20230630 final exam culture 04

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Wu Songyun 吴松芸 - Architecture: Paifang

Introduction

Paifang, also called pailou, is a Chinese archway or gateway usually made of wood or stone. It is well-painted and sometimes adorned with glazed tiles. Some are located in downtown areas serving as grand entrances to various locations such as mausoleums, temples, bridges, and parks, while others were built to commemorate historical events or famous figures, demonstrating Chinese feudal ethics and traditional norms. With its distinctive design and symbolic meanings, paifang has become an emblematic feature of Chinese architecture and an integral part of the country's rich cultural heritage.

牌坊，又称牌楼，是中国的拱门或门楼型建筑，通常由木材或石材制成。它们绘制精美，有时还镶嵌有釉瓷瓦。一些牌坊位于市中心，作为通往陵墓、寺庙、桥梁和公园等各个地点的入口，而其他一些则是为了纪念历史事件或名人而建造的，展示了中国封建伦理和传统规范。凭借其独特的设计和象征意义，牌坊已成为中国建筑的标志性特征和丰富文化遗产的重要组成部分。

The Origin and Development of Paifang

Hengmen(衡门)

The origin of paifang can be traced back to the Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC-256 BC) when Hengmen (horizontal beam gate) consisting of two pillars and a horizontal beam was used as the simplest gate to a home. The earliest record of Hengmen can be found in a poem from The Book of Songs compiled in the Spring and Autumn Period, which states, "Under the Hengmen, one can find peace." Thus, paifang inherited Hengmen's function as an entrance.

牌坊的起源可以追溯到周朝（公元前1046年-公元前256年），当时衡门（由两根柱子和一根横梁组成的横梁门）是家门的最简单的形式。衡门的最早记录在编纂于春秋时期的《诗经》中，其中有一首诗写道：“衡门之下，可以栖迟。”牌坊由此继承了衡门作为入口的功能。

Wutoumen(乌头门)

From the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC-476 BC) to the Tang Dynasty (618 AD-907 AD), residential areas in Chinese cities adopted a system of "li and fang," which divided the city into several square areas according to their functions. Each fang was separated by fang walls, which had a gate called Wutoumen (black top gate). The name originated from the black pottery used to cover the top of the two posts of Hengmen, making them waterproof. Some Wutoumen incorporated the characteristics of elaborately carved Huabiao, a type of ornamental pillar commonly found in traditional Chinese architecture, adding more aesthetic value to the gate. Therefore, the simple and crude Hengmen evolved into Wutoumen.

从春秋时期（公元前770年-公元前476年）到唐朝（公元618年-公元907年），中国城市的居住区采用了“里坊制”，根据其功能将城市划分为几个方形区域。每个方区域由墙隔开，墙上有一道门，称为乌头门。为了防水，门的两根柱子的顶部套上了黑筒瓦，因此得名。一些乌头门融合了精雕细琢的中国传统建筑中华表的特点，为门增添了更多的美感。因此，简陋的衡门逐渐演变成了屋、乌头门。

Lingxingmen(棂星门)

During the Song Dynasty (960 AD-1279 AD), Wutoumen was replaced by Lingxingmen (a gate used to pray for a bountiful harvest). At that time, it was especially used to worship and show respect for Confucius. Lingxingmen no longer served as a common door but acted as a symbolic structure. When the door panels on the Lingxingmen were not necessary, the door panels are removed, thus Lingxingmen retained only the two pillars and the horizontal beam acting as the lintel. The changing function gave rise to the new towering style of the paifang, where the pillars significantly surpassed the lintel in height. It is during this time that paifang changed into a memorial architecture.

