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Introduction

Appropriateness as the Least Common Denominator of Translation and Interpreting

Interpreting theories and interpreting studies are as old as human languages, since interpreting practice is exercised as soon as two individuals meet, since verbal and non-verbal language is both an individual and a shared thing. Every person has his or her personal language and therefore is used to processing input by interpreting. When the person modifies its output according to the recipient, this is also interpreting from the personal language into one which he or she believes is to be better understood by the recipient. Similarly, a grandmother and her grandchild communicate in the (supposed) language of the grandchild, the grandmother constantly interpreting complex language into a simple one. This concept of interpreting, also called polyphony, is still valid when it comes to different (‘national’) languages. Depending on personal language abilities, the Anglophone grandmother would also choose a simple French to explain things to her francophone grandchild. And in case of lack of respective language abilities, she would simplify things in nonverbal communication.

The earliest evidence of interpreters dates back to the 4th millennium BCE in Egypt: they were held in high esteem, they were noblemen or priests. Of course, translation as opposed to interpreting needs media (text and/or images etc.). In general, translation started with the introduction of the written script and the first texts around 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia and shortly after that with Ancient Egyptian and the Yi language in the area of today’s China. The earliest Chinese texts date around 1500 BCE. Along the trade route which later was called the Silk Road, domesticated crops and animals were transported from Mesopotamia to today’s China and to Europe. Along this trade route, archetype stories were transported and transformed into the languages along the Silk Road, so that we find the archetype of the great flood both in the Gilgamesh Epos around 3000-2500 BCE in Mesopotamia, around 1850 BCE in Egypt, around 950 BCE in the Shijing, and around 350 BCE in the Shanhaijing (as well as in ancient Indian tales and in 440 BCE in the old testament of the bible).

Languages were formed by translators. The Roman dramatist Livius Andronicus (c. 285-204 BC) wrote a Latin version of the Odyssey (250 BCE) and a number of plays commissioned for the Roman Games of 240 BCE. His translations of Greek dramas into Latin founded the Roman drama tradition and shaped the Latin language. Already in the 2nd century BC translations from Greek to Latin were so popular, that for the first time in history, two translators (Plautus and Terence) were able to make a living out of it.

Also, the German language was shaped by a translator, Martin Luther, who translated the bible, commonly read in Latin at his time, into German. The prescription, to translate “word by word” was raised both in China and in Europe at a very early time: In the 5th century Dao An, Director of the Imperial Translation School, advocated strict literal translation of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. His prescription came from the fear to miss something from the original. It is important to mention that he did not know Sanskrit at all.

The Indian Buddhist monk Kumarajiva (350-410) carried out a great reform of the principles and methods for the translation of Sanskrit sutras. He advocated a free translation approach with the aim to transfer the true essence of the Sanskrit Sutras. He was the first person in the history of translation in China to suggest that translators should sign their names in their translated works.

Dao An’s prescription was partly based upon the understanding that the original texts were somehow “sacred”. A similar dogma of literal translations of religious texts was raised in Europe and even determined an ideological battle on free/literal bible translation for centuries. The translator Dolet in 1546 was burned for adding the phrase “Rien du tout. (Nothing.)” to a rhethorical passage about what existed after death.

Cicero in his book De optimo genere oratum (The Best Kind of Orator) opposed word-by-word translation. For the orator, the target text had to be as forceful and convincing as the original text. Horace called translators who translated word by word “slavish”. St. Jerome in his book De optimo genere interpretandi (The Best Kind of Interpreting) in 395 CE advocated: “Non verbum de verbo sed sensum de senso.” (Not word for word but sense for sense.) However, Apuleius altered Greek dramas beyond recognition. Quintilian understood that translations shape also the target language, which he called “enrichment”. He further developed translation studies by establishing terms like metaphrasis (word-for-word translation) and paraphrasis (sentence-by-sentence translation), later further developed by Dryden (1680). Tytler (1797) advocated instead that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, with the same style, manner, and ease. In Republican times, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai were among the prominent advocates of a literal translation. Chinese translation studies has embraced the English term “translatology”, while internationally, the research is named “translation and interpreting studies”. But the dichotomy of free/literal did not shape the whole discourse in translation studies. Other dichotomies were foreignizing/localizing and imitation/re-creation (Dong Qiusi 1946). A prominent advocate of the foreignizing was Schleiermacher in the 19th century, who advocated that the source text should shine through the target text, since thoughts would shape the language. This was further elaborated by Walter Benjamin and Ortega y Gasset. The Sapir/Whorf hypothesis is the assumption, that different languages lead to a different understanding of the world.

Chinese translation studies is not at all referring to a Chinese tradition of translation studies, but to translation studies dealing (also) with Chinese as a language. However, most of the research conducted in this area holds also true for other languages and therefore for interpreting and translation studies in general. It is even to question if a Chinese tradition of translation theories exists. Students of translation studies often choose the topic “Comparing Chinese and Western Theories of Translation”. However, they get frustrated because they cannot find elaborated theories coming from China and they end up with calling normative prescriptive concepts like “xin, da, ya” (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance) by Yan Fu “translation theory”. Yan Fu’s three ideals are better called a prescriptive recommendation for practical translation strategies. Of course, also the ideals are questionable, why should a postmodern poem including the stuttering line “I, I c…, I can’t breath!” be translated into an elegant line in a different language? Similarly, the “transfiguration theory” by Qian Zhongshu with his concept of the “sublime” may count as an important statement, that translation and interpreting cannot be analyzed and understood to the last resort and keep their air of mystery. However, recent neurological research and artificial intelligence research tackle this last resort already.

Still, Chinese is an important language and it has some characteristics, which make research especially on Chinese in translation and interpreting studies valuable. One characteristic is, that the meaning of a sentence may change totally until the very end of the sentence. Imagine just a sentence ending with “……的说法我反对。(… is a statement I oppose.)”. Therefore, the decalage for conference interpreters interpreting from Chinese into other languages is quite long.

Seyed Hossein Heydarian has analyzed the statistical occurrences of certain translation strategies with different pairs of languages. Following his research, every language has a specific fingerprint of translation strategies, all referring to specific language pairs. The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies. The first thoughts about transposing the meaning of one language into a similar one in another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma and people not adhering to them being tortured or murdered, especially in the religious context, when the original was declared “holy” and certain groups claimed the monopoly authority of interpreting. During translation history, the perspective changed from “prescriptive” to “descriptive”, which showed a more neutral approach of analysis. However, translation theory needs to be able to go beyond the description of translation, it needs to show parallels and differences between different translation processes in order to come to a generalized model which may help to understand the process better. Translation theories can also offer different translation methods/strategies depending on intersubjectively comprehensible criteria.

In the Renaissance, the most extensive treatise on the topic of translation is the Interpretatio linguarum (1559) by Laurence Humphrey. It is situated in the context of a debate initiated by Joachim Périon in 1540, who analyzed Cicero’s recommendations on translation (from the perspective of an orator, it should be persuasive and therefore free instead of literal) and shifted the focus from the dichotomy of literal/free to the people involved in translation and to the interpersonal act: he understood translation as self-expression, a very modern understanding. There is an interesting new study by Sheldon Brammall (2018) in the Review of English Studies 68 (288) documenting the debate including a 1570 annotation of the Interpretatio by Gabriel Harvey, who recognizes the text as an important document of early English translation studies and who questions the applicability of concepts in Interpretatio.

Eugene Nida developed his translation theories in the fields of linguistics (1943-1959), communication with ‘functional equivalence’ (1959-1969) and social semiotics (in the 1970s). In the 1960s, translation was simply an element of language learning: translations of Aesop’s Fables in several languages (including in Chinese by Jesuit missionaries in China) were language learning textbooks. Only in the 1970s, translation studies started to become aware of itself as an academic discipline, starting with a James S. Holmes paper “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies” (1972). Some scholars chose the perspective of the contrastive approach. Eugene Nida, a bible translator, derived theory from practice, introduced linguistic theory and formal equivalency into translation studies. He defined verbatim translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, compilation, free translation, authentic translation, and communicative translation. Later, his research was further elaborated with strong linguistic approaches and theories of equivalency and was followed by methods from discourse analysis and the speech act theory (translation as a communicative act in a social cultural context). There was a revival of the descriptive approach, which regarded the target text as most important, and then the Skopos theory, which advocated functional equivalency and valued the translator as most important. In the 1990s, also as a reaction to the linguistic ‘scientific’ analysis, the theoretical and methodological shift in Translation Studies toward cultural studies in the early 1990s is primarily associated with the works of Susan Bassnett, André Lefevere (they explored the relation between translation and culture, especially context, history and convention, the so-called “cultural turn”), as well as with Lawrence Venuti. The volume at hand is both from practitioners in the field as well as scholars who embed their research in the theoretical framework of the field as well as into its pragmatic development. In the field of translation and interpreting studies, the claim about Asian or Western traditions is overcome, we have international scholars from both sides whose single qualification is their expertise in the field. And still the voices are diverse, since they cover a large range of topics and perspectives, symbolizing how diverse the research is today, and the key word today is transdisciplinary research.

In translation history, especially at the prescriptive beginnings, ideals were chased and equivalency was sought for, although a source text and a target text can never be totally equivalent. The myth of untranslatability was created by Wilhelm von Humboldt in the 19th century (further elaborated by L. Weisgerber in the 20th century), although everything is translatable. It is more the question of appropriateness and acceptance of a translation. Evaluation criteria for the quality assessment of translations have been developed, although it can never objectively be judged upon, how far the translat (borrowing a term from the Skopos theory, meaning the translation result) corresponds to the source text. In certain situations, it is appropriate to translate a pear into an apple (for example if the function of this fruit in the story stays the same and for the target audience apples are so common as for the source audience pears).

As we have witnessed during the history of translation studies, the concentration on different actors in the field of translation: Skopos concentrating on the function for the target audience and on the person and intention of the translator, foreignizing moving the text closer to the target audience and localizing as well as the claim for loyalty moving it closer to the source author. Hybrid men-machine translation moving the focus to individualizing the target texts, tailoring translations for the individual reader/spectator. Neurology will map the thought processes necessary to create a thinking artificial intelligence and even tackles issues like consciousness, (self-)awareness, understanding as well as artificially enhanced human translation and swarm intelligence and consciousness. Besides this trend toward individualization, we also see a growing interest in sociology to understand translations as social processes and to concentrate on the interaction between the different actors.

Certain things have turned out to be of eternal wisdom, like that it is also important to know your native language well, not just the foreign language. We have also witnessed a journey of theories over the centuries, which all highlight different aspects of the phenomenon. The restrict themselves to the medium, the area, the grammatical level, the text-type, problems (like equivalence), are product-, function- or process-oriented. All of these theories are at hand today to explain different parts of the translation process. Today we see different functional approaches, empirical-pragmatic ones including didactic questions (instead of old normative/prescriptive translation studies), approaches from the neurological and the social sciences, all trying to become aware of the translation process. However, as Mary Snell-Hornby requested already in 1988 with her proposition of “integrated translation studies”, these theories need to be seen together as one today.

All of these theories can be boiled down to one question they serve: Is the translation appropriate? Or in other words, is it adequate, suitable, reasonable, fair, just, apt, situationally fitting, does it work in the target language/culture? Therefore, the “Appropriateness Theory” is the final theory of all translation theories. Of course, there may be different answers to the question of appropriateness from different actors, perspectives, disciplines etc. An evaluation of the appropriateness of a translation can only be relative and never absolute. Therefore, it is necessary to establish a system of evaluation, valuing the different aspects like the function of the text, the loyalty to the author, the ideals of literal/free translation, how far a translation can ‘work’ in the target language etc.

Of historical importance is that the question for appropriateness leads us to fundamental ethical questions: should you report things you overheard from the foreign negotiation team to your own team to enhance your own team’s chances? Is it appropriate to take over the role of a negotiation participant when you were hired for interpreting? (See the contribution in this volume.) Is it appropriate to tell a standard joke in the target language when the country leader has told a racist joke in the source language? What implications does it have about the foreign country’s leader, when he laughs about the interpreter’s standard joke, but the country leader of the source language thinks he laughed about his racist joke? Is it appropriate to translate propaganda and to interpret for a dictator? Is it appropriate to translate the order “Feuer!” [Shoot!] into French if the French collaborating soldiers would commit a crime against humanity when they understood and executed the order? What responsibilities do interpreters and translators have? The Appropriateness Theory is complex and shows us that a Code of Ethics needs to be established.

Bochum/Germany, September 30, 2020

Chapter 1. Appropriateness Theory in Translation Studies 翻译研究中的恰当性理论

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Student Name Ei Mon Kyaw 艾梦觉, Student No. 202111080021, Hunan Normal University, China

Abstract

Skopos Theory has signaled for the paradigm shift, from linguistics to functionalism, due to its focus of translation that lies between extra-linguistic factors (i.e., culture and client) and textual factors (i.e., the ‘purpose’ of a text) (Trisnawati, 2014: 246). Vermeer used ‘skopos’, which literally means ‘a purpose’, as a distinct technical term and stated that any translation is an action and goal-oriented, thus any translating action needs to have a purpose, or a skopos that plays a role as “the prime principle determining any translation process” (Trisnawati, 2014: 246). However, it also has some deficiencies, including the ambiguity of the “skopos”, the undervaluation of source text and writer, the unfalsifiability of Skopos Theory and the ambiguity of evaluation criteria for the target text (Yang, 2020: 2-6). Consequently, the new theory called Appropriateness Theory is derived to give a new way of thinking about the concept of translation and the role of translator or target reader in the translation process. This paper aims to develop a new theory “Theory of Appropriateness” by addressing some shortcomings of Skopos Theory and shed some light on the translation field.

