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Chapter 2： Western Translation History in the Middle Ages
中世纪西方翻译史
刘胜楠 Liu Shengnan, Hunan Normal University, China
Abstract
Looking at the whole Middle Ages, the study of western translation theory was still not systematic. Particularly, the study of translation theory was almost stagnant for a long time after Manlius Boethius put forward the viewpoint of objectivism and pragmatism that paid more attention to practice than theory. Later, the theoretical problems of translation gradually attracted attention mainly in English, German and other national languages. On the one hand, translators repeated the views of Cicero, Horace and Jerome in ancient times; On the other hand, they launched a series of debates on the development direction of national language around the problems of literal translation and free translation, and put forward some new opinions. These opinions can be summarized into two points: (1) translation must strictly imitate the language style and grammar of the Latin original text. In this way, the advantages of the original language will be completely transferred to the target language, and then the target language (referring to the “underdeveloped” national language) will be as elegant and beautiful as Latin. (2) Translation must respect the natural rules of the target language and use the popular spoken language among the people, because only such a language form could be accepted by the people. Translators never agreed on these two opposing views. In Germany, the first view was more popular; In Britain, people generally agree with the second view; In France, Italy, Spain, Russia and other countries, the focus of the debate was not very clear because the contradiction between national languages was not very prominent. In a sense, the translation practice and theoretical research in western countries did not make a real leap until the Renaissance.
Key words
The Middle Ages; Translation History; Translation Center of Bagdad; The Toledo School of Translation; Ethnic Languages
摘要
综观整个中世纪，西方翻译理论研究仍是没有系统的。特别是在波伊提乌发表了重实践不重理论的客观主义和实用主义的观点之后,翻译理论研究在较长时间里几乎处于停顿状态。后来,主要在英语、德语等民族语言里，翻译的理论问题才又逐渐引起重视。翻译家们一方面重复古代西塞罗、贺拉斯、哲罗姆的观点，一方面又围绕直译与意译的问题，就民族语言的发展方向展开了一系列的争论,并提出了某些新的见解。这些见解归纳起来，主要有两点:(1)翻译必须严格模仿拉丁原文的语言风格和文法。这样做,原文语言的优点就会全盘移人译文语言，进而促使译文语言(指“不发达”的民族语)像原文拉丁语一样高雅优美。(2) 翻译必须尊重译文语言的自然规则,使用百姓中流行的口语,因为只有这样的语言形式才能为人民大众所接受。对于这两个互相对立的观点，翻译家们不曾取得也不可能取得一致的意见。在德国,第一种观点较为流行;在英国,人们普遍赞成第二种观点;在法国、意大利、西班牙、俄罗斯等其他国家,由于有关民族语的矛盾不很突出，因此争论的焦点不甚明确。从某种意义上说，西方各国的翻译实践和理论研究,直至文艺复兴时期才出现真正的飞跃。
关键词：中世纪；翻译史；巴格达翻译中心；托莱多翻译院；民族语
1.Introduction
The Middle Ages is an intermediate period of the three traditional divisions of European history—classical era, Middle Ages and modern times. Generally speaking, Middle Ages ranges from the decline and fall of Western Roman Empire in A.D. 476 to the demise of the Eastern Roman Empire in A.D. 1453. Until quite recently, the Middle Ages were perceived as an era of darkness, ignorance, and superstition, but it didn’t mean that translation career in that special period was stagnant.(Habib:2011,49)
From the time of the Roman Empire to the early Middle Ages, the Church held an absolute dominant position in culture, education, philosophy, literature and art, as well as the entire spiritual field. Therefore, the interpretation and translation of the Bible and other religious works were further strengthened. In order to preach, they began to translate religious texts orally in German, and the first German translation of the Bible appeared around 800 AD, which is also known as the earliest Language in German. At the end of the Middle Ages, with the establishment of national states in Europe, national regions were gradually demarcated, national demands were increasingly strong, and national languages were formed one after another. Therefore, large-scale translation in the national language began to appear in the late Middle Ages, and some translations even became the first batch of literary materials in the national language. Martin Luther (1483-1546), a religious reformer, followed the will of the people and adopted the people's language. He translated and published the first "people's bible" from 1522 to 1534, making it possible for anyone who could read to study the bible by himself, independent of the church and its priests. It opened a new era in the development of modern German. The publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked another great development in the history of English translation. It is called "king James" because 47 scholars began translating it in 1607 at the behest of king James to replace the English version used for liturgical reading. The King James Bible is beautiful in style, sonorous in reading, with a "rhyme" flavor and strong literary character.(Xie Tianzhen:2009,37)
