Mencius

Meng Ke or Mencius was born in the Zou state in about 372 BCE, nearly a century after Confucius. In several respects I lived a life similar to that of Confucius. Zou and Lu (the state of Confucius’ origin) were adjacent states. I lost my father when I was only three years old. My mother moved our home several times and finally settled near a school, so that I would have the right kind of environmental influence and encouragment to help me persevere in my studies.

Mencius is regarded as a major philosopher, by the neo-Confucians of the Song dynasty (960–1279). He is revered among the Chinese people as the cofounder of Confucianism, second only to Confucius himself, because his teachings reached many more people than Confucius was able to reach. His teachings were like those of Confucius and were considered to be reinforcement of the teachings and principals he taught, especially on the "right principals of government."(Ebery)

As a young scholar my mentor was a pupil of Zisi, who was himself the grandson of Confucius. Thus, the continuity of the Confucian orthodoxy in all its purity was assured (Ebrey). In time, I became a teacher and for a brief period served as an official in the state of Qi. Mencius spent much time traveling, offering advice and counsel to the various princes on government human-heartedness, or humane government. Because the times were chaotic, and the contending princes were not interested in humane government, but in power, I found little sucess. I had many discussions with the various leaders of these states. Some of them considered my teachings as being very valid, but because of the tense situation of the wars and interference by rival advisors, they seldom implemented my teachings into their governments. My teachings and discussions with the kings of the warring states are recorded in the book Mencious which was written by my pupils after my death.

The "Book of Mencius" consists of seven parts or books, and treaties of the proper regulation of human conduct from the point of view of society and the state. Religion as a motive of right conduct seems to have concerned him much less than it did Confucius. One of his recorded sayings runs: "The people are of the highest importance; the gods come second; the sovereign is of lesser weight." His work abounds in sententious utterances. If we may trust the records, he knew how to speak plainly and strongly. To Prince Hui, whom he found living in careless luxury, while his people were perishing for lack of economic reforms, he said: "In your kitchen there is fat meat, and in your stables there are sleek horses, while famine sits upon the faces of your people, and men die of hunger in the fields. This is to be a beast and prey on your fellow men." Mencius was a staunch champion of the Confucian principle that human nature tends to what is morally good, and only runs to evil by reason of the perverse influences of external enviroment. His treatise is one of the most noteworthy attempts to teach morality independently of religion. The "Book of Mencius" is generally accepted as genuine, though the evidence of its Mencian authorship is of a kind that would not be judged sufficient if it fell within the scope of modern historic criticism. In a Chinese history dating from 100 B.C., a short account of Mencius is given, in which he is declared to be the author of the work in seven books that bears his name. There are extant portions of literary works composed as early as 186-178 B.C., containing quotations from the "Book of Mencius". There remains still, somewhat more than a century to bridge over, but the reputation for accuracy of the Chinese annals is taken as a warrant that the work goes back to the days of Mencius and was issued from his pen.(www.newadvent.org)

==The Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BCE) was founded on the feudalistic principle of a sociopolitical hierarchy, with clearly defined privileges and responsibilities between those of high and low status. Ambition and intrigue resulted in deterioration of the feudalistic system and bringing on a condition of political and moral chaos. This trend continued to worsen at an accelerating rate, and is known in Chinese history as the period of Warring States (475–221 BCE). This was when larger feudal states warred on and defeated smaller states (De Bary and Bloom). War at that time was very brutal and pitted armies in hand to hand combat. Farmers were forced to fight alongside the regular army with crossbows and even at times with hies from their fields. Families were torn apart in order to have enough fighters in the battles to face the enemy. I preached to the princes on virtuous personal conduct and humane government but it all fell on deaf ears. The kings were only interested in winning the war against the enemy states at all costs, so they could remain in power themselves.

