History of Translation Studies 7

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Translation Studies

A Review and Reflection of Holmes and Toury’s Descriptive Translation Studies 曾雁湖 Zeng Yanhu Student No. 202020080590

Abstract

Descriptive translation studies transcends the traditional view of translation and enables people to have a more comprehensive and objective understanding of translation, so that translation theory can serve translation practice more effectively. Description is a theoretical supplement to the norm, and the unity of opposites constitutes the overall framework of translation theory. Scholars represented by James Holmes introduced the concept of "independent discipline" into the field of translation studies, and the birth and development of the school of translation studies promoted the establishment of the discipline of translation studies and the development of translation theory studies. This paper mainly introduces the representatives of the school of translation culture and the main points of their theoretical views in order to understand and explore the development and trend of western translation theories.

Key Words

Descriptive Translation Studies; Holmes; Toury

题目

霍尔姆斯和图里的描述性翻译研究的回顾与反思

摘要

描述性翻译研究超越了传统的翻译观，使人们对翻译有了更全面和客观的理解，从而翻译理论可以更有效地为翻译实践服务。 描述是对规范的理论补充，对立统一构成了翻译理论的整体框架。 以詹姆斯•霍尔姆斯（James Holmes）为代表的学者将“独立学科”的概念引入了翻译研究领域，翻译学派的诞生和发展促进了翻译学学科的建立和翻译理论学的发展。 本文主要介绍翻译文化流派的代表及其理论观点的要点，以理解和探索西方翻译理论的发展和趋势。

关键词

描述性翻译研究；霍尔姆斯；图里

1. Introcustion

DTS is also known as the polysystem approach, the manipulation school, the Leuven axis of Tel Aviv, the descriptive, empirical or systematic school, or the low country group, which corresponds to the descriptive, empirical, interdisciplinary, goal-oriented Translation research methods, with special attention to its role in cultural history. This method was first developed in the early 1970s, gained momentum in the 1980s, and flourished in the 1990s, still inspiring some researchers to seek "in-depth research as a translation of cultural and historical phenomena," Explore its context and constraints, and look for reasons that explain why there is something" (Hermans 1999: 5). Although usually equivalent to the study of literary translation, especially in its early stages, translation studies have been extended to several directions, including technical translation, audiovisual translation, or interpretation.DTS is said to have emerged in the 1980s due to the contribution of a group of scholars of Manipulation School. The idea of describing translation studies originated in the 1950s. John McFarlane(1953) and James Holmes(1972) proposed a translation research map that shocked the translation research community in his thesis of "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies", and established the role of "descriptive" research in translation research. Central position. After Gideon Toury published the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", which systematically outlines the methodology and research focus and framework of translation research, descriptive translation research has gradually begun to regulate the position of translation research for a long time. The "scramble for power" and "description" of sex studies have become a new trend in translation studies.

2. Descriptive translation definition

According to existing definitions, descriptive translation is “the use of descriptions to translate terms or phrases in the source, rather than direct translation” (Darwish 2010, p.142). However, there are other ways to look at descriptive translation; for example, some sources define the term from the perspective of social function (Darwish, 2010). As Bao Bao explained, descriptive translation can be considered as a tool "used to faithfully present the values, hegemonic views or ideological positions of the target text participants" (Baby, 2009, p. 201). Therefore, it can be assumed that Descriptive Translation can be seen from both the linguistic and the sociological aspects (Bazzi 2009). It is remarkable that in the course of the search for the definition of Descriptive Translation, some scholars even doubted that the given study can actually be related to the discipline of translation in general (Bazzi 2009). For example, Gutt often criticized the idea of relating the Descriptive Translation to Translation Studies, arguing that the given branch of translation should, in fact, be named as interpretive (Bazzi 2009, p. 199). Pym (2010) broadly defines the aim of Descriptive Translation Studies (henceforth DTS): ‘to describe what translations actually are, rather than simply prescribing how they should be’. Less prescriptive than its predecessors, DTS sought to establish probable expectations of translation behaviour by handling the practice as 'an empirical discipline with a hierarchical organisation and a structured research program’ (Cheung 2013). The concept was propounded by Gideon Toury from the 1970s onwards (Naudé 2012), and it was characteristic of the mood of that time, where ideas that challenged established conventions of translation came to prominence. There was a sense that previous theories lacked a certain sensitivity to, and awareness of, the socio-cultural conditions under which the process of translation occurs (Bassnett McGuire 1991; Bassett 2012) and that greater significance should be attached to these issues. Descriptive translation studies are mainly proposed for traditional translation studies that emphasize the equivalence relationship between the original text and the target text, while ignoring the relationship between the target text and the target language reader and the target language culture (He Yuanjian, Wei Zhiqiang, 1998: 17-28 ) The theoretical research of descriptive translation studies is to establish a reference system of principles for explaining and predicting the translation process and the structure and function of the translated text (quoted from Zhang Xiaobo 2001). The descriptive translation studies framework proposed by Holmes provided the correct development direction for translation studies, made translation studies pay more attention to descriptiveness, and laid the ideological foundation for the later descriptive translation school.

2.1 The Prospects of Translation Theory

<The Future of Transla- tion Theory: A Handful of Theses> is not an ordinary paper. Holmes lists the urgent problems in future translation research, such as: creating a synthesis One of the main obstacles to sexual translation theory is the lack of effective communication between scholars in different fields, especially linguistics and literary schools; some researchers are accustomed to regard personal or national or a certain stage of norms as the general rules of translation; 5. Linguistic translation theory seems to have entered a dead end since the decade. Researchers are stuck at the word, phrase or sentence level without considering the context at all. To establish a comprehensive translation theory, it is necessary to break through the linguistic research method with sentences as the upper limit. Holmes believes that to create a truly scientific and comprehensive translation theory requires the coordination of textual research, linguistics (especially psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics), literary research, psychology, and sociology. It is necessary to eliminate barriers between countries and languages and promote international academic exchanges. As a translator, Holmes also emphasizes the importance of translators with practical experience participating in the creation of translation theories.

2.2 Benefits of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline

An obvious advantage of describing the contribution of translation to the development of translation research is that describing translation almost obliterates the concept of norms (Medros 1985, p.142). Although the given feature of descriptive translation can also be seen as a major shortcoming, which will be demonstrated later, it is also a huge advancement in the development of translation studies as a discipline (De La Bascia, 2008, p. 245 ). As Kruger explained, descriptive translation provides a prerequisite for shaping the "decision-making process in translation and operational norms in translation" (Kruger 2012, p. 103). Distorting existing translation norms means that translation studies are developing, and the phenomenon of descriptive translation has promoted the progress of the discipline (Koster 2011, p. 21). The fact that descriptive translation is a tool to shape specific translation behavior should also be considered (Flynn and Gambier, 2011, p. 88). In fact, it is wrong to assume that descriptive translation technology is only used for the purpose of conveying specific information to the recipient; as Ravisa explained, descriptive translation research is also a means for trainees to memorize specific translation patterns in translation. To develop the required skills: However, at the same time, translation teachers are independently borrowing insights from corpus-based descriptive translation studies, and in the long run, it seems that they aim to formulate cohesive rules, assuming that if translation trainees insist on descriptiveness What should be done in the translation behavior model revealed by scholars. The given method reflects the fact that descriptive translation allows the study of translation from an empirical perspective. In other words, descriptive translation practice allows translation research to be regarded as a social activity, rather than a process of presenting certain information by using specific means of expression. Therefore, descriptive translation as a discipline can be regarded as a social activity that has a significant impact on the community, and therefore should be encouraged as an additional tool to improve communication among community members (Esfeld 2001, p. 99). At this point, the linguistic meaning of translation is transferred to the background, and its social importance is reflected (Weissbrodt 2008, p. 50).

2.3 Limitations of descriptive translation for translation studies discipline

Needless to say, the descriptive nature of the above translation practice tools can be described as completely unprescriptive elements (Milan & Patna, 2013). There is actually no problem-solving process in the practice of descriptive translation; instead, the situational translation method is used (Kaplan 2010, p. 478). One might say that the given method of handling the translation process allows to avoid so-called “prescriptive intervention” or purism in language (Toury 2013, p. 87). Although descriptive translation does help to eliminate examples of purism, it still lacks norms completely, which has caused confusion about the definition of descriptive translation methods (Tu Li, 2013, p. 88). Another obvious issue of perspective and scope is that supporters of descriptive translation, which is the key to translation studies, must generally acknowledge the boundaries of descriptive translation; a series of studies have pointed out the vagueness of the subject and the impossibility of descriptive translation. A distinction is drawn between objects and objects that exist outside their domain: "The first question itself relates to the scope of research objects within the framework of translation theory: draw a distinction between what is "being" and what is not "being" Clear boundaries?” (Toury 2013, p. 17). Therefore, the ambiguity of explanatory or descriptive translation concepts can be regarded as the basic problem of the discipline (Hatim & Munday, 2004, p. 128). Despite the fact that it seems to allow more choices in translating a particular idea into the target language, once it tries to define its position in the field of translation studies, it can also lead to a series of confusion (Toury 2013, No. 49 page). In other words, descriptive translation is characterized by the lack of specific norms and rules, which is typical for other types of translation (Tu Li, 2013, p. 50). Descriptive translation does not allow the creation of tangible norms. This is a compromise between the rules and characteristics of a language and an absolute necessary condition for any type of translation research. Of course, one might say that “the boundaries between various types of constraints are therefore scattered” (Turi, 2013, p. 54). Therefore, in translation studies, the concept of norms is rather vague. The lack of obvious norms in the field of descriptive translation, which in turn limits the effectiveness of descriptive translation as a translation tool (Tu Li, 2013). Before further discussion, it is necessary to explain that the concepts of "problems" and corresponding "solutions" in the field of translation research are quite loose (Tu Li, 2013). As Tuli explained, the terminology status of the word "problem" is still very unclear when discussing problem-solving models in the field of translation research, especially descriptive translation (Tuli, 2013). Seeing how descriptive translation reduces the vague concept of translation norms into situational translation practice, the problem-solving model becomes more unclear (Christa Fuli, 2003, p. 13). Descriptive translation actually erased the concept of problem-solving and replaced it with the concept of "conditions of existence" (Tu Li, 2013, p. 37). Although this phenomenon can be regarded as another stage of the development of translation research, it still creates a series of obstacles in the definition of norms and standards and the methods to solve specific translation problems (Darwish, 2008, p. 35). Finally, the fact that descriptive translation should be put forward creates a premise for translators to link the text with their own cognitive mechanism. Although it is wrong to deny the fact that the translator’s background knowledge is actively used in the translation process, the details of the translator’s vision must not hinder the provision of correct translation. However, by applying the principle of descriptive translation, it is impossible to have a "correct" translation variant; therefore, the translator may face a very tempting idea, which is to project his own vision into the translation process, thereby making the recipient of the information Observe the information through the translator's visual lens. A series of authoritative sources mentioned the need for translators to avoid filtering information in the source language, emphasized the limitations of cognitive mechanisms, and especially emphasized the limitations of culture (Darwish, 2010, p. 35).

3. James Holmes

James Holmes (1924-1986) is an American Dutch scholar and an outstanding translator of English-Dutch poetry. He has long worked at the University of Amsterdam. His main essays are collected in the collection "Literary Translation and Translation Studies Essays" (1988) compiled for him after his death. His work "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" (1972) is regarded as the declaration of the establishment of the Translation Studies School and the foundational work of the Translation Studies School. It mainly put forward creative opinions on the name, nature, research field, problem setting and subject scope of translation studies as an independent subject. He also proposed the scope and structure of the new field of translation research, and believed that the research method is a practice based on experience, and the object of research is the translation that appears in a particular culture. He finally thought that "Translation studies" was the most suitable name in the terminology. Theoretical assumptions can start research in the other two fields.

3.1 Holmes’s point of Descritive Translation Studies

Holmes emphasizes the description of the translation process. A significant change in his descriptive translation theory is the change in the nature of the works. Holmes believes that the target of translation is not a specific thing in the objective world referred to by the original text, but the language composition of the original text. Translation language is different from the language in literary works. He borrowed from Roland Barthes's literary classification: 1) Poems, novels, and dramas reflect specific things and phenomena; 2)The literature category describes not the objective world, but the language composition proposed by others, which is a re-evaluation of evaluation (Barthes, 1964: 126) He also borrowed the term "meta-language" and expanded its meaning from referring exclusively to literary criticism to a variety of meta-literary forms, and poetry translation is only one of them. Holmes pointed out that poetry translation has intensified comments and metalanguage in other forms. On the one hand, it is the evaluation and interpretation of a meta-literary to another work, and on the other hand, it forms a new meta-literary collection with its own literary nature. Therefore, this special literary form not only reflects the original text but is also a self-made creation, which has the dual nature of meta-literature and literature. Some-based translation studies focus no longer on issues such as equivalence and referent, but analyze the relationship between the translation as a second work and the original work in the literary standard symbol system of the original text, and only focus on the translation as a new work and the translation. The relationship between cultural standard symbol systems. Compared with traditional translation theory, Holmes's method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he strives to seek a better understanding of a certain type of symbol translation by describing various translation methods and their historical use. He divided translation into four categories: 1) Similar forms, although the exact same form is impossible, similar forms are possible; 2) Similar functions, find similar functions in the translation language standards, and create open forms that can produce similar effects; 3) The content is derived, and the original meaning and specific expression form are maintained in the target language; 4) The form is abnormal, and for some special reasons, only the same as the original text is kept as little as possible. Holmes believes that the four types are equally important. Translation is a process in which the translator makes a decision. The translator can make a choice in translation according to the different nature of the four translation methods. Once the initial decision is made, the translation forms its own rules, which can provide the translator with some possible translation methods, while also excluding other translation methods, so the initial decision will determine the next choice. He also believes that translation has no distinction between right and wrong, only differences. These differences derive from the translator’s poetic level on the one hand, and on the other hand, the translator’s initial choice and the relationship between the two languages. The same source text has as many translations as there are translators.