由于翻译的焦点在于语言之外的因素（如文化和委托人）以及文本因素（如文本目的） (Trisnawati, 2014: 246)，目的论标志着范式的转变，即从语言学转向功能主义。弗米尔将"目的"当作一个特定的术语，声称任何翻译都是一种行为，都是以目的为导向的，因此任何翻译行为都需要一个目的，作为"决定任何翻译过程的主要原则"(Trisnawati, 2014: 246)。然而，目的论仍然存在一些缺陷，包括"目的"的模糊性，对原文和作者不够重视，目的论的不可证伪性以及对译文的评价标准较为模糊(Yang, 2020: 2-6)。最后将得出一个新的理论即适用性理论，该理论将为翻译的概念，翻译过程中译者和译语读者的角色探讨提供一种新的思考方式。本文旨在通过解决目的论中的一些不足之处来发展"适用性理论"，并且为翻译领域带来一些新的启示。

Key words

Skopos Theory, Appropriateness Theory, Translational Studies

目的论；适用性理论；翻译研究

What is Translation Studies?

Throughout history, written and spoken translations have played a crucial role in interhuman communication, not least in providing access to important texts for scholarship and religious purposes. As world trade has grown, so has the importance of translation. Yet the study of translation as an academic subject only really began in the second half of the twentieth century. In the English-speaking world, this discipline is now generally known as ‘translation studies’, thanks to the Dutch-based US scholar James S. Holmes (1924-1986, Munday, 2016: 10-11). Holmes (2004:181, cited in Munday, 2016: 10-11) described the then nascent discipline as being concerned with ‘the complex of problems clustered round the phenomenon of translating and translations’.

Introducing Skopos Theory

Skopos Theory is a translational theory by the German translator Vermeer in 1978 (Lecturer & Jabir, 2006: 1). This emphasizes the role of the translator as a creator of the target text and gives priority to purpose (skopos) of producing the target text. The word “skopos” is from Greek, meaning ‘purpose or aim’(Lili, 2016: 1). According to Skopos Theory, the basic principle which determines the process of translation is the purpose (skopos) of the translational action. The Skopos Theory orients a more functionally and socio-culturally concept of translation, whereby translation is considered not as a process of translation, but as a specific form of human action (Lili, 2016: 1). The main idea of Skopos Theory is that translators should hold the thought from the perspective of the target readers during the process of translation. So, translators should keep in mind what the function of translation text is, what the target readers' demand is and what communicative situation is (Vermeer, 1996, cited in Lili, 2016: 1).

Significance of Skopos Theory

Skopos Theory brings us a new thinking about translation, and translation evaluation criteria. First, Skopos Theory marks a shift of translation theory from a mere linguistic level to a more complex level. In Skopos Theory, translational action is regarded as a communicative human action, in which the social elements and cultural elements of the source text should be considered. Instead of considering the mere linguistic level, other cultural elements are considered; this is a significance of Vermeer’s Skopos Theory (Yang, 2020: 5-6).

Second, Skopos Theory makes people have a new thinking about the involving participants of a translational action. Traditionally, people regard translation as the interaction between translators and the source text, or translators between the writers. However, Vermeer, regards translation as an intentional human action with a purpose and regards the commission as the source of a translation. Besides the commissioner, the clients, the target reader and so on are considered in the process of a translational action. Instead of merely being loyal to the source text or the original writer, translator should be loyal to his commissioner, his clients, and his target reader (Yang, 2020: 5-6).

Third, Skopos Theory gives the translator more freedom. In the past, translators are compared to dancers in ankle cuffs. They have to be loyal or faithful to the source text, and try as possible as they can to convey the meanings of the writers to achieve equivalence to the source texts. However, in the Skopos Theory, skopos rule is paramount and if the fidelity rule is contradicted to the skopos rule, translators can choose to delete or rewrite the source text according to their different skopos (Yang, 2020: 5-6).

Fourth, it gives a new criterion for translation evaluation. Instead of being equivalent to and transferring the meaning of the source, Vermeer points out that if a translation work satisfies its skopos, then it is adequate and good translation even if it is not equivalent to the source text. Equivalency is only a sub-branch of adequacy (Yang, 2020: 5-6).

Fifth, Skopos Theory gives certain attention to the target reader. Instead of being fluent, the coherence rule of Skopos Theory states that the conditions and knowledge of the target reader should be considered to achieve intratextual coherence. Target reader’s different needs are recognized and translators should take them into consideration (Yang, 2020: 5-6).

Since skopos varies with text receivers, the skopos of the target text and of the source text may be different. Skopos theory should not be understood as promoting (extremely) free translation in all, or even a majority of cases (Reiss and Vermeer 1984/1991:196, cited in Tamas, n.d.: 3-4). It is up to the translator as the expert to decide what role a source text is to play in the translation action. It may be ADAPTATION to the target culture, but it may also be to acquaint the reader with the source culture (Vermeer 1989a:182, cited in Tamas, n.d.:3-4). Every translation commission should explicitly or implicitly contain a statement of skopos (Baker, 2009: 237).

Skopos and its Related Terms

In Vermeer's theory, there is a distinction between the terms ‘aim’ and ‘purpose’. The gist of Vermeer's discussion is that aim is considered as the final result which an agent tries to achieve via an action; whereas purpose is a provisional stage in the process of achieving an aim (Nord, ibid:28-29, cited in Lecturer & Jabir, 2006: 2).

‘Function’ is another term that refers to what a text means. The meaning of the text is viewed by the receiver. Another related term to skopos is ‘intention’ which is regarded as an aim- oriented plan of action on the part of both the sender and the receiver. This points towards an appropriate way of producing or understanding the text (Lecturer & Jabir, 2006: 2).

In order to remove the ambiguity resulting from the difference between intention and function, Nord (1991:47f, cited in Lecturer & Jabir, 2006: 2) has proposed a distinction between intention and function. The sender is responsible for specifying intention and by using a text he tries to achieve a purpose. The receiver uses the text with a certain function, depending on his/her own expectations, needs, previous knowledge and situational conditions (Lecturer & Jabir, 2006: 2).

This distinction is important to the field of translation as the sender and receiver belong to different cultural and situational settings. Some say that translation is translating cultures. So, intention and function can be analyzed from two different angles. The former is viewed from the sender's point of view while the latter is seen from the receiver's (Lecturer & Jabir, 2006: 2).

Three Main Rules of the Skopos Theory

According to Hans J Vermeer and following translation theory experts, there are three main rules of the Skopos theory: skopos rule, coherence rule and fidelity rule.

Skopos Rule. Skopos is a Greek word for "aim" or "purpose". "The top-ranking rule for any translation is thus the 'skopos rule', which means that a translation action is determined by its skopos; that is, 'the end justifies the means'" by Reiss and Vermeer. Vermeer also stresses on many occasions that the skopos rule is a general rule, and translation strategies and methods are determined by the purpose and the intended function of the target text (Lili, 2016: 1219-1220).

Coherence Rule. The coherence rule states that the target text "must be interpretable as coherent with the target text receiver's situation" (Vermeer, 1984, cited in Lili, 2016: 1219-1220). In other words, the target text must be translated in such a way that it is coherent for the target text receivers, given their circumstances and knowledge. In terms of coherence rule, the source text is no longer of most authority but only part of the translation beliefs. It is only an offer of information for the translator, who in turn picks out what he considers to be meaningful in the receiver's situation.

Fidelity Rule. Translation is a preceding offer of information. It is expected to bear some relationship with the corresponding source text. Vermeer calls this relationship "intertextual coherence" or "fidelity". This is postulated as a further principle, referred to as the "fidelity rule" by Reiss and Vermeer in 1984.The fidelity rule merely states that there must be coherence between the translated version and the source text. In the relationship among the rules, fidelity rule is considered subordinate to coherence rule, and both are subordinate to the skopos rule. If the skopos requires a change of function, the criterion will no longer be fidelity to the source text but adequacy or appropriateness with regard to the skopos. And if the skopos demands intra-textual incoherence, the standard of coherence rule is no longer vivid (Nord, 2001, cited in Lili, 2016: 1219-1220).

Vermeer states the hierarchical order of these three rules—skopos rule > coherence rule > fidelity rule. The skopos rule is dominating and the most important rule in translation activity, and the other two rules are both subordinated to skopos rule. In other words, if the other two rules are contradicted to the skopos rule, translators should obey the skopos rule and can violate the other two rules. Vermeer gives the least importance to the fidelity rule, which is the most important reason for him being criticized (Yang, 2020: 4).

Criticisms over Skopos Theory

The critiques mainly focus on the attitude of the Skopos Theory toward the ‘dethronement’ of the source text (Schaffner, 1998, cited in Uddin, 2019: 2). The Skopos Theory may bring a translation product closer to an ‘adaptation’ rather than a ‘translation’ (Nord, 1997, cited in Uddin, 2019: 2). Skopos Theory should put the source text (rather than the target text) as the starting point regardless of the purposes of the texts produced during the translation process (Koller, 1990, cited in Uddin, 2019: 2). Skopos Theory is inapplicable to literary texts (also religious texts) since these texts involve highly stylistic and expressive language; therefore, equivalence may not be achieved (Nord, 1997, cited in Uddin, 2019: 2). Another particular criticism mentions unclear guideline of Skopos Theory during the translation practice, i.e., what are step by step procedures that have to be done during the translation process (Sunwoo, 207, cited in Uddin, 2019: 2).

Shortcomings of Skopos Theory

The Ambiguity of “Skopos”: In Skopos Theory, the most important thing for a translation work is the skopos. Vermeer puts forward the new evaluation criteria for a certain translation—adequacy. Since sometimes the skopos of source text and target text is different, the translation should be allowed to be not equivalent. In this case, if a translation work achieves its skopos, then it is appropriate and adequate. Thus, knowing clearly the skopos of a translation work is very important in evaluating whether a translation work is adequate or not. In Skopos Theory, Vermeer regards translation as a human action, which is intentional and purposeful. Sometimes writers produce “art” for “art’s sake” and maybe some translations are done with no purpose. In these situations, can Skopos Theory still be applied and how to explain them? On the one hand, the Skopos Theory requires the skopos of the translation work determined clearly by the clients. On the other hand, there is only a brief introduction of the requirements for the target text and sometimes there is even no written translation commission. As a result, the skopos of the translation work has no substantive contents. The translators can only depend on themselves to deduce the possible skopos of the target text. This gives a lot of freedom to the translator, however, at the same time, makes the skopos of the translation commission an ambiguous concept (Yang, 2020: 6-11).

The Undervaluation of Source Text and Writer: Vermeer claims that due to different skopos of a specific translation work, the translator could choose different translation methods and translation strategies. Even the translator rewrites or deletes the source text is feasible if it is in accordance with the skopos. Equivalence should not be the translation criteria for the target text but adequacy should, and equivalence is categorized to be a branch of adequacy, when the skopos of the target text and the source text are almost the same. In Vermeer’s Skopos Theory, there are 3 important rules: the skopos rule, the coherence rule and the fidelity rule. The hierarchical rule of these three rules is that skopos rule > coherence rule > fidelity rule. Vermeer puts the fidelity rule into the least important role in these three rules. This proposition gives a lot of freedom and subjectivity to translators, and translators are entitled to rewrite or even delete some of the source text. Source text is only regarded to be an “offer of information” in a source culture and source language, and too much freedom leads to disrespect of the source text and the writers. The literariness and artistry of the original literary work may be destroyed and conflict may occur (Yang, 2020: 6-11).

The Unfalsifiability of Skopos Theory: Vermeer claims that the skopos is regulated by the initiator at first but finally determined by the translators. So, should the translators be the ones who judge whether his or her translation has achieved the skopos? How do we know the skopos of the translators and how we prove that the translators fail to achieve the skopos? Let’s see an example.

原文：改革进入了深水区，但再深的水我们也得蹚。

译文：In pursuing reform, we have entered uncharted/deep waters. But we must wade through these waters no matter how deep we are.

This example is from Translators Association of China, in its website. The word “深水区” means that China’s reform has entered its journey of the middle may be an acceptable translation, however, “deep water” gives people an impression of limited hope to survive (Yang, 2020: 6-11). The Ambiguity of Evaluation Criterion of Target Text: What is the evaluation criterion of the target text? How to judge whether the translator has achieved the skopos? Skopos Theory can only be seen as a general theory and it, however, has no practical guiding meaning in the later translation process. Then some people begin to regard the other two rules: fidelity rule and coherence rule as the evaluation criteria for the target text. This is inappropriate and conflicting with the skopos rule according to the hierarchical rule of Skopos Theory. The skopos rule, rather than the other two rules, should be the evaluation criteria for the target text (Yang, 2020: 6-11).

Concept of Appropriateness Theory

All of the translational theories can be boiled down to one question they serve: Is the translation appropriate? In other words, is it adequate, suitable, reasonable, fair, just, apt, situationally fitting, does it work in the target language/culture? Therefore, “Appropriateness Theory” is the final theory of all translation theories. There may be different answers to the question of appropriateness in different times and from different actors, perspectives, disciplines, etc. An evaluation of the appropriateness of a translation can only be relative and never absolute. Thus, it is necessary to establish a system of evaluation, valuing the different aspects such as the function of the text, loyalty to the author, the ideals of literal/free translation, and how far a translation can “work” in the target language (Moratto & Woesler, 2021: xvi preface II).

