Canonization of Chinese Literature in the East and West
The evolution of China’s literary canon has had many different factors contributing to its formation. The main factors include Politics, Ideology and, Translation. Depending on the historic political clime, the views of the literati, or the in more modern times; the influence of translations of western texts; China’s literary canon would evolve to mach[1][2][3]. When compared to the canon's of ancient Greece, Egypt or Modern literary canons China's literary canon has been relatively fixed, though more flexible that the literary canon of Dark Age Catholic Europe, and the Islamic Middle East. This amount of rigidity and flexibility derives from the fact that for most of china’s literary history the Confucian works of the 4 books and five classics at its heart. While the works and supporting works of Confucius and his follower where seen near sacred they did not hold the same religiosity of the works of Mohammed or of Jesus, in the Quran and bible respectively [1]. Though today a Literary canon is defined as the best or most aesthetic works of a society, the canonization of Chinese literature followed a very different route as will try to be presented by this article.
Note to Reader: Because of the many reasons for canonization this paper will be divided into to processes of canonization then chorological, rather than primarily chronologically then topically. This is to better see the modes of canonization and their effects since so many overlap and have contributed at the same historical time.
Literary Canon
Before we continue to review the contributing factors to the canonization of Chinese literature it is important to first review several key concepts.
A literary canon denotes a canon of books and other forms of literature that are influential in shaping its target culture. Literary canons are usually works with some aesthetic value, authoritative or superb. Literary canon can extend beyond the written word and can include all forms of art, and the artist. The Canon refered to is that of Highbrow or high culture not to be confused with hihly succesful or popular works of art though some canical works infact becoma part of the popular canon.
Traditionally the works and supporting works of Confucius are seen as the canonized classis, though China’s Literary canon extends far beyond these works. Yet in ancient times almost all of the canon was in some way related to the Confucian works. Also the 4 books and five classics are traditionally said to be written by Confucius, it is almost certain that most of the work was written in fact by his followers and scholars years after his death.
Vectorizing Canons: and because of their ability to form people’s view of life and society. [5]
Vectorized Canons: conform to views of life and society that are already established before and outside of the canon. [5]
Processes of Canozation of Chinese Literature
Individuals and Entities
Many literary canons from all over the world have been affected by literary elites or rulers denoting a work or collection of works to be canonical. While this category could very well fall under “politics and ideology” it will give a clear view of people to have it separated from overall trends in political and ideological history. In ancient to pre-modern history if the literary canon was chosen by groups or entities it was the literati, royal court or emperor. Their motives were usually to legitimize their rule and to keep control of the intellectual power. Early examples of individuals or entities choosing the canon to retain power surround the works of Confucius. Though attributed to be written by Confucius were more likely a construct of scholar groups who edited and compiled his teachings. This "Scribal Class" of scholars who collected the original Chinese classics could change Confucius words at will. An extreme example of altering the canon comes from when Fu Cheng of Jinan claimed to have discovered lost sections of the Book of history. Again scholars sought to alter china’s canon by claiming to find more lost Confucian writing within the walls of Confucius’s lecture hall. Besides the literati altering and adding to the early Literary canon of China were emperors. Qin Shihuangdi who many have not truly preformed a book burning but did limit the schools of learning and the different traditions which were part of the literary canon to solidify his rule. In modern times while the poulus no has the most say on the popular canon of chinese literature, still a "Scholar class" of authors, litterary professors and historians have power to consensous what is the litterary canon of China.
This section will hopefully bring light to the fact that when dynasties would alter the canon it was mostly the scholar class and imperial government who was doing all the selection.
Politics and Ideology
Since the beginning of written Chinese literature the current politics, history and ideologies of the society mandated the current literary canon. In early Chinese history almost every time a dynasty fell and was supplanted by a new one the dynasty would either alter or use the current canon of literature to legitimized their rule. Evidence of this is found in the Qin dynasty primarily used the school of legalism to legitimize their rule. Following was Han Dynasty following who stressed a major emphasis on the Confucian works to legitimize their rule. The Han and many dynasties after solidified their rule and their literary canon by establishing schools that only focused on the literary works in the canon. Also state exams to receive positions official positions in the government one need to pass a state exam which was always one’s know ledge of the literary classics and canon. One could see how having a canon which supported you rule would be advantageous for any government. For example the works of Confucius stressed loyalty and fealty to your emperor and government officials. This is the type of canonized teachings an empire would want. Though there were several works that did become canonized through pure aesthetics rather than for its ideology and politics. The “Lament for Ying” written by Qu Yuan followed a different style than the ruling class and broke all of the rules in which one would normally write poetry but it’s pure beauty changed the canon thereafter forever into extensive Fu writings and, more than 5 character lines which was primarily the style of the Confucian classics. Though ironically his innovative work, for its feeling and uniqueness was soon a staple and the form was copied by nobles. This lead to a new ideology of writing and a prime example of vectorizing canonical literature. Others who are great examples of counter culture writing are Du Fu, and Li Bai who only became establishment after their times. Nearing modern Chinese history politics another wave of politics and ideology affected the Chinese Literary Canon. During the time of the May fourth movement there was an overwhelming national view for westernization. This new ideology drastically changed the canon as the late Qing dynasty (early 1900s) incorporated new western fiction and western literary styles into china’s canon. Also later during the height of the Soviet Union and china’s communism, soviet writing influenced nearly every aspect of china’s canon. For instance whenever an author was part of the Soviet canon he was immediately imported to china and part of it’s canon. Also disgraced writers from Russia had no chance of canonization or popularity in china. This purely political and ideological view of what was canon or not, lead to a non-aesthetic literary canon. A prime example of this is when Stalin claimed that Mayakovsky was one of the greatest poets of all time. As quoted by Alexander Mikhailov “Stalin made a liberal gesture (a dead poet is no longer dangerous!): he declared that Mayakovsky had been, and still remained, the most talented poet of the Soviet era. Disrespect for his memory was proclaimed a ‘crime.’ In these characteristically Stalinist formulations, admitting no nuance, Mayakovsky was canonized. Henceforth, the poet’s every line was elevated to the ranks of great poetry; the weakest elements in Mayakovsky’s creative legacy were held up as models.” [7] Very soon in china Mayakovsky was part of its canon and it is only in recent times of reevaluation that Mayakovsky might be removed from china’s canon. Needless to say though some of china’s canon is based on as ethics the vast majority was politically and ideologically influenced.