4. Gideon Toury

Gideon Toury is a professor at Tel Aviv University in Israel and a world-renowned translation theorist. He developed the polysystem theory proposed by Evan Zohar, a famous scholar of the Tel Aviv school. In the book "Descriptive Translation Studies and Others", Tury systematically explained the theoretical framework and methodological basis of Descriptive Translation Studies. Tury believes that the descriptive translation theory focuses on examining the degree of absorption of the target language text in the target language culture, and uses inductive and statistical methods to compare and analyze case texts, and summarize the empirical variables or empirical norms governing translation behavior, and then formulate interpretations. The law of the internal relationship of these variables. (2001: 15-16) Gideon Toury is considered a pioneer of Descriptive Translation Studies, and the theories exposed in his 3 major books on the theme (Translational Norms and Literary Translation into Hebrew, In Search of a Theory of Translation and Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond) show his innovative perspective on translation studies. He established a groundbreaking approach based on the analysis of tendencies in the translation process that doesn’t involve strict rules. Translation science has the role of describing and highlighting tendencies, in order to provide practical guidelines for translators. Gideon Toury has given a significant contribution to translation studies. He formulated groundbreaking theories and succeeded in providing practical guidelines to language professionals, without imposing rigid rules on the translation process. He elaborated the concepts of source-oriented and target-oriented, defined two different strategies to apply when translating a text into a new language. Having worked as a translator himself, he was fully aware of the difficulties experienced by translators and enriched translation studies with his perspective. Tury’s descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. Its purpose is to analyze the general rules governing translation behavior by comparing the source and target texts. This is fundamentally different from the past process-based and application-oriented translation studies. Traditional translation is based on the abstract identity of the effect of "equal", while Turry's theory is based on the difference. "Each language system and textual tradition, whether in structure or usage guidelines, is different from others. Different types". If it is said that being fully accepted by the target culture is one pole, and being completely consistent with the original text is the other pole, then Tury believes that translation should always be between the two poles. No translation can be fully accepted by the target culture, because the translation always brings new information and unfamiliar forms to the system; no translation always brings new forms to the system; no translation is completely the same as the original Consistent, because cultural norms always shift the structure of the original text. It is never possible for any specific translation to take into account the two extremes and achieve two abstract ideal criteria. Tury believes that the translation itself does not have "inherent" identity. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors, and thus has multiple identities. The translation is always affected by various social and literary factors. Influence, thus having multiple identities, depends on the factors affecting translation in a particular period. Turi successfully made translation theory break through the framework of "faithful original text" and the theoretical model of a purely unified relationship between the original text and the target text, making translation a relative concept. Correspondingly, the role of translation theory has also changed. Instead of seeking a theoretical system for evaluating translations, it has instead focused on establishing a model that interprets and determines the process of translation. Tury's theory introduces cultural-historical factors and calls them "translation criteria". Translation criterion is the center of Tury's theory, which affects every stage of the translation process and plays a coordinating role between two equal potentials. Therefore, it is not enough to study a single text. It is necessary to study the translations of different historical periods to discern general trends. Turui distinguishes the following three translation criteria: Elementary criteria: factors that determine the choice of translation and translation strategies in the entire multi-system Starting criterion: the translator’s personal preference, whether it is the original version or the retranslated text, or an attitude of choosing to be in the middle Operation criterion: Refers to the criterion that influences the translation decision in the actual translation process. Tury pointed out that "translation" is any expression in the target language that is manifested as translation or considered to be translation. Describe the discovery process of Translation Studies (DTS). He believes that this process follows the following sequence: 1) Select those target language texts that the target language culture considers to be "translation", but do not involve their corresponding original texts, and only study their acceptance as target language texts in the "destination" system. 2) Describe these texts, study these texts and their counterparts in the source language system or original text through the translation phenomenon constituted by the constituent elements of these texts, and find solutions to translation problems. 3) Identify and describe the relationship between each pair of research objects, focusing on discovering the changes and transformations that occur. 4) Finally, by thinking about the function of translation equivalence-the concept of relations, we set out to apply these relations to the overall concept of translation. It is the last two that constitute the ultimate goal after DTS's systematic research and interpretation. Tury believes that only after the essential concept of translation is determined, can it be possible to reconstruct the consideration and decision process involved in the translation process, as well as the constraints actually accepted by the translator. Contributions and achievements of descriptive translation to translation studies: As a representative of descriptive translation studies, the theory and methodological framework of descriptive translation studies proposed by Turi has an immeasurable impact on translation studies. Gentzler believes that Tury's theory has the following contributions to translation studies: First, abandon the "one-to-one" correspondence between the source target text in the normative translation study, and eliminate the possibility of the source target text being literary/language equivalence; Second, introduce the literary tendencies existing in the target language cultural system into the research on the production of translation works; Third, it breaks the concept that people have a fixed understanding of the source language information and translation expression; Fourth, place the source text and the target text in the symbolic network interwoven between the source and target cultures. (Gentzler, 2004: 131) However, descriptive translation studies, as the mainstay of current international translation studies, have contributed far more to translation studies than those listed above. Insufficiency of Toury's theory: Some scholars have pointed out the inadequacies of Toury's theory. Munday pointed out that the meaning of "norms" used by Turui is vague, and these norms have the tendency to act and the function of regulation, which is contrary to the original intention of descriptive analysis. Tury’s view ignores factors such as ideology and politics. In addition, the "rules" that Turui wants to summarize from the case analysis seem to be some habitual beliefs or even beliefs that do not need to be proven in translation behavior, and to what extent these abstract and quasi-scientific rules can be applied to translation practice. Not without controversy. (2002: 113-117) Venuti believes that Tury’s "scientific" descriptive translation studies model aims to extract "value free" norms and rules for translation behavior, and the field of translation studies must involve the social and cultural system Value orientation. In Venuti's view, although norms are initially only in the linguistic/literary sense, they also involve values and beliefs that serve specific social groups and are therefore ideologically binding.

4.1 Source-oriented and target-oriented

In his 1980 essay In Search of a Theory of Translation, Toury gives a remarkable contribution to translation studies identifying two translation strategies: ‘source-oriented’ and ‘target-oriented’. A source-oriented translation involves a formal approach aimed at reproducing forms and structures of the source language. According to Toury, this strategy is difficult to apply because of the differences between language structures. While a target-oriented translation aims at adapting the text to the structures and cultural context of the target language. Hence, Toury formulated two principles that define two approaches to translation: acceptability and adequacy. An ‘acceptable’ translation has to comply with the rules and structures of the target language. The primary goal is to convey the meaning of the source text, increasing readability and adapting texts to the language structures of the receiving culture. On the other hand, an ‘adequate’ translation stays true to the source language and complies with the structures of the original text. This means that the result doesn’t conceal its nature of translation. A translation aiming at full adequacy is unacceptable due to the fact that it doesn't take into account the demands of the target reader. Choosing between the two approaches is not an easy task. Everything depends on the kind of translation required and its purpose. But, regardless of a target-oriented or source-oriented approach, the purpose of a translation is to convey the meaning of the original.

4.2 Translation and postulates

In Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond (1995), another masterpiece in the field of translation studies, Toury exposes a normative theory for translation critics. A theory that is not meant as a set of rigid rules for translators and critics but as a series of tendencies that could be observed in the translation process. According to Toury, critics should research those tendencies in order to describe the translation process, which means offering practical guidelines to translators. A normative approach with rigid rules wouldn’t provide translators with a single clue on how to translate texts. Toury acknowledges a set of necessary requirements or postulates that a text has to comply with so that it could be called ‘translation’: The source text postulate: there has to be a source text; The transfer postulate: the translated text has to be generated from a “transfer” process; The relationship postulate: there has to be a relationship or similarity between the original text and translated text.

4.3 The value of Toury’s contribution

Toury has succeeded in giving practical advice to translators, identifying two possible strategies and approaches, providing professionals with a starting point to reflect upon when translating a text. Thinking of the purpose of translation and its potential readers can help with the choice of the best strategy. By the way, one should always keep in mind that the primary goal of a translated text is to convey the message of the original. An example of acceptability as an adaptation to the target culture is represented by transcreation. The word transcreation is a blend of ‘translation’ and ‘creation’, suggesting the use of a creative approach in translation. In fact, it seeks to perform all the necessary adjustments to make a campaign work in all target markets while staying legal to the original creative intent of the campaign. Transcreation is the creative adaptation of marketing sales and advertising copy in the target language. It involves changing both the words and meaning of the source text while keeping its attitude and the desired persuasive effect. Transcreation focuses on transferring brands and messages from one culture to another and represents a striking example of how changing the language and structure of the source text helps in delivering a message. Toury’s theories gave a new impulse to translation studies. New principles have been elaborated since then. For instance, Venuti distinguished between two strategies: domesticating and foreignizing. Nida elaborated the concepts of formal equivalence and dynamic equivalence. Toury’s perspective established an alternative approach to translation studies, starting from merely theoretical concepts and leading to a direct observation of the translation process to finally provide professionals with practical guidelines to follow.

5. Conclusion

Translation description promotes the study of translator's subjectivity. Any translation is a process of understanding, selection and re-creation. The translator will inevitably show his artistic creativity and individual characteristics in this process. Therefore, the exertion of the translator's subjectivity is an unavoidable problem in translation activities. However, the core of traditional translation theory is the issue of translation standards, and this attention to standards determines the normative characteristics of traditional translation theories. Norms are to use ideals to restrain practice, and to use principles and standards to guide practice. It focuses on issues such as "how the translation should be carried out" and "what principles should be followed in the translation", rather than "how the translator translates". This normative feature is fundamentally excluded from the study of translator's subjectivity. Translation studies have been unable to get rid of the defects of one-sidedness and subjectivity for a long time, and thus cannot see the full picture of translation activities, and cannot conduct in-depth and systematic research on translation studies. In 1990, Susan Bassnett and André Lefebvre co-authored "Translation, History and Culture", which raised the issue of the "cultural turn" in translation studies, which made cultural factors affect translation And the relationship between the two has been extensively studied. From the perspective of the nature of research, the "cultural turn" is actually the descriptive turn of translation studies, and constitutes an important part of the latter. In the process of descriptive research on translation, people discovered the distance between translation practice and the various translation standards proposed by normative research, and realized that “absolute equivalence” in translation cannot be achieved because of the translator’s Work is always uninterrupted by the purpose of translation, aesthetic preferences and cultural factors. Therefore, translation activities are affected and restricted by the subjectivity of the translator. To describe the translation and describe the translation, it is necessary to discuss this long-neglected Translation phenomenon. After decades of development, descriptive translation studies prove their own values and become a new starting point and a new pillar of translation research, leading to a deeper and wider level of translation research. It is noteworthy that the descriptive translation study is a deviation and rebel from some degree of normative translation research, but it is not in the state that one mountain cannot accommodate two tigers. We should recognize the great contribution of descriptive translation studies to the translational research objectively, while we should also recognize the great results of the translation research agency under the guidance of normative translation research. There is no contradiction between the descriptive translation study and the normative translation study, as Lin Kennan pointed out. We need to combine two so that translation studies can reveal the entire translation.

References

Toury, Gideon.Descriptive Translation Studies and Beyond[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

Gentzler, Edwin.Comtemporary Translation Theories[M].Shang-hai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2004.

Foreignizing Tanslation and National Culture Development 邓锦霞 Deng Jinxia 202020080599

Abstract

In the context of economic and social globalization, human civilization in the 20th century is developing towards diversification. In the process of multicultural exchanges, the impact of translation on local national culture has become a new topic of discussion. Foreignizing translation takes the source language as its destination and can retain the cultural characteristics of the source language to the greatest extent, which has gradually attracted the attention of contemporary translators. This chapter introduces the evolution of foreignizing translation in China and the West, then discusses the relationship between foreignizing translation and national culture development from three perspectives: The necessity of foreignizing translation, the restrictions on foreignizing translation, and the influence of foreignizing translation on national culture development.

