17th Century China and Europe

China and Europe's relationship in the 17th century was significan for the fact that for the first time European and Chinese economic ties significantly influenced the ability for both to effectively function. Europes demand for Chinese goods drastically altered the Chinese economy to a more market based economy. Not only were their economies affected by their contact, but both the Europeans and Chinese religious, social and political perspectives were challenged by their seemingly conflicting views.

Oil painting by Willem Kalf titled Still Life with a Late Ming Ginger Jar. Painted in 1669. Photo by JarektUploadBot. Click [1] for orginial source.

The Ming Dynasty

Map of Ming Dynasty. Photo by Kallgan. Click [2] for original source.

The Ming Empire ruled china from 1368 - 1644. The Ming dynasty existed during a time of many international changes that affected the dynasty's stability, especially in the 17th century. Much of these changes that occurred in China were attributed to Europe's demand for Chinese silk and porcelain in exchange for silver. As a result, social and cultural norms were upset throughout China and the government was unable to maintain power as a result. In many ways towards the end of the Ming dynasty, the government acted as a hindrance to the progress that would have allowed the Ming Dynasty to succeed where it ended up eventually failing, such as withdrawing from maritime activities and scientific pursuits that it had excelled at for hundreds of years, relative to the European powers that were now learning to effectively utilize them.(Ebrey, 190,216)

Europe in the 17th Century

Europe can be characterized during the 17th century by the Dutch Golden Age in which Dutch trade, science, military, and art were considered some of the greatest in the world, and the French Grand Siècle which represented a great period of time for French art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV. The influence of these nations was not limited to Europe. The French, Dutch, and other European kingdoms all influenced the development of a market economy in China, and the Chinese reliance on European silver for the health of their economy. Likewise, on a smaller scale, China became a field for groups of missionaries, under the direction of their respective leaders in many cases, to gain influence within China.

The 'Pieter and Paul' on the IJ in Amsterdam in 1698. Czar Peter, in Holland to learn shipbuilding methods, participated in completing the ship. Photo by ahm.adlibsoft.com. Click [3]for original source.

Fiscal Collapse

Despite the economic growth of the 16th century, the government lost solvency through mismanagement. Near the end of the Ming dynasty, the government had nearly bankrupted itself. Stipends were a large contributer to this situation. During the reign of Wanli, nearly 23,000 clansmen were receiving stipends from the government.(Ebrey, 214) Millions of ounces of silver were also being used by the government for military campaigns. Along with the more obvious failings of the government, natural developments within all dynasties contributed to financial problems. As the population grew, expenses grew along with it. At the same time, wealthy land owners were able to obtain more land from the peasantry while at the same time finding ways to pay less taxes. This was unsustainable, especially as the government was unable to assist the peasantry during natural disasters and intrusion by invading forces.

In comparison with Europe, one can see extreme declines in population, almost 30% of the Chinese population, during the 17th century for China's population. Famine resulting from a little ice age and resulting gangs were some of the main contributors to the deaths of millions of Chinese. The government was unable to combat these gangs or provide food for the people suffering from crop failure. Hordes of beggars soon became common sight.(Ebrey, 214)

Chinese and European population comparisons. Photo by Kanguole. Click [4]for original source.

China's economy had become dependent on the silver coming in from Europe. In 1639, the Japanese would not allow traders from macao into Nagasaki. Much of the silver that went into china came through these trades. Throughout the 17th century, tensions between China and Spain had been increasing in Manilla leading to deaths of over 20,000 Chinese in 1639. Much of the tensions existed due to the Spanish's fear of being overcome by the Chinese and as a result the Chinese in Manila were oppressed.(Ruiz-Stovel, 47) As a result, trade with Spain was ended, and another significant source of revenue was cut off that had allowed the Ming Dynasty to continue despite the other problems they were facing in the 17th century.

Jesuit Missionary Work in China

Portrait of Matteo Ricci.Photo by Mountain. Click [5] for original source.

Jesuit missionaries were active throughout the 16th century, and by the death of Matteo Ricci in 1610, over 2,000 Chinese considered themselves to be Christian. With the fall of the Ming Dynasty in 1644, some Jesuit missonaries were able to transition into the new Manchu led government. However, many were imprisoned. Throughout the Jesuit Missionaries time in China, the Jesuits were composed of missionaries from many different countries. Competition existed between these different countries, and the Jesuit missionaries were used as a means of influencing China.