在宋朝（公元960年至公元1279年）时期，乌头门被棂星门所取代（棂星门是用来祈祷丰收的建筑）。当时，它主要用于崇拜和表示对孔子的尊敬。棂星门不再是普通的门，它成为一种象征性的建筑结构。门扇变得多余而被移除，只保留两根柱子和作为横梁的门槛。这种功能的变化导致了新的高耸式牌坊风格，其中柱子的高度明显超过了门槛。正是在这个时期，牌坊演变成了一种纪念性的建筑。

Paifang and Pailou(牌坊和牌楼)

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the construction of paifang reached its peak. The style and structure of paifang are much more dynamic than those of Lingxingmen. Constructors started to design connected paifang with more pillars and gates, with the center two pillars being taller than the ones on the sides. To add more grandeur to the paifang, the lintel is intricately carved with dragons, phoenixes, or other exquisite patterns. Small Dougong (bracket sets) and roofs were also added to the horizontal beam, creating a multi-pillar, multi-gate, multi-roof paifang. In Chinese, pillars are called "zhu," the spaces between two pillars are called "jian," and the roofs represent "lou," which means buildings in Chinese. The most typical paifang is the one with three rooms/gates, four pillars, and three roofs, called "San jian si zhu san lou”(三间四柱三楼)in Chinese. In general, there is no distinction between pailou and paifang today. However, from a strict architectural perspective, paifang with roofs should be called pailou because a structure with a roof is referred to as a building, and "lou" in Chinese refers to buildings.

在明清两朝期间，牌坊的建设达到了顶峰。牌坊的风格和结构比棂星门更加富有活力。建筑师设计出联合牌坊，增加了更多的柱子形成了多门的牌坊，中间的两根柱子比两侧的柱子更高。为了增添牌坊的壮丽气势，门柱上雕刻了龙、凤或其他精美的图案。门梁上还加入了小斗栱和屋顶，形成了多柱、多间、多楼的牌坊。在中文中，柱子称为"柱"，两根柱子之间的空间称为"间"，屋顶为"楼"。最典型的牌坊是有三间门、四根柱子和三层屋顶的，中文中称为"三间四柱三楼"。在当今，我们没有对牌楼和牌坊进行严格的区别和划分。然而，从严格的建筑角度来看，带有屋顶的牌坊应该被称为牌楼，因为带有屋顶的结构被称为建筑物，而中文中的"楼"指的是建筑物。

Cultural Meanings of Paifang

With its magnificent appearance and rich cultural background, paifang serves as a distinctive architectural feature at the entrances of temples, scenic areas, tombs, and as memorial archways to commemorate great achievements.

As landmarks, paifang symbolize the solemnity and reverence of a place. They were often erected at a distance from large temples in ancient times to remind people to show respect and behave appropriately. For example, the paifang at the Yueyang Academy in Changsha is located by the riverside, a significant distance away to mark its location. Similarly, when approaching a city, a paifang called "Wu Li Pai" in Chinese would be erected three to five li (a Chinese unit of distance) away to indicate the arrival at a specific city. However, as cities expanded, these paifang were often incorporated within the city limits.

As commemorative archways, paifang was established as everlasting mark to honor a specific individual. In ancient times, the emperor often bestowed recognition for various reasons.

One reason was to praise those who performed virtuous and charitable deeds, which were associated with qualities such as loyalty, filial piety, righteousness, and etiquette. Loyalty (忠) involved providing significant assistance to the country, especially during times of war, demonstrating loyalty and resistance against external enemies. It can also be interpreted as faithfulness and wholehearted dedication to the country and its people, contributing to peace and harmony. Filial piety (孝) is influenced by Confucian culture and is a moral obligation to reciprocate the graciousness of parents. Righteousness (义) refers to justice, law, and faithfulness to friends, often reflected through donations to those in need. Etiquette (节) refers to external behavior or demeanor suggesting a courteous manner. Paifang dedicated to virtuous individuals often include inscriptions praising their qualities or contributions. By establishing paifang to promote noble character, the emperor effectively consolidated his rule.

Another type of paifang was dedicated to individuals who excelled in their scholarly pursuits and official careers, such as achieving the top academic rank of Zhuangyuan or holding high-ranking positions, at least at the provincial level.

Even longevity was commemorated through paifang. When someone reached an advanced age, the emperor would honor them by erecting an archway. Longevity suggested a peaceful and prosperous country which is worthy of celebration, and it also emphasized respect for the elderly and filial piety, which were constantly advocated in Chinese history. For example, in Chaling County, Hunan Province, there is a "Baisui Fang" (Hundred Years Archway) to honor someone who lived to be one hundred years old.

