History of Translations

History of Translations

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钟义菲 The Chinese Translation History in Mordern Age

Abstract

 Since the middle of the 19th century, translation has gradually become a tool for people resolved to save the country from extinction. The spread of the large number of translation works has broadened the ways for the public, especially the intellectuals, to learn the west. In the meantime, it has also changed the social climate. The invasion of western civilization, translators' spontaneous development of translation activities and the passivity of national politics made Chinese society enter an important period of western learning translation, especially around the period of Opium War.
 The cause of translation in modem China coincided with the Chinese people's struggle against aggression. After the Opium War, China had to open the door. China had to end its isolation and began to face the outside world directly. However, the prolonged blockade made China lag behind the western world. Modem politics, economy, diplomacy and cultural activities are closely related to translation, which plays an indispensable role in history.
 The theme and source of the original translation often reflect the development trend of modem Chinese ideology and the direction of government policy. As for the nature and quantity of translation books in different periods, we can also see the motivation of translation books, the general trend of intellectual interests, and the impact of the dissemination in society.
 The time clue of this article is from the Opium War to the May Fourth Movement, briefly introducing the translation and the translator, emphasizing its emergence background and several important period of development, research and analysis of western culture reflected in translation  works in modem Chinese history, the change of Chinese people’s thoughts in translation and the influence of modem translation on Chinese society.
 This paper is divided into three chapters. The first chapter introduces the emergence, importance and main characteristics of modem translation works, then reviews the emergence of modem translation works, emphasizes their importance, and briefly introduces representative translation works. The second chapter introduces the background of translation works and translation climax stages of western books, studies the main characteristics and development trend of translation in each period. The third chapter studies the influence and performance of modem translation on people's ideology and social life through the description in translation works. This paper focuses on the development of modem translation, the important role of translation in Chinese history, and the specific impact of translation on modem society.

Key words

Modern Translation，Translation，Social Life，Ideology

Introduction

 Around the middle of the 19th century, The Western invasion brought new knowledge. The Westernization Movement sent a large number of international students to study abroad and translated a large number of books for military purposes.The Qing government decayed, and was tired of the invasion of foreign enemies, the war repeatedly failed. After the Sino-Japanese War in 1894, faced with internal and external troubles, far-sighted people knew that they could not rely on the Qing government, so they devoted themselves to writing novels. Many people accepted and spread Western culture through translating books. The importance of translation was recognized by the development of journalism, media, and provident men influenced by the Western culture at that time. In this social context, people have criticized the corruption of government through literature and translation.
 Modern China began in the Opium War in 1840. It was a special period in Chinese history. During this period, the Chinese were attacked by foreign guns, as well as by foreign culture and foreign education. Especially after the Sino-Japanese War, the Chinese people were greatly shocked psychologically, and people began to realize that the West was more advanced than China in political, economic, cultural and other aspects, which was providing a great opportunity for the introduction of translation literature. Translators at that time also hoped to translate the western advanced scientific knowledge to the Chinese people so that they could broaden their horizons and innovate their ideas. During the Reform Movement of 1898, Liang Qichao advocated publicizing political ideas by translating foreign political novels to transform the society. He believed that the incredible power of novels was "enough to dominate people's psychology and could change the society of one generation." Based on the translation of the novel, Liang Qichao gave the novel new significance and mission. He put forward the idea of improving the novel, with the famous ones such as The Beauty Adventures and The Fifteen Little Heroes, which promoted the process of novel revolution and the prosperity and development of the translating novels. Yan Fu translated works such as Heaven and Yuan Fu. His translation had a great influence at that time and was the most important enlightenment translation in China in the 20th century. In the translation of Heaven, Yan Fu proposed three difficulties: Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance. It was advocated by many literary writers at that time and used as the theoretical basis for their translation. The concept of "natural selection: the fittest to survive" conveyed in Yan Fu's Heaven woke people up from the dream of the heavenly world. There are more famous translation works such as Lin Shu’s The Lady of the Camellias, Black slaves call for heaven record and so on. It had an important influence on the change of people's concept. People are not  limited to the traditional concept of marriage and love, and the concept of freedom and equality gradually spread. Under the prevalence of translation works, traditional values, such as emphasizing agriculture and suppressing business, men being superior to women, gradually lost their status and were gradually replaced by new ideas. 
 The paper mainly includes three chapters: First, modern translation works and the overview of translators. Second, the background and climax of modern translation works. Third, the impact of modern translation on social life. In the modern Chinese literary circle, there was a wave of translation in western books, and the translation activities of foreign works were unprecedentedly prosperous.The emergence of a large number of translation works has also caused a large influx of foreign cultural ideas. Under the translation of domestic scholars, the translators not only conveyed the literary nature of foreign works, but also expressed their translation purpose through translation language and techniques, and had a huge impact on Chinese social life at that time. Academia research is more aimed at the overview of modern translation works and its prosperity, but little research on its impact on national social life. This paper analyzes the wide variety of materials and works to detail the influence of modern translation on social life.