Ricci's missionary work in China is possibly one of the best examples of attempts to overtly meld western and eastern cultures. In many cases Ricci even came under criticism for his efforts in rationalizing the use of Confucianism for Europeans and more specifically as a way to enhance Catholicism for the Chinese. Many Europeans believed that Ricci was pandering to Confucian leaders instead of focusing on the missionary work he had been sent to perform.(Ricci, 660)

Despite the problems that Jesuit missionaries faced during the transition from the Ming to the Qin dynasty, they were able to gain favor once again under the rule of the second Ming emporor, Kangxi. Jesuits were even given appointments as directors over the Imperial board of Astronomy under Kangxi's rule. Kangxi issued an edict tolerating Christianity in China but revoked it after a confrontation with a Catholic legate Maillard de Tournon.

Chinese Porcelain

Chinese porcelain from the 17th century.Photo by World Imaging. Click [6] for original source.

The Ming Dynasty was especially important for the development of porcelain wares that were popular throughout Europe. Everything from the technology used in Kilns, to the unique approach to designs and color, and their willingness to adopt foreign forms to appeal to European and Japanese tastes can be attributed to the spirit of the manufacturers of the Ming Dynasty.(Lion-Goldschmidt, 20) During the late Ming period a market economy had developed and porcelain wares were exported throughout Europe on a scale previously unknown

Jingdezhen, a town in China, became the largest producer of porcelain for exportation to Europe during the late Ming period. Jingdezhen also became known for their porcelain that had a blue underglaze and polychrome enamels. Between 1602 and 1682, the Dutch East India Company imported approximately twelve million pieces of polychrome porcelain for sale throughout Europe. This did not include the more common blue and white porcelain produced throughout China.(Ebrey, 217)

The Qing Dynasty

After the fall of the Ming, the Manchu's were able to establish a new dynasty in China under the direction of the Manchurian warlord named Nurhaci. The Manchus were foreign to China, coming from the northeast of the eastern section of the Great Wall. Unlike the Mongolians who were herdsmen and constantly fighting wars, the Manchurians existed as hunters, fishers, and farmers. The Manchus were able to gain control over China as they represented a better chance at stability over the rebel forces in China that had led to the turmoil that existed when the Manchurians moved into China. This was due to the strong military and administrative powers that the Manchurians had developed outside of China and were able to exhibit for the war-weary Chinese.

Portrait of Nurhaci from an annonymous Qing Dynasty Court Painter from the 17th Century.Photo by Palace Museum, Beijing . Click [7] for original source.

Following Nurhaci, Kangxi came to power and ruled from 1662-1722. His longevity allowed for stability to be reestablished in China, much as had been promised by Nurhaci to the gentry, because of this stability Kangxi was able win over the gentry as he helped reassert their stations within society. He also sought to bring the Chinese Literati into the government. Most importantly for Chinese-European relations, Kangxi was interested in Western science, mathematics, and mechanical devices. (Ebrey, 224) Kangxi found ways to bring Western science to China through means such as Jesuit missionaries.

In 1689, the Qing signed the first of a series of treaties with Russia that ignored the longstanding custom of implementing a tribute system. This was significant, because it showed that the Qing were willing to depart from the less effective Chinese policies that had handicapped the Ming and led to their eventual downfall as a dynasty.

Presentation

Media:17th_Century_China_and_Europe.pptx

See Also

• Ming Dynasty

References

• Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. Cambridge Illustrated History of China, 2nd Edition. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
• Lion-Goldschmidt, Daisy. Ming Porcelain (Rizzoli, 1978).
• Mungello, D. E. The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800, 2nd Edition. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
• Ruiz-Stovel, Guillermo. Chinese Merchants, Silver Galleons, and Ethnic Violence In Spanish Manila, 1603-1686. Cuenca del Pacifico Retos y oportunidades para Mexico (2009) 47 - 63.

• Ricci, Matteo. Lettere dalla China, trans. He Gaoji et al. (Zhonghuashu, China: China Press, 1983).