There is also a type of paifang specifically conferred on women who chose not to remarry after losing their husbands. This paifang recognizes women's chastity, which was a part of feudal ethical standards. However, the concept of chastity paifang has been subject to criticism and reevaluation in modern times. Some argue that it reinforces gender inequalities and places undue emphasis on a woman's sexual purity and fidelity. It is a tool for control and oppression, restricting women's freedom and autonomy. However, considering the historical context, in ancient times, the entrenched female chastity contritute to a stable feudal society. What's more, this Confucian ethics was believed to ensure the healthy development of children who lost their fathers. Although this type of paifang was advocated in ancient times, it is considered unacceptable nowadays.

牌坊拥有宏伟的外观和丰富的文化背景，也成为了许多寺庙、风景区、墓地的入口大门以及纪念伟大成就的独特建筑。

作为地标，牌坊象征着一个地方的庄严和尊敬。在古代，它们经常远远建在大寺庙前，以提醒人们要肃穆庄严。例如，为了标示书院的位置，长沙岳阳书院的牌坊建设在距离书院较远的河边。同样，在接近一座城市时，会建造一座被称为"五里牌"的牌坊，以表示即将到达特定城市。然而，随着城市的扩张，这些牌坊通常被纳入城市范围内。

作为纪念性的拱门，牌坊是赞扬其贡献的永恒的标志。在古代，皇帝经常因各种原因授予牌坊。

其中一个原因是赞扬那些行善秉德的人，这些品质与忠诚、孝道、正义和礼仪等特质相关。忠诚意味着在国家需要时提供重要的帮助，尤其是在战争时期，表现出对外敌的忠诚和抵抗。它也可以被解释为对国家和人民的忠诚和全心全意的奉献，促进和平与和谐。孝道的形成受到了儒家文化的影响，是指感恩回报父母的养育之恩。正义指的是公正和对朋友的忠诚，常常通过捐赠有需之人来体现。节指的是外部行为或举止，是行为绅士有矩。有德行之人的牌坊上通常会刻上赞美他们的品质或贡献的铭文。通过建立牌坊来推崇高尚品德，皇帝有效地巩固了自己的统治。

另一种类型的牌坊是为那些在学术追求和官员职业中表现出色的个人设立的，比如获得状元或至少在省级担任高级职位的人。

甚至长寿也通过牌坊来纪念。当有人到达高龄时，皇帝会通过建造一个拱门来向他们致敬。长寿象征着一个和平繁荣的国家，它也强调了中国历史一直倡导的尊重和孝道。例如，湖南茶陵县的"百岁坊"。

还有一种特定授予那些在丧偶后选择不再再嫁的女性的牌坊，叫做贞节牌坊。这种牌坊承认了女性的贞节，这是封建伦理准则的一部分。然而，在现代，贞节牌坊的概念受到了批评和重新评估。一些人认为它强化了性别不平等，过分强调了女性的贞洁和忠诚。它是一种控制和压迫的工具，限制了女性的自由和自主权。然而，考虑到历史背景，在古代，女性的贞节观念在封建社会中根深蒂固反而促进了稳定社会的形成。同时这种儒家伦理一定程度上能确保失去父亲的孩子的健康发展。虽然在古代倡导这种类型的牌坊，但在现代被认为是不可接受的

Ranks for Paifang

Paifang can be classified into different ranks based on the contribution of the individuals honored: Imperial Bestowed Paifang (yuci paifang), Honorific Paifang (enrong paifang), Imperial Decree Paifang (shengzhi paifang), and Imperial Edict Paifang (chijian paifang).

Imperial Bestowed Paifang (御制牌坊): This is the highest level of paifang. It is personally commissioned by the emperor, and the funds are provided by the imperial treasury.

Honorific Paifang (恩荣牌坊): This is the second level of paifang. It is commissioned by the emperor, but the funds are provided by local finances.

Imperial Decree Paifang (圣旨牌坊): This is the third level of paifang. It is still commissioned by the emperor, but individuals themselves should fund the construction of the paifang.