Key words

foreignizing translation; national culture

题目

异化翻译与民族文化发展

摘要

在经济与社会全球化发展的背景下，20世纪的人类文明正在向多元化发展。在多元文化交流的过程中，翻译作品对本土民族文化的影响成为新的讨论话题。异化翻译以源语言为归宿，能够最大限度地保留源语言文化特色，逐渐受到当代翻译家的重视。本章介绍了异化翻译在中西方的演变历程，从异化翻译的必要性，异化翻译的限制条件以及异化翻译对民族文化的影响三个角度出发，讨论了异化翻译与民族文化发展的关系。

关键词

异化翻译：民族文化

1. Introduction

The debate between domesticating translation and foreignizing translation has a long history. When contemporary translators choose translation strategies, domesticating translation is the dominant one, for it will be more easily accepted by the readers of the target language. Although this may attract more readers, in the translation process of "domestication", it allows the source culture to adapt to the target culture, and even replace the source culture with the target one. Such translations cannot truly achieve the purpose of cross-cultural communication and dissemination. As far as the quality of cultural production and transformation is concerned, this is likely to cause the development of the homogeneity of the cultures of various ethnic groups, and this does not conform to the general trend of cultural globalization, which is not conducive to maintain the cultural uniqueness of various ethnic groups. A typical domesticating translation in C-E translation is David Hawkes's translation of the word "red" in The Story of the Stone. Considering the different understanding of “red” in Chinese and Western cultures, he translated "怡红公子" as "green boy". Although this translation is conducive to the understanding of western readers, for the connotations of “green” in the West is closest to the connotations of “red” in China. But it will make Western readers unknown to the real connotation of “Chinese red”. In the context of Chinese culture, "red" mostly symbolizes auspiciousness and joy. With such kind of domesticating translation, Western readers can never have the chance to know the real Chinese culture. (Liao Chunlan 2018, 137) Compared with domesticated translation, source-oriented foreignizing translation has better retention of the original text in terms of language and culture.

Therefore, it can be seen that in the process of cultural input and output, as an important part of indirect cultural communication, translation actually plays an important role. Therefore, it is very important to choose a suitable translation strategy. Due to political, economic, international and domestic reasons, domesticating translation once had the upper hand in the translation circles. But with the changes of the times, the choice of translation strategies should also keep pace with the times. As a translation oriented to the source language and culture, foreignizing translation, which plays a role in the development of national culture, deserves our attention.

2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation

Any translation thought, no matter how modern and novel it is, has a gradual process of formation. Before discussing foreignizing translation and national culture, it is necessary to know the connotation of foreignizing translation. The concept of foreignizing translation is an extension and expansion of literal translation in traditional translation theories. Compared with literal translation, foreignizing translation pays more attention to cultural meanings behind the text. Foreignizing translation was first proposed and developed in the West. After absorbing the essence of Western foreignizing translation theories, Chinese translators have also added their own understanding and innovation toward foreignizing translation.

2.1. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in the West

The concept of foreignizing translation in the West can be traced back to the word-for-word translation discussed by Cicero, Horace and St. Jerome in ancient Rome, which is the embryonic form of literal translation. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 32) Manlius Boethius, the most famous translator in the early Middle Ages, had a rich view of literal translation as: “(1) Content and style are hostile to each other, either paying attention to style or preserving the content. It is impossible to have both. (2) Translation is centered on objective things, and translators should give up subjective judgments.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 43) During the Renaissance period, the famous German poet and translator Sebastian Brant substituted the concept of literal translation into the poetry translation and proposed a verbatim translation method. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 73) In modern times, the dispute between literal translation and free translation has evolved into a dispute between the Old School and the New School. Bachet de Meziriae puts forward three principles that translators must follow: “(1) Do not stuff the original text with private goods. (2) Do not add or delete the original text (3) Do not make changes that are detrimental to the original intent.” (Tan Zaixi 2004, 114-115) Translation critic Daniel Huet believes that the best translation method is for the translator to follow the original author's meaning; If possible, the translator should follow the words closely, and finally reproduces the original character as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 116) Charles Batteux believes that the primary translation rule is to preserve the original word order as much as possible. (Tan Zaixi 2004, 124)

From a diachronic point of view, the concept of literal translation has become deeper and more specific, and its connotation has become more and more abundant. However, the concept of literal translation in this period still remained in the meaning, content and formal style of the language. The connotations in culture, poetics, society, ethics and ideology have gradually extended and developed, on which Western foreignizing translation is based.

Friedrich Schleiermacher put forward two different translation methods in his famous speech entitled On Different Translation Methods: The translator should either keep the original author as still as possible and make the reader closer to the original author; or let the reader stay still as much as possible and make the original author approach the reader. He advocated that the first translation method, the foreignizing translation method, is the real translation method, allowing readers to appreciate foreign customs and respecting language and cultural differences. (Robinson & Douglas 2006, 226-228)

Walter Benjamin's thought of foreignization is reflected in his view of language. He believes that all languages convey themselves in themselves, so the language itself is a translation. Benjamin emphasized the directness of language and intended to subvert the bourgeois instrumental language view. The translation goal of pure language makes Benjamin tend to use the foreignizing translation method, retaining the language form of the original text, that is, the different way of conveying meaning. In other words, Benjamin's foreignizing translation idea is not to translate the meaning of the original text, but to convey the language expression of the original text to the target language. It is to achieve the ultimate goal of pure language for human salvation. (Benjamin 1999, 272)

Antoine Berman puts forward the concept of "translation ethics" in the book The Test of Difference in response to the traditional translation thought centered on "the transmission of meaning" that has long dominated the Western translation world. “Translation ethics” advocated by Berman is to respect the original work and respect the language and cultural differences in the original work. In order to achieve his goal of translation ethics, he advocates foreignizing translation, implementing foreignizing translation through the translation strategy of translating text, which enriches language itself through the introduction of "others". (Berman 1984, 23)

Although the idea of foreignizing translation has existed for a long time, the terminology of "foreignizing translation" has not been promoted to the agenda of translation studies until 1995, when Lawrence Venuti published his famous book "The Invisibility of the Translator-A History of Translation". Venuti’s concept of foreignizing translation puts traditional literal translation on the local cultural and political agenda, and links translation with culture, political ethics, and ideology. Its rich connotations can be summarized in the following points: foreignization in the selection of material, language, culture, readers and translation ethics. The core of Venuti's foreignizing translation is to practice differentiated ethical propositions to resist the mainstream values of the culture of the target language, thereby highlighting the language and cultural differences of foreign languages. (Venuti 1995, 20) In other words, Venuti's translation ethics emphasizes the absorption and acceptance of “the other” as “the other”. On the one hand, it respects the language and cultural differences of the other, and on the other hand, it challenges the mainstream values of the target language.

2.2. The Evolution of Foreignizing Translation in China

In China, the basic concept of foreignization and domestication can be traced back to the dispute over the different ways of the translation of Buddhist scripture, text-oriented (文派) and meaning-oriented (质派). In modern times, the ideas of foreignization and domestication are embodied in the dispute between literal translation and free translation. The concept of domestication and foreignization were not widely used by Chinese translators until Venuti proposed the translation strategy of “domesticating translation” and “foreignizing translation”.

Text-oriented translators of Buddhist scripture pay attention to the text of the translation and do not strictly follow the original meaning, such as the Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian in the Han Dynasty, whose translation is focused on the fluency of the translated text.(Chen Fukang 1992, 16) On the contrary, Dao An, a representative of the translators of the meaning-oriented translators, put forward the "Five Losses of Originals" (五失本) and "Three Difficulties of Transaltion"(三不易), emphasizing faithfulness to the original meaning and content, which is the embryonic form of modern Chinese literal translation. (Chen Fukang 1992, 20)

In modern times, with the deepening of translation understanding and the influence of Western translation theories, there has been a debate between literal translation and free translation. Scholars headed by Liang Shiqiu and Zhao Jingshen advocate free translation, while scholars headed by Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai advocate literal translation. Among them, the consciousness and concept of foreignization translation have appeared in Lu Xun's view of literal translation. When talking about translation, Lu Xun pointed out that translation needs to be exotic, which is the so-called “foreignness” (洋气). (Lu Xun 2005, 365)

The term “foreignizing translation”was first introduced to China by Guo Jianzhong, which arosed fierce debate about foreignization and domestication in China. In fact, as early as 1987, Liu Yingkai put forward that “domestication is the wrong way of translation”. In response to the phenomenon of excessive domestication in translation practice, Liu Yingkai proposed the "transplantation method" to maximize the original "foreignness". (Liu Yingkai 1986, 59) With the introduction of Western foreignizing translation theory, literary translation practitioner and theorist Sun Zhili clearly proposed that literature translation should follow the principle of foreignizing translation: foreignization as the mainstay, and domestication as the supplement. He pointed out that domestication is mainly manifested at the linguistic level, while at the cultural level, foreignization should be stressed. (Sun Zhili 2001, 35)

3.Discussion

Different translators have different definitions for foreignizing translation, but generally believe that foreignizing translation is a translation strategy that could preserves the characteristics of the source language, which will help readers get closer to the author. Although the background and purpose of different theorists’ perspectives on foreignizing translation are different, we should uphold the attitude of foreignizing translation as a translation strategy, and treat the role of foreignizing translation in the development of national culture objectively.

3.1. The Necessity of Foreignizing Translation

The necessity of foreignizing translation comes from the diversity of national culture. If the world culture is homogenized, the concept of foreignizing translation will no longer exist. It can be said that foreignizing translation is proposed based on the development needs of national culture. Basically, there are two kinds of needs, one is the need of language development, the other is the need of cultural communication.

3.1.1. The Need of Language Development

As the carrier of culture, language has never been self-sufficient and isolated from external factors. On the contrary, it is an open system with strong tolerance and attractiveness. With the deepening of exchanges among countries and ethnic groups, various languages are now enriched in varying degrees. The foreignizing translation played a very important role in this process.The change of language is firstly reflected at the lexical level. Some vocabulary do not exist in the target language originally, but come from the foreignizing translation works. A large number of words with foreign cultural customs were gradually accepted by people in this way. And it can be widely disseminated and used in the target culture. For example: The word "honeymoon" (蜜月) had no corresponding expression in Chinese, and its meaning were also not understood by Chinese at that time for the Chinese couple did not have the custom of being together during the first month of the wedding. But Lin Shu tried foreignizing translation boldly. The two parts of the compound word are translated and arranged together according to their literal meanings (honey "蜜", moon "月") to form the word "蜜月". This undoubtedly injected fresh blood into Chinese at that time and developed modern Chinese.

There are also many other words, such as "咖啡 (coffee)", "丁克 (DINK)", and "可乐 (cola)", which have been understood and accepted by Chinese readers. Words such as "Jiaozi (饺子)", "tofu (豆腐)", "Kungfu (功夫)" originated from Chinese have also entered the English thesaurus and have become part of the English family. The inclusiveness of language is evident. Once these foreign words are accepted by the society, they are established by convention and become new members when they are added to the traditional language and culture. As a result, they will inevitably enrich the way of language expression, promote language proximity and communication, and enhance the vitality of language. In a sense, the process of language development is also a process of language foreignization. The foreignization of language is the general trend, and it cannot be blocked by manpower. The translator's use of foreignizing method actually follows the universal law of language development. (Fu Weifeng 2007, 372)

The necessity of foreignizing translation is not limited to the lexical level, but also to the syntactic level. When Liang Qichao investigated the translation of Buddhist scriptures, he found a dozen of foreignizing translation of syntaxes in them. Facts have proved that the foreignizing syntax of these Buddhist translations took root in Chinese with the widespread spread of Buddhism and became the origin of the vernacular Chinese. (Wang Kefei 1997, 29) The grammar of modern Chinese is also enriched by Western languages, for example, the frequency and scope of passive voice use have expanded in Chinese. Passive form was used as early as in ancient Chinese, but it is rare, and it is generally used to express misfortune or unpleasant experience. Affected by the foreignizing translation of Western languages, the passive form in modern Chinese can also express pleasant things. It means that the syntax of the source language in foreignizing translation can be accepted as a part of the target language. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

It can be seen that the use of foreignizing translation can enrich and expand the vocabulary and syntax of the target language, which is beneficial to the maturity and perfection of the target language. Around the 19th century, when German romantic writers and translators were translating foreign works, they paid great attention to absorbing some vocabulary and special expressions from foreign literary works to enrich the German language. In their view, the development of German is not yet perfect, and it is necessary to enrich and expand the German language through translation. Under the guidance of this kind of thinking, they showed great importance to the language form of the original text. (Zhang Jinlan 2003, 65)

3.1.2. The Need of Cultural Exchanges

Each country and nation has its own unique culture, which all have contributed to the development of world civilization. The prosperity and development of world culture depend more on the further development of these cultures in their own fields rather than extinction. The existence of translation problems actually defaults to the existence of cultural diversity. If there is only one language and one culture in the world, there will naturally be no translation problems. The characteristics of foreignizing translation actually tolerate the diversity of national culture to the maximum extent, which is also the need of the cultural exchanges