My beliefs were that, the ruler was to provide for the welfare of the people in two respects: material conditions for their livelihood and moral and educational guidance for their edification; this to attain economic sufficiency for the common people. Including light taxes, conservation of natural resources, welfare measures for the old and disadvantaged, and more equal sharing of wealth, believing that “only when the people had a steady livelihood would they have a steady heart.” "Why must the king speak of profit? There are humaneness and rightness, that is all. If the King says 'How can I profit my state?' the officers will say 'How can I profit my house?' and the gentleman and the common people will say, 'How can I profit my person?' Those above and those below will be competing with one another for profit, and the state will be imperiled. One who would murder the ruler of a state with ten thousand chariots would have to be from a house of a thousand chariots; one who would murder the ruler of a state of a thousand chariots would have to be from a house of a hundred chariots. A share of a thousand out of ten thousand or a hundred out of a thousand is hardly negligible; yet when rightness is subordinated to profit the urge to lay claim to more becomes irresistible. It has never happened that one given to humaneness abandons his parents, or that one given to rightness subordinates the interests of his lord. The king should speak of humaneness and rightness. Why is it necessary to speak of profit?" (De Bary and Bloom)

After seeing King Xiang of Liang, Mencius said to someone, "When I saw him from a distance he did not look like a ruler, and when I got closer, I saw nothing to command respect. But he asked 'How can the realm be settled?' I answered, 'It can be settled through unity.' 'Who can unify it?' he asked. I answered, 'Someone not fond of killing people.' 'Who could give it to him?' I answered 'Everyone in the world will give it to him. Your Majesty knows what rice plants are? If there is a drought in the seventh and eighth months, the plants wither, but if moisture collects in the sky and forms clouds and rain falls in torrents, plants suddenly revive. This is the way it is; no one can stop the process. In the world today there are no rulers disinclined toward killing. If there were a ruler who did not like to kill people, everyone in the world would crane their necks to catch sight of him. This is really true. The people would flow toward him the way water flows down. No one would be able to repress them.' "

King Xuan of Qi asked, "Is it true that King Wen's park was seventy li square'," Mencius answered, "That is what the records say." The King said, "Isn't that large?" Mencius responded, 'The people considered it small." "Why then do the people consider my park large when it is forty li square?" "In the forty square li of King Wen's park, people could collect firewood and catch birds and rabbits. Since he shared it with the people, isn't it fitting that they considered it small? When I arrived at the border, I asked about the main rules of the state before daring to enter. I learned that there was a forty-li park within the outskirts of the capital where killing a deer was punished like killing a person. Thus these forty li are a trap in the center of the state. Isn't it appropriate that the people consider it too large?" (Ebrey)--Bill P (talk) 22:23, 12 April 2013 (CEST)

==Always I tried to remind the princes of the responsibility that came to them with the mandate of Heaven to govern for the good of the people. I declared: “The people are the most important element in a nation; the spirits of the land and grain come next; the sovereign counts for the least.” I also quoted for all to hear from the Shujing (“Classic of History”), one of the Five Classics of Confucianism, the saying “Heaven sees as the people see; Heaven hears as the people hear.” I became a champion of the common people and an advocate of democratic principles in government. I taught King Hui of Liang: "The king's dogs and pigs eat food intended for human biengs, and he does not know enough to prohibit this. On the roads there are people dying of starvation, and he does not know enough to distribute food. People die, and he says 'it was not I, it was the year.' How is this different from killing a person by stabbibg him and then saying ' It was not I, it was the weapon'? When the king ceases to place the blame on the year, then the people of the world will come to him."(De Bary and Bloom).Bill P (talk) 17:42, 27 February 2013 (CET)

I have said, Everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others. The great kings of the past had this sort of sensitive heart and thus adopted compassionate policies. Bringing order to the realm is as easy as moving an object in your palm when you have a sensitive heart and put into practice compassionate policies Let me give an example of what I mean w hen I say everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others Anyone today who suddenly saw a baby about to fall into a well would feel alarmed and concerned. It would not be because he wanted to improve his relations with the child's parents, nor because he wanted a good reputation among his friends and neighbors, nor because he disliked hearing the child cry. From this it follows that anyone who lacks feelings of commiseration, shame, and courtesy or a sense of right and wrong is not a human being. From the feeling of commiseration benevolence grows; from th e feeling of shame righteousness grows; from the feeling of courtesy ritual grows; from a sense of right and wrong wisdom grows. People have these four germs, just as they have four limbs For someone with these four potentials to claim incompetence is to cripple himself; to say his ruler is incapable of them is to cripple his ruler Those who know how to develop the four potentials within themselves will take off like a fire or burst forth like a spring. Those who can fully develop them can protect the entire land while those unable to develop them cannot even take care of their parents