Imperial Edict Paifang (敕建牌坊): This is the lowest level of paifang. It is constructed with the emperor's verbal approval, and the funds are provided by the individuals themselves.

Paifang can also be classified into different grades based on the materials used and the number of gates and roofs they have. The materials used can include wood, stone, brick, and glazed tiles (liuli), with the highest grade given to paifang with a yellow glazed tile roof. The number of levels can be one, three, five, seven, or nine. In ancient times, the number nine was considered the most prestigious. The general rule is that the more pillars and roofs a paifang has, the more magnificent it appears, and the higher the rank. Additionally, the quality of the materials used determines the grade of the paifang.

牌坊可以根据所纪念的个人的贡献而分为不同等级：御制牌坊、恩荣牌坊、圣旨牌坊和敕建牌坊。

御制牌坊：这是牌坊的最高级别。它由皇帝亲自委托，并由皇家财政提供资金。

恩荣牌坊：这是牌坊的第二级别。它由皇帝委托，但资金由当地财政提供。

圣旨牌坊：这是牌坊的第三级别。它仍由皇帝委托，但个人自己负责资助牌坊的建造。

敕建牌坊：这是牌坊的最低级别。它是在皇帝的口头批准下建造，资金由个人自己提供。

牌坊还可以根据所使用的材料和门、屋顶的数量进行分类。使用的材料可以包括木头、石头、砖块和琉璃瓦，黄琉璃瓦的牌坊被视为最高等级。层级的数量可以是一、三、五、七或九。在古代，九被认为是最有威望的数字。一般来说，牌坊的柱子和屋顶越多，外观越宏伟，级别越高。此外，所使用材料的质量也决定了牌坊的等级。

Famous Paifangs

Paifang Cluster in Tangyue Village Shexian County（歙县棠樾牌坊群）

The Paifang cluster is an Imperial Bestowed Paifang located in Anhui Province and is the most prestigious among China's paifang. These archways, a total of seven, are made of stone and exquisitely carved, presenting a magnificent and grand look. They are arranged from sides to middle in the order of loyalty, filial piety, etiquette, and righteousness.

This paifang is dedicated to the Bao family in Tangyue Village for their virtuous qualities and significant contributions to the imperial court. The men of the family held official positions and engaged in business outside, while the women remained in their hometown, taking care of the family, educating children, and assisting the poor. The children pursued education and fulfilled their filial piety to their parents. They received recognition from both the emperor and the people.

The Bao family has many stories. Among them, there is an archway inscribed with "Father's Benevolence and Son's Filial Piety," which commemorates an incident where a bandit captured the father and son and threatened to kill one of them. However, both the father and son insisted on sacrificing themselves. Touched by their actions, the bandit felt too guilty to harm them and eventually released them.

歙县棠樾牌坊群是中国牌坊中最有威望的一组御制牌坊，位于安徽省。牌坊共有七座，由石头精心雕刻而成，外观宏伟壮观。按照忠、孝、节、义的顺序从两侧排列到中间。

这座牌坊群是为了纪念歙县棠樾村的鲍家所建，以表彰他们的品德高尚和对皇室的重要贡献。鲍家男子在外担任官职并从事商业活动，而女性则留在家乡照顾家庭、教育孩子和帮助穷人。子女们追求学业并尽孝敬父母之责。得到了皇帝和人民的认可。

鲍家有许多故事。其中，有一座牌坊上刻有"父慈子孝"的字样，纪念了一次强盗俘虏了父子并威胁要杀死其中一人的事件。然而，父亲和儿子坚持要牺牲自己。被他们的行为所感动，强盗感到过于内疚而不忍伤害他们，并最终释放了他们。

Coloured Glazed Paifang of Imperial College（国子监琉璃牌坊）

The large glazed archway in the Guozijian (Imperial Academy) is located in Beijing. It is the only paifang in the country specifically dedicated to education and was built in the 48th year of Emperor Qianlong's reign (1783). The archway has a three-gate, four-column, seven-roof palace-style structure made of glazed tiles. The exposed parts of the wooden structure are covered with colorful glazed tiles, and the upper roof is covered with yellow glazed tiles, with green glazed brackets. The architecture is exquisite, majestic, and splendid, and the horizontal inscriptions on both sides of the archway are written by the emperor.