Translations
in respect to modern chinese literary history Translation has had the larges effect on the modern chinese litterary canon. Also translation has had the largest and almost sloe effect on caninization off chinese literarute in the west. The first aspect of translation that effect the chinese literary canon was the quality of translations. If certain chinese wroks were translated correctly into another language or skillfully the work had a cahnce to enter the global canon though if the translatorr did a poor job on it's translation it had no chance of western cannonsity.
New incoming works of literature from the west also had to get past the first obsticle of aquiring a skilful translator. Though most incomeing works bbeing western where so new and inovated to the chinese readers that china quickly attached to westrn works and quickly intergrated them into their canon. Also the translateor off western text used the litterary devises found within these western stroies and intergrated thewm into thiere own works and literature and there "innovated works" were also instantly recieve for thier newness. Aslo the new call for translation of chinese text.
“A work that endures . . . offers qualities of insight, expression, or beauty that demand repeated readings while resisting complete encapsulation by any one reader.”
canon formation=reformation
fiction late qing
may fourth wesernization
Both in theory and in concept, fiction came to be perceived in a different light, and consequently foreign, particularly
They naturally relied on translations for creative inspiration. Mo Yan once said that he was more influenced by translations than by originals.
Western, literary concepts were internalized. Both Lin Shu and Su
Manshu, another translator, began to work in a narrative mode reminiscent
of Western fiction: the artistic devices they borrowed from the
18 MLQ March 2008
West were refreshingly new and favorably received.
The appearance in 1920 of The Communist Manifesto, translated by Chen Wangdao, was an event of profound significance to Chinese politics and culture.
Bei Dao Gao Xingjian, who received the 2000 Nobel Prize in Literature and whose important works have been translated into French, English, and Swedish, has been dismissed in China as a second-rate writer.
For example, the critic Sun Opening the Cultural Mind 19 Wang Guowei reinterpreted The Dream of the Red Chamber (Honglou meng), the definitive canonical work in Chinese literature, through Western tragic theory.
One intriguing outcome is that some overrated canonical writers, such as Guo Moruo, Mao Dun, and Zhao Shuli, are subject to revaluation, whereas writers once marginalized for political reasons, including Shen Congwen, are in various stages of canonization.
Likewise, no decanonized Soviet writer stood a chance of being translated into Chinese
Vladimir Mayakovsky’s
Stalin made a liberal gesture (a dead poet is no longer dangerous!): he declared that Mayakovsky had been, and still remained, the most talented poet of the Soviet era. Disrespect for his memory was proclaimed a ‘crime.’ In these characteristically Stalinist formulations, admitting no nuance, Mayakovsky was canonized. Henceforth, the poet’s every line was elevated to the ranks of great poetry; the weakest elements in Mayakovsky’s creative legacy were held up as models.”6
Lenin! Lenin! Lenin! In the “Ode to Lei Feng,” written in honor of a soldier in the People’s Liberation Army whom Mao Zedong urged the whole country to emulate, He adopts the same form: Lei Feng! Lei Feng! Lei Feng!
Another dramatic turn of events was the canonization of a noncanonical work, The Gadfly, by Ethel Lilian Voynich, an Englishwoman married to a Polish émigré. Voynich was obscure in the West, but her novel was very popular in the Soviet Union, partly because How the Steel Was Tempered refers to it. Since The Gadfly was already canonical in the Soviet Union, its favorable reception in China was guaranteed, particularly given the ideological trends at the time
References
1. Terje Stordalen, The Canonization of Ancient Hebrew and Confucian Literature. Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 32.1 (2007)
2. Sun Yifeng, Opening the Cultural Mind: Translation and the Modern Chinese Literary Canon. MLQ March 2008
3. See Wang Ning, “Canon Formation; or, Literary Revisionism: The Formation of Modern Chinese Literary Canon,” Neohelicon 31 (2004): 161 – 74.
4. Trevor Ross, “Translation and the Canonical Text,” Studies in the Literary Imagination 33, no. 2 (2000): 1.
5. K.W. Folkert, ‘The “Canons” of “Scripture” ’, in Levering (ed.), Rethinking Scripture, pp. 69-79.
6. R. Fernhout, Canonical Texts: Bearers of Absolute Authority. Bible, Koran, Veda, Tipitaka: A Phenomenological Study (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1994);
7. Alexander Mikhailov, “At the Feet of a Giant (Arguments surrounding Mayakovsky),” trans. Nancy Tittler, New Literary History 23 (1992): 113.