子凸显了温州方言作为古汉语词汇的 “活态宝库”，是如何既与古代文献保持直接的语言延续性，又展现出与现代汉语普通话不同的语法和修辞。

语法特征

在语法上，温州话的构词形式也带有古越语的鲜明特征，喜欢使用倒装句。其中，定语后置于名词的构词方式十分典型。例如，在普通话中，我们通常说“热闹”，而温州话则表述为“闹热”，将形容词“闹”置于名词“热”之后；“咸菜”在温州话里是“菜咸”，把“咸”这个定语放在了“菜”这个中心名词的后面；“饭焦”表示“焦饭”。这种定语后置的构词形式，与现代汉语的常规语序截然不同，却与古越语的语法规则高度契合，是古越语在温州话中的有力见证。

副词后置于动词和形容词的现象，同样是古越语在温州话中的重要体现。在温州话中，“吃添”表示“再吃一点”，“走好”表示“好好走”，“红显”表示“非常红”。这些副词后置的表达方式，在现代汉语中较为罕见，却在温州话中广泛使用，成为温州话独特语法结构的一部分，充分展现了古越语对温州话语法的深远影响。

温州话与鼓词

温州鼓词是流行于浙江温州的一个曲艺品种，俗称“唱词”，由于过去通常由盲人演奏，故又称“盲词”。而鼓词的表演、创作完全依托温州方言来表现，二者共同构成深度绑定的“语言—艺术”的共同体。温州鼓词代表性传承人阮世池在采访中谈道：“鼓词与孕育它的温州地域文化在一起，构成一个文化综合体，它是不可拆解的。”温州鼓词通过富有地方特色的叙述，传递了丰富的文化内涵，为后人提供了了解温州地方特色的途径。

温州鼓词的唱词中融入了大量地方方言，这与观看鼓词表演的观众大多是普通百姓，没有很高的文化水平，尤其是大多观众没有接受过系统教育有关。用方言表达语言，符合听众的文化水平和说话习惯的特点，让人听了觉得亲切，更容易引起共鸣。比如，唱词中穿插大量民间俗语，如 “吃爻空爻”（吃完就没了）、“讲白搭”（闲聊）、“宕温州”（逛温州），鲜活反映本土社会风貌。

同时，温州鼓词有唱有说，以唱为主，在演唱过程中能充分展现温州话的独特发音、词汇和语法特点。温州话的四声八调使得鼓词的演唱更具韵律感和节奏感，演员通过运用不同的声调变化，能够生动地表现出人物的情感和故事的情节。在演唱悲伤的情节时，演员会运用低沉的声调，配合温州话中富有表现力的词语，如“苦兮苦”（表示非常痛苦）；而在欢快的情景中，则用欢快的语调，如“爽兮爽”，营造出轻松愉快的氛围。

正如鼓词老艺人常说：“温州话勿断，鼓词就勿会断。”温州话是温州鼓词的“声”与“魂”，没有方言的声韵起伏，就没有鼓词的旋律之美；没有方言的俚语智慧，就没有鼓词的口口相传，二者共同构筑了温州人“一听乡音知故里”的文化认同。

术语和表达