Lu Xun advocated foreignizing translation, believing that it can import new content and new expressions. Through translation, we can achieve a deeper and more accurate understanding of the differences between cultures and the specific expressions of various ethnic languages.In the process of cultural input, foreignizing translation is essential if we want to understand the most authentic and essential culture of the source language. Correct cultural cognition is a prerequisite for cultural exchange. For example, most Westerners believe in Christianity, and they believe that God is the only savior of the world. Westerners' ideology, value system, religious beliefs, ethics, and even behaviors are all derived from Christian culture. As the carrier of culture, language is also influenced by religious culture. For this kind of proverbs, some translators may adopt the domesticating translation method, translating "God helps those who help themselves" as "自助者天助", and translate "The mills of God grind slowly but surely" as "天网恢恢 疏而不漏". It is easier to understand the sentence meaning, but it is unfair for most Chinese readers to lose the chance of knowing the true religious culture of the West. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

Goethe pointed out that everything has a beginning, and readers will eventually become accustomed to it. In short, readers' approval should be viewed from the perspective of development, not confined to temporary choices. This is the only way to multiculturalism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 75) When the phrase "Praise is not pudding" is translated into "赞美不能当饭吃", it is certainly conducive to readers' understanding. But the cultural connotation of pudding for Westerners is completely concealed. The translation of "赞美不能当布丁吃" highlights the importance of pudding in the translation. Another example is the proverb "unkissed, unkind". If it is translated as "不作揖, 不友善" by using domesticating translation method, although such a translation fully conforms to the thinking and habits of the Chinese people, it also causes a lack of the source culture. Therefore, by using the foreignizing translation method, "不亲吻, 不友善" can make readers know the difference between Western and Chinese etiquette, and will reduce obstacles in cultural exchanges. (Zhang Caixia 2019, 246)

3.2. Restrictions on Foreignizing Translation

Foreignizing translation follows the trend of cultural globalization, but not all foreignizing translation works has a positive influence. This is mainly due to the translator's wrong use of foreignizing strategies and the wrong estimation of readers' expectations. Foreignizing translation is not mistranslation and it also requires the correctness of the translated text. At the same time, though foreignizing translation is not reader-oriented, it also needs to consider the readers' expectations in reality.

3.2.1. Accuracy of Translation

Lu Xun’s pursuit of literal translation was ridiculed by Liang Shiqiu and others at that time. Liang Shiqiu said that "reading some of Lu Xun’s translations is just like looking at a map, you have to stretch your fingers to find clues in the syntax." He called his translation "hard translation" ". (Liang Shiqiu 1929) This view is actually biased. “Hard translation” of Lu Xun does not mean mistranslation. Lu Xun said: "Any translation must take both sides into consideration, one of course strives to be easy to understand, and the other preserves the beauty of the original." (Lu Xun 2005, 364-365) It can be seen that he insists on the translation method of faithfulness and smoothness under the premise of emphasizing faith first.

This also brings us some enlightenment for using foreignizing translation strategies. As translation strategies, foreignizing translation and domesticating translation are not alternatives. We emphasize the importance of foreignizing translation, but we do not completely deny the meaning of domestication. In the case of mainly foreignizing translation, domesticating translation is also necessary in some cases. In the translation of some brand names, domesticating translation has become the main translation method due to the type of audience and the occasion. For example, “Revlon” translates to “露华浓” and “Lamer” translates to”海蓝之谜”. The former translation “露华浓” is born from an ancient Chinese poem “云想衣裳花想容, 春风拂槛露华浓”. For”海蓝之谜”, “海” symbolizes the mystery and “蓝” create a beautiful visual impression. These translations meet the aesthetic expectations of Chinese women and are conducive to the sale of goods.

To master the degree of foreignizing translation can make the translation play its due role, otherwise it will make the translated text obscure and difficult to understand and worthless to read. For example, the English proverb “New brooms sweep clean” is difficult for readers of the target language to directly associate with its social meaning. In fact, this proverb means that a person will often do a better job just after taking office. Using foreignizing translation there may influence the readability of the text. In this case, domesticating translation, “新官上任三把火”, is also a good choice.

3.2.2. Readers' Aesthetic Expectations

For foreignizing translation to be accepted, in addition to the correctness of the translated text itself, some social and cultural conditions need to be considered. Schleiermacher proposed two social and cultural conditions for the acceptance and recognition of foreignizing translation: "First, foreign works are highly recognized and popular with the public in the target country; Second, the target language has certain tolerance and adaptability (for foreign language)." (Rainer Schulte ＆ John Biguenet 1992, 48)

For readers in the target country, the foreignizing translation of popular works in the source language country is more likely to have a positive influence. Take China as an example. The closure of the Qing Dynasty has made many foreigners have a stereotype of Chinese culture. Even in the early stage of reforming and opening up in China, some foreigners still think that China is a backward image with braids and are not interested in Chinese culture. Therefore, when Hawkes translated The Story of the Stone, he mainly used domesticating translation. With the deepening of globalization and the rise of China, Chinese culture has begun to occupy an important position in the world. Foreigners are becoming more and more enthusiastic about Chinese culture, and they are more willing to read and understand Chinese literary works. Under such background, Yang Xianyi, a famous Chinese translator,’s foreignizing translation of A Dream of Red Mansions has also been accepted by more and more foreigners. Therefore, when using foreignizing strategies, the influence of the source language country's culture in the target country should be considered.

The view of Schleiermacher is actually put forward from the reader's perspective. When choosing a work of the source language, the translator should consider the reader’s cognitive and aesthetic expectations. "Different readers have different aesthetic tastes, and their emphasis on each function of translation is different" (Gu Zhengkun 1994, 66). The choice of translation strategy for the translated version also depends on the translator's expectations of different readers. However, unlike domesticating translation, foreignizing translation should not be too accommodating to readers. Instead, it should bring new things to readers and innovate on the basis of fully considering the expectations of the readers of the target language. Jiang Chunfang pointed out: "The purpose of translation is to translate all foreign things, plots, and unique sentence structures that we do not have. This is to innovate for our readers." (Jiang Chunfang 1989,3)

3.3. The Influence of Foreignizing Translation on National Culture

The influence of foreignizing translation of national culture is reflected in two aspects: For the source culture, foreignizing translation is beneficial to cultivate the self-confidence of national culture, and enhance the influence of national culture in the world; For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps to avoid national cultural centralism and promotes the development of the local national culture .

3.3.1. The Influence on the Source Culture

For the source culture, foreignizing translation is a manifestation of cultural self-confidence and helps to promote national culture to the world. For example, in the 1830s, in order to realize the cultural rejuvenation of his own nation, the Czech translator John Bowring, on the one hand, used the strategy of foreignizing translation to translate European documents and introduce Western culture to his own people. But on the other hand, he brought the little-known Czech culture to the world of Western civilization through foreignizing translation. His efforts have contributed to the cultural development and the revival of Czech culture (Wang Dalai & Zhang Jinhua. 2002, 105).

When the East is learning from the West, there are also traces of the West being influenced by the East, especially Europe and the United States, but it is far inferior to the former. This is mainly due to the influence of "Western Centrism" or "Western Superiority". Today, the Chinese people know more about the West than the West people know about China, and many excellent Chinese works are unknown in the West. In fact, China, with its long history and glorious heritage, has always had an influence that cannot be ignored in the world. There are The Travels of Marco Polo written by the 13th-century Italian traveler Marco Polo, the History of Chinese Culture written by Matteo Ricci, a Catholic Jesuit in the 17th century ", the "China fever" that prevailed in the UK in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the "Sinology fever" that once swept France, they all confirm that Chinese culture has profoundly influenced the development of civilization in Europe and the entire world.

Therefore, in order to make the broad and profound Chinese culture known by the world, when translating Chinese literary works into foreign languages, foreignizing translation should be adopted. For example, when Pound translated ancient Chinese poems, he followed the linguistic habit of the original language, "copying Chinese syntax" and "English is impossible to read" (Zhao Yiheng 1985, 256-257). The cultural impact of these translations far exceeds the accuracy of its own translation. These translated poems brought Chinese poems to the West. Before Pound, China had no literature commensurate with its name that was popular in English-speaking countries... Pound is the inventor of Chinese poetry, and his translation enables us to deeply understand the true spirit of Chinese poetry. (Xie Qian 2001, 74-79)

The influence of foreignizing translation on the source culture needs to be viewed dialectically. For some "weaker cultures", excessive foreignizing translation will also make translation obscure and difficult to be accepted by the target culture, which loses the basic function of translation. For cultural output, foreignizing translation should be used while ensuring the basic function of translation.

3.3.2. The Influence on the Target Culture

Foreignizing translation can promote national culture development of the target country, and avoid the stalemate caused by cultural centralism. Any kind of culture needs to absorb the essence of a heterogeneous culture to enrich and perfect its own culture. For example, the Chinese took advantage of the Western culture at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In the New Culture Movement, the Chinese completed their own "literary revolution" and created their own new literary system. This is also a process in which Chinese intellectuals actively learn from the West. When people talk about the prosperous times in Chinese history, they are often referred to the Han and Tang dynasties. In fact, in the aspect of literary works, the Han Dynasty is much worse than the Tang Dynasty. The cultural policy of the Han Dynasty was to reject a hundred schools of thought but respect Confucianism only. However, it was different in the Tang Dynasty. The Tang Dynasty was arguably the most open society in Chinese history. As almost free from the restriction of the orthodox thought of the Han Dynasty, it formed a broad mind capable of accommodating cultural forms of different ideological and ideological backgrounds. "Therefore, the cultural and artistic life of the society of the Tang Dynasty, in terms of content and genre all present unprecedented, brilliant colors." (Du Daoming 2000, 9).

In addition, there have been several large-scale cultural reference booms in European history. For example, when Greece learned from Egypt, Rome learned from Greece. When Arabia referred to the Roman Empire, medieval Europe imitated Arabia, and Europe imitated the Byzantine Empire in the Renaissance. Almost every craze prompted a culture to flourish and at the same time promoted the progress of European civilization. Both Chinese and foreign history tell us a truth: a culture can only achieve great development if it has an open spirit and can recognize and respect differences. Just as Liang Qichao said: "The richer the culture of a nation, the stronger its growth ability, this theorem is also" (Wang Kefei 1997, 27). In short, the greater the openness of the culture, the more vigorous the development, the stronger the absorption, and the more prosperous the foreignizing of translation; on the contrary, a culture that is self-proclaimed will stubbornly restrain foreignization.

But foreignizing translation will also have a negative impact on the target language country. When colonialism prevailed, the cultural output of imperialist countries mainly adopted foreignizing translation strategies, which invisibly formed cultural colonization of the "weaker culture". In Modern China, Chinese once had the idea of admiring and fawning on foreign culture, and lost confidence in the local culture. To make foreignizing translation a boost to the development of national culture, it is necessary to enhance cultural self-confidence and make progress on the basis of the local culture of the target country.

4. Conclusion

Foreignizing translation makes readers closer to the author, retains the linguistic characteristics of the source language, and conforms to the diversity of national culture. The development of national languages, from the perspective of vocabulary and sentence patterns, requires foreignizing translation to inject fresh blood in order to achieve self-enrichment and development of the language. In addition to direct communication, indirect communication facilitated by translation is also indispensable for the communication between various ethnic cultures. Foreignizing translation helps the local culture to correctly recognize foreign culture and reduces cultural obstacles in direct communication.

In order to play its role, although the foreignizing translation strategy is necessary, it must follow some restrictions when using it. There are two main points. First, the foreignizing translation must be carried out on the basis of ensuring the correctness of the translation. Second, foreignizing translation should cater to readers’ aesthetic expectations. And readers’ cultural background should be considered when selecting materials and translating. However, foreignization translation does not yield to readers, but innovates for readers on the basis of fully considering the expectations of target language readers.

In the course of practice, foreignizing translation has a different influence on the source culture and the target culture. For the source culture, foreignizing translation helps to make the local culture known in foreign countries, which is a manifestation of cultural confidence. But for weaker cultures, foreignizing translation may also hinder the spread of culture. For the target culture, foreignizing translation helps the local culture absorb the essence of foreign culture and promote the innovation and development of the local culture. However, in the process of absorbing foreign cultures, foreignizing translation may also cause excessive worship of foreign cultures, leading to a lack of self-confidence in local cultures.

In Conclusion, compared with domesticating translation, foreignizing translation embraces the diversity of national culture to a greater extent. At the same time, it needs to follow certain restrictions when applying it. The influence of foreignizing translation on national culture should be viewed dialectically.

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==Analysis of Said's Post-colonial Criticism and Orientalism 姜好 Jiang Hao== Student NO.202020080606

ABSTRACT

This paper is on the analysis of Edward Said’s post-colonial criticism and orientalism. In 1978, Edward Said's Orientalism was published, initiating the study of "post-colonialism" and making it another wave of criticism following structuralism.The post-colonial theory was formed in the 1980s and matured in the mid-1990s, affecting all fields of humanities and social sciences in the West. Its rich theoretical content and strong critical consciousness have made it a symbol of academic change and a relatively new critical method in Europe and America. In his classic work of post-colonial criticism, "Orientalism", American literary and cultural critic Edward Said challenged the traditional Western orientalism, revealing the power discourse implicit in orientalism and the mechanisms by which it operates. Said's post-colonial critique of Orientalism reveals to us the emergence, formation and authority of political and ideological factors, cultural forces and their resulting "inherent modes of domination" in Orientalism, and the generative and inherited nature of these factors, making people rethink and interpret comprehensively the authoritative forms of knowledge and social identity created by colonialism and Western domination.