Of historical importance is the question of appropriateness, which in turn leads the translators to fundamental ethical questions: Should they report things they overheard from the foreign negotiation team to their own team to enhance their own team’s chances? Is it appropriate to tell a standard joke in the target language when the country’s leader has told a racist joke? What implications does it have about the foreign country’s leader, when he laughs at their standard joke? The country’s leader may think he laughed at his (racist) joke. Is it appropriate to take over the role of a negotiation participant when they are hired for interpreting? When they are a wartime interpreter: Is it appropriate to translate propaganda and to interpret for a dictator? Is it appropriate to translate the German order “Feuer!” [Shoot!] by the German commander into French if the collaborating French soldiers would commit a crime against humanity when they understood and executed the order? Where to draw the line to refuse to translate? What consequences does it have if they refuse? What responsibilities do interpreters and translators have? The Appropriateness Theory is complex and shows that a Code of Ethics is of the utmost importance (Moratto & Woesler, 2021: xvi preface II).

Translation and interpreting theories can each explain particularly well individual aspects of translation processes and the creation of target texts. This allows the existing theories to be used eclectically. In addition, the eclectic use must be supplemented with an enrichment by the final judgment possibility of all theories on superordinate categories such as ethics and human dignity in the form of the theory of "appropriateness" (Woesler, 2021, 1-5).

According to the appropriateness theory, however, a line of conflict arises with regard to the user's being at the mercy of the principal, both of whom may pursue different interests. Appropriateness theory, as an integrative theory, accepts all existing translation theories for certain aspects of the translation process. Furthermore, it poses the question to what extent a translation can be called "appropriate" in certain sub‐aspects and as a whole (Woesler, 2021, 1-5).

Appropriateness Theory in relation to Skopos Theory

Skopos theory called for iconoclasm against the sanctity of the original, focused on the translator and the purpose of the text to functionally (or dynamically) achieve equivalence in the target culture (Woesler, 2021: 1-5). Imagine the fictional case of a battle speech by a Japanese general to his soldiers. Now the Chinese army got a hold of the speech, translates it into Chinese and replaces “Chinese” by “Japanese” and uses it to motivate its own people. Translating a battle speech for one country with discriminatory statements about an enemy country that has been correctly translated for use as a battle speech in the enemy country according to the Skopos theory would be doubly inappropriate according to the Appropriateness theory in such these reasons:

1. translators ethically stand above ideologies or other discriminations and do not contribute to human rights violations.

2. even if the purpose was served, reversing statements to the exact opposite would not be appropriate to the source text, even though principals and readers in the target culture may receive the text very favorably (Woesler, 2021: 1-5).

Thus, the Appropriateness Theory goes beyond the previous theories that measure the correctness of a translation by the content, semantics, grammar, situation of the principal, translator and reader. Here, an overall assessment is asked for, in which the principal, the equivalence in the source and target culture or the effect in the target culture are no longer a measure of translation quality. These translations must also be measured against even more general, human yardsticks. And this is where human dignity and ethics come into play. A typical borderline case would be a deliberately false translation with the intention of avoiding or producing things worse, e.g., human rights violations, torture, genocide, etc. If the deliberate falsification of a translation serves to mislead, manipulate, and alienate the recipient in order to strengthen the power of a group, it would be ethically reprehensible and might be correct for the principal under the Skopos theory, but not under the Appropriateness theory (Woesler, 2021: 1-5).

Like any other theories, Skopos Theory is also not perfect. According to Nord, there are two interdependent limitations of this theory. One concerns the culture-specificity of translational models; the other has to do with the relationship between the translator and the source-text author (Du, 2012: 5).

To solve the above problems of Skopos Theory, Nord introduces the loyalty principle into the functionalist model. In Nord’s terms, function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source-text sender, the target-text addressees and the initiator. (Nord, 2001, Du, 2012: 5). The combination of function and loyalty is the successful point of Nord’s functionalist approach, and are respectively the two pillars of her approach which also answers many criticisms of Skopos Theory (Du, 2012: 5). The “Theory of Appropriateness” regards appropriateness as the guiding principle and loyalty plus function should also be paramount.

Further Modifying Translation and Interpreting Theories by Appropriateness Theory in the Near Future

Translation and interpreting studies have changed their paradigms already several times. In ancient times, it was prescriptive, favoring literal or free translation (or combinations of literal and free). It later became more descriptive. Contrastive-linguistic approaches with equivalency as the main criteria were followed by communicative and then functional approaches. Since the functional approaches considered cultural backgrounds, it was called the “Cultural Turn” (Moratto & Woesler, 2021: 214).

With the Skopos Theory, the equivalence of the purpose of the source and target texts are stretched beyond the authenticity of the source, and the role of the translator/interpreter gets back into the focus. Recent developments turned toward a sociology, a culture, and the ethics of translation as “the Theory of Appropriateness”. (Moratto & Woesler, 2021: 214).

Algorithms just take a huge mass of data and come to results without knowing how because they do not have to understand any more. However, translation produced with these algorithms in general are of low quality. With the next step, the algorithms need to be able to learn from mistakes and adjust themselves to be of better quality, but still qualitatively lower than human translation. So, before the machine can take over, it needs to “understand” humans better and needs to be “made more human.” The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient (Moratto & Woesler, 2021: 214).

Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further toward the audience by cooperating humans and machine to lead to appropriateness theory. Since the translation or interpretation may look different depending on the individual recipient, the new translation and interpretation will be individualized and therefore the focus moves not just to the audience, but to the personality of the individual recipient and his/her social and cultural environment (Moratto & Woesler, 2021: 214).

Translation Ethics for Appropriateness Theory

Ethical practice has always been an important issue for translators and interpreters, though historically the focus of concern has been the question of fidelity to the spoken or written text. Directed and collective engagement with an ethics of translation can serve as a means of strengthening the possibility of elaborating a role for translation as a positive force for social and political change. It can also help to create more effective pedagogical tools for training translators and interpreters to reflect upon their personal and/or social commitments and challenge existing norms established in codes of ethics that are untenable in actual contexts of practice (Arrojo 2005; Timoczko 2007: 318–22, cited in Baker, 2009: 100-103). Perhaps, increased focus on translation ethics within the field can help to guide translators, interpreters and translation scholars towards their ‘right’ to act responsibly, and to take their visibility and accountability seriously (Maier 2007, Baker, 2009: 100-103).

Chesterman (2001, cited in Farahmand & Hadaegh, n.d.: 3-4) put forward four models of translation ethics: an ethics of representation, an ethics of service, an ethics of communication, and norm-based ethics. He pointed out the problems with all these models before making his own proposal: an ethics of commitment, which is a proposal to professional translators for a universal Hieronymic Oath (Liangun 连云, 2014: 1-2).

Based on Chesterman's Ethics of Representation, the translator should be faithful to the original text. Therefore, Chinese-English translation of scenic spots should be as close as possible with Chinese materials to the content, style and effects. However, the phenomenon of random deletion to English translation of scenic spots materials is very serious. Such as, the English translation of the Flower Path (One of LuShan Mountain’s important attractions) is as follows (http://www.china-lushan.com/en/detail.php?act=scenic&id=2):

“It was commonly believed that flowers were withered under the mountain, while in full bloom at the top of the mountain on the contrary. You can enjoy all kinds of rare flowers and amazing Violin-like Lake at the same time” (Shao & Liu, 2017: 1921-1922).

However, its Chinese language content is very rich. It mentioned in the Tang Dynasty, poet Bai Juyi was demoted to Jiangzhou (Jiujiang), and he went sightseeing here. It was the late spring, and at the foot of the hill, peach blossom had faded, but here, it was still in blossom. Such a special phenomenon stimulated Bai Juyi’s strong feeling, and he wrote the famous poem Dalin Temple Peach Blossoms. In the Flower Diameter Pavilion, the two words “Flower Path” were engraved in a stone and words said that the two words were written by Bai Juyi. Based on such a special historical allusion, the present name--the Flower Path was got. So, the introduction of Chinese highlights the cultural heritage of the site. However, English translation has lost its rich cultural connotation and national characteristics (Shao & Liu, 2017: 1921-1922).

Chesterman's Ethics of Service regards translation as a commercial behavior serving customers, so translators are required to provide excellent service to customers. In addition to translation standard, the translation of scenic spots should also highlight the characteristics, excavate the cultural heritage and publicize the eye-catching points. The first English sentence that introduces “the Flower Path” of Lu Shan Mountain is as follows:

“It was commonly believed that flowers were withered under the mountain, while in full bloom at the top of the mountain on the contrary.”

Seeing from the content, it should be the imitation to Bai Juyi’s following verses:

"In Fourth Moon the fragrance of flowers leaves the mundane world,

At this mountain temple the peach has barely begun to bloom" (Shao & Liu, 2017: 1921-1922).

But there is no such artistic conception and aesthetic feeling in the English introduction (Shao & Liu, 2017, 1921-1922). Chesterman's Ethics of Communication emphasizes communication and cooperation with others to achieve the purpose of cultural exchange. “Communication Overview”, an English column of Mount Sanqingshan, explains the geographical location and ways to arrive this scenic spot. Judged from the content, it should be “Arrival Strategy”, but not so-called “Communication Overview”. Otherwise, it failed to deliver real and efficient information to foreign tourists (Shao & Liu, 2017: 1921-1922).

Chesterman's Norm-based Ethics requires that translation is to comply with the specific language and cultural norms of the target language and can be accepted by their country and society. In different columns of the official website (http://www.china-lushan.com/en/index.php) of Lushan Mountain, the name of this scenic spot are translated into “Lushan”, “Lushan mountain”, and “Mountain Lu” casually. In the official website, the name of such a famous scenic spot should have three different versions of English translation, so there is indeed a lack of norms (Shao & Liu, 2017, 1921-1922).

From the moral and spiritual aspects, Chesterman's Ethics of Commitment mainly emphasizes the translator's professional ethics (Chen Shunyi,2015:111, cited in Shao & Liu, 2017: 1921-1922). In the official website (http://sqs.sqs.gov.cn/) of Mount Sanqingshan, Jiangxi, “National 5A Class Scenic Spot” is translated into “National Tourist Attraction”, and “5A” is deleted at will, so how can the foreign tourists realize it’s a 5A level scenic spot? It is thus clear that translation of scenic spots should be standardized.

Pym (1997, cited in Farahmand & Hadaegh, n.d.: 3-4) listed five ethical principles:

1. The translators are responsible for the translation they accept to produce;

2. The translators are not directly responsible for the whole translation situations, but professionally responsible for the translation;

3. Translation processes should not be reduced to an opposition between two cultures, and it is wrong to base one’s actions on only one set of cultural criteria;

4. The cost of translation ought not to outweight the benefits of the intercultural relation in question; and

5. Through their work, the translators are responsible for contributing to lasting intercultural cooperation.

Liangun 连云 (2014) first classified models of translation ethics into theory of surrender and theory of manipulation, pointing out that the latter being the dominant and powerful discourse in contemporary translation studies. "Manipulation", a practice of translation, in which the source text is re-written and exploited as one pleases, that is, treated as means or instruments, to achieve one’s own ends and purposes, has become the main trend, which almost no one could escape and has even characterized the translator’s existence. "Surrender", an opposite method to manipulation, is a translation practice in which manipulation is renounced so that the source text exists for its own purposes and its own value is respected (Liangun 连云, 2014: 1-2).

"Respect for difference and reverence for civilization" should become a fundamental ethical principle in trans-cultural communication against the background of globalization. Without staying within its own world with its ends and needs, the ethics of surrender cares about the differences and varieties of the source text or the outside world as a whole. It obeys the authority of the source text and takes an absolute responsibility for the particularity of the source text as life and soul. Only in this way will a true encounter with the source text be possible and the richness and variety of the source text unfold and develop on its own. Surrender is liberation for the source text and the translator as well, as these two kinds of liberation belong to the same process (Liangun 连云, 2014: 1-2).

Thus, proposal of the ethics of surrender in translation carries with it such connotations: to stop achieving one’s own goals, purposes, functions, plans or expectations by manipulating the source text with one’s own ideology or values; instead, to translate in such a way so that the source text unfolds or develops on its own and is open to all kinds of possibilities, so that the readership will have a direct dialogue with the source text, so that people with different opinions and from different cultures can participate on equal status in discussions about the truth of the source text. This is the only effective way to reach a faithful translation and the only correct attitude toward creative arts and things that pass down from generation to generation (Liangun 连云, 2014: 1-2).

As every man is limited and cannot grasp the truth of the source text at one attempt or once for all; that is, all of his understanding or sense-making is of a temporary nature and he needs others for supplement and complement; therefore, it is good living as well as good translating to give up one’s arrogant elitist position, that is, to give up one’s own aim, purposes, plans, expectation, etc. so that the source text or anything in the world is not veiled or restricted by one’s selfishness or limitations but unfolds and develops on its own (Liangun 连云, 2014: 1-2).

It is true that anyone lives with his or her own ideology and values, which is what Gadamer means when he says that prejudices are conditions that make understanding possible. The aim and significance of understanding or translation consist in overcoming and transcending one’s prejudices or limitations so that one’s vision gets broadened. The so-called "giving up" or "surrender" does not mean the existence of a soul free of any prejudices or an easy access to the truth of a text or the thing itself, but the necessity of knowledge or self-consciousness of one’s prejudices and limitations, which would make one believe that the text has something beyond one’s own expectations and help one become open-hearted and sensitive to different opinions or readings about the text. This is not only a translation method or an attitude the translator should have toward the source text but also a world view or an attitude one should have toward life (Liangun 连云, 2014: 1-2). Appropriateness Theory considers that theory of manipulation and theory of surrender should be balanced.