In the incipient stage of the Middle Ages, most countries founded in the wreck of the Western Roman Empire had neither made up their own languages nor had annals. Hence, Latin remained the major language for translation and composition. Boethius was the focal point of the translation field in the incipient stage of Middle Ages. The cultural exchange between the East and the West had a long history, among which the mutual translation of Arab and Western works was the earliest. Arabic works poured into Spain in the middle of the 11th century. Toledo became the "Translation Institute" in Europe, translating a large number of Greek works from Arabic into Latin.(Xie Tianzhen:2009,40)
2. Literature Review
Previous researchers sought to tease out the history of translation in the Middle Ages from different perspectives. Tan Zaixi, a noted scholar in studying translation theories, pointed out in his masterpiece, A Short History of Translation in the West, that there are three remarkable events in Western translation history, that is, translator Manlius Boethius (480? -524?), the Toledo School of Translators and the translation of ethnic languages. (Tan Zaixi, 2004) Gu Jiawei regarded the Toledo School of Translators as a hub for Medieval cultural exchanges. Xiao Jianfei analyzed the history of translation in the Middle Ages from the perspective of language i.e., Latin had its prevailing position. This article will unfold the history of Western translation in the Middle Ages through the influential translators and the two translation climaxes. (Xiao:2009,1-13)
3.The Translation History before the Middle Ages
Western ancient translation (excluding the ancient Assyrian Empire, Babylonian kingdom and the Translation of the Old Testament) from the height of the Roman Empire to the fall of the Roman Empire, has gone through more than 700 years, during which there appeared two major stages of development. In the first stage, ancient Greek literature, especially Homer's epic and drama, was introduced to Rome for the first time, which promoted the emergence and development of Roman literature and played an important role as a bridge for later European countries to inherit ancient Greek culture. In the second stage, the large-scale religious translation, the translation of the Bible and other theological works gradually achieved the status of parallel with the secular literary translation, and later surpassed the secular literary translation for a long time, becoming the mainstream of western translation. (Tan:2004,24)
The earliest studies on translation theories and methods in the West can also be traced back to this period. Early translation methods were largely influenced by the relationship and power balance between Rome and Greece. Later, Cicero explicitly proposed the literal translation and living problems, the writer and translator is around this question for discussion, which has been formed by Cicero, Horace live translation, represented by Philo, Augustine of literal translation, and represented by standing live translation or free translation, literal translation set combination is compromise. There is no denying that no matter what school of people, they have published a lot of insights on the theoretical issues of translation, whose influence has continued to the later periods and even modern times. However, it must also be pointed out that throughout ancient times, the study of translation theory could not be very systematic, and there were no experts or monographs; There are only those which writers and theologians have elaborated in addition to other subjects, or which translators have added in the prologue or postscript to their translations.With the decline of the Roman Empire, western translation gradually turned into a low tide and transferred to the Middle Ages.(Chen Fang:2016,2)
4. The Influential Translators and Two Translation Climaxes in the Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, many translators sought to put forward the principles in translating in order to guide the translation practice.