国子监琉璃牌坊是中国唯一一座专门教育牌坊，建于乾隆四十八年（1783年）。这座牌坊采用琉璃瓦制作，呈现出三门四柱七楼的宫殿式结构。木结构的外露部分覆盖着色彩斑斓的琉璃瓦，上层屋顶则使用黄琉璃瓦，并搭配绿色琉璃檐口。工艺精湛、庄严壮观，外观华丽，牌坊两侧的横幅题字是由皇帝亲自书写。

Confucius Forest Paifang（孔林牌坊）

Located in Shandong Province, it was built in the Ming Dynasty (1594) and rebuilt in the Qing Dynasty (1732). This paifang has a six-column, five-gate, five-roof structure. The stone paifang built for Confucius is designed like an emperor's archway, with stone pillars carved with cloud dragons, majestic lions holding stone drums, and noble decorations such as coiling dragons, dancing phoenixes, qilins, and spirited horses on both sides of the archway. It is magnificent, demonstrating the esteemed status of Confucius in the minds of the people at that time.

位于山东省，建于明朝（1594年），后在清朝（1732年）进行了重建。牌坊采用了六柱五间五楼的结构。这座为孔子而建的石坊制若皇帝，加上石柱的云龙，夹抱石鼓的雄狮，坊额两旁的盘龙、舞凤、麒麟、骏马等尊贵纹饰，气势雄伟，足见孔子在时人心目中地位是非常尊贵的。

The Ruins of the Cathedral of Saint Paul（大三巴牌坊）

It is not a real paifang but the front wall of St. Paul's Cathedral, which was constructed during the Wanli reign of the Ming Dynasty and was once the largest Catholic church in the East. However, in the fifteenth year of the Qing dynasty's Daoguang reign, the church was destroyed by a large fire, and only this wall remained. Due to its resemblance to traditional Chinese paifang, the Chinese people called it paifang. The archway is simple and majestic, representing the fusion of Chinese and Western cultures in Macau.

Numerous ancient archways were torn down and damaged due to urbanization and modernization. They were also dismantled due to safety concerns for pedestrians and traffic inconveniences. This is a significant loss for Chinese cultural heritage. Legal protection, conservation, and restoration are necessary. The government, community, and individuals should all be involved and raise awareness of this cultural treasure.

实际上，大三巴牌坊并不是牌坊，而是圣保禄大教堂的前墙。这座教堂建于明朝万历年间，曾经是东方最大的天主教堂。然而，在清朝道光年间的第十五年，这座教堂被一场大火摧毁，只剩下了这面墙。由于它与传统的中国牌坊相似，中国人称之为牌坊。这座拱门简约而庄重，代表了澳门中西文化的融合。

由于城市化和现代化的推进，许多古老的牌坊被拆除和破坏。因为行人安全和交通不便的考虑而被拆除。对于中国文化遗产来说是重大的损失。牌坊需要法律保护、维护和修复。政府、社区和个人都应该参与其中，提高对这一文化宝藏的认识。

Paifang in China and Torii in Japan

Paifang and torii share many similarities. They are both composed of pillars and lintels, serve as entrances to a place, and carry cultural meanings. However, there are some differences. The torii gate is a single red wooden gate-shaped paifang, designed in a relatively simple manner, while paifang may have multiple gates and be made of different materials, always demonstrating a magnificent and majestic look. It is said that Chinese architectural styles have had a strong influence on the development of torii.

According to legend, the origin of the torii is related to the pursuit of the sun. A long time ago, the sun god had a quarrel with his brother and decided to hide in a cave, blocking its entrance to never come out again. However, sunlight was essential for people to live. So, they came up with a solution. They built a high structure at the entrance of the cave and placed a group of roosters on it. Every morning, these roosters would crow loudly, disturbing the sun god's sleep. Unable to tolerate the noise outside, the sun god eventually stuck his head out of the cave to see what was happening, and that's when the sun appeared again.