Gaozi said, ' 'Human nature is like whirling water When an outlet is opened to the east, it flows east; when an outlet is opened to the west, it flows west Human nature is no more inclined to good or ba t an water is inc inc to east or west'. Mencius responed, Water, it is true is not inclined to either east or west, but does it have no preference for high or low? Goodness is to human nature like flowing downward to water. There are no people who are not good and no water that does not flow down . Still water if splashed can go higher than your head; if forced, it can be brought up a hill This isn't the nature of water; it is the specific circumstances. Although people can be made to be bad, their natures are not changed. (Ebrey)--Bill P (talk) 22:23, 12 April 2013 (CEST)

I further identified the four basic qualities of the heart-mind (sympathy, shame, deference, judgment) not only as distinguishing characteristics of human beings – what makes the human being really human – but also as the “sprouts” (duan) of the four cardinal virtues:

A heart-mind that sympathizes is the sprout of co-humanity [ren]; a heart-mind that is aware of shame is the sprout of rightness [yi]; a heart-mind that defers to others is the sprout of ritual propriety [li]; a heart-mind that approves and condemns is the sprout of wisdom [zhi]…. If anyone having the four sprouts within himself knows how to develop them to the full, it is like fire catching alight, or a spring as it first bursts through. If able to develop them, he is able to protect the entire world; if unable, he is unable to serve even his parents.

Now the complexity of Mencius’ seemingly simplistic position becomes clearer. What makes us human is our feelings of commiseration for others’ suffering; what makes us virtuous – or, in Confucian parlance, junzi – is our development of this inner potential. To paraphrase Irene Bloom on this point, there is no sharp conflict between “nature” and “nurture” in Mencius; biology and culture are co-dependent upon one another in the development of the virtues. If our sprouts are left untended, we can be no more than merely human – feeling sorrow at the suffering of another, but unable or unwilling to do anything about it. If we tend our sprouts assiduously — through education in the classical texts, formation by ritual propriety, fulfillment of social norms, etc. – we can not only avert the suffering of a few children in some wells, but also bring about peace and justice in the entire world.(iep.edu)

My philosophic ideas might be regarded as complimenting the teachings of Confucius. Confucius taught the concept of ren, love or human-heartedness, as the basic virtue of manhood. The original goodness of human nature (xing) was the basis of his system. That the four beginnings (siduan)—the feeling of commiseration, the feeling of shame, the feeling of courtesy, and the feeling of right and wrong—are all inborn in man was a self-evident truth; and the “four beginnings,” when properly cultivated, will develop into the four cardinal virtues of ren, righteousness (yi), decorum (li), and wisdom (zhi). This doctrine of the goodness of human nature has become an enduring topic for debate among the Chinese thinkers throughout the ages.(Chang and Owen).

I believed that through the training of the heart and mind in the correct principals, all people can become like the great sage-kings Yao and Shun, the legendary heroes of the archaic past. I taught the king that people need to be able to have sufficient to serve themselves and their parents, then they will be able to observe the rites. "At present, the regulation of the people's livelihood is such that, above, they do not have enough to serve their parents, and below, they do not have enough to support wives and children. Even in years of prosperity their lives are bitter, while in years of dearth they are unable to escape starvation. Under these circumstances they only try to save themselves from death, fearful that they will not suceed. How could they spare the time for the practice of rites and rightness?" (De Bary and Bloom).