Mahzad Heydarian: Where Persian Language Meets Translation

This paper is a journey to the history of Persian language and the presence of translation into/from Persian in different historical eras. Translation has been influenced by many social and intercultural factors throughout history; in this paper, its functions from ancient Persia to the contemporary era will be surveyed.

Key Words: Translation history, Persian language, Arabic influence, Medieval era

Persian Language, known as the language of great literary works by Hafez, Khayyam, Rumi and many other classical and modern poets and writers, has always been an interesting subject to study. Looking for its roots and origins and how it is changing and developing has been the interest of many linguists around the world. Like other important languages, Persian has developed and gradually changed in different eras in history. It seems that writings on translation history suffer from severe shortcomings. What is overlooked by the researchers of Persian translation history is to clarify the distinction between oral and written translation. These two have proved to be completely different subjects while they have been mixed when the writers judge its ups and downs in a specific period of time. Moreover, in the relatively limited knowledge of Persian translation history, the thematic classification of translations (e.g. literary, scientific, etc.) have not been considered.

Akira Jantarat：History of Chinese-Thai Translation

Abstract

Translation has been around for a long time. Because people on this planet have different languages and cultures. However, historical evidence suggests that shortly after the birth of human civilization, Humans have begun to know translation. The first translation is evidenced around 3000 BC. In the early days of translation, there were no theories or scholarly ideas, so translations were the subject of philosophers, poets, or aristocracy. Most of the translations are related to religion or literature. and as the translation becomes more extensive the scope of translation is expanding. Translation is no longer limited to sages. but has become a tool to promote the exchange of knowledge in various fields between people who use different languages There are different cultures and different lifestyles. However, the relationship between China and Thailand in history dates back to around the Han Dynasty or the Tang Dynasty, which is considered the most prosperous and golden age in literature. causing literature, art, and literature to be transmitted to neighboring countries including Thailand Thus, in those days, Thailand had to translate literature and literature from Chinese into Thai. and other translation works have been produced until the present but if counted by time How did Chinese-Thai translations begin? What is the story of each era? And what role did famous translations of that era play in its long history? This article will provide answers to those who are searching for these questions. This article will divide the topics according to important eras. It will talk about the beginning of translation from Chinese into Thai. Famous stories or translations of each era including the role of translation These translations have had an impact on society and the way people live in the present. including the relationship between the two countries Therefore, we cannot deny that translation has played a very important and important role in Chinese and Thai history.

Jawad Ahmad：

Abstract

Humans live in a diverse environment, and communication is at the centre of human community, with language serving as the means of communication. In a society characterized by globalization and global connectivity, there is a strong desire for individuals of many cultures and languages to understand one another. Translation fulfills this need in the scarcity of a shared global language for everybody. When it comes to communicating ideas and knowledge between languages, translation is essential. This study seeks to provide a broad historical overview of translation studies and common techniques in the west from ancient times to the present, in the form of a temporal survey that includes significant theoretical advancements, with an emphasis on approaches established during the modern period.

Keywords

Translation, History, Theories, Approaches

Introduction

To convert or turn from one set of patterns to someone else is to transfer or turn by one set of symbols to another; is translation. But what is the history of translation? Despite the fact that researchers and scholars have long contested the history of translation, it is unanimously acknowledged that translation predates the Bible. Translation has been evolving since the dawn of human contact, and it is now more than ever permitting cross-cultural connections, trade, economic globalization, and knowledge sharing through time. The globe has become more of a melting pot because to translation. As a result, translation becomes a more important function, covering many philosophies, mediums, and cultures. James S. Holmes, an American-Dutch poet and poet translator, invented the term "Translation Studies" in his foundational work "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies" (1972). Holmes translated several works by Dutch and Belgian poets into English while producing his own poetry. The method of transforming the language that is recorded being spoken in another language is known as translation. In a broad sense, translation can be described as a word, phrase, or sentence in another language that has the same meaning as the original. Translation is one of the many branches of learning, and it has evolved into a significant field that comprises a distinct body of knowledge that is widely used in a variety of human activities. If we think about the translation that is not so simple, to translate a single word from one language to another but it describes the difference theory, applications and different translation. Translation studies are the linguistics discipline that deals with the theory, description and application of translation. Translation is one of the many branches of learning, and it has evolved into a significant field that comprises a distinct body of knowledge that is widely used in a variety of human activities.