A Comparative Study of Chinese Versions of Uncle Tom’s Cabin: From the Perspective of Hermeneutics 管钦清 Guan Qinqing

ABSTRACT

Hermeneutics is a discipline that studies understanding and interpretation, and its development is inseparable from translation. Both literary translation and non-literary translation are inseparable from the understanding and interpretation of the original text. The nature of translation determines that the relationship between hermeneutic theory and translation studies is extremely close. This article is guided by Gadamer's hermeneutics. Based on the core concepts of historical understanding, prejudice, and fusion of horizons, this article will discuss how these related factors, such as historical ideology, translator's attitude, language fusion, cultural filtering, and translator's subjectivity, work and embody in the Chinese versions of Uncle Tom's cabin. This article first explains Gadamer's hermeneutics. Then the author and translator of Uncle Tom’s Cabin are introduced. Under the guidance of the above theory, the different translation strategies adopted by different Chinese versions and their reasons are analyzed from different perspectives. Through the above analysis, I draw some inspiration from it: the existence of multiple translation versions and the retranslation of literary works are reasonable. Translation works from different historical contexts can reflect the spirit of a particular era. And hermeneutics can provide reasonable explanations for some translation phenomena that are influenced and determined by the context of social culture and history, and it is very suitable for studying translation works that appeared in different periods.

摘 要

解释学是一门研究理解和解释的学科，其发展与翻译密不可分。无论是文学翻译还是非文学翻译，都离不开原文的理解和解释，翻译的这种性质决定了解释学理论与翻译研究之间的关系是极其密 切的。本文主要是从伽达默尔的解释学角度出发，根据理解的历史性、偏见和视域融合这几个核心概念，论述历史意识形态、译者态度、语言融合、文化过滤以及译者主体性等相关因素在斯托夫 人的Uncle Tom’s Cabin中译本中的体现及作用。本文首先对伽达默尔的解释学进行了阐述。随后介绍了Uncle Tom’s Cabin的原文作者以及译者，并在以上理论基础的指导下，从不同的角度对 译本所采取的不同的翻译策略及其原因进行了分析。通过以上分析，笔者从中得出启示：多个译本同时存在以及文学名著重译现象的存在是合理的。产生于不同历史环境的译作，能够反映特定的 时代精神。而解释学能为一些由社会文化历史语境影响和决定的翻译现象提供合理的解释，并且十分适用于研究不同时期出现的译作。

Introduction

Uncle Tom’s Cabin is a novel against slavery published by American writer Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852. The novel's views on African-Americans and American slavery have had far-reaching influences, and to some extent intensified local conflicts that led to the American Civil War. The novel was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book, second only to the best-selling book, the Bible), and was considered a major reason for the rise of abolitionism in the 1850s. In the first year of its publication, it sold 300,000 copies in the United States. The impact of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on American society was so great that during the early days of the Civil War, when Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he said, "You are the little woman who caused a great war."

The influence of Uncle Tom’s Cabin on the Chinese translation industry is self-evident. As the first American novel was translated into Chinese, this novel first appeared in China in the form of classical Chinese in 1901. Its name was《黑奴吁天录》 and translated by translators Lin Shu and Wei Yi. After the publication of《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a strong response from readers and caused a certain impact on the consciousness of Chinese readers. The second version of Uncle Tom’s Cabin in China was translated by Mr. Huang Jizhong, entitled 《汤姆大伯的小屋》 and published in 1982. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's Uncle Tom's Cabin was its fidelity to the original text. The translation was very popular once it was launched. 59,000 copies were printed in the first edition, and another 30,000 copies were soon printed, all sold out. These two translation works had different production time and different translation methods, but they both enduring have many readers. Why can a foreign novel be retranslated many times in China, and all kinds of completely different translation works can enjoy their respective reputations, and have been sought after by readers of different times? Why these two very different translation methods so successful? The above issues aroused my attention.

Hermeneutics is a philosophical theory that explains and understands text. For the first time in the 20th century, translation theorist George Steiner put translation into hermeneutics and pointed out that language is constantly changing. With the continuous development of hermeneutics, the German philosopher Gadamer established a systematic philosophical hermeneutics and put forward the three principles of "history of understanding", "fusion of horizons", and "history of effects" in his works. These three principles can be used to explain many translation phenomena and translation theories in the history of Chinese and foreign translation, and have high reference value. In view of this, the author decided to use Gadamer's hermeneutics as a theoretical guide. Focusing on the analysis of the two versions of Uncle Tom's Cabin, I will research and discuss the issues raised above, and draw inspiration from them to provide a way for literary translation.

1.Literature Review

This chapter will give a brief introduction to hermeneutics from three aspects: the development of hermeneutics, Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics, and Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies.

1.1. Development of Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics has a profound historical origin and is an ancient and well-established science. Traditional hermeneutics is not a specific philosophical school, but a philosophical theory of meaning, understanding, and interpretation. Its history can be traced back to ancient Greece. The term Hemeneutics is the name of Hemes, the messenger of the Greek gods. He accepted the will of Zeus and explained it to human beings, and also passed on the human claims to Zeus and the gods. The core of hermeneutics is the "interpretation" of problem. The academic community generally believes that hermeneutics can be divided into three stages: classical hermeneutics, modern hermeneutics and philosophical hermeneutics（郑立平，易新奇，2015：101-104）.

The core of classical hermeneutics is theological hermeneutics, which mainly involves the translation and understanding of the Bible. As a translator, the interpreter must explain the ambiguous and vague words that appear in the Bible. Therefore, classical hermeneutics is mainly a technique to convert hidden divinity into a language understandable to ordinary people, which mainly serves the spread of religion and promotes the promotion of the Bible and its teachings. With the continuous secularization of religious classics, hermeneutics has evolved from a single interpretation of the Bible into an interpretation of classic literary works. After the introduction of literary research, it gradually became a research method that pursued objectivity and tried to get rid of subjective will. Both F. Schleier-macher and W. Dilthey were deeply influenced by this methodological consciousness, and continuously promoted the development of hermeneutics, making hermeneutics a subject of interpretive methods. Modern hermeneutics began at the end of the 19th century, and its representative was Dilthey. Dilthey put forward the hermeneutics of "historical rational critique", concerned about how the hermeneutics in a specific historical context can objectively understand other historical performances. Hermeneutics is no longer considered as an inquiry into the author's psychological intentions, but rather as an interpretation of the world of existence shown in the text.

Philosophical hermeneutics, represented by German philosophers Heidegger and Gadamer, is a fundamental change in hermeneutics. They changed the ontology of philosophical hermeneutics, so they are called philosophical hermeneutics. “Unlike previous practical philosophy, this type of hermeneutics as a dual task of theory and practice lies in restoring Aristotle's concept of practical wisdom” (洪汉鼎，2010:459).And this article uses Gadamer's philosophical hermeneutics as a theoretical guide to analyze the translation.

1.2. Gadamer's Philosophical Hermeneutics

Gadamer always believed that the term "Hermeneutics" came from Hermes "Hermes", one of the twelve main gods of ancient Greece, so he believed that the interpretation must include the acceptance and performance of the recipient, that is, understanding and explaining. On the basis of inheriting Heidegger's thought, Gadamer deepened his thought of understanding. He further developed hermeneutics into philosophical hermeneutics, and pushed hermeneutics to prosperity. Gadamer opposed the hermeneutics that stood before him in an objective position. He believed that understanding is not an act of reproduction, but should be an act of creation. He believed that the author's "intent" does not exist, and the search for the author's "intent" is also futile.

As mentioned earlier, Gadamer's hermeneutics has three main principles: historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and history of effects. From the "historicity of understanding", Gadamer believed that understanding is historical, and the history of understanding constitutes the bias of understanding, which determines the creativity and generation of understanding. Gadamer believed that the historicity of understanding will inevitably lead to prejudice, but the existence of such prejudice is reasonable. The second is the principle of horizon fusion. Gadamer believed that understanding is the way of existence of history, so both the subject and the object of understanding are the existence of history, and both have their own horizons. In the process of understanding, the translator should be as close as possible to the original horizon of the original author to achieve a fusion of horizons. The last principle is effect history. The effect history principle emphasizes understanding the work from the effect history of the work, which closely links history with the present and fully affirms the significance of ancient texts to contemporary society. Understanding Gadamer's history of effects helps us understand the need to retranslate a classic. These three principles of Gadamer provided an important theoretical basis for us to understand and explain some long-running issues in translation theory and translation practice.

1.3. Hermeneutics' Guide to Translation Studies

As mentioned earlier, literary translation and hermeneutical theory are inseparable. Essentially, literary translation is an art of understanding and expressing meaning. It is a process of re-creation through interpretation. At present, hermeneutics is recognized as a valid theory for translation studies. Translation studies based on hermeneutics have broken the traditional inherent understanding of traditional translation theory on some issues, and raised questions and challenges to traditional translation theory. Among them, the guidance of hermeneutics on translation studies is mainly reflected in the following aspects.

First: the historical nature of understanding explained the misreading phenomenon. The historical nature of understanding means that the specific historical environment, historical status, and historical conditions of the translator are different from the object of understanding. Readers always have historical prejudice in the process of understanding the original text, because they cannot transcend historical space and time to objectively understand the original text. Hermeneutics' re-understanding and definition of this prejudice also provides a philosophical basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. Gadamer believed that there is no so-called normative interpretation of a text（章启群，2002:77）. And this prejudice is a positive factor formed in history and tradition. Scholars should treat this existence correctly and should not regard it as a part that should be eliminated.

Second: The principle of fusion of horizons explains the phenomenon of cultural filtering. The principle of horizon fusion theoretically confirms the historical roots of cultural filtering phenomenon in translation and the inevitable existence of cultural filtering phenomenon. Although the translator should strive to approach the original vision of the original author and understand the author's original intention, in fact, the translator always inevitably brings the world he is familiar with into the strange world of the original text.

Third：The principle of effective history explains the multiple translation versions of famous works. Gadamer believed that the text is open and its meaning is never endless. The text goes beyond the historical era in which it was created. This provides the possibility for people of different ages to understand the same text differently. Human beings are constantly developing. In the process of development, they constantly surpass themselves, renew their history, and rethink themselves and their culture. This provides a reasonable explanation for the phenomenon of retranslation of famous works.

2.A Brief Introduction of the Original Author and Two Translators

This chapter will give a brief introduction to the original author and two translators to strengthen your understanding of the background of the original text and the two translation versions.

2.1. Harriet Beecher Stowe

Harriet Beecher Stowe is an American writer. She was born on June 14, 1811 in a well-known pastor family in North America, and died in 1896. The American Civil War was fought in the 1860s. But since the 1920s, the issue of abolition of slaves has become a central issue in American progressive opinion. At that time, many famous American writers were on the side of abolishing slaves, calling for the liberation of slaves. Mrs. Stowe was one of the most outstanding among these slave writers.

Mrs. Stowe has been influenced by theology since she was a child, and she has spent her entire life in a religious atmosphere. When Mrs. Stowe was fourteen, their entire family has moved to Boston and has moved to Cincinnati a few years later. At the time, the outskirts of Cincinnati were dotted with large serf farms. It was one of the centers of the abolitionist movement in North America then, and heated speeches against slavery were often heard in urban areas. Mrs. Stowe had fugitive slaves in her home, which gave her the opportunity to hear the tragic experience of fugitive slaves. After that, Mrs. Stowe got another chance to visit several plantations in Maysville, Kentucky with her friends, and witnessed the tragic situation of slaves. Those plantations were the prototype of the Shelby plantation in Uncle Tom's Cabin. This novel extensively describes the brutal oppression and exploitation of slaves by slave owners throughout the southern United States, and portrays the cruelty of slaves in various forms. The novel also describes different types of slave images. Once Uncle Tom's cabin came out, it attracted great attention and response at home and abroad. When the former President of the United States Lincoln met Mrs. Stowe, he jokingly called her “a little woman who brought a war". This joke also fully reflects the huge influence of Uncle Tom's cabin.

2.2. Lin Shu

Lin Shu, a famous writer and translator in modern China, has made outstanding contributions to the translation of Chinese literature. Lin Shu had a profound and solid knowledge of ancient writing. But he did not understand foreign languages, and his translations were all done in cooperation with others. In cooperation with others, Lin Shu has translated 246 works involving 107 writers in 11 countries, and made indelible contributions to the introduction of Western literature. Uncle Tom's Cabin was Lin Shu's second translation work, and it was also a popular work translated at the peak of his translation career. This translation work can reflect Lin Shu's translation technique and his characteristics.