4.1. The incipient stage in the Middle Ages exemplified by translator Manlius Boethius
Boethius was the most important theologian, politician, philosopher and translator in the Middle Ages. He introduced the basic principles of Aristotle's logic to Western Europe, which caused an upsurge of studying Aristotle's philosophical thought and had a great impact on the academic and theoretical circles in the Middle Ages. His views on translation theory were mainly found in the preface to the translation of Boethius’ s works (Boethius, 1906; reference to Kelly,1979:71,134-135,204,222-224). (1) Content and style are antagonistic to each other. Either pay attention to style or preserve content. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and the translator should give up the right of subjective judgment. In the translation of some works, the translator seeks accurate content rather than elegant style. Therefore, in order to express "uncorrupted truth", translators should use word-for-word translation.
Boethius's view is clearly similar to that of the ancient Philo Judaeus, who advocated strict formal correspondence. But Boethius's concern, like Cicero's, was to establish a philosophical terminology in Latin through translation. These views are fully demonstrated in his translation of Aristotle's Instrumentalism. In the translation, he tries to reproduce the original content accurately by using exact philosophical terminology. He followed the example of Cicero. When he encountered a difficult Greek term, he did not rush to borrow the original word. Instead, he found a ready-made Latin word with the same meaning as the original word and always translated the corresponding Greek word with it, thus adding new meaning to the Latin translation and equating it with the Original Greek word. However, although Boethius expressed the above views on translation, he was more inclined to translation practice and advocated translation based on experience rather than theory. Thus, a great turning point took place in western translation: the theories of ancient Augustine and others were buried, followed by five or six hundred years of strict objectivism and pragmatism. It was not until the end of the Middle Ages that the study of translation theory became a common concern of scholars.(Xie:2009,101)
During this period, the translation problem was either repeated previous views, or avoided discussion, so translation theory was almost no new breakthroughs. The lack of translation theory didn’t mean the cessation of translation practice. With the prosperity of the Eastern Roman Empire, the power of the church was further expanded. In order to monopolize European culture, the Church strengthened its mental control over the people of all countries. On the one hand, it persecuted scholars studying ancient literature in large numbers in Constantinople, the capital of eastern Rome. On the other hand, it sent missionaries to the new countries. Missionaries brought Christianity and made the Bible more accessible to ordinary people. Not knowing Latin, Christians had a growing demand for a translated Bible written by ethnic languages. The translated versions of ethnic languages came into being. (Wang Yanan & Zhangling:2017,62-65)
Worth mentioning in the development of German was Martin Luther. Martin Luther (1483-1546), a religious reformer, followed the will of the people and adopted the people's language to render Bible. He translated and published the first Bible written by a specific national language from 1522 to 1534, making it possible for anyone who could read to study the Bible by himself, independent of the church and its priests. It opened a new era in the development of modern German. The publication of the King James Bible in 1611 marked another great development in the history of English translation. Forty-seven scholars began translating it in 1607 at the behest of King James to replace the English version used for liturgical reading. This version of Bible was beautiful in style, sonorous in reading, with a "rhyme" flavor and strong literary characteristics.(Tian Haihua:2018,207-213)
4.2. Two Translation Climaxes
In the history of western translation, the cultural exchanges between the East and the West had a long history, among which the mutual translation of Arab and Western works was the earliest. In the seventh and eighth centuries, the Arabs expanded outward and conquered the Greek world. A large number of Syrian scholars came to Athens, translated Greek works into ancient Syrian and brought them back to Baghdad. Then these translations and some Greek originals were translated into Arabic. At the same time, Greek works were also translated in Arabic in southern Spain and Sicily, Italy. Among the three places, Baghdad is the most active in translation activities. Arab scholars came to Baghdad from all over the world to study western culture with great interest and translated Greek works, so that Baghdad won the title of Arab "Academy of translation" and became the academic center of Arabs. Their translated works mainly included the famous philosophical and scientific works of Aristotle, Plato, Galen and Hippocrates.