A mental process in which the meaning of a particular linguistic conversation is transferred from one language to another is known as translation. It is the process of converting linguistic entities from one language to their equivalents in One another. Translation is both a method and a finished thing. Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.[1] The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between translating (a written text) and interpreting (oral or signed communication between users of different languages); under this distinction, translation can begin only after the appearance of writing within a language community. These lines have been taken from the (Wikipedia). Simply we can say in translation that a text or word translate from one place to another. As I mentioned in the above paragraph and the area of translation studies draws together research from linguistics, literary studies, history, anthropology, psychology, and economics. Of course, translation is a rewrite of an original text whatever their goal, all rewritings reflect a certain ideology and poetics, and as a result, modify literature to work in a specific way.English is the most widely spoken language on the planet. As a result, one may doubt the value of translation and wonder here we have a raised question regarding the English language; the question is why everyone doesn't just speak English? However, the truth is that not everyone can speak English, and even fewer can speak it well enough to converse successfully, and perhaps more crucially, language is much more than just the exchange of words. It's also a reflection of one's culture, society, and faith. As a result, promoting a global language will almost certainly result in the loss of culture and legacy transmitted through national languages.The transmission of information, knowledge, and ideas necessitates the use of translation. It's a must for effective and sympathetic cross-cultural communication. As a result, translation is essential for societal peace and harmony. Translation is also the one and only way for people to learn about new works that will widen their horizons. As an illustration for example:

Throughout the middle Ages, Arabic interpreters were able to care for the concepts of ancient Greek thinkers alive. The bible has been translated into at least 531 languages. English speakers may learn from some of the world's top educators through TED Sessions (Technology,Entertainment, design) open translation programmes,which allow people all across the world to comprehend their talks. Sports teams and organisations use translation to overcome linguistic barriers and cross international borders. To be continued... ......

Benjamin Wellsand：

Title: Bible Translation in the History of Christianity

==Abstract== The history of Christianity is rich in translations. Why is this the case? What is the motivation behind all of this translation effort? The present work will explain the rationale behind the perceived need for translation. It will also deal with key moments within biblical translation history and what impact it had on the church.

Introduction

Translation of the biblical text has been a practice of the Christian church since its very origin. The founding of the church during the Jewish festival of Pentecost, as recorded in the Bible itself, involved Jesus’ disciples communicating the gospel message in the language of Parthians, Medes, Mesopotamians, and Egyptians, among others (cf. Acts 2.7-11). The final vision of the multitude of the saved in heaven are described as a “people of God from every tribe and language and people and nation (Rev. 5.9).” The New Testament, although authored by primarily Hebrew-speaking Jews, was first written in the lingua franca, koine Greek, of the day[1]. Whereas Buddhists and Muslims identify the sacred texts and faiths inseparably from the original languages of Sanskrit or Pali and Arabic, the Christian faith has sought to translate the biblical texts immediately and directly into the vernacular language of the people to accelerate its global spread.

On a historical basis, the Christian faith has been criticized in regard to colonialism and the destruction of cultures. One such case occurred in the sixteenth-century with the Japanese. Giant ships (in comparison to the Japanese) came to dock on the island from Portugal. Many transactions were made between the Portugese traders and the local Japanese damaiyo. When trade agreements went south, as it did in the case of Portugal and Japan, the Portugese missionaries were associated with the politics and ousted from the country. They were ousted under the accusations of encouraging the eating of horses and cows, misleading people through science and medicine, and trading Japanese slaves (l. 1064).” Although the missionaries had done no such things, they were targeted with the accusations along with the Portuguese government.