At that time, China was facing aggression by the Allied Forces of the Eight Kingdoms, and the Qing government signed the Peace Protocol of 1901. In this context, Lin Shu's enthusiasm for anti-imperialist and national salvation was stirred. He wanted to translate some works that can open up people's wisdom and inspire them. So Lin Shu and Wei Yi co-translated Mrs. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin. Both of them had a strong sense of political mission in translating this work. After the publication of 《黑奴吁天录》, it caused a great response among the readers at that time. Translator Lin Shu ’s anti-imperialist thoughts in his translation work resonate emotionally with readers, directly stimulating readers’ anti-imperialist consciousness. In the treatment of the original works, Lin Shu made conscious cuts. Most of the unfaithful parts of his translations have adopted translation strategies of amplification and omission. From the perspective of traditional linguistic translation theories, Lin Shu may not be a successful translator. But from the perspective of hermeneutics and culture, the existence of Lin Shu's translation method is reasonable.《黑奴吁天录》was Lin Shu's representative translation, which can fully reflect Lin Shu's translation style. Far from Lin Shu's translation style was Huang Jizhong's Unc《汤姆大伯的小屋》，and I will elaborate on the translator Huang Jizhong below.

2.3. Huang Jizhong

Huang Jizhong was born on September 28, 1923 in a literary family in Ji'an, Jiangxi. He lost his father in his early years, and he followed his grandfather studying in Shanghai since childhood. He is good at Chinese and English and loves literary translation. In addition to teaching related courses, he has devoted himself to the translation of famous books for many years. As early as 1956, Huang Jizhong accepted the invitation of Shanghai Literature and Art Publishing House to translate Uncle Tom's Cabin. His original plan was to complete the translation work in two years, but due to external shocks, it could not be published as scheduled. Later, this novel was retranslated in 1982 and published by Shanghai Translation Publishing House. Once this edition of Uncle Tom's Cabin was published, it was warmly welcomed by readers. A major feature of Huang Jizhong's《汤姆大伯的小屋》 was its faithfulness to the original text, and another feature was the use of translation method of foreignization. The translation style of Uncle Tom's Cabin in Huang Jizhong's version was very different from Lin Shu's version, which was of great research value. Therefore, I chose the translated versions of Huang Jizhong and Lin Shu for comparative research.

3. A Comparison of Two Chinese Versions from Gadamer's Hermeneutics

The professor of Poetics and Comparative Literature Gideon Toury once said that translation is inevitably involves at least two languages and two cultural traditions (Toury, 2001:56). Professor Chen Hongwei of China also said that translation involves not only language conversion, but also cultural translation（陈宏薇，2004：24）. Therefore, in the following chapter, the two translation works will be analyzed from a cultural and linguistic perspective.

3.1. Comparative Analysis from a Linguistic Perspective

The two translators use different languages because they are in different eras. Lin Shu used classical Chinese, while Huang Jizhong used vernacular Chinese. Then they must have many differences in translation. Next, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we will analyze the differences between the two translation works from a linguistic perspective in three aspects.

3.1.1. Contrastive Discourse Analysis

Since the two translators come from different historical times, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also different. In terms of translation methods, Lin Shu adopted intercompilation while Huang Jizhong adopted complete translation. Examples are as follows:

1. “Here the door opened, and a small quadroon boy, between four and five years of age, entered the room. There was something in his appearance remarkably beautiful and engaging. His black hair, fine as floss silk, hung in glossy curls about his round, dimpled face, while a pair of large dark eyes, full of fire and softness, looked out from beneath the rich, long lashes, as he peered curiously into the apartment. A gay robe of scarlet and yellow plaid, carefully made and neatly fitted, set off to advantage the dark and rich style of his beauty; and a certain comic air of assurance, blended with bashfulness, showed that he had been not unused to being petted and noticed by his master.”(Stowe, 2011:3)

林译：语至此，门辟，陡入一稚子，约四五岁，貌绝慧黠，雏发未燥，笑处辄动微涡，两目精光耿然。见海留，意殊骇。海留见其服饰之善，心知此奴必为主人主妇所厚昵者。(林纾&魏易，1981：4)

黄译：正在这当儿，房门开了。一个四、五岁左右的第二代混血男孩走了进来。这孩子相貌长得分外清秀，特别逗人喜爱。圆圆的脸蛋上有一对酒窝，头上覆盖着一圈圈光滑、鬈曲、细如绢丝的黑头发；一双又大又黑、柔和而炯炯有光的眼睛，从两道浓浓的长睫毛下面好奇地向屋内张望着。他身穿一件黄格子花呢的罩衫；手工精制，剪裁合身，越发衬托出这孩子黝黑、浓郁的俊秀劲儿；那种悠然自得、滑稽有趣而又略带羞涩的神态，表明他惯常得到东家的青睐和宠爱。（黄继忠，1993:3）

This paragraph comes from the first chapter of Uncle Tom’s Cabin, where the original book vividly describes the cute image of the son of the slave Eliza who owned by Shelby. Comparing the two translations, Lin Shu's translation is in classical Chinese, and in his character description, Lin Shu used a compilation method，omitting many details. However, Huang Jizhong's translation is in vernacular form, and every detail of the original text has been translated in detail by Huang Jizhong. The original text of this paragraph consists of 122 words. Lin Shu's translation is only 62 words, while Huang Jizhong's translation is as many as 183 words. Before the New Culture Movement in the late Qing Dynasty, vernacular Chinese were not welcomed by literati and intellectuals, let alone let them write or translate in vernacular Chinese. The specific society in which Lin Shu lived formed his inherent horizon, which also determined his choice to translate in classical Chinese. In the era of Huang Jizhong, vernacular Chinese have been popular throughout the country, and have become popular in all classes. Therefore, Huang Jizhong must also translate in vernacular texts. According to hermeneutics, translating a work is a process in which the translator brings his own specific horizon into the historical horizon of the text. It is not a process of letting the interpreter abandon his own horizon, nor is it a horizon replacement. In this example, two translators both are in their own specific field of horizon and try to merge with the field of horizon of the original author, resulting in different translated texts. Gadamer's view of the fusion of the two horizons, to a certain extent, shows the essence of translation, especially literary translation. (谢天振，2000：204) "Fusion of Horizons " overcomes the time gap and historical gap between the text and the interpreter, and the infinite process of understanding and discovery of text meaning is also achieved through " Fusion of Horizons ".

3.1.2. Contrastive Study of Lexicon

Literary translation is an aesthetic re-creation process that is completed through interpretation, that is, the process of including the translator's acceptance and release of information. Lin Shu was proficient in Chinese, and he regarded translation as a creative process. Therefore, in the process of releasing the information, he incorporated his own opinions and adopted the translation strategies of amplification and revision. However, Huang Jizhong's horizon is different from Lin Shu's, so his method of receiving and releasing information was also different. For examples:

2. “I’m sorry to say that I am,” said Mr. Shelby. “I’ve agreed to sell Tom” (Stowe, 2011:44)

林译：解而培忸怩久之，曰：“吾已署券卖汤姆矣！” (林纾&魏易，1981：14)

黄译：“很抱歉，”谢尔贝先生答道，“我已经答应把汤姆卖给他了。” （黄继忠，1993:30）

This example is from Chapter 5 of the original text. In this case, Lin Shu added the word "忸怩久之", showing Shelby's entangled heart and the fear of her wife's blame. Looking back at the original text, there is no word in the original text that can express the meaning of "忸怩". However, Huang Jizhong was faithful to the original text here, and didn’t add or subtract words from the original text. In Gadamer's hermeneutic theory, there is the concept of "pre-understanding". Pre-understanding refers to the fact that people are influenced by the specific historical environment, historical conditions, historical status, etc. they are in when they understand texts or recognize things. People always carry certain subjective consciousness elements such as emotion, knowledge, and will when they observe and recognize external things. The word "忸怩" added by Lin Shu here embodies the concept of "pre-understanding"，and shows that Lin Shu brought his emotions into his translation work.It's“Rather, we stand always within tradition, and this is no objectifying process, ie we do not conceive of what tradition says as something other, something alien. It is always part of us, a model or exemplar, a recognition of ourselves which our later historical judgment would hardly see as a kind of knowledge, but as the simplest preservation of tradition.” (Gadamer H, 1999:250) Gadamer believes that every interpretation is based on a pre-existing basis. In order to understand something, we must first have it. We cannot understand something that is not part of our overall world. Our understanding of things is based on our own existing knowledge system. That is, we rely on our existing knowledge and experience to understand and explain phenomena and things. Therefore, translators must have their own "pre-understanding" in the process of understanding and translating the source text.

3. But real gentlemen, such as I hopes you’ll be, never let fall no words that isn’t respectful to their parents. (Stowe, 2011:132)

林译:盖极望吾小主为一代伟人,万勿肆口出言,以逢二亲之怒。(林纾&魏易，1981：45)

黄译:我希望你将来做个正人君子,而一个正人君子是决不会说一句不尊敬父母的话的。（黄继忠，1993:94）

When Uncle Tom said goodbye to his little master George, he expressed his expectations for the little master ---- be a real gentleman. Lin Shu translated this as "一代伟人", thereby expressing his strong desire to change the status quo. Huang Jizhong translated it as "正人君子". "正人君子" used to refer to people with good conduct. It was the ultimate goal of ancient China and had a profound influence in Chinese history. Lin Yupeng, a translator born after the two translators, translated this as "真正的绅士". It can be seen from this that translators in different eras are very different in the translation of the same word due to the influence of the era at that time. In addition, there are some examples in the text, such as "married" and "my wife" were translated by two translators as "出阁", "结婚" and "吾妻", "内人" respectively. These are the two concepts of hermeneutics---"effective history" and "pre-understanding". The so-called effect history means that history produces effects by restricting our historical understanding. Here, the translation of the same text by the two translators is consistent with their own social and historical environment. The social environment and social development of the era in which the two translators lived both affected and restricted the two translators' understanding of the original text. During the translation process, the translator will let his pre-understanding and experience come into play, thus forming different understanding and expression of the same text. Because of this, there will be different versions of the same literary work in the same era, and different versions of the same literary work will appear in different times. Therefore, the co-existence of the two versions of Uncle Tom's cabin in completely different styles is reasonable from the point of view of Gadamer's hermeneutics. Similarly, the retranslation of other literary texts and the existence of multiple versions of translation works are also reasonable.

3.1.3. Contrastive Study of Syntax

4.“But why, of all others, choose these?” said Mrs. Shelby. “Why sell them, of all on the place, if you must sell at all.” (Stowe, 2011:44)

林译：爱密柳曰：“君既欲卖，胡不再谋，而必卖此二人？尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人,小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” (林纾&魏易，1981：14)

黄译：“可是为什么偏偏要挑这两个呢？”谢尔贝太太问道：“即使非买不可，在园上这么些黑人，为什么一定要卖他们呢？” （黄继忠，1993:30）

In this example, Lin Shu added “尔知汤姆为极忠挚义之人，小海雷又意里赛独子，尔何忍心鬻此二人？纵为势所迫，亦何必属之此伧？” to express the anger of Shelby's wife and her extreme disapproval of Shelby's behavior. On the whole, Lin Shu adopted the strategy of free translation here, while Huang Jizhong's translation was quite consistent with the original text, using the strategy of literal translation.

According to Gadamer's hermeneutics, as special readers, translators selectively accept textual information due to historical factors of their own understanding ，and incorporate their own aesthetic concepts into their translation works. Therefore, their translation methods will also be different. The interpretation of artistic works is closely related to the translator's understanding and expression of the source text in the translation process. “Translation is a dynamic process from understanding to expression, and the master of this process is the translator.” ( 柳晓辉, 2010: 125 )Translators cross the barriers of different languages and cultures and build a bridge between the source language and the target text. However, as Gadamer emphasizes, the text is open to all ages and enters into the field of meaning of the understander, so the translator's interpretation will inevitably conflict with the objective existence. To this end, translators must play an active and subjective role and adopt different strategies for selection and adaptation. Here, Lin Shu integrated his own aesthetic concepts into his translation work and exerted his own subjectivity, thus forming a different translation version from Huang Jizhong. This also further reveals that the interpretation of text in the translation process from the perspective of hermeneutics can reveal the process and mechanism of translator's understanding of text in translation activities.

5. …and the arrangements of the house, and the general air of the housekeeping, indicated easy, and even opulent circumstances. (Stowe, 2011: 2)

林纾：其一人文秀，家亦少康，名解而培。(林纾&魏易，1981：3)

黄继忠：跟他一起谈话的那位谢尔贝先生倒是个绅士模样的人；屋子里的陈设和气派都说明此人家道小康，甚至可以说得上颇为富裕。（黄继忠，1993:1）

This example comes from the first chapter of the novel. At the beginning of the article, the author introduces the characters of the novel. Comparing the translations of the two translators, we can see that Lin Shu's translation should be more concise and refined. The original author's description of the environment has been deleted in Lin Shu's translation. It may be that the translator believed that this was not important for the development of the novel. This long sentence of the original text was simplified by Lin Shu to four words "家亦少康", while the translation version of Huang Jizhong almost matched the original content. In the translation of this sentence, the translation methods adopted by the two translators are also completely different.