4.2.1 The Stage of Bagdad Translation Center
From the beginning, Arab culture had a tradition of studying ancient Greek cultural classics and translating them into Syriac. Before the Arab conquest, many ancient philosophical and scientific texts were translated into Syriac and Persian. The official language of Islamic countries was Arabic. With the expansion of the country and religion (the spread of language is the spread of language), there were many Syrians, Persians, Egyptians, Jews, Spanish, Sicilians, and even Italians had all become Muslims, and the only language of the new faith was Arabic. The rulers of the Caliph dynasty were also enthusiastic about the tradition of academic research and translation. With their encouragement, the Arab region in the Middle Ages became a center of science and translation. In 661 A.D., the Umayyads, a tribe that used to be a foreign auxiliary force of the Romans, captured Syria and established the Umayyad Caliphate. The Umayyad Caliphate accepted Greek culture since its establishment. After the rulers established Arabic as the official language, they first translated administrative texts (such as archives and registers) into Arabic, and later they gathered many scientists and began to translate the scientific and philosophical works of ancient Greek authors into Arabic, which had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. (Gu Weijia:2020,10)
In 749, the more Islamic Abbasid Caliphate replaced the Umayyad Caliphate and established its capital in Baghdad. This area was the intersection of various cultures at that time. The rulers of the dynasty supported translation and paid the translator generously. There are even legends that the translator was paid "gold as heavy as the translation." With the support of the caliph ruler, a large number of Syrian, ancient Persian and Sanskrit texts were translated. At that time, they were most interested in medicine and philosophy, and astrology was also very popular. The choice of the text not only has political and cultural needs, but also the personal interests of the current caliph and courtiers.(Xie:2009,102)
CaliphⅡ, Al Mansur (reigned from 754 to 775) was obsessed with astrology. According to the opinions of some experts in the history of astronomy in Western Arabia, the study of astronomy in Islam originated from the astronomical works of India. According to the literature, Al-Mansour summoned the Indian astronomer, Manka, in 773 AD. He presented the Indian scholar Brahma Gupta on the laws of the movement of the stars, Siddhanta, a summary of mathematical astronomy knowledge, to Mansour. and Mansour ordered IbrahimalFazar, the first maker of astrolabes, to translate that into Arabic. (Tan,2009,104)
Starting from Mansour, the officially supported translation activity officially began. Mansour paid attention to the collection of manuscripts of scientific works, and sent envoys to meet with the Byzantine emperor, hoping to obtain the books of Euclid and other Greek works on natural philosophy. This collection of precious manuscripts also promoted the dissemination of knowledge. Mansour also recruited scientists to Baghdad to translate astronomical works from India and Ancient Greece, and established astronomy, astrology and medicine as official undertakings, which were managed by the state. And Mansour’s library had also become a reference library for medical scientists and astronomers.(Barnstone,1993)
The establishment of the "Wisdom Palace" in 830 AD was a decisive factor for Arabs to absorb the cultural wealth of China, India, Persia and ancient Greece. A large number of translation activities continued until the decline of the empire in the 13th century. Translation has had a profound impact on the development of science and philosophy throughout the Arab world. For translators in Baghdad, the translation works play the role of raw materials, and the translated text is not the goal, but the catalyst that stimulates the original ideas and products of knowledge. Therefore, translators regard translation as a creative process. Translations are often accompanied by comments, summaries or explanatory notes to make the original text easier to understand. Translators are often experts in the field of their translation. In translation, they not only exert their own understanding and comprehensive ability, but also practice their own creativity. A new ideological system was established with the help of translation and became the basis of Arab-Muslim culture. In this context, the prosperous Arab astronomy took the lead in blooming flowers, forming the so-called "Baghdad School". The Arabic works of this period were translated into Latin by later European academic circles, and then influenced the entire Western civilization.