Ideological Manipulation in Appropriateness Theory

Translation, as an exchange or activity between different languages and cultures, is deeply influenced by the translator’s ideology from the beginning. During the translation process, a translator chooses his/her translation strategy mainly according to his/her ideology. When Chinese " 龙 "was first translated into English, China was on the eve of Opium War, when the ideology of Western hegemony which appeared in opposition to Chinese thought and culture was very strong. That is the reason why it was translated into "dragon". But now, with the rising of China’s international position and influence, Chinese national ideology is increasing. More and more Chinese put forward that Chinese " 龙 " should be re-translated with the Chinese Pinyin "long" or the coinage "loong". It is ideology, which is just like an invisible hand, that manipulates the translation of Chinese "dragon/loong" (Xu-ming 旭明, 2009: 143-145).

In Lefevere’s view, ideology consists of "opinions and attitudes deemed acceptable in a certain society at a certain time, and through which readers and translators approach texts". As translators’ work is always affected by the surrounding socio-cultural environment, ideological beliefs are reflected in language usage (Ying, 2020: 76).

A New Year’s Reunion is an English translation of Chinese picture book Tuan Yuan (《团圆》) written by Yu Li-qiong and illustrated by Zhu Cheng-liang. The book tells a story about family reunion during Chinese New Year from the perspective of a little girl, Maomao. The Chinese original was first published in Taipei, China, in 2008 and has won Feng Zikai Chinese Children’s Picture Book Award for its touching story and delicate pictures. Its English version was published by Candlewick Press in 2013. It depicts real life of migrant families in modern China, focuses on family affection and features Chinese culture. Therefore, it is highly awarded in target culture. The most obvious adaptation the translator has made can be found on the front cover. On the cover of Chinese version, Maomao is sleeping tucked between her parents, which depicts a warm scene of Chinese family reunion. “Adult–child co-sleeping is the mainstream sleeping arrangement for children in mainland China”. But in western world children usually sleep in their own bedrooms at an early age. The co-sleeping scene on the cover may lead to confusion, upset or even resistance of young target readers. So the translator substitutes the co-sleeping picture with a picture of the family making sticky rice balls together, which not only presents the theme of family reunion but also highlights cultural elements. It is a successful example of a translation conforming to target cultural norms (Ying, 2020: 76).

Another adaptation can be found in the translation of the title. The Chinese title can literally be translated as “Reunion”, but the translator, on the other hand, takes culture into account and translates it into “A New Year’s Reunion”, which makes the theme of the original clearer. The translation here confirms Shoshana Blum-Kulka’s “explicitation hypothesis”. Translators tend to add more information to make translation more intelligible and acceptable for target readers (Ying, 2020: 76).

When the translation of Buddhist scriptures began in about the second century, most translators used a literal approach, but in their translation, they were influenced by Taoism and Confucianism, the mainstream ideologies of the time. Xuan Zang (600-664), the best-known translator of Buddhist scriptures in China, was acclaimed for faithfulness and meticulousness (Chen Fukang 1992: 38-44; Ma Zuyi 1984: 60-61, cited in Fung, 1998: 241), and yet he was unable to ward off entirely the influence of Confucian thoughts. Besides, he 'melted away' the argument of the source texts and even changed the texts in order to promote the views of his own sect, according to a critic (Ma Zuyi 1984: 58, cited in Fung, 1998: 241). Appropriateness Theory emphasizes ideology to reach to the appropriateness with the target text and culture or times.

Cultural transfer for Appropriateness Theory

Fuentes Luque and Kelly (2000:241, cited in Baker, 2009: 9-10) pointed out that ‘the role of the translator in international advertising . . . can in no way be limited to “purely linguistic” issues’, and suggest that translators of advertising material should be to become ‘intercultural experts’. Guidère (2001, cited in Baker, 2009: 9-10) agreed that ‘to accomplish his mission successfully, the translator is required to think and to integrate a certain amount of data, not only about marketing and basic communication, but also about geopolitics and ethnology’.

Adab (2001, cited in Baker, 2009: 9-10) similarly stresses the importance of cultural values in that the discussion of cultural issues in the translation of advertising material would particularly benefit from insights on the cultural adaptation of European or American advertising campaigns and messages for non-Western audiences. Ho (2004, cited in Baker, 2009: 9-10) analyses the cultural adjustments he introduced in his own translation of commercial advertising for Singapore as a tourist destination, again from English into Chinese.

An obvious example of the importance of cultural adaptation (and appropriation) to ensure customer motivation can be found in the translation of tourist brochures. If, as Sumberg (2004, cited in Baker, 2009: 9-10) pointed out, the profile of the advertised destination is poorly adjusted to the target readership’s tourist expectations, the brochure will fail to sell the destination – even though that brochure might very well reflect the actual profile and reality of the place better than a heavily adapted translation.

Translating means comparing cultures. Translators interpret source-culture phenomena in the light of their own culture-specific knowledge of that culture, from either the inside or the outside, depending on whether the translation is from or into the translator’s native language-and-culture (Nord, 2001, cited in Du, 2012: 2192).

Conclusion

Translators and interpreters seem to rather strive for balance, i.e., to apply a balanced translation strategy that is generally accepted and also perceived as "appropriate" by the translators/interpreters themselves (Woesler, 2021: 1-5). To sum up, the ‘Theory of Appropriateness’ comes with the practical solutions to the limitations of Skopos Theory that need to be modified. To be a proper translation, the translators must consider appropriateness, translation ethics, loyalty plus function, ideology, theory of manipulation plus theory of surrender, cultural transfer and artificial intelligence according to “Appropriateness Theory”. However, the 'appropriateness' rule must be dominating and the most important rule in translation activity.

References

Baker, M. & S. G. (2009). Routledge_Encyclopedia_of_Translation_Studies_2nd_ed.

Du, X. (2012). A brief introduction of Skopos theory. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(10), 2189–2193. https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.2.10.2189-2193

Farahmand, S., & Hadaegh, B. (n.d.). The Study of Chesterman’s Models of Translation Ethics : A Case Study of the Persian Translation of The Sound and the Fury.

Fung, C. N. (1998). Faithfulness, manipulation, and ideology: A descriptive study of Chinese translation tradition. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 6(2), 235–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.1998.9961339

Lecturer, A., & Jabir, J. K. (2006). SKOPOS THEORY: BASIC PRINCIPLES AND DEFICIENCIES. In Journal of the College of Arts. University of Basrah No (Issue 41).

Liangun 连云, S. 申. (2014). 从“操控”到“投降” ——全球化背景下翻译伦理模式构想 From “Manipulation” to “Surrender” - Conception of Translation Ethics Model in the Context of Globalization. Journal of National 211 Project Universities 国家211工程高校学报.

Lili, Z. (2016). Study of Business English Translation Based on the Three Rules of Skopos Theory.

Moratto, R., & Woesler, M. (2021). New Frontiers in Translation Studies Diverse Voices in Chinese Translation and Interpreting Theory and Practice. http://www.springer.com/series/11894

Munday, J. (2016). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications.

Shao, J., & Liu, G. (2017). A Translation Ethics Perspective Exploration of the C-E Translation of Jiangxi Scenic Spots. http://www.china-lushan.com/en/index.php

Trisnawati, I. K. (2014). SKOPOS THEORY: A PRACTICAL APPROACH IN THE TRANSLATION PROCESS (Vol. 1, Issue 2).

Woesler, M. (2021). Ending the “100-schools” dispute between translation theories by integrating them and measuring the “appropriateness”. Facing up to the challenges posed by ethics and artificial intelligence to the transformation of the translator’s and interpreter’s professional role.

Xu-ming 旭明, G. 郭. (2009). 从“Dragon”到“loong”——论意识形态对“中国龙”英译实践的操纵 From “Dragon” to “loong”——On the Manipulation of Ideology on the Practice of English Translation of “Chinese Dragon.” Journal of Yunmeng, 04, 143–145.

Yang, M. (2020). Evaluation on the Significance and Shortcomings of German Functionalist Vermeer’s Skopos Theory. OALib, 07(11), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106923

Ying, S. (2020). Ideological Manipulation in English Translation of Chinese Children’s Literature: Case Studies. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation, 6(3), 75. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijalt.20200603.13

Ei Mon Kyaw

Creat_App_Theo_EN_1

--EIMONKYAW (talk) 13:18, 7 November 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw -Ei Mon Kyaw-EIMONKYAW (talk) 13:18, 7 November 2021 (UTC)

corrected by --Asep Budiman (talk) 23:38, 12 December 2021 (UTC)

Chapter 3 Appropriateness in Lyrics Translation -- A Case Study of Lana Del Rey's Lyrics Translation in QQ Music

歌词翻译中的适当性——以拉娜·德雷在QQ音乐中的译本为例

易扬帆 Yi Yangfan, Hunan Normal University, China

Abstract

In today's diverse society, the aesthetic demand for foreign music is gradually growing. Among the various genres of music, English pop music is the most widely circulated. However, there is little research on the translation of lyrics in China, and the translation works are of varying quality, which is worthy of further discussion and research. Lana Del Rey is a popular American singer, widely known for her retro lyrical style and cinematic sound. This article uses appropriateness theory as a guide to study the translation of Lana Del Rey's lyrics in QQ Music, in the hope that it will have some reference value for the translation of lyrics.

Key Words

Appropriateness;English Songs;Lyric Translation

摘要

在社会多元化的今天，人们对国外音乐的审美需求逐渐增长。在多种音乐类型中，又以英文流行音乐流传最为广泛。然而国内鲜少有对于歌词翻译的研究，翻译作品更是良莠不齐，值得深入探讨和研究。拉娜·德雷是时下热度很高的美国女歌手，以其复古式的词曲风格和电影质感的声音广为人知。本文以适当性理论为指导，对QQ音乐内拉娜·德雷的歌词翻译进行研究，希望对歌词翻译作品能够具有一定的参考价值。

关键词

适当性；英文歌曲；歌词翻译

Introduction

Due to the rapid development of the Internet and multimedia, many English songs have been translated into various versions upon their release. However, due to several factors, the quality of the translations is generally not high. However, as people's aesthetic standards improve, the translation of lyrics is gradually being taken seriously. This is evident from the fact that Bob Dylan won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2016. Lyrics have their origins in poetry, and many lyricists still write words using imagery, rhetoric, and rhyme to create poetry, so many translators unconsciously translate lyrics in the same way they translate poetry. But because the lyrics, when set to an arrangement, are more emotionally focused than poetry that focuses not only on form but also on emotion, the lyrics are sometimes even without a fixed form. This is why translators can experience an emotional discontinuity in the translation process, i.e. some words in the translation are chosen more to fit the form than the emotion, and there is a disconnect between the emotions above and below. This paper examines the translation of the lyrics of Lana Del Rey's song in QQ Music as an example of a word that adequately conveys the singer's lyrical content but neglects the consistency of emotion, and attempts to address this phenomenon using appropriateness theory.

1.Xu Yuanchong's Translation Theory in Lyric Translation

1.1 Three beauties Theory

It is well known that Mr. Xu Yuanchong is an accomplished translator of poetry. He has been engaged in literary translation for more than 60 years, and his translations cover Chinese, English, and French languages. In the second half of the 20th century, Mr. Xu Yuanchong proposed the "Three Beauties Theory", based on Lu Xun's "A History of Chinese Literature", in which he said that "beauty of meaning touches the heart, beauty of sound the ear, and beauty of form the eye". In other words, poetry should not only be faithful to the original text but also "beautiful in meaning", "beautiful in sound" and "beautiful in the form". He said that the beauty of meaning should reproduce the beauty of the context of the original text, such as symbolic meaning, punning meaning, deeper meaning, meaning beyond words, etc.; the beauty of sound mainly refers to the rhyme, rhythm, and double sound of the original text; and the beauty of form requires the translation to maintain the form of the original text as far as possible (e.g. length, counterpoint, etc.). The translation should not only convey the original meaning of the original text, but also the rhythm and charm of the original text. The "Three Beauties" theory plays an important role in guiding the translation of poetry. The three beauties are a likeness of meaning, a likeness of sound, and a likeness of form. The pursuit of likeness means conveying the content of the original text, without mistranslation, omission, or over-translation. In Mr. Xu's view, the translation of poetry must reflect rhyme and meter. "If the original poem uses rhyme but the translation does not, then the imagery, mood and atmosphere of the original poem cannot be transplanted in any way, because the content and form of the poem are inseparable". As for the beauty of form, this refers mainly to the 'length' and 'symmetry' of the poem. "It is best to achieve similarity of form, or at least 'general neatness'." Mr. Xu also believes that the three beauties are not juxtaposed, but rather have a priority and order of importance. "Of the three beauties, the beauty of meaning is the most important, the beauty of sound is secondary, and beauty of form is even less important. We need to achieve all three beauties as much as possible while still conveying a beautiful meaning. If we cannot have all three, then we may not require similarity of form or sound in the first place; but we must convey the beauty of sound and form of the original text as far as possible. (Xu Yuanchong,2006:105)