In the field of translation, people often liken translators to shackled dancers. This metaphor vividly describes that while the translator is restricted by the original author and the original text during the translation process, he must use his subjective initiative to reshape the work. Traditional translation theory values the author and the original text, treats the original as authority, and treats "faithfulness" as the highest standard of translation. Hermeneutics redefines the "prejudice" caused by the historicity of understanding, and provides an effective basis for the translator's subjectivity and the rationality of creative treason in the field of translation studies. In the above two examples, the two translators, while being influenced by the historical society in which they are located, also gave full play to their subjectivity, especially Lin Shu. This also tells us that the translator's subjectivity plays an important role in literary translation.

3.2. Comparative Analysis from A Cultural Perspective

British anthropologist Taylor believes that culture is "a complex whole including knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs, and other abilities and habits learned by people as members of society".(Hebding&Glick,1992：37) Language is the carrier of culture. A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture. When translators translate one text into another language，the translator must bring the characteristics of his own culture when reading and interpreting the source text because the translator's language and culture are different from the original author's culture.

3.2.1. Analysis from A Religious Perspective

A major feature of Uncle Tom’s Cabin is that it contains a lot of religious elements. In translating this religious content, the two translators took radically different approaches. That is, Lin Shu's selective translation of religious content, most of which is carried over or not translated directly. However, Huang Jizhong conveyed the Western religious intentions to his readers at that time. For example:

6. “…, but I didn’t think any Christian legislature would pass it！” (Stowe, 2011: 95)

林纾：吾思文明之国，法当不如此。 (林纾&魏易，1981：34)

黄继忠：但是我相信任何一个基督教国家的立法机关都不会通过这种法令的。（黄继忠，1993:72）

In the above example, "Christian" is an exact word for Christ. In the translations of the two translators, Lin Shu chose to omit it, while Huang Jizhong chose the method of literal translation. This was not only related to the era in which the two lived, but the play of the two translators ’subjectivity also played a great role. In the era which Lin Shu was, although Christianity had begun to spread on the land of China, the public acceptance rate was still low. Therefore, Lin Shu omitted the relevant words or used some words with Chinese culture to replace them. By the time Huang Jizhong was in, people's acceptance of these words had greatly increased. Therefore, it is appropriate to choose the method of literal translation.

This difference stems from the historical environment and historical status of the two translators being different from the object of understanding, which is the historicity of understanding. Translators and readers will always incorporate what belongs to their time in the process of understanding the original text, and that is what we called historicity. The purpose of translation is not limited to conveying the original intention of the original author, which reasonably explains the "misreading" phenomenon in translation. Lin Shu's downplay of religious content in the original work is an interesting phenomenon of "misreading". This "misreading" also gives us a good explanation of why the same religious content can be understood and interpreted in two different ways.

7.There were others，which made incessant mention of “Jordan’s bank”,and “Canaan’s field”, and the “New Jerusalem”. (Stowe, 2011: 46) In the above example, there are many religious words, such as "Jordan ’s bank", "Canaan ’s field", and "New Jerusalem". Lin Shu chose to omit them, while Huang Jizhong chose to translate them literally, translating them into “约旦河岸”、“迦南战场”and“新耶路撒冷”. These words are all from Bible and contain a wealth of referential meanings. The development of Christianity in China in the two eras was different, which was the key reason for the difference in translation between the two translators. Lin Shu's translation version is related to his era, and is closely connected with his own translation purpose. The different translation versions of the two translators are in line with their own horizons and knowledge structure, and they can also meet the readers' expectations. The different treatment methods for the religious content appearing in the original text fully reflect the translator's subjectivity and creativity. Both translators have contributed wonderful translation versions to readers of different eras.

From a perspective fusion perspective, Gadamer believes that "the horizon is the area of view, and this area encompasses everything that can be seen from a certain standpoint." Understanding is to place yourself in the traditional process, to make the past and the present continually merge. The so-called translation is that in a cross-cultural historical context, a historic translator blends his horizon with the horizon of the original text to form a new horizon, and the process of re-fixing the new horizon to form a new text with language symbols infiltrating the target language culture. (朱健平，2006:69-74)The main body of understanding (translator or reader) and the author of the original text have their own unique horizons. When the original works cross different nationalities, languages, and eras, and enter a completely strange social and cultural context, translators can only play creatively to make his own views closing to the horizon and historical environment of the original author. However, no matter how hard the translator tries to enter the thoughts and feelings of the original author or imagine himself as the original author, he cannot completely get rid of the original vision, nor can he really enter the author's vision. Therefore, the translator has to form a new horizon between the horizon of the strange original author and the horizon of his own. Creative treason is a necessity in understanding. The generation of meaning requires creative thinking and moderate treason under normative constraints.

3.2.2. Analysis from Cultural Image

Gadamer pointed out in Truth and Method that understanding is not a process of reproduction, but a process of creation. It can also be said that as long as people are thinking, different understandings will arise. For some cultural images in the original work, the translations of the two translators are also different. For example：

8. As a fire in her bones, the thought of the pursuer urged her on.（Stowe, 2011:73）

林译：而意里赛此时，心绪兔起鹘。（林纾&魏易，1981：25）

黄译：一想起后面的追兵，她就五内如焚。急着想向前逃命。（黄继忠，1993：49）

The word "fire" was used to describe Eliza's internal fear and anxiety while she was trying to save her son when the disaster came. Here, Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals, rabbit and falcon. In traditional Chinese culture, rabbits are docile and fragile, just like Eliza; and falcons are agile and fierce birds, just like black slave traders. Huang Jizhong translated “fire” into “五内如焚”, which vividly reproduced Eliza's anxious heart at the time. Lin Shu used domestication here, while Huang Jizhong used alienation.

In the above example, the horizon of the two translators and the original author merged in different forms, thus forming two different translation versions. While the translator strives to get closer to the original author's horizon, the two translators also strive to integrate with the horizon of the readers of their time, so they adopted a more acceptable expression for the target reader of the time. The language used in China in Lin Shu ’s time was classical Chinese, and the expression was more obscure, so Lin Shu replaced “fire” with two animals to reflect the characters in the text. In the era of Huang Jizhong, literature has further developed, and the official language used in China has also become vernacular, so he used the four-word "五内如焚" to translate. The reason why two different translation methods can be accepted by the target readers of the era is that the translator tried hard to integrate with the reader's horizon.

From the perspective of hermeneutics, the text is only a semi-finished product, which is in the process of understanding. The meaning of the text and the translator's understanding are in a constantly changing process, and they are constantly evolving. Understanding is not a one-time act, but an endless process of integration between the "Horizon" of original text and the translator’s "Horizon". Each understanding is a process of generating textual meaning. The possibilities of textual meaning are endless, and textual meaning is a source of endless meaning.

9. The married couple were enjoying their honeymoon.（Stowe, 2011:215）

林译：彼夫妇在蜜月期内，……（蜜月者，西人娶妇时，即挟其妇游历，经月而归）。(林纾&魏易，1981:75)

黄译：正值新婚夫妇在……欢度蜜月，……（黄继忠，1993：143）

A text is generated from a specific cultural context, and it must also include the characteristics of the culture（李磊，2008）.In the above example, Lin Shu used the method of literal translation and annotation when translating the word "honeymoon", so that the readers at the time could understand it. At that time, there was little cultural exchange between China and the West, so if Lin Shu used the literal translation method, it may cause readers to be unable to understand the word. Here Lin Shu adopted the method of annotation to translate the word, which is also a reflection of his efforts to integrate with the reader's horizon. Huang Jizhong directly adopted the literal translation method to convey the original imagery. Both the original text and the translated text exist in their respective historical conditions and horizons. Even if the translator tries his best to enter the world of the meaning of the original text and try to understand the intention of the original author, it will inevitably impose her own ideas and purposes. Coupled with the different historical environments of the two translators, the translation strategies used by them are certainly different.

From the perspective of hermeneutics, literary translation is actually a process of interaction between text and readers. Because readers of different times are constrained by their own experience, intelligence, and aesthetic tastes, they have different expectations and evaluations of the translated text. The Reception Aesthetic theory pays much attention to the reader and emphasis on the uncertainty of the text, which have brought about a diversity of values and an open way of thinking. (邹广胜，2001，（4）：2) . Understanding of the text is inseparable from the initiative of the reader. The translated text must also exist in the creativity and participation of readers. Readers of different ages have different understandings of the same cultural image. Therefore, in the process of translation, the translator should not only merge with the horizon of the original text, but also the horizon of the readers that the translation work is aimed at. Only in this way, the works translated by the translator can be understood by the readers of the time, and can be admired by the readers. The majority of our translators can draw enlightenment: when translating, while observing the principles of "faithfulness, elegance, and elegance", we must also take into account the reader's understanding.

Conclusion

In the above, under the guidance of hermeneutics, we have conducted a comparative analysis of the two Chinese versions. Through the above analysis, the three major concepts contained in hermeneutics—historicity of understanding, fusion of horizons, and effective history have brought us some inspirations: 1.The existence of multiple translations is reasonable. Translation is a special interpretative act, which is based on the translator's own understanding, so it will inevitably carry the personal trace of the translator. Based on their different experiences and views, translators make different interpretations of the same text in the process of translating, resulting in different translation works. 2. Creative treason is inevitable. A correct understanding of "creative treason" will help translators to bravely accept the challenges and find the correct solutions when facing translation difficulties caused by cultural differences between China and the West. 3. The changes of translation works can reflect social change. On the whole, hermeneutics can effectively explain some translation phenomena and provide a new perspective for translation studies.

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The Breakthrough and Innovation of Dong Qiusi’s Translation Thoughts 娄灿灿 Lou Cancan, student no.202070080599

Abstract

Dong Qiusi is a famous Chinese practitioner and thinker in translation. From the second half of the 1940s to the early 1950s, he deeply reflected on many issues in the field of Chinese traditional translation studies and made important contribution to the innovation and development of translation in the middle of the 20th century. During this period, Dong Qiusi put forward some innovative viewpoints of breakthrough sense. For example, he believed that translation criteria should be followed based on different styles and that translation is "re-creation". When it comes to idea that the nature of translation is art, Dong Qiusi argued that translation is theoretical and emphasized the objective regularity of translation, which marked the shift of traditional Chinese translation thoughts from traditional to modern ones. Dong Qiusi initiated the establishment of Chinese translation studies as a discipline. He took the lead in separating translation criticism from traditional translation theories and focused on the two for deep study. He also included the history of translation into the research of translation as a discipline, thus building up a frame of translation studies consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history.

Key words

translation criteria; science;recreation; translation studies as a discipline; translation criticism; translation theory; translation history

题目

董秋斯翻译思想的突破与创新

摘要

董秋斯是我国著名的翻译实践者和思想家。从20世纪40年代下半叶到50年代初，他对中国传统翻译研究领域的许多问题进行了深刻思考，为20世纪中期翻译的创新和发展做出了重要贡献。这一时期，董秋斯提出了一些具有突破性意义的创新观点。例如，他认为不同的风格应该遵循不同的翻译标准且翻译是“再创造”。在谈到翻译的艺术性质时，董秋斯认为翻译是理论性的，强调翻译的客观规律性，这标志着中国传统翻译思想由传统向现代的转变。董秋斯开创了中国翻译研究这门学科的创立，他率先将翻译批评理论与传统翻译理论分离开来，并对两者进行了深入研究。他还把翻译史作为一门学科纳入到翻译研究中，从而形成了由翻译批评、翻译理论和翻译史组成的翻译研究框架。

关键词

翻译标准；科学；再创造；翻译学；翻译批评；翻译理论；翻译历史

1.Brief Introdction of Dong Qiusi

Dong Qiusi, originally named Zhan Shaoming, was born in Jinghai County (today's Tianjin City) in 1899. He graduated from Yanjing University (the predecessor of Beijing University) and in the same year he participated in the Northern Expedition （北伐战争）in 1926， editing the monthly Bloody Road. In 1930, he joined in the launching of the League of Left-Wing Writers and the Council, editing the monthly International. He worked as a secret agent in China for the Communist International during the 1930s. He participated in orginazing the China Association for Promoting Democracy in 1945 and joined the Communist Party of China in 1946. Persecuted during the Great Cultural Revolution in 1969, he died with unjust. Dong Qiusi is a famous and outstanding Chinese literary translator. He had translated more than 50 foreign literary masterpieces in his lifetime. After the founding of the New China, he bacame chairman of the Shanghai Translators'Association, Editor-in-Chief of Translation, copy-editotr of the China Writers Association and Deputy Chief Editor of World Literature. His major translations include David Copperfield, which is now still in print, A Home for the Highland Cattle by Doris Lessing, Cement by Fyodor Gladkov, War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy and so on. (Tian Chuanmao 2013，242)