4.2.2. The Stage of the Toledo School of Translators
If the Baghdad of the 9th century was the Arabic "interpreters", the Toledo of the 11th century to the 13th century was the Western "interpreters". Toledo was originally one of the religious and cultural centers of Western Europe, and during the rule of the Umayyad dynasty, it became an important center of Islamic culture. A.D. 1085 letter base to teach westerners accept it "it is the Christian west" recover ", west dental island in accordance with the king forever, holds more than in other cities, but the Islamic kingdom of Spain peninsula still exist for a long time, which makes the Toledo, and another city Cordoba, European people take hall at the university of knowledge constructed out more, It turned out to be a school for Western European scholars to feed on Islamic learning. Scholars flocked to Toledo to transfigure Latin. Translation is the translation activity of the disciplines of Greece and Lasse. Translation activities have focused on the philosophical and scientific achievements of the Greek and Arab world: medicine, numbers, images. Medicine, mathematics, astrology. The main translation in the 12th century is the Arabic translation into Latin, the main translation in the 13th century is the Arabic translation of the Spanish. (Gu:2020,74)
In the 20th century, Arabic was translated into Spanish. The translation in the 12th century is the translation activity of the Christian society in the last century, and its background is the social and cultural environment ruled by the church. When the Christian and Islamic battalions met each other in the army, it became the Camp of The Sikko and the Lakko. When the two civilizations came to hand to hand and confronted each other here, it became the main channel for the introduction of ancient Greek science and Arab science. The main channel in the West. The task facing Toledo's scholars in the 12th century was complex: there was a serious imbalance between the culture of the source language (Latin Arabization of Spain) and the culture of the recipient (Spanish conquistadors). The Libraries of the Spanish numbered only a few books, while the Lebao library numbered hundreds of books, and Toledo's collection of Arabic manuscripts numbered three million. To translate this vast mass of material into Latin, the translators must first absorb this new knowledge, and at the same time, they must translate this new knowledge into Latin, a cultural introduction to Spain, where only a tiny elite of the cultural elite knew Latin. (Gu:2020,76)
There are two characteristics in the translation activities of Toledo: the first translation is assisted by fundamentalism and the second translation is always carried out under the auspices of the Christian Church; second, the main translation is la as Abel, and the second is La yuan and La Yuan. Arabic translations of Greek works are the main ones, followed by Arabic and Greek original works. The biography of knowledge in Lai's translation is closely related to the question of knowledge in translation. The relationship between the work of Toledo translators and the generation, dissemination and popularization of knowledge highlights the problem of acquiring knowledge through translation. Through the help of translation sponsors and its translation, as well as the work of the translator, and the age of 12 century to seek knowledge in harmony language frame, blend in foreign intellectual framework, the Latin in this knowledge warehouse building west tooth holder century is committed to the establishment of Spanish culture over this knowledge warehouse. The Todo translation was of little use to Europe in the Middle Ages, and the Cherledo Institute played an important role in the spread of science and philosophy to Europe in the Middle Ages. There is no doubt that the translators of this period changed the western knowledge structure by completely changing the western knowledge structure to the newly discovered and newly developed art of Rido. (Gu:2020,80)
The rediscovery of Aristotle inspired academic thought in the new universities. The introduction of important scholarly works from The Arab world broadened the breadth of European knowledge by making the world more relevant and thus giving them a more comprehensive view of the world. Through translation, the world came to understand Arabic numerology, algebra, Ptolemy's theory of heaven, and the works of Hippocrates and Galen, sometimes known as the Appa Medicine. This is a living translation and translation, as well as the Greek and Arab medical systems. In this series of activities, the relationship between translation and creation is the most important. At this time, the renewal and growth of knowledge are generated in this period.(Xie:2009,100)