Now, a torii gate is directly associated with a shrine or supernatural realms. It is a boundary used in Japan to distinguish between the realm of gods and the human world. It serves as the entrance to the divine realm and holds an important position in the hearts of the Japanese people. On the other hand, the paifang in China is an architectural structure erected in ancient times to honor achievements, academic success, good governance, as well as loyalty, filial piety, and righteousness.

牌坊和鸟居有许多相似之处。它们都由柱子和横梁构成，作为场所入口的标志，并承载着文化意义。它们也存在一些区别。鸟居是单门红色木质门，设计相对简单，而牌坊可以有多个门，并由不同材料制成，外观壮丽庄重。据说，中国建筑风格对鸟居的发展有着很大的影响。

根据传说，鸟居的起源与太阳有关。很久以前，太阳神与他的兄弟发生争吵，决定躲进一个洞穴，封住洞口永远不再出来。然而，阳光对人们的生活至关重要。因此，他们想出了一个解决办法。他们在洞口建了一个高的结构，上面放了一群公鸡。每天早上，这些公鸡会大声啼鸣，打扰到太阳神的睡眠。无法忍受外面的噪音，太阳神最终探出头来看发生了什么，于是太阳再次出现了。

现在，鸟居与神社或超自然领域直接相关。在日本，它被用作区分神和人类世界的界限。它是通往神圣领域的大门，在日本人心中占据重要地位。中国的牌坊则相反，牌坊是古代为了纪念成就、学业成功、善治，以及忠、孝、义等品德而建立的建筑结构。

Terms and Expressions

The Book of Songs 《诗经》 Paifang 牌坊 Pailou 牌楼 Hengmen 衡门 Wutoumen 屋头门 Huabiao 华表 Lingxingmen 棂星门 Dougong 斗拱 Yueyang Academy 岳麓书院 Wu Li Pai 五里牌 Li 里=500m Baisui Fang 百岁坊 Imperial Bestowed Paifang (yuci paifang) 御制牌坊 Honorific Paifang (enrong paifang) 恩荣牌坊 Imperial Decree Paifang (shengzhi paifang) 圣旨牌坊 and Imperial Edict Paifang (chijian paifang) 敕建牌坊 Liuli 琉璃 Paifang Cluster in Tangyue Village Shexian County 歙县棠樾牌坊群 Bao family 鲍氏 Father's Benevolence and Son's Filial Piety 父慈子孝 Coloured Glazed Paifang of Imperial College 国子监琉璃牌坊 Qianlong 乾隆皇帝 Confucius Forest Paifang 孔林牌坊 The Ruins of the Cathedral of Saint Paul 大三巴牌坊 Wanli 万历皇帝 Daoguang 道光皇帝 Macau 澳门 Torii 鸟门

Questions

1.Why is paifang called Wutoumen during Tang dynasty? 2.What is Wu Li Pai? 3.What is the deep reason for the emperor to bestow paifang to people? 4.How many ranks does paifang have? 5.What does torii mean to Japanese?

Answers

1.Because black pottery is used to cover the top of the two posts to make them waterproof. 2.Wu Li Pai is the paifang indicating that the location is five li away to a specific city. 3.The emperor wants to effectively consolidate his rule. 4.Four. 5.It is a boundary to distinguish between the realm of gods and the human world.

References

[1]曹永洪,邢瑜.明清徽商活动背景下徽州贞节牌坊营造探析[J].美与时代(上),2023(03):106-109.DOI:10.16129/j.cnki.mysds.2023.03.022. [2]金其桢. 论牌坊的源流及社会功能[J]. 中华文化论坛, 2003 (1): 71-75. [3]吕雪梅.传统牌坊的文化内涵与时代价值——以明清褒扬人物类牌坊为例[J].中国文化遗产,2023(02):54-60. [4]乔云飞, 罗微. 牌坊建筑文化初探[J]. 四川文物, 2003 (3): 68-73. [5]徐淑霞. 儒学催化的牌坊文化解析[J]. 河北师范大学学报: 哲学社会科学版, 2010 (1): 134-138. [6]Wang Y, Duan Y. A study on the classification and value of Ming Dynasty paifang in China: A case study of paifang in Jinxi County[J]. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 2016, 15(2): 147-154.