1.2 Triple Transformation Theory

The "Triple Transformation Theory" (lightening, equating, and deepening) is a theory of translation further summarized by Mr. Xu Yuanchong based on the "Theory of Three Beauties".In literary translation, especially poetry translation, the "Three Beauties Theory" has been accepted by the public as a kind of translation aim theory. The "Triple Transformation" is the method to achieve the "Three Beauties". "Beauty" is easy to understand, but what is "transformation"? Qian Zhongshu once proposed that the highest level of translation is to "transform the realm", and the so-called "transforming the realm" means "not only not to involve the traces of rigid and far-fetched because of language habits, but also to completely ensure the rhythm of the original work ", Xu Yuanchong believes that the "three transformations" include equivalence, but not reciprocity, but creation. The so-called "lightening" means abstracting some specific nouns, generalizing special nouns or proper nouns, or cutting out some words that are redundant to the translation, to convey the "beauty of meaning" of the original. By "equating", he means that adjusting the syntax and syntactic structure of the translation to make it more uniform in style and to make it read more naturally and fluently, provided that its meaning and context are the same as the original. The so-called deepening, as opposed to lightening, is to make abstract nouns concrete and general nouns special, using allusions and special imagery when necessary, to evoke deeper emotional resonance in the reader.（Han Xintao,2021:145-147）

1.3 Triple Transformation Theory in Lyric Translation

Lyrics are a literary form similar to poetry, and in ancient times poetry and lyrics were originally the same, only later to become different literary genres due to different tracks of development. A good lyric is no less than a good poem, and therefore the form of translation of lyrics can be very open. The essence of a lyric translation is no different from that of a normal translation. It is characterized by the need to match the tune and to express the emotions that the song itself is intended to convey in its phrasing. In the case of tunes, the translation of lyrics should not be confined to a rigid translation between languages but should reflect more of the rhythm and spirit of the music. Music, as an art to be appreciated, needs to pay special attention to the beauty of the lyrics themselves, to discover as much as possible the beauty of the original words, and to sublimate the beauty of the song as a whole. Mr. Xu Yuanchong's 'Three Transformations' can effectively guide the practice of translating lyrics, through which translators can flexibly translate lyrics to bring out the beauty of the lyrics to the fullest. (Hou Weixia,2019:166-167)

2.The Specific Application of Xu Yuanchong's Translation Theory in Lyric Translation

2.1 Case Study

Lana Del Rey is popular for her retro and cinematic music, especially her song Young And Beautiful for the movie The Great Gatsby, the lyrics of which have been translated over and over again in China, in various versions, all with great beauty. Lana Del Rey's use of imagery is extremely skillful, similar to Chinese poetry, so the translator can borrow the techniques used in translating poetry to convey the beauty the original author intended to. In this section, the translations of Lana Del Rey's Ride in QQ Music are excerpted to analyze how the translator uses the triple transformation theory to convey the beauty of the original work.

Ride

I’ve been out on that open road 我流浪已久 You can be my full-time daddy white and gold 你就是我的全部 或苍白或绚烂

The translation of these two lines uses a lightening translation strategy. In the first line, the word 'out' means exposed, which is a good expression in the original, but a direct translation would lose the original meaning of the song, and it would be better to use the word wandering than to use an exposed translation, which would be more in keeping with the mood of the original song. In the second sentence, "white and gold" also creates a sense of the old and yellowed vintage film, but if translated directly as two colors, not only will the reader be confused, but the beauty of the original will also be lost. Instead, the word 'gorgeous' is used to obscure the specific colour of gold, and at the same time, to create a sense of living a luxurious and dissipation life

I’ve been traveling too long 我已经厌倦漂泊不定的生活

The translation of this lyric uses a deepening translation strategy. To say that I've been travelling for too long is to convey what the singer wants to say, but in the context of the song it seems abrupt and pale, so the translator chooses to make 'travelling' figurative, pointing out that it is a life of wandering that makes her bored.

I hear the birds on the summer breeze 夏日的微风拂过我的脸颊 我听见鸟儿悦耳的声音

The translation of this lyric employs the equating strategy. Equating is not merely an equivalence in form or meaning; it favors a flexible form of reciprocity. While the original is translated directly as I hear the birds singing in the summer breeze, the translation separates the imagery of summer, breeze, and birds and focuses on the breeze, creating a sense of being in the same car as the author, enjoying the breeze and listening to the birds singing. This is an equivocation of meaning, and such an adaptation not only does not detract from the beauty of the original words but also sublimates them.

2.2 Remaining Deficiencies

In the song Ride, the overall translation is generally in line with Mr. Xu Yuanchong's theory of triple transformation, splitting up the imagery rather than confusing the reader by merely sticking to formal equivalence, turning the erratic wandering into a way of life that is easy for the reader to understand, and blurring some Western expressions and using some flamboyant adjectives to lighten the sense of cultural difference. The song as a whole expresses the singer's constant state of wandering, being lost or tired on the road, feeling hopeless and lonely about the rest of his wandering, and is a rather sad and confusing song. However, the translation of the song's chorus turns the singer's emotions upside down：

Been trying hard not to get into trouble 尽一切努力不让自己落入深渊 but I’ve got a war in my mind 可内心还在交战不休 I just ride just ride 所以我不停漂泊 无畏艰难 放荡不羁

It can be seen that the tone of the song before is one of confusion and helplessness, and the singer is tired and weary of this wandering life, but here the translation is suddenly used without fear of hardship and debauchery, which seems to express a positive feeling of still wanting to continue wandering, considering the confusion and helplessness of the present moment to be worthless difficulties, hoping to continue wandering like this tomorrow, and still having hope for tomorrow, which is in contrast to the previous This is the opposite of the tiredness and torment of the previous stanza, which translates this stanza appears to be emotionally disconnected from the previous one.

And this phenomenon is not only present in this one song. It also occurs in Lana Del Rey's California:

Cause this crazy love, I’ll catch you on the flipside 我疯狂地迷恋你 我会再次俘获你的心

California is one of the most frequent images in Lana Del Rey's songs, often with an unspoken meaning of a flower in a mirror. This song was written by Lana Del Rey for her ex-boyfriend, expressing the sentiment that even after parting, I still miss the unattainable beauty of you. The songwriter expresses the lightness of letting go and hoping to meet him again as a friend, but if not, it's okay to wish him all the best. The translation here, on the other hand, expresses a nagging attitude that I want to catch your heart again, which is different from what the song was trying to convey, and there is also an emotional disconnect.

There is also a similar phenomenon with the track white dress included in the recent new album：

When I was a waitress 当我还是位服务生的时候

Wearing a white dress 穿着一袭白色连衣裙

Like look how I do it 来看看我是如何功成名就

Look how I got this 看看我是如何功成名就

In this song, as the title suggests, white dress is a very important image throughout almost the entire song. She continues to refer to being 19 years old, as she did in Hope Is a Dangerous Thing for a Woman like Me to Have - but I Have It, and it is clear that the white dress is a symbol of innocence, just like a 19-year-old girl, innocent and untainted by the world. Even Lana Del Rey herself says that the song will sound grotesque, but at the same time, she calls it the saddest song of her songwriting career. What she shows in this song is nostalgia for her past, a pity for the young girl who didn't know any better, a fondness for a time when things were free and uninhibited, revealing a sense of loss and bitterness that past thing cannot be traced. She loves the innocent and unaware self that had the most genuine happiness, so she is disappointed that the self that has everything now is no longer able to be happy. When the singer is nostalgic, she is nostalgic for the happiness she had in the past, and that happiness is everything, not the word "功成名就" as used in the translation. “功成名就” means both have fame and fortune, but what fame and fortune did the singer have when she was young? The translation here is therefore inappropriate and makes a big difference to the nostalgic feeling the singer is trying to convey, and there is an emotional disconnect, too.

3.Additional Translation of the Appropriateness Theory

3.1 The Reason of the Deficiencies

The emotional disconnect mentioned above is very common, but why does it occur? This section explores in detail the reasons why this phenomenon occurs.

Firstly, there is competition between players. With the widespread of Western culture and the development of technology in China, more and more music players are appearing on the scene, each with a large number of songs in English, and with Chinese translations so that listeners who do not know English well can grasp the general meaning of the lyrics. However, there are currently many players on the market with their translations, which are not uniform and of varying quality. This article is based on QQ Music, which has a larger market share than any other player in China, but the translation does not stand up to careful analysis and contains many errors. This is partly because the players focus too much on the first release of a song, and once they have the exclusive rights to a song, they are eager to upload it, hoping to attract more listeners and increase the number of plays, without paying much attention to the quality of the lyrics, and sometimes there are even mistakes and omissions, not to mention the quality of the translation.

Secondly, because the player does not require a high level of translation, the translation of songs is often not done by professional translators, but by amateurs who are very fond of the artists and are eventually adopted by the player. This has led to a certain degree of unevenness in the quality of the translations. The translators do not have the benefit of expertise in translation, but rather take it as a hobby, which results in the translators not having high expectations of themselves when translating and not being able to grasp the quality of their translations, but rather translating according to their feelings, with predictable results.

Thirdly, the first thing that translators feel about the lyrics, because of their own culture, is the beauty of the form and diction that is expressed in them. For example, Lana Del Rey's lyrics are extremely beautiful, using a lot of imagery such as summer, breezes, wine, sunshine, gems, luxury cars, bustling fairs, and old-fashioned blues to create a sense of luxury as if one were in America in the last century, enjoying a life of glamour and luxury. So translators have mostly focused on bringing out this beauty in her lyrics, often ignoring the real emotions she was trying to convey behind them. As a Chinese translator, there are indeed many instances in Chinese poetry where the emotion is not expressed directly but is all piled up with imagery, but the lyrics, as mentioned above, are different from poetry and are more emotionally focused. The song is more about the empathy of the listener and the singer than about creating a beautiful picture of the scene you are in, and whether the listener would understand the emotion the singer is trying to express if they were in that situation.

After all this analysis, translators often ignore the third aspect of emotion when translating the original text, thus creating an emotional gap. Perhaps listeners do not pay attention to the lyrics of a song when they listen to it, but when they want to savour the lyrics, they will adopt the same approach as in poetry, analyzing the form and context and then start to explore the emotions that the original text is trying to express, and emotions are what listeners pay more attention to, so it is necessary to analyze and correct the translation of the lyrics appropriately.

3.2 Additional Translation Guided by Appropriateness Theory

3.2.1 Appropraiteness Theory

Having explored the reasons for this phenomenon in the previous section, this section uses appropriateness theory to examine how translations of lyrics can be adapted to improve their quality.

It can be seen that Xu Yuanchong's translation theory is no longer fully applicable to the translation of lyrics, so we need to find some other guiding theory to guide the translation of lyrics. Here I would like to refer to the theory of appropriateness. Appropriateness theory is a new theory that has been proposed to guide translations, and it is based on all the previous theories. The question of appropriateness may be answered differently in different times, in different roles, from different perspectives, in different disciplines, etc. The evaluation of translation appropriateness can only be relative, not absolute. It is, therefore, necessary to establish a system of evaluation that assesses different aspects such as the function of the text, fidelity to the author, the concept of direct translation/translation, and the extent to which the translation 'works' in the language into which it is translated. The principle of appropriateness has been discussed and used more often about ethical, moral, and ideological translations, for example, Should you report things you overheard from the foreign negotiation team to your team to enhance your own team’s chances? Is it appropriate to tell a standard joke in the target language when the country’s leader has told a racist joke? What implications does it have about the foreign country’s leader, when he laughs at your standard joke? The country’s leader may think he laughed at his (racist) joke. Is it appropriate to take over the role of a negotiation participant when you are hired for interpreting? (See the contribution in this volume.) When you are a wartime interpreter: Is it appropriate to translate propaganda and to interpret for a dictator? Is it appropriate to translate the German order “Feuer!” [Shoot!] by the German commander into French if the collaborating French soldiers would commit a crime against humanity when they understood and executed the order? （Martin Woesler&Ricardo Moratto，2020：15）However, the author believes that since this theory is a development of all translation theories, it should be biased towards the shortcomings of all translation theories in practical guidance, rather than just a few aspects. Therefore, when the translation of lyrics can no longer be guided only by Xu Yuanchong's theory, a new theoretical system should be sought to guide and correct the translation of lyrics.

Appropriateness in the translation of lyrics, in the author's view, is a form of embellishment. The translation needs to be embellished, but in this case, the embellishment should not just be about aesthetics or form, but also about further processing and treatment based on the translation, taking into account the needs of the emotions. Although lyrics are derived from poetry, they are freer in form than poetry and express beauty in more varied ways. Poetry requires a form, mood, and emotion, and sometimes even more attention is paid to form so that the expression of emotion is sometimes neglected, but the lyrics are based on poetry with an orchestration, so they tend to be more emotionally expressive than poetry, and the lyrics are often written in a less formal way so that the listener can experience the joy, anger, and sorrow in the song. After the translation, it is necessary to look at the translation again to see whether the singer can feel the emotion he wants to express on top of the beauty he has expressed or to check whether there is a gap or inconsistency in the emotion. For example, in the songs mentioned above, the translations of the entire lyrics have been examined and somehow found to be emotionally disconnected, so on the basis of these existing translations, we can use the theory of appropriateness as a guide to make some adjustments to ensure that the audience can feel the emotion that the singer intended.