There are cases where the colonial form of the church has not come to intentionally destroy but has assumed cultural superiority and inadvertently added to the host culture their own country of origin’s cultural forms. Late 19th century missionaries to Africa felt that the Western-style structure of a dwelling was an indicator of modern progress. In 1879, the magistrate of Gatberg declared: It is not only that the requirement of modesty necessitates the providing of some sort of clothing, however simple; but Christian morality desires also a dwelling corresponding to human dignity, decency, and purity. Building plays an important part in the mission. First the missionary builds a simple small house for himself, to which he soon adds a school and a church. Generally, he must himself superintend this work; often enough, indeed, he must execute it with his own hand, and it stands him in good stead to have been a tradesman at home. But he induces the natives also to help him, and much patience as it requires on his part, he undertakes to instruct them. Gradually his word and his example produce their effect, and the converts from heathenism begin to build new and more decent dwellings for themselves (p80).

There is no denying that the church has struggled to decontextualize the faith from their home culture and properly contextualize it into the host culture. This has led to the host culture’s Christianity looking eerily similar to the missionary’s, at best, or a faith that forever remains foreign to the host culture, at worst. Yet, as Lamin Sanneh notes, Christian missionaries have often played a key role in the preservation of cultures: The translation enterprise had two major steps. One was the creation of a vernacular alphabet for societies that lacked a literary tradition. The other step was to shake the existing literary tradition free of its esoteric, elitist predilection by recasting it as a popular medium. Both steps stimulated an indigenous response and encouraged the discovery of local resources for the appropriation of Christianity (1987:333). The translation of the biblical text into another language is not simply a greater convenience to the reader in the target culture but accomplishes far more as language extends much deeper than a mere form of communication.

Benjamin L. Whorf’s theory of linguistic relativity holds that language influences thought and not thought that influences language. For him, “linguistics is essentially the quest of meaning (p73).” George C. Lichtenberg, another pioneer of linguistics, is famously quoted as saying, “Our false philosophy is incorporated in our whole language; we cannot talk, so to say, without talking incorrectly. We do not consider that speaking, irrespective of its content, presents a philosophy (Loewenberg, p102).” Richard D. Lewis illustrated this point with an interaction between himself, an Englishman, and a former Zulu chief who received a doctorate in philology at Oxford as they discussed the color green. As the Zulu pointed to a leaf in the sun, a leaf in the shade, a wet leaf in the sun and one in the shade, bush leaves, leaves in the wind, rivers, pools, tree trunks, and crocodiles, all to which Lewis responded with a single answer: green. Yet his Zulu friend had reached thirty-nine different terms for green with no trouble at all (2006:9). Paul G. Hiebert writes, “We examine the language to discover the categories the people use in their thinking (p.90).”

Christians, like Hiebert, recognize that true conversion of a person’s mind can only happen if it takes place on three levels of the individual: belief, behavior, and worldview. “Too often conversion takes place at the surface levels of behavior and beliefs; but if worldviews are not transformed, the gospel is interpreted in terms of pagan worldviews, and the result is Christo-paganism (Hiebert p69).” And, since worldview is linked to language, it goes without saying that the biblical text and Christian terminology must be placed in the language of the people in order for one to be truly Christian within their culture.

[1] Papias’ writings are only available to us through the records kept by Eusebius. In these records, there are two extant quotes regarding authorship of the gospels. In regard to the gospel of Matthew, he writes, “Matthew composed the gospel in the Hebrew dialect and each translated them as best he could.” The early church understood this to mean that Matthew had originally written his gospel in Hebrew and it was soon after translated into Greek. However, scholars, such as D. A. Carson and Douglas J. Moo, have brought the validity of this interpretation of Papias’ statement into question (See 2005:161-162).

References

Carroll, John B., ed. 1956. Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. Cambridge: MIT Press. Carson, D. A. & Douglas J. Moo. 2005. An Introduction to the New Testament. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Doughill, John. 2012. In Search of Japan’s Hidden Christians: A Story of Suppression, Secrecy, and Survival. Rutland: Tuttle Publishing. Hiebert, Paul G. 2008. Transforming Worldviews: An Anthropological Understanding of How People Change. Grand Rapids: Baker Academic. Loewenberg, Richard D. “An Eighteenth Century Pioness of Semantics.” ETC: A Review of General Semantics. 1 (2): 99-104. Institute of General Semantics. Sanneh, Lamin. 1987. “Christian Missions and the Western Guilt Complex.” The Christian Century. 104 (11): 331-334. The Christian Century Foundation. Warneck, Gustav. 1888. Modern Missions and Culture: Their Mutual Relations. Edinburgh: James Gemmell.