To sum up, both biology and culture are important for Mencian self-cultivation, and so is Tian. “By fully developing one’s heart-mind, one knows one’s nature, and by knowing one’s nature, one knows Heaven.” One cannot help but begin with “a heart-mind that feels for others,” but the journey toward full humanity is hardly complete without having taken any steps beyond one’s birth. Guided by the examples of ancient sages and the ritual forms and texts they have left behind, one starts to develop one’s heart-mind further by nurturing its qi through habitually doing what is right, cultivating its “sprouts” into virtues, and bringing oneself up and out from the merely human to that which Tian intends for one, which is to become a sage. Nature is crucial, but so is nurture. Mencius’ model of moral psychology is both a “discovery” model (human nature is good) and a “development” model (human nature can be made even better).--Bill P (talk) 22:23, 12 April 2013 (CEST)

In my teachings I said, Everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others. The great kings of the past had this sort of sensitive heart and thus adopted compassionate policies. Bringing order to the realm is as easy as moving an object in your palm when you have a sensitive heart and put into practice compassionate policies Let me give an example of what I mean w hen I say everyone has a heart that is sensitive to the sufferings of others Anyone today who suddenly saw a baby about to fall into a well would feel alarmed and concerned. It would not be because he wanted to improve his relations with the child's parents, nor because he wanted a good reputation among his friends and neighbors, nor because he disliked hearing the child cry. From this it follows that anyone who lacks feelings of commiseration, shame, and courtesy or a sense of right and wrong is not a human being. From the feeling of commiseration benevolence grows; from th e feeling of shame righteousness grows; from the feeling of courtesy ritual grows; from a sense of right and wrong wisdom grows. People have these four germs, just as they have four limbs For someone with these four potentials to claim incompetence is to cripple himself; to say his ruler is incapable of them is to cripple his ruler Those who know ho~ to develop the four potentials within themselves will take off like a fire or burst forth like a spring. Those who can fully develop them can protect the entire land while those unable to develop them cannot even take care of their parents. (Patricia Ebrey)

"Gaozi said,'Human nature is like whirling water When an outlet is opened to the east, it flows east; when an outlet is opened to the west, it flows west Human nature is no more inclined to good or bad than water is inclined to east or west'. Mencius responded, Water, it is true is not inclined to either east or west, but does it have no preference for high or low? Goodness is to human nature like flowing downward to water. There are no people who are not good and no water that does not flow down . Still water if splashed can go higher than your head; if forced, it can be brought up a hill This isn't the nature of water; it is the specific circumstances. Although people can be made to be bad, their natures are not changed." (De Bary and Bloom).

Mencius taught the rulers of the warring states that if they had the needs of the people foremost in mind, the needs of the kingdom would follow suit because the two were inseparable from each other. He said "Ask what is best for the people not what is profitable for the kingdom. If the king looks for profit, the minister will look for profit, the general will look for profit, the farmer will look for profit, and none will be happy. If the King looks for what is best for the people so will the minister and the general and the farmer and the people will have what they need and all will be happy." This teaches that in greed no one prospers and everyone suffers, but when all look after each other, everyone can prosper and all can be in a happy state. He urged the kings to work on expanding their "Qi" which is a mental and spiritual state of being in which one feels the energy that comes from doing the right thing for the right reason. This sympathetic responsiveness towards others would become one of the most important contributions to the later Chinese philosophy. "Heaven in giving birth to humankind, created for each thing its own rule. The people's common disposition is to love this admirable virtue." (Ebrey)--Bill P 16:09, 15 February 2013 (UTC)

In the end,I am committed to a type of benevolent dictatorship, which puts moral value before pragmatic value and in this way seeks to benefit both ruler and subjects. The sage-kings of antiquity are a model, but one cannot simply adopt their customs and institutions and expect to govern effectively. Instead, one must emulate the sage-kings both in terms of outer structures (good laws, wise policies, correct rituals) and in terms of inner motivations (placing ren and yi first). Like Confucius, Mencius places an enormous amount of confidence in the capacity of the ordinary person to respond to an extraordinary ruler, so as to put the world in order. It is necessary for everyone to remember his place and everyone else's to remember their places so all can enjoy life and become better citizens.

References

• Patricia Ebrey, Chinese Civilization : A Sourcebook, 2d ed. (New York: Free Press, 1993), pp. 22-24
• Chang, Kang-i Sun, and Stephen Owen. The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2010. Print.
• De Bary, Theodore and Irene Bloom. Sources of Chinese Tradition 2nd edition. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999
• newadvent.org

Weblinks

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mencius
• http://www.iep.utm.edu/mencius/
• http://www.newadvent.org

Classroom Presentations

• Powerpoint file by Olivia Media:Mencius.pptx
• Powerpoint file by Bill P. Media:Mencius.pptx