3.2.2 The Ways to Adapt Translations through Appropriateness Theory

And how to embellish is the next specific question that the author explores. The author believes that the processing and treatment in embellishment can be referred to as some techniques of expressing emotions when writing. Although we are in different times, have different identities and perspectives, and speak different languages, we all feel the joy of getting a high score in an exam, the anger when something we like is maliciously damaged by someone else, and the sadness when a loved one dies. There are many different ways of expressing our feelings, but we all end up describing them in much the same way. So here we need to take into account both the cultural differences between the two countries when translating, and the similarities and differences in the way emotions are received. For example, white is a symbol of purity and innocence in the West and is often used at weddings to express the purity and innocence of the bride, or the sincerity and purity of the feelings, but in the East, especially China, white is often a symbol of sadness and is often used at funerals to express the grief and sorrow for the passing of the ancients, and all the glories of the past are eventually left as a pale sadness.(Bai Changshan, Wu Yuntu, WuJInlian,2004:107-109)

So when translating, it is important to consider what kind of expression will be more acceptable to the reader of the translated text. It is best to translate poetry into a poem, and poetry is often a literary language, which is unfamiliar to the reader, so even if the emotion is expressed, the reader will feel the strangeness of the emotion. Therefore, I think that we can use some more approachable and everyday language to express emotion. Because if you want to evoke empathy in the reader, you should use descriptions of things or scenes that are familiar to the reader to evoke a sense of empathy. For example, the translation of the song white dress, mentioned above, uses the word '功成名就', which is rarely used in everyday language and is a literary term. Here we can use more common language and change it to "看我如何得到这一切", which reduces the abrupt complacency about fame and fortune brought about by the word "achievement" and also reflects the singer's confidence in the past years that everything in the world was inevitable. It is also an allusion to the innocence that she misses most when she looks back on her time when she had nothing but joy.

Alternatively, the language may be more 'naturalized', i.e. expressed in a way that is more acceptable to the culture of the reader of the translation. For example, in the translation of the interception of the song California mentioned above, the phrase "I'll capture your heart again" is a very obvious Western expression. In Eastern cultures, the expression of one's love for one's favorite person is often subtle, hidden, and not so much known to others. A very famous example of this is when Natsume Soseki said to one of his students in a lecture, "How would a Japanese person express that I like you? He would not say outright that I love you, but rather that the moon is so beautiful tonight." (Natsume Soseki,1977:4-5)Haruki Murakami also said in his prose, "If I love you and you happen to love me when your hair is messed up, I will smile and ruffle it for you, and then I will leave my hand on your hair for a few seconds. But if I love you and you don't happen to love me. If your hair is messy, I will only tell you gently that your hair is messy."(Haruki Murakami,1987)So here I think we can use a more subtle oriental language and change it to "我会与你在故事的另一面相遇", which changes the original translation from expressing the reluctance of wanting to dwell on the ex, to express a sense of helplessness that the relationship has passed away, and a sense that if there is a chance we might only meet by some kind of chance. This is in keeping with the emotional tone of the song.

4.Conclusion

As the arts have diversified, so have the forms of literature. In the past, lyrics were always considered to be too straightforward and superficial to have much literary value. But as songwriters have increasingly focused on their lyrics, hoping to convey some value to the public, they have become more and more profound and aesthetically analyzable. Since 2016, when the Nobel Prize for Literature was awarded to Bob Dylan, lyrics have been increasingly studied as a form of literary expression. However, no specific research has been carried out in this direction in China, and the quality of translations of lyrics on the market is mixed, so further research into the direction of lyrics translation is worthwhile. Although the translation of Lana Del Rey's lyrics is one of the best among the English songs in China, and the translator has already restored to the greatest extent the beauty that the original author wanted to convey to us in the lyrics, there are still many shortcomings that need to be improved after a thorough study, one reason being the limited ability of the translator and the need for further development of translation theory. The translators are heavily influenced by past translation theories, resulting in translations that sometimes do not meet the current requirements of the people of today. Translation theory is not co-eval but should be ephemeral. Translation theories should not be static at different times and in different capacities and perspectives. Therefore, the principle of appropriateness proposed by the author here is ephemeral, which is based on the existing translation theories in the past and can be constantly updated over time, receiving and absorbing more translation techniques derived from the progress of the times. This article only lists one of them, and based on Mr. Xu Yuanchong's theory of trivialization, which was used in the past to translate poetry, further modifications and adjustments have been made to the translation of lyrics, so that the translation of lyrics can go further from the original and be more in line with the aesthetic needs of people in the current era. Appropriateness theory is still an emerging theory, not very mature, and there are still many areas that need to be corrected and adjusted, but as the times develop, it will also mature and help people to solve more difficulties and challenges encountered in translation.

5.References

• Bai Changshan, Wu Yuntu, Wu JInlian 白常山,乌云图,吴金莲(2004).从比喻修辞格的异同看英汉文化差异[J] Cultural differences between English and Chinese from the similarities and differences of metaphorical rhetoric.内蒙古民族大学学报(社会科学版)Journal of Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities(Social Sciences Edition),4:107-109.

• Han Xintao 韩欣桃(2021). 许渊冲“三化论”在英文歌词翻译中的应用——以泰勒·斯威夫特的作品为例[J] The Application of Xu Yuanchong's "Theory of Trivialization" in the Translation of English Lyrics--Taylor Swift's Works as an Example.中国民族博览,China Ethnic Expo,16:145-147.

• Hou Weixia 侯卫霞(2019).试论基于翻译美学视域下的英文歌词翻译策略 [J] An Experimental Translation Strategy for English Lyrics Based on the Aesthetic Perspective of Translation.佳木斯职业学院学报 Journal of Jiamusi Vocational College,11:166-167.

• Mark Shuttleworth&Moira Cowie(2004).Dictionary of Translation Stud-jes(M).Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,61

• Martin Woesler&Ricardo Moratto(2020).Diverse Voices in Chinses Translation and Interpreting: Theory and Practice(M).Berlin:Springer,15

• Woesler, Martin. (2021). Ending the "100‐schools" dispute between translation theories by integrating them and measuring the "appropriateness". International Symposium on Translation Communication 2021. Hunan: Hunan Normal University.

• Xu Yuanchong 许渊冲(2006).翻译的艺术[M] The Art of Translation.北京：五洲传播出版社.Beijing: Five Continents Communication Press,105.

written by --Yi Yangfan (talk) 06:23, 12 December 2021 (UTC)Yi Yangfan

Corrected by--Yin Meida (talk) 13:27, 14 December 2021 (UTC)

Chapter 4. Appropriateness Theory--A Critical Evaluation on Skopos Theory

适用性理论--对目的论的批判性评价

殷美达 Yin Meida, Hunan Normal University, China

Abstract

The skopos theory, after being constantly refined, has become a very powerful theory which could guide many translation practices and end the eternal debate over literal translation and free translation, domestication and foreignization. And it has provided a new perspective on the process of translating and the study of translation. But skopos theory isn’t without its deficiencies. In fact, there are some drawbacks such as being not appropriate for literary translation, the theoretical foundation being not solid enough, giving too much priority to target text and target audiences etc. Furthermore, skopos theory makes translation a way of obtaining money and wealth, thus makes it a commercial activity for utilitarianism. This article will focus on pointing out some deficiencies of skopos theory and giving opinions on the improvement of skopos theory that maybe helpful to the development of appropriateness theory as a general translation theory.

经过学者们的不断改良以后，目的论已经成为了一个很有解释力的翻译理论，能够指导许多翻译实践，结束直译与意译，归化与异化之间永恒的争斗。目的论还为翻译过程和翻译研究提供了新的视角。但是目地论也是由缺陷的。事实上，目的论有诸如不适用与文学翻译、理论基础不够牢固、太过关注译文和译文读者等等方面的问题。更有甚者，目的论翻译理论让翻译行为具有了获取金钱与财富的商业性目标, 久而久之就使得翻译行为成为了一种庸俗的功利性商业行为。本文致力于指出目的论的不足之处并且提出一定的修改意见，以期帮助发展适用性理论，帮助其成为翻译通用理论。

Key Words

skopos theory; deficiencies; appropriateness theory

目的论；缺陷；适用性理论

Introduction

Skopos theory is an approach to translation firstly put forward by German scholars Reiss and Vermeer in 1970s, which reflects a general shift from predominantly LINGUISTIC and rather formal translation theories to a more functionally and socioculturally oriented concept of translation. This theory is developed on the basis of action theory, text type theory, skopostheorie, as well as the theory of function plus loyalty by C. Nord. “Skopos” is a Greek word for “purpose”, ”aim” or “intention”. According to skopostheorie, the basic principle which determines the process of translation is the purpose (skopos) of the translational action. The idea of intentionality is part of the very definition of any action (Nord,1997:27).

Functional translation theory originated in Germany in the 1970s. It provides a new perspective on translation action, which inherits the essence of traditional translation theories and at the same time, break away the shackles of traditional translation theories. Skopos theory is the foundation of the functional theory of translation whose development has gone through the following four stages. Stage one: Katharina Reiss first introduced functional categories into translation criticism, developed the connection among language functions, text types and translation strategies, thus put forward a model of translation criticism based on the functional relation between source text and target text. The functional translation theory began to take shape. Stage two: Hans Vermeer put forward skopostheorie, which freed translation studies from the bondage of traditional original-text-centered theory. According to skopostheorie, translation should follow three priciples, namely, the principle of purpose, the principle of intralingual coherence and the principle of interlingual fidelity, among which the principle of purpose takes the first place. Also, the criterion for translation criticism is transformed from “equivalence” to “adequacy” to fulfill the expectation of translation. Translators are given much rights in retaining, omitting and modifying the target text. Stage three: Jasta Hotz Mantari draws on the communication theory and action theory, and puts forward the behavioral theory of translation, which further develops the functionalist theory of translation. This theory regards translation as a purpose-driven, result-oriented interaction between people, and was later incorporated into skopos theory by Hans Vermeer. Stage four: Kristina Nord, for the first time in English, expounded systematically the internal and external factors that need to be considered in the text analysis of translation, and how to choose appropriate translation strategies based on the function of the original text. Nord sorted out various theories of functionalism and brought out the principle of “function plus loyalty”, which improved the skopos theory.

1.The core elements of skopos theory

1.1 Translation and translation action

Vermeer believes that translation and translation action are different concepts. In his opinion, translation action refers not only to the action of translating but also all the actions involved in the whole process of translating, such as the action of giving advice to the translator by the initiator. And translation is part of translation action.

1.2 Skopos and translation brief

Vermeer believes that skopos refers not only to the purpose of translation by the translator but all the purposes involved in the translating process by various people such as the initiator, the client, the target reader etc. And the most important purpose is the communicative purpose the target text. The concept of translation brief was put forward by Christina Nord, which originates from the German word "ubersetzungsauftrag". Nord compared the translator with a barrister who has received the basic information and instructions but is then free(as the responsible expert)to carry out those instructions as they see fit. So the term "translation brief"is used to refer to the definition of the intended purpose of the translation process.(Nord,1997:47). The translation brief should contain(explicit or implicit)information about: (1) the target text addresses, (2) the prospective time and place of text reception,(3) the medium over which the text will be transmitted,and (4) the motive for the production or reception of the text.(Nord,1997:47)

1.3 Principles of skopos theory

There are mainly four principles in skopos theory, namely, the principle of purpose, the principle of coherence, the principle of fidelity and the principle of loyalty, the last one being added by Christina Nord to improve the skopos theory.

1.3.1 Principle of purpose

Principle of purpose is the predominant one in skopos theory, in which the purpose determines the whole process of translating. Purposes of translation could be roughly devided into three kinds, namely, basic purposes for translators(such as make a living), communicative purpose of the source-text as well as the purpose of using a particular means of translation, the most important being the communicative purpose of the source-text. The purpose determines the process of translating.

1.3.2 Principle of coherence

Coherence rule refers to the intra-textual coherence in the target text, which means the translation should be readable, acceptable and understandable by the target readers

1.3.3 Principle of fidelity

Fidelity rule refers to the inter-textual coherence between the source text and the target text. This principle stresses the importance of the source text and claims that the target text should be loyal to the source text. But the degree of loyalty lies on the purpose of the target text and the understanding of the source text for target audiences.

1.3.4 Principle of loyalty

Principle of loyalty was put forward by Christina Nord to improve skopos theory. Loyalty refers to the interpersonal relationship between the translator, the source text sender, the target text addressees and the initiator[4]. Nord systematically summarized the functionalist approaches and then elaborated them with typical examples in Translating as a Purposeful Activity. To solve some problems in functionalism, she put forward the principle of loyalty and suggested that translators should follow the guiding principle of “function plus loyalty”. When there are clashes of interests among the initiator, the target text reader the source text author, the translator should act as a mediator to seek the consensus among the three parties. This principle makes up for the deficiencies of skopos theory to a large extent.(Zhang Meifang,2005(01):60-65.)

2. Deficiencies of skopos theory

Skopos theory has become a very powerful theory and made up for the deficiencies of equivalence-based translation theories. It was created under certain social and economical circumstances and fulfilled well some needs of translation. However, a lot of deficiencies of skopos theory have been discovered by many scholars when they found it inappropriate for some translations. Skopos theory was mainly criticized for allowing the purpose to justify the process of translating and paying not enough attention to the source-text, which made it not suitable for some translation types as literary translation and religious translation. Otherwise, as a purpose-driven translation theory, shopos theory may have gone off-course. As what has been pointed by some scholars, skopos theory makes translation a way of obtaining money and wealth, thus makes it a commercial activity for utilitarianism, thus the problems of morality and ethics are ignored.(Chen Daliang,2007(03):49-52)

2.1 A brief summary of criticism on skopos theory

A lot of western scholars have criticized skopos theory such as Newmark, Nord and House. Newmark criticized the theory harshly by saying that “ to translate the word ' aim ' into Greek , and make a translation theory out of it , and exclude any moral factor except loyalty , added on as an afterthought by Nord ( e.g. , Nord , 1997 ) to Vermeer ( who wrote that the end justifies the means , ( e.g. Vermeer ,1978 ) is pretending too much and going too far”(Newmark, 2000: 259-260) . Nord summerized ten pieces of deficiencies put forward by herself and other scholars: (1) not all actions have intentions, (2) not every translation can be interpreted as purposeful, (3) skopos theory is not an original theory, (4) functionalism is not based on empirical findings, (5)functional approaches go beyond the limits of translation proper, (6) functional translation theory does not show respect to the author of the source text, (7) functional approaches are not appropriate for literary translation, (8) functional theory of translation leads to the emergence of mercenary translators, (9) functional theory of translation puts forward the translation method of adaptation, (10) functional theory is characterized by cultural relativity (Nord, 1997; 109-122). House discovered four drawbacks on skopos theory: (1) The notion of function which is crucial to the approach is never made explicit in any satisfactory way (2) Its inability to determine the (relative)equivalence and adequacy of a translation (3) The indeterminacy of the linguistic realization of the skopos of a translation (4) Due to the role of the 'purpose' of a translation , the source text is considered as a mere offer of information.(Jabir J K,2006, 41: 2.)