The Toledo School of Translators emerged under the background of the “Revendication Movement” of the Christian Kingdom in the northern Spain against Muslim conquerors was originated from the national integration and cultural exchange in the Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages. Based on the achievements of the Graeco-Arabic translation movement， the development of the Toledo School of Translators reached its peak twice with the support of archbishop Raymond of Toledo and Alfonso X，coming with a large number of classical translation and original works in the ancient Greece and Rome, and promoting the development and maturity of Castilian language and the formation of the Spanish nation. The translation movement was an important bridge between Arab and Islamic cultures for Western Europe, as well as the bridge between the East and West civilization, also was a promotion for the development of the Renaissance. Taking the cultural phenomenon of Toledo School of Translators as a microcosm, the social scene of religious tolerance, national integration and cross-cultural communication in Spain in the Middle Ages provides inspiration for the realization of multicultural symbiosis under the current globalization. With the establishment of various barbarian countries, ethnic regions were gradually defined, ethnic requirements were becoming increasingly stronger and national languages were formed one after another. During this period, although church writers and monks generally continued to write and translate in Latin, the growing requirements of ordinary people for national language were urgent.(Tan:2004,43)
5. Conclusion
It can be seen from the above sections that there are three distinctive stages of Chinese translation history in the Middle Ages. The stage of a hundred in the early hundreds of years, the dominant translation was the Latin translation of Boethius and others. But the subject matter was not confined to religious texts, as in Jerome's time. And then, the age of 11 to 13 century, the party to learn the lifeng tong turn refer to the party the Oriental literature and its ornate style through translation is introduced to the west, don't in the century, the age of 12, in particular, we at GuoYue Europe's art spirit "academic research results of active European academic air, into the west turn things show west each link to promote the development of the western translation career. Western translators gathered together more than Toledo, forming a wave of Arabic translation heat, and the whole history of Western translation thus constituted a unique and unique translation in the history of western translation. Yuzu translation is a kind of translation activity in which Jite is holy. As for the translation of national languages, it lasted almost throughout the Middle Ages. In particular, the Translation of the Bible, due to the widespread adoption of jerovian translation of the Latin text was widely adopted by the church, so it is important to use the Translation. For this reason there is no need to promote Latin translation. But in the new barbarian states, where the new barbarian families were founded, the barbarian language was unknown to the common people, and the people could understand Latin. In order for the common people to understand the Scriptures, they had to translate them into their own language, or into their own language or dialect. In this way, from the end of the fourth century, the national language translation of the Bible began to be carried out. From the middle period to the Middle Ages, the expansion of the 14th century, the 15th century began to turn into the tide of the century began to form a climax. The national language translation of secular literature started relatively late and has also experienced similar experiences. Observe the development process of such a scale from small to large. Throughout the Middle Ages, the translation theory is consistent. (Xie:2009,106-107)
The study of translation theory in the west is still not systematic. The study of translation theory, especially after Boethius published his views of objectivism and pragmatism that emphasized practice rather than theory, has been suspended in several places. To be almost at a standstill for a long time. Later, when English and English were mainly used in English, German and other ethnic languages, the theoretical problems of translation theory gradually began to be paid attention to by the translation family. On the one hand, they have repeated the viewpoints of Cicero, Horace and Jerome, on the other hand, they have developed a series of arguments on the origin of the national language centering on the problems of literal translation and free translation. Some solution to solve it. To sum up these views, there are two main points :(1) translation must strictly imitate (Latin) style and the language style and grammar of the original text. By doing so, the excellence of classical Chinese will completely transfer the advantages of the original language into the target language, making classical Chinese in turn make the target language (" fa "folk language refers to the" underdeveloped "national language) like the excellence of Wending. The original was as elegant as Latin. The translation must respect the natural rules of the target language, and use the popular spoken language of the common people in the native language. Because only such a form of language can be accepted by the masses. As to these two opposing points of view, translators and interpreters have found it impossible to reach a consensus in the country. In Germany, the first view is more popular than the current view; In Britain, people are generally in favor of the second view. France in France, Italy, Spain, Russia and other countries, yu Guan nationality shield is very out of contention because of the contradiction about the national language is not very prominent, so the point of contention is really from the focus of species meaning theory is not very clear. In a sense, the translation practice and theoretical research of western countries did not emerge until the Renaissance period. There was a real leap forward.(Xie,2009,107)
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10.M.A.R.Habib,2011,Literary Criticism from Plato to the Present: an Introduction,Egmont Press,49-50.--Liu Shengnan (talk) 16:28, 8 December 2021 (UTC)