Zhu Xi and Neo-Confucianism

Zhu Xi. Click [1] for original source

Who was I?

I, Zhu Xi, also known as Chu Hsi, was a philosopher and Confucian scholar during the Song Dynasty. I lived from 1130-1200 C.E., and I was one of the most influential Neo-Confucians China has ever had. I lead the Confucian revival during the Song dynasty, bringing new metaphysical ideas and answers to problems faced by many in China using ideas addressed in Taoism and Buddhism.

Background

I was born in Youqi in Fujian province, China in 1130. I was somewhat of a child prodigy and am reported to have asked deep philosophical questions at an extremely young age and I grasped concepts and philosophies before reaching my teenage years that some don't ever completely grasp.

My father was a local official and educated me in the Confucian tradition. I was well raised and taught and was able to pass the Imperial Examination, the highest civil service examination, at the age of 18 or 19, a feat accomplished usually at the age of 35. I was lucky enough to have my father and several of his friends as guides and mentors, that is until my father died while I was still fairly young. Interestingly, I was also taught by some Buddhists, who had a great influence on my philosophical views. This influence is something that other Neo-Confucian philosophers have criticized me for, as well as my interest in Taoist philosophies (Thompson).

Because I had passed the Imperial Examination, I was eligible at the age of 19 to hold office, which I did for a few years, but I soon discovered the corruption and lowliness of many court officials, something which deeply offended me and I could not tolerate. For many years I chose to not hold office but instead was able to focus on my teaching and studying.

Commentary

Zhu Xi had a tremendous impact on society during his time and still is an influential figure today. One cannot study Confucianism or Neo-Confucianism without studying the thoughts and philosophies of Zhu Xi. He was well-known as a great teacher and philosophers and great thinkers from other countries were influenced greatly by his thoughts and philosophies. Scholars and philosophers from Japan and North Korea took his writings and teachings to their own countries where many took hold of them and schools of learning were created to teach the Neo-Confucian way.

While Zhu Xi is not as well-known around the world as Confucius is, even a light study into Confucianism and Chinese philosophies leads one to study the teachings and life of Zhu Xi.

Critique

Because Zhu Xi was delved into and studied Buddhism as well as Taoism, many philosophers have been very critical of his Neo-Confucian views. There appears to be a variety of opinions on Zhu Xi. While some were enamored of him and praised his work, others were extremely harsh in their views of him. Yan Yuan, one of his critics, claimed that Zhu Xi was "a Buddhist posturing as a Confucian" (Berthrong).

One of Zhu Xi's students named him the "greatest defender of the Confucian way against the potential ravages of, among other things, Buddhist and Taoist heterodoxy, not to mention misinformed or biased unorthodox Confucians."

Others landed somewhere in between these two, critically assessing Zhu Xi while still recognizing his influence and importance in the Neo-Confucian thought(Berthrong).

The irony of these opposing views is that Zhu Xi as well as his followers worked hard to be sure they were understood. Zhu Xi wrote and spoke in such a way that their philosophies and thoughts could be understood, often writing in the vernacular rather than the refined literary language, making it easier for common folk to understand.

Neo-Confucianism

Neo-Confucianism is a Chinese philosophy based largely on Confucianism. However, it addresses many concerns not taught in Confucianism, such as problems of being and ultimate reality. Buddhism and Taoism had a great influence on Neo-Confucian thought and ideology. Although most Confucian philosophers were critical of Buddhism and Taoism, both philosophies and beliefs had a great impact on the development of Neo-Confucianism.

Neo-Confucianism developed as a result of Buddhist and Taoist influences among other things. Confucianism didn't address issues and questions that are addressed in Buddhism and Taoism. When these two philosophies entered China and became more popular, in some instances Confucianism was abandoned to a certain extent. Many philosophers were highly opposed to this abandonment and proposed a return to Confucianism.

Neo-Confucian school in Korea. See [2] for original source

Some of those who opposed the turning to Buddhism and argued against were Han Yu (768-824) and Li Ao (772-841). Han Yu believed Buddhism did not observe proper relations between senior and junior persons, thereby destroying the social order in China, an important part of the system. Li Ao studied Buddhism in order to tear it down. Both insisted a turning back to Confucianism (Theobald).

As a result of their philosophies and beliefs, Han Yu and Li Ao became the originators of Neo-Confucianism. Many philosophers afterwards continued the trend of studying Confucianism and encouraged the studying of it.

Zhu Xi is considered to be the most influential person of Neo-Confucianism. His philosophies and thoughts were a combination of all the Neo-Confucian philosophers before him combined with his own studies and philosophies (Theobald).

Neo-Confucianism was not limited to only China. Its influence spread to Korea as well as Japan,

Neo-Confucian Philosophies

One of the stresses in ancient Confucianism was upon “perfecting one’s moral qualities to become a chun tzu, or true gentleman.” Neo-Confucianism takes that a step further and lays an even loftier goal: “to embody a profound metaphysical and ontological reality.” Meaning that the ideal person had not only knowledge and possessed moral and social virtues, but they are a person who “ha[s] reached the ultimate potential of complete identification with all creation, whose thought and action flowed in effortless harmony with the cosmic Tao” (Palmer 104).

Influence

Four Classics

Zhu Xi's Commentaries of the Four Classics. See [3] for original source

Zhu Xi was considered to be a bit of an oddity and unorthodox during his time. Part of this was due to his opinions and views on what was to be read and studied. Unlike most other philosophers during his time, Zhu Xi studied the Four Books: the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects of Confucius, and the Mencius. Other Neo-Confucians during his time studied the I Ching. However, many of Zhu Xi's teachings are influenced by the I Ching indicating that he did study and was well-versed in it.

One of Zhu Xi's contributions was his extensive commentaries on the Four Books mentioned. When he first wrote them, they were not considered to be part of mainstream study; however, over a period of time they became the accepted standard commentary on the Four Books and are still read and studied today (Chan).

Calligraphy

Zhu Xi - Thatched Hut Hand Scroll. See [4] for original source

Zhu Xi was not only a significantly influential Chinese philosopher, he was also a master calligrapher. He followed his father in the tradition of calligraphy and developed a unique style that is highly praised. He learned several different styles and excelled in all of them.

He worked hard throughout his life to develop this gift, though many of his original manuscripts have been lost over the years. Originals of his works are reported to be in several locations around the world: Nanjing Museum, Beijing Palace Museum, Liao Ning Province Museum, China; Taipei Palace Museum and the National Museum of Tokyo, Japan. Some pieces are in private collections in China and overseas.

He has a balance in his calligraphy and his figures are very natural and beautiful, according to critics.

His significance as a thinker and philosopher overshadowed his incredible ability with calligraphy, but his influence on both neo-Confucian thought and the art of calligraphy is undeniable.

Citations

1. Palmer, Spencer J., Roger R. Keller, Dong Sull Choi, and James A. Toronto. Religions of the World: A Latter-day Saint View. Provo: Brigham Young University, 1997. Print.

2. Berthrong, John H.. "To Catch a Thief: Zhu Xi (1130-1200) and the Hermeneutic Art . Journal of Chinese Philosophy 33 (2006): 145-149. Web.