Chinese scholar Wang Jinhai believes that skopos theory is not a general translation theory because it’s greatly restrained in literary translation. Li Longquan and Luo Peiya share the similar opinion that skopos theory is suitable for the translation of some special text types such as advertisements, business slogans, manual instructions etc, but it cannot be regarded as a general theory because it has deadly drawbacks such as confusing concepts like translation actions, the ambiguity of the definition of “skopos” and paying not much attention to the source text. They criticized many Chinese scholars for simply introducing foreign translation theories and approving such theories by looking for all sorts of examples while seldom criticize the theory, which is not helpful for the better development of translation theories. Zhou Zhilian believes that skopos theory has a rather simple description on the “purpose” of translation and the subjectivity of the translator is under restrictions. Other than that, skopos theory is not adequate as a standard for translation criticism.Song Weiyang suggests that skopos theory is not appropriate for the translation of poetry because the original texts are not valued and the target audiences have different standards of appreciation of the translation. And he disapproves the purpose of translators for “making a living”.Chen Daliang concludes that skopos theory possess a strong propensity for pragmatism and utilitarianism which is only applicable to the practical translations but not literary texts.(Wang Jinhai, 2014,15(03):124-125)

3.Appropriateness theory

“Appropriateness Theory” is the final theory of all translation theories. There may be different answers to the question of appropriateness in different times and from different actors, perspectives, disciplines, etc. Appropriateness theory, as an integrative theory, accepts all existing translation theories for certain aspects of the translation process(Woesler, 2021:2). Appropriateness theory absorbs all the strengths of other translation theories and also include the advice for improvement of other theories. Therefore, appropriateness theory is a generous translation theory that could guide the translation of various kinds.

3.1 Appropriateness Theory and skopos theory

Appropriateness theory poses the question to what extent a translation can be called "appropriate" in certain sub‐aspects and as a whole. Skopos theory called for iconoclasm against the sanctity of the original, focused on the translator and the purpose of the text to functionally (or dynamically) achieve equivalence in the target culture. In fact, the focus of research is currently evolving more towards the processes in the translator's brain (neurological research), as this is to be mapped by AI. Moreover, the translator's environment, his relationship with translation tradition, principal, author (sender), reader (receiver) and their expectations.(Woesler, 2021:2)

3.2 Improvement of skopos theory on literary translation

Christina Nord suggests that loyalty should be one of the principles when translating literary texts, which, to some extent, greatly improved the quality of literary translation. She believes that when there are clashes of interests among the initiator, the target text reader the source text author, the translator should act as a mediator to seek the consensus among the three parties. But sometimes she disobeys this principle and change some units of translation without asking for the permission of the source text reader, and still, purpose remains to be the top principle of skopos theory. Nord’s principle of “function plus loyalty” may sound great, but it is not easy to be loyal to the client, the target text readers and the source text author at the same time, and sometimes impossible to meet all of their demands. If the purposes of the source text and the target text are similar, then the principle of “function plus loyalty” would function pretty well. But if the purposes are different, what should translators do? To be loyal to the target text reader, the client or the source text author?

Let’s take a look at an example, the Chinese novel《骆驼祥子》was written by a famous writer Laoshe in 1930s, which depicts the miserable life of the hero “祥子”, who is a representative of poor people and toiling masses at that time in China. This book was later translated by Evan King, titled “Rickshaw Boy”. But it is more like a rewrite, because the plots were changed, the tragic ending was turned into a happy ending, new characters were added and the main characters were different from the original. However, this version was accepted and welcomed by the target audiences at that time. So this is a successful translation under the guidance of skopos theory because the purpose and the expectation of the target readers are fulfilled. The translator is loyal to to the target text reader but not to the source text author.Vermeer pointed out that the most important factor in dertermining the purpose of translation is the audience or the intended recipient of the translation. However, this opinion raised several issues as whether readers can be a reasonable standard for judging the quality of translation, whether there is enough literariness in the translation, and also how can we choose a particular translation standard with regard to readers with different educational background and different aesthetic standards? It is not easy and sometimes impossible to fulfill all of the requirements from different reader types. Therefore, we have to think whether it is appropriate to justify the means by the purposes of the recipient of translation. The translation of the above-mentioned novel is inappropriate because in literary translation, the source text and the author should be respected. Unlike other kind of texts, literary translation emphasizes literariness and artistry rather than practicality. If translator’s subjectivity enjoys the highest state, it may affect the quality of literary translation.(Zhan Wannian,2018(05):78-82)

Although it is very important to help target reader better understand and accept the source text, it’s also of significant importance to be loyal to the author and the source text. Many scholars such as Yanfu and Luxun regarded “faithfulness” as the predominant principle in translation. Considering the huge cultural gap between China and western countries, it is impossible to achieve the absolute equivalence between the source text and target text, skopos theory may provide a new perspective on it. However, in literary translation, it is not the end that justifies the means but the purpose and the equivalence. And loyalty should be the top principle rather than skopos. No matter what purposes the translator tries to achieve, the source text should never be disregarded.

“Gone with the Wind” is a good example of fulfilling both standards. Translated by Fu Donghua, the name of people and places are localized and the plots and ideas are well protected, this version is widely accepted by Chinese people. The translator respects the source text and the author, which helps us have a better know of the life of people in the southern states of America before and after the American civil war. At the same time, we wouldn’t be so confused at so many strange names. In the “Rickshaw Boy” translated by Evan King, the target reader fail to appreciate the real life of Chinese people decades ago and the value and ideas that the author strived to express through the text, which makes the translation lose its value and significance. Therefore, it is not an appropriate translation but it’s a good rewrite. While in “Gone with the Wind”, the translator put the source text in the highest state, and the expectation of the target text is fulfilled. So it is a good translation under the appropriateness theory.(Chen Daliang,2007(03):49-52)

Therefore, in literary translation, translators should follow the principles of “loyalty plus function” and should regard loyalty as the guiding principle.

3.3 Translation ethics

Translation and interpreting theories can each explain particularly well individual aspects of translation processes and the creation of target texts. This allows the existing theories to be used eclectically. In addition, the eclectic use must be supplemented with an enrichment by the final judgment possibility of all theories on superordinate categories such as ethics and human dignity in the form of the theory of "appropriateness" (Woesler, 2021, p. 1-5). The Appropriateness Theory goes beyond the previous theories that measure the correctness of a translation by the content, semantics, grammar, situation of the principal, translator and reader. Here, an overall assessment is asked for, in which the principal, the equivalence in the source and target culture or the effectin the target culture are no longer a measure of translation quality. These translations must also be measured against even more general, human yardsticks. And this is where human dignity and ethics come into play(Woesler, 2021:3).  And there are some basic translation ethics that translators should take into consideration in the process of translating. Number one, don’t manipulate the source text with one’s ideologies or values to achieve some purposes or expectations. Number two, respect different cultures and overcome prejudices.

There are serious consequences if translators manipulate the source text to serve the interest of particular people or groups. For example, “龙” in China is the god of rain, a symbol of nobility and power, and we Chinese often proudly call ourselves “descendant of 龙 ”. However, when we think of “龙”, we usually translate it into “dragon”, which has different connotations in western cultures. In christian world, dragon is the incarnation of “Satan”, a symbol of evil and demon, and often reminds people of cruel and bloody scenes. This mistake in translation could be dated back to the Opium War in 1840s in China, when British missionary Morrison was translating Bible into Chinese, he couldn’t seem to find an equivalence of “dragon” in Chinese. But for the interest of British rulers and also under the influence of the ideology at that time, Morrison chose “龙”, the symbol of China, as the equal for “dragon”, a symbol of evil in western cultures. This translation brought serious consequences, for those who know little about China may develop a false image in China which could be deep-rooted for a long period of time. Those kind and industrious Chinese may be misunderstood as some kind of demons that are going to take up the world. This a perfect tool that could be used by some scheming politicians to instigate hatred among western people against Chinese, which is neither for both regions nor for the peaceful development the world. “龙” in China is nothing like “dragon” in western cultures, therefore, a preferred translation of “龙” would be “long” because it is unique and culture-loaded.(Guo Xuming,2009,30(04):143-145.)

Translation serves the purpose of promoting mutual communication and understanding, and would lose its value and significance if manipulated randomly. With the rapid development of globalization, communication and cooperation are the best choice for every nation. And all sorts of vicious competition and the cold war mindset will do us no good but hinder the development of the world and bring so much instability and hatred to the globe. Translation, which plays a significant part in bridging all kinds of gaps and promoting exchanges of various kinds, should stay beyond the control of any conspiratorial people or group. Translators should respect different cultures because no culture is superior to any other ones, it is those differences that make the world a more interesting and colorful place. In this case, translators are cultural ambassadors who help the world know each other. Therefore, translator should bear in mind some basic ethics when translating and shall never let some particular ideology or purpose get in the way.

3.4 Appropriateness theory on the future development of translation

Trends in translation and interpretation are moving towards hybrid translation, i.e. technology‐ and software‐assisted translation and interpretation.(Woesler, 2021:3). Machines and technology can help improve the efficiency of translation by saving more time from purely human-involved translation. Also, with the development of artificial intelligence, translations by machines are more and more accurate than before. But still, human beings will be playing a fairly important role in translation in the near future because until artificial intelligence could map the way human process the information which demands further research on human brains, can AI trully and fully take the place of human beings in translation. Overall, the focus is shifted towards the role of the translator, and at the same time towards the reader in the target culture (user centeredness). Translation and interpretation will become more individualized, and the machine translator/interpreter will create different translations of the same source text at the same time. Power will shift from the sanctity of the original (past) to the decision‐making authority of the translator/interpreter to the user‐centered digital platforms that have close access to users and a special interest in manipulating and externally controlling the filter bubble and developing the user's personality profile. The ultimate goals are to control the user's values, beliefs, principles, political and religious worldviews, dreams, visions, and motivation. The translator and interpreter traditionally takes on a neutral role; she/he should orient her/his translation and interpretation to facts, to the matter at hand, and to an ethically superior point of view, and should not stoop to discrimination, manipulation, misdirection, and external control on behalf of a principal if, in order to do so, she/he must deliberately translate differently than he would have translated without ideological influence. (Woesler, 2021:3-4)

4.Conclusion

Summing up, skopos theory is a very strong theory with great explanatory power and it has been embraced and welcomed in China. However, skopos theory, as the foundation of functional school, emphasizes purpose, effect and function, and shows a strong tendency for pragmatism and utilitarianism. It may have been well applied in many practical writings such as advertisement and manual instructions, but it is not appropriate for the translation of literary and religious works which pay much attention to the original text. Skopos theory is criticized for many reasons by scholars both at home an abroad, among them are Laurence Venuti, Christina Nord, Peter Newmark and Chen Daliang. In fact, no theory is perfect and can be regarded as a general theory, and this is when appropriateness theory comes into play. Appropriateness theory draws strengths on all of the translation theories and gives advice on the improvement of each theory. It sees deficiencies in skopos theory and try to come up with some solutions to make that up. With respect to the drawbacks of skopos theory, appropriateness theory believes that there are certain rules to be changed and others to be added. In literary translation, appropriateness theory suggests that loyalty should be the top principle, among which being loyal to the source text and the source text author is the most important matter. This does not mean that the target text should achieve the full equivalence to the source text, but that the idea and the value of the original work should be preserved. Also, with the rapid development of science and technology, the world is full of information, true or false. And we have strong desire to communicate and cooperate with other nations and peoples. Ideas, values and ways of thinking may clash against each other. In these cases, translation may be manipulated to serve certain interests and ideologies. Thus, problems and conflicts may arise and harm the peaceful development of the globe. Therefore, certain ethical rules should be obeyed by translators in order to avoid such incidents. This article proposes two sets of rules, number one, don’t manipulate the source text with one’s ideologies or values to achieve some purposes or expectations, and number two, respect different cultures and overcome prejudices. Artificial intelligence, as the future tendency for translation, must absorb such ethics in order to perform good translation actions.

5.References

Chen Daliang 陈大亮.针对翻译目的论的一种批判性反思——兼论文学翻译主体性的困境 A Critical Reflection on Skopos Theory of Translation--The Dilemma of Subjectivity in Literary Translation[J].西安外国语大学学报 Journal of Xi'an International Studies University,2007(03):49-52.DOI:10.16362/j.cnki.cn61-1457/h.2007.03.009.

Guo Xuming 郭旭明.从“Dragon”到“loong”——论意识形态对“中国龙”英译实践的操纵 On Manipulation of Ideology to Translation of Chinese Dragon/Loong[J].云梦学刊 Cloud Dream Journal,2009,30(04):143-145.

Jabir J K. SKOPOS THEORY: BASIC PRINCIPLES AND DEFICIENCIES[J]. Journal of the College of Arts. University of Basrah No, 2006, 41: 2.

Li Longquan, Luo Peiya 李龙泉,骆裴娅.“目的论”的弊端与缺陷 Deficiencies and Drawbacks of Skopos Theory[J].英语研究 English Studies,2009,7(02):51-55.

Nord C(1997). Translating as a Purposeful Activity Functionalist Approaches Explained[M].Manchester: St. Jerome.

Newmark , Peter (2000). The Deficiencies of Skopos Theory: A Response to Anna Trosborg. Current Issues in Language & Society , 7(3),259-260.

Schäffner C. Skopos theory[J]. Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies, 1998, 17: 235-238.

Wang Jinhai 王金海.目的论在文学翻译中的局限性 Limitations of Skopos Theory on Literary Translation[J].长沙铁道学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Changsha Railway University(Social Science Edition),2014,15(03):124-125.

Woesler, M. (2021). Ending the “100-schools” dispute between translation theories by integrating them and measuring the “appropriateness”. Facing up to the challenges posed by ethics and artificial intelligence to the transformation of the translator’s and interpreter’s professional role.

Zhang Meifang 张美芳.功能加忠诚——介评克里丝汀·诺德的功能翻译理论 Function plus Loyalty--Evaluation on Functional Translation Theory by Christina Nord[J].外国语(上海外国语大学学报) Journal of Shanghai International Studies University,2005(01):60-65.

Zhang Wannian 张万年.从意识形态操控的视角看伊万·金译《骆驼祥子》A Study of Evan King's Rickshaw Boy from Perspective of Ideology Manipulation[J].阜阳师范学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Fuyang Normal University(Social Science Edition),2018(05):78-82.DOI:10.14096/j.cnki.cn34-1044/c.2018.05.14.

Written by--Yin Meida (talk) 12:58, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Corrected by --EIMONKYAW (talk) 18:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)Ei Mon Kyaw -Ei Mon Kyaw-EIMONKYAW (talk) 18:16, 13 December 2021 (UTC)

Chapter 5 Appropriateness Theory In English As Second Language (ESL), English Language Teaching (ELT) And Its Difficulties

Jawad Ahmad, Student No. 202121080006, Hunan Normal University, China

Abstract

When promoting cultural sensitivity and equality, English language acquisition should be taught from a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural perspective, using appropriate teaching resources. After a brief historical review and an explanation of the numerous concepts related with English language learning, English in its various variants is detailed. In today's rapidly globalizing society, it is widely argued that non-native English speakers outweigh native speakers. Studies are used to demonstrate the necessity for culturally relevant instructional materials and the difficulties that they provide.

keyword

Appropriateness Theory,English as a Second Language,Difficulties.

Introduction

Matching identities, circumstances, and behavioural rules can be based on personal experience, expert knowledge, or intuition, and is sometimes referred to as "recognition" to stress the cognitive process of appropriately matching issue-solving action to a problem scenario. It's possible that the match is based on job assumptions. The match may also have an essence connotation, such that appropriate attitudes, behaviours, feelings, or preferences for a citizen, official, or expert are those that are essential to being a citizen, official, or expert — essential not in the instrumental sense of being required to perform a task or socially expected, nor in the sense of being an arbitrary definitional convention, but in the sense of that which one cannot claim to be a proper citizen, official, or expert without.

The idea of appropriateness lies at the heart of Hymes' original model of communicative competence. Chomsky's concept of linguistic competence was unsatisfactory to Hymes, who thought it was too restricted and insufficient. He agreed with Chomsky that language users must be able to generate and comprehend grammatical utterances, but he added that they must also be aware of cultural norms in order to correctly appraise the social circumstances and produce suitable speech. Knowing what to say is never enough, according to Hymes; you must also know "what to say to whom under what circumstances and how to say it". Hymns are also pointed out that linguistic and societal factors influenced appropriateness. "From a communication viewpoint, judgements of appropriateness are important." should not be separated into separate domains, [...] linguistic and cultural: Certainly, the two worlds will collide" (Hymes, 1972: 277-286).

Hymes'emphasis on appropriateness brought in a sea change in language education methods. In the mid-1970s, grammar-based education was generally abandoned in favour of a communicative language teaching method (Leung 2005). Researchers and instructors agreed that language instruction should consider social context and social standards of usage, rather than focusing solely on grammatical rules. The idea appeared to provide a conceptual foundation for pedagogic widening (Leung 2005).

Another point of view on the global expansion of English emphasises its utility. This viewpoint considers English to be a worldwide product linked to economic growth and expansion. D.Spichtinger (2000), on the other hand, opposes S. Karmani and R. Phillipson's functioning argument since it devalues other languages and cultures in favour of English. According to A. Pennycook, the spread of the English language was natural in the sense that "its subsequent expansion is seen as a result of inevitable global forces"; second, neutral in the sense that "it has become detached from its original cultural contexts"; and third, beneficial in the sense that "people gain access to the language, it creates cooperation and equity" (Pennycook, 1994:9)

North America, the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand made up the Inner Circle, while post-colonial states like Singapore, Hong Kong, and the Philippines made up the Outer Circle. Furthermore, China and Thailand were part of an Expanding Circle of linguistically varied and culturally eclectic countries. It's interesting looking at how English has transcended regional, linguistic, and geographical barriers to acquire a unique "character." As a result, countries that embrace the English language face economic, political, cultural, and social consequences.

Discussion

The words "World Englishes" and "Asian Englishes" were to describe the variety and acceptably unifying quality of English as it spread beyond regional, geographic, and linguistic barriers. English is today a highly useful language, and its users are the ones who define its distribution, relevance, advantages, and evolution. While D. Crystal (1994), to mention a few, has commented on these concepts, English has crept into a number of facets of our life, both globally and intranationally, regardless of the terminology employed and advocated for or against. (Crystal , 1994:73)

Kearney stated that differentiating oneself from others in society is an Anglo-Saxon idea, but in the Wintu culture of Northern California, for example, people regard the self and others as a continuum without specific terms for "I" and "we."Similarly, Scollon (quoted in Lantolf & Thorne, 2006) highlighted how, unlike the Anglo-Saxon idea of freedom as releasing oneself from others, the Cantonese language defines freedom as the freedom "to flock together" (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006:72 and 114).

As a result, language is not culture-agnostic, but rather "plays a significant role in the maintenance of culture, particularly in its written form" As a result, ESL teachers must be mindful that instructional materials integrate Western culture and values, as well as subjects that may be unfamiliar to pupils from more traditional sociocultural environments. There have been instances where Asian students from civilizations that are just beginning to open up politically have embraced the concept of democracy and new concepts that are taken for granted in many Westernized nations (Kramsch, 1998:8).

Though theory suggests that residing in a target language group will give opportunities to acquire a language organically, data does not always back this up, as J. Sharkey and K. Johnson illustrate. If change does not come from the top down through English language associations, resources, and publishers, teachers must create change from the bottom up by appreciating and using the cultural variety and viewpoints that they encounter on a daily basis. Furthermore, all pupils who require the language to operate in this age of fast globalisation, cross-border migrations, and societal change should be included (Sharkey & Johnson ed., 1985).

Kirkpatrick, as referenced by J. Grzega (2005), advocates for a paradigm change among English language instructors. Rather of investing enormous sums of money on importing native-speaking instructors and externally generated materials, Kirkpatrick believes more should be invested in strengthening local, non-native teachers: "Funding should be set aside for the professional development of local teachers" (Grzega, 2005:54). Students would have more faith in their local professors and learning aids if locally created materials were significantly invested in, according to N. Zacharias' research on Indonesian textbooks (Zacharias, 2005).

Researchers who are having an effect in the ELT field can also help to bring about change. Based on corpora of non-native Englishes, Jenkins and Seidlhofer sought to define a "Lingua Franca Core" of English. Jenkins concentrated on pronunciation, while Seidlhofer concentrated on lexicogrammar. This aligns with the notion of teaching English as a communicative language rather than a collection of normative norms, as non-native speakers of English communicate more frequently than non-native and native speakers. Putting intelligibility ahead of accuracy is the essential issue here. Certain phonological elements, such as 3rd person markers, and grammatical elements, such as present perfect and simple past, "bear very little relationship to their actual usefulness, as successful communication is obviously possible without them. As a result, certain curriculum priorities would have to shift. (Grzega, 2005:47-54).

Because of local circumstances or methodological decisions, studies in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) seldom provide unequivocal, generalisable conclusions. However, pedagogical principles and rules require a level of consistency, clarity, and assurance. Those in charge of putting second language training into practise face the challenging challenge of translating complicated research findings into clear, consistent pedagogic concepts. From the standpoint of SLA, the use of Hymes' notions in the Communicative Language Teaching method has been flawed. The standard course content suggests a decontextualized idealisation of language usage, i.e., idealised typifications of what native speakers could say and do in specific situations. Furthermore, this idealised L2 curriculum was often created from the standpoint of an assumed or idealised native English speaker (NS) (Leung 2005: 124-127).

L2 learners/users encounter significant and well-documented challenges in gaining this complex and elusive notion of "appropriateness." Wilkinson's research of interactions between American exchange students and members of their host family in France revealed that classroom roles and norms were frequently unsuitable in out-of-class dialogues (Wilkinson 2002: 168). Because impoliteness is likely to be experienced by L2 users in the target language context or when interacting with other L2 users, Mugford argues that everyday communicative realities such as rudeness, disrespect, and impoliteness should not be ignored in the English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. When confronted with rudeness, L2 users need to be able to respond correctly (Mugford, 2007 : 96).

In casual interactions amongst NSs of French, Dewaele noted that the use of jargon and (some) offensive words is totally acceptable. However, incorporating this rich local style into a foreign language instruction is far from simple. On the one hand, it may be claimed that understanding these phrases and expressions is an important component of sociocultural competency in the target language and, as such, should be taught, although with the required cautionary remarks. However, the press and parent organisations' possible reactions should not be overlooked. From the standpoint of the instructor, teaching grammatical principles rather than lists of terms with fatal illocutionary implications is far safer (Dewaele, 2005b:155).

Difficulties in appropriateness

The concept of an abstract notion with dynamic and changing manifestations proposed by Leung (2007) is particularly attractive. Indeed, norms and appropriateness judgments are dynamic rather than static. They are subjective assessments made by participants during a conversation, and they can be amended at any time throughout the conversation. Members of the group may first regard someone who behaves harshly to a member of the group to have acted improperly.

Members of the group may reconsider their opinion after hearing the reasons for the impolite behaviour and determine that the behaviour was, in fact, entirely suitable. It's improbable that everyone will agree or differ on the degree to which particular speech actions are (in)appropriate. Jokes are a good example of how appropriateness may be difficult to discern for both native and non-native speakers (Vaid, 2006: 152-182).

What one NS may think is a perfectly suitable (and humorous) joke in a particular setting may be disrespectful or unpleasant to another NS and hence not amusing at all. Even friends conversing in their first language may occasionally misinterpret "appropriateness" by delving into a topic that has since become improper due to a change in the friend's living circumstances. Interlocutors with correct judgments of appropriateness have a thorough awareness of the relationships between group members and their histories. In most study designs, however, researchers make the appropriateness decisions, not the participants. In other words, researchers will assess whether or not the production of an L2 learner/user is suitable, with or without the help of a panel of NS judges. The etic viewpoint, or a description of a behaviour from the researcher's point of view, is an epistemological attitude (Pike 1967).

It has been stated that more epistemological and methodological variety is required in order to get a deeper grasp of the idea of appropriateness, particularly as it relates to the transmission of emotion. Such an emic viewpoint might lead to the collection of rich data from the participants, which could enrich both the knowledge of this area of SLA and the methods of foreign language instruction. Many SLA study designs assume that L2 learners'/users' knowledge of the TL is insufficient, and that departures from the standard are evidence of this inadequacy. According to Bardovi-Harlig, speech act realisations might differ in terms of the utterance's social, linguistic, and pragmatic acceptability. L2 learners can pick distinct speech acts, different semantic formulae, different content, and finally different form (grammatical and lexical modification devices) on a linguistic-pragmatic level (Bardovi-Harlig , 2001: 14–20).

Conclusion

While determining appropriateness in one's own language might be tough, it is more difficult for foreign language learners and users. The reason for this is that appropriateness judgments are greatly reliant on the interaction's individual circumstances. Foreign language teachers may only point to broad guidelines in certain speech groups since the assessment of appropriateness is highly placed. L2 users must go out and experience for themselves what works and what does not, armed with that theoretical information. This ability to assess appropriateness is an important component of sociopragmatic, sociocultural, and sociolinguistic competence. I claimed that a solely etic approach needs be supplemented by an emic perspective in order to get any comprehension of the fluid and ever-evolving idea of "appropriateness" among L2 learners and L2 users. It is increasingly being used by non-native speakers rather than native speakers. Multiple variations of English have evolved as a result of the diversity of learners across geographical borders. As a result, enhancing interlocutor understanding and cultural sensitivity takes precedence over achieving native-like proficiency. Nonetheless, the many viewpoints on ESL and ELT have made it a contentious topic with obviously far-reaching impacts and difficulties.

References

Chomsky, Noam (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Grzega, J. (2005). “Reflections on Concepts of English for Europe: British English, American English, Euro-English, Global English" grzega-053.pdf [accessed in Adelaide, Australia: 17 November 2009].

Hymes, Dell (1972). On communicative competence. In Sociolinguistics. J. B. Pride and J. Holmes (eds.), 269–293.

Kramsch, C. (1998). Language and Culture. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

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