Not only did Dong work hard as a translator, but he also devoted himself to theoretical research on translation. During his long years of translation practice and work, he kept thinking about translation theories and made great contribution to the development of translation in New China. Early before the founding of the People's Republic of China, he had expressed his views on translation in such papers as On Translation Principles (1946), About Indirect Transalation (1946), and On the Value of Translation (1948). After 1949, he published three papers in Translation Tongbao Magazine, including On the Construction of Criticism and Self-criticism in Translation Circles (1950), the Criteria and Priorities of Translation Criticism (1950) and On the Construction of Translation Theory (1951). The three papers are of great significance for the development of translation theory in China. Dong's translation thought is profound and extensive, covering construction of translation theory, translation criticism, selection of source texts, strategies of foreignization and domestication, recreation in literary translation, relationship between and the value of translation, etc. His views on translation, especially on the construction of Chinese translation theory and translation criticism, are of great importance in the translation history of our country. (庄智象 2017, 901)

2.Dong Qiusi’s Breakthroughs in Translation Thoughts

2.1 Breakthrough in the Traditional Translation Criteria

In terms of translation standards, Dong Qiusi made up for the deficiency of traditional Chinese translation criteria from the perspective of text type. From Buddhist scriptures translation to the middle of 20th century, one-way and simplistic mindset had been throughout the discussion on the issue of translation criteria. people always consciously or unconsciously sought a unique and right translation criterion as their ultimate pursuit and most people were prone to deem the translation for literary texts as the reference. There is doubt that we all hope that translation standards are as simple as possible, and that one standard can function as solution to all problems in translation. However, practice has proved that it is not feasible for the complex work of translation. With the increasing various text types, unified translation standard can barely guide all types of translation practice. When discussing translation standards, most people only consider the relatively single text types they are exposed to, namely Buddhist scripture, social science or literature. Few take it into account that translation standards should vary depending on the type of text. Dong Qiusi was aware of this matter as early as 1946, and it is probably not enough to judge that he had a keen academic vision. (汪庆华 2016, 32)

To study Dong Qiusi's translation criterion, we can not bypass Yan Fu. Yan Fu's three-character criteria "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" had exerted far-reaching influence and had been the only guide for translators for decades since it was put forward. Especially in the first half of the 20th century, most of the Chinese translation experts embraced the criterion of Yan Fu. Contrary to Yan Fu, Dong Qiusi believed that translation criteria for theoretical texts and literature ones are distinctive. For literary text, translators could adopt such standards as to be faithful to the original in "thought, style, inclination and fluency," which could be condensed into a single word, "faithfulness." Dong Qiusi held flexible and dialectical attitude towards the order of "thought, style, inclination and fluency". In terms of theoretical texts, Dong Qiusi thought that yan Fu's "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" should be adopted. That is to say, we should be faithful to the ideological content of the original work and ensure the fluency of the translation. As for "elegance", Dong Qiusi thought it could be justified by the times where Yan Fu lived in. "Elegance" was not only unsuitable for the standard of "theoretical texts" in the era of "vernacular Chinese", but also unsuitable for the standard of "literature texts". As is known to all, in the 1940s, the discussion on translation criteria at home and abroad basically stayed within the language level of content, form, style and so on. The fact that Dong Qiusi thought about this issue from the perspective of text type was leading the world at that time.

2.2 Literature Translation is Recreation

Translation means to transfer the meaning of one language into another, while creation refers to the production of literary and artistic works. Translation is constrained by source text, while creation is free. It has been undcr discussion for a long time whether translation is a kind of creation or not. Many scholars, such as Guo Moruo, Zhu Guangqian , Luo Xinzhang , agreed that translation is a kind of creation. For example, Bassnett said it is therefore quite foolish to argue that the task of the translator is to translate but not to interpret, as if the two were separate exercises. The interlingual translation is hound to reflect the translator’s own creative interpretation of the SL text. Dong also thought of translation as a recreation. He said, "a translator should not only get well acquainted with the meaning and style of the source text, but also with the author’s personality, his intention and other factors concerned. Having arrived at this stage, the translator is not only faced with words any more, but with the images behind the words. Therefore, what he needs to do is to express those concrete images out in his native language rather than just transfer the lexical meaning of one language into another. What I said might be a little exaggeration, but the translator should feel as if he were the author of the source text who was writing in another language that he was good at." (Bassnett 2004, 83) Since the images are organized by the author, their expression modes should also belong to the author. In this case, as British translator Alexander Fraser Tytler has stated, what the translator can do is nothing but recreate, although he has already obtained the soul of the original author.” (Ling Shan 2004, 86)

As we can see, initially, Dong viewed that literature translation is creation, which could be seen as his recognition of the idea by Guo Moruo. Dong Qiusi considered that translation is not merely a simple, technical work, and the translation process requires the translator to exert his/her personal understanding, imagination and expression. A translator, like a writer, faces exactly the same things, but produces very different products. There is no doubt that both of them show the characteristics of creation. Dong Qiusi also said that just because of the existence of creativity, translators are able to produce different versions, making it possible that readers get close to and learn the true charm of the original work.

Meanwhile, it should be alert that the translation being elevated to the status of creation will typically cause the translators to move from one extreme to another. In the history of translation, there are many cases in which the original texts have been freed from the shackles and the creativity has been overplayed. For example, Lin Shu, a translator who had not master any foreign language, gave free play to his subjective creativity in the process of translation and ended up deviating from the original texts. Considering the limitation of creativity, Dong Qiusi modified his previously agreed view that "translation is creation" and added a "re" in front of the word "creation". Obviously, Dong Qiusi still believed that the translation of literature work were by no means a mechanical and technical labor and could not be completed by mere imitation. In his mind, the creativity of literature translation is essential. The translator can only constantly get close to the original, but can not do a complete match with the original. In this process, the translators will inevitably give full play to his creativity. However, writers are free to write as they please. In contrast, the specific images that the translators wants to express are created by the original authors, meaning that translators are not as liberal as the original authors. Therefore, he was convinced that the creation of the translator is relative and absolute 100% creation is impossible; The translator's creation should be based on the original creation, which is a kind of "re-creation". (汪庆华 2016, 41)

It is self-evident that the modification of "translation is creation" to "translation is re-creation" is intended to emphasize the unity and opposition relations between the creativity and faithfulness of literary translation. "Re-creation" not only affirms the status and value of the translator's creativity in translation, the translator's positive role in the translation, but also demonstrates that the translator's creativity is limited, which means they can not break away from the original texts, give play to the imagination of the individual and create as much as they desire. In a word, Dong Qiusi deems it that the creation of literary translation should be definitely based on the original work and it is a kind of "re-creation" in nature.

2.3 Translation is Science

In 1951, Dong Qiusi clearly proposed that translation is science in his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. According to him, the translation process is regulated by objective rules. These rules can be used for generating adequate translations. In order to discover and understand these rules,translation scholars should study all factors involved, and then use their findings to contribute to a complete theory, which is scientific owing to its objective basis. He explained that translation is science, meaning that there are laws that can be followed in the process of translation between Chinese and Western languages, and that it is not correct to say that translation can be done simply by talents and inspiration. Since these translation laws are objective, not discovered simply by imagination, to master these laws, we need to do thorough and detailed study. To be specific, we need to explore three main aspects: first, the structure, characteristics of various languages; Second, the contents and ways of expression of various disciplines; Third, translation experience in different times and countries. (Luo Xuanmin 2004, 26)

In Dong’s opinion, if many objective laws in translation could be summarized through investigation and research for people to learn and refer to, the novice translators would avoid wasting much time and energy to explore methods and techniques, and would not repeat the previous failures. Thus, it would be helpful to promote the translation work to achieve greater progress. This not only shows Dong Qiusi's profound understanding of the significance of studying the objective laws of translation in guiding practice, but also can be interpreted as his regret for the loss caused by Chinese translators' long-term neglect of the scientific nature of translation.

Dong Qiusi, inheriting the traditional Chinese concept that translation is art and enlightened by the newly emerging foreign view that translation science, clearly realized that translation, as art, would become random activities if it did not observe the objective scientific laws and accept the guidance of the objective laws. Therefore, in 1951, he became the first person in China who claimed that " translation is a kind of science " in the most authoritative journal Bulletin on Translation. Dong Qiusi is the earliest translators in China who was aware of the unity and opposition relations between scientific and artistic translation. His view that translation is science is an important breakthrough in the development of traditional Chinese translation studies in the middle of 20th century, which marks the beginning of Chinese translation studies turning to linguistic science and plays an important role in the historical transition of Chinese translation studies from ancient to modern times.

3. Dong Qiusi’s Innovation: to Establish Translation Studies As a Discipline

Back in the 1950s, it became obvious that translation Studies in China required theoretical breakthroughs. Speaking of translation studies, the name of Dong Qiusi was worth special mentioning. Dong Qiusi, in an article entitled On the construction of translation theory in Translation Newsletter, made the proposal to establish translation studies as a discipline, claiming that “China has a long history of translation and, in spite of the lack of systematic theorization, has acquired an abundance of scattered and unconsolidated experiences and ideas” . In his view, “translation is not something unknowable; rather, it is an existential phenomenon governed by laws unique to itself, and therefore has all the qualities needed to become a theoretical” (Dong Qiusi 1951, 608).Dong projected a sanguine prognosis largely based on this perception of China’s long history of translation. With the wisdom that hindsight affords, Tan Zaixi ruefully notes:“In the 1950s China was behind no other country in terms of the construction of Translation Studies. Had Dong Qiusi’s idea caught everyone’s attention, our translation research might have been ahead of the West all along.” (Tan Zaixi 1995, 15)What Dong seemed to be doing in that paper was what Nida had earlier on in 1947 tried to do, i.e. applying a ‘scientific’, modern linguistics approach to the study of translation. Given the fact that there was virtually no academic contact with the West in the early years after the Chinese socialist revolution of 1949, Dong or his fellow Chinese scholars would not have access to, or be able to even hear of, Nida’s work, and that the Russian scholar Andrei Fedorov’s work was not to be published till 1953, a full two years after Dong had published his paper, we may say that at the time Dong’s proposition on applying a ‘scientific’ translation studies approach to the theoretical development of translation was quite original, and seemed in large measure to be modernizing Chinese translation discourse, in spite of the fact that Dong’s paper did read more like a ‘policy speech’ than in-depth academic research (Chan Tak-hung 2004, 225-229), or in some ways it was not as substantiated research as were Nida’s or Fedorov’s work.However, this optimism is retrospectively ungrounded because China was soon afterwards plunged into great social and political upheaval and its embryonic intercultural connectivity would be severed. Translation Studies could not develop until the early 1980s when translation activity was in full swing once again, fuelling an interest in analyzing translation problems as well, since large scale translation practice created renewed impetus for promoting Translation Studies. (Sun Yifeng 2012, 2)

Nevertheless, it was not difficult to judge from the contents of several articles by Dong published successively from 1950 to 1951, such as How to Establish Translation Criticism and Self-Criticism, Criteria and Key points of Translation Criticism, and On the Construction of Translation Theory that he had formed a preliminary framework at that time. This framework consists of three parts: translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. Dong envisaged two steps towards this. First, that a “common programme” be drafted on the study of major issues such as methods of translating, systems of revision and proofreading, criteria of translation, etc. for adoption by a national conference on translation. Second, that the government sanctioned agency organize experts to do six things: (1) write a history of translation in China, (2) introduce Western books on translation theory to Chinese readers, (3) use scientific linguistic methods to compare Chinese and foreign languages, (4) conduct translation criticism, (5) sum up experiences of translating, and (6) publish a translators’ journal. The end products of this national drive would be two books, one on the history of translation in China, and the other on the translatology of China. (Fan, S.1999, 42)

3.1 Translation Criticism

"Translation criticism is a major link between translation theory and translation practice." (Newmark 1988, 184) Not only can translation criticism be used to guide translation practice, but it can also enrich translation theory. It plays most direct role in the application of translation theory into translation practice. It can be seen that Dong has a very clear understanding of the positive function of translation criticism, hi order to make translation criticism serve translation practice constructively, he put forward practical opinions and suggestions on the criteria, priorities, and approaches of translation criticism, etc. Exactly as he said, this kind of translation criticism could play a very good supporting role even though it could not substitute for the whole work of constructing theoretical system of translation, because it could enrich translation theory, and defined each definition clearly and specifically, which was very important for the construction of any theory.

Translation development is inseparable from translation criticism, but translation criticism has been in a non-rational state for a long period, and translators always turn a blind eye to some serious problems, such as the impetuous translation climate, blind introduction of copyright, decreased translation quality. etc. The fundamental reason for this situation lies in that we do not establish a positive and effective criticism theory as Dong said. The establishment of such a theory depends largely on the establishment of scientific translation criticism system. (张茜 2012, 38)

Although translation criticism can be traced back to ancient times in China, such as the argument about literal translation and free translation, the research on translation criticism itself did not start until after 1949. In the early period after the founding of New China, the tasks that Chinese translators faced with were pretty arduous. There were two main problems: translation work was poorly planned and organized, and low-quality translations were published in large quantity. Therefore, how to solve the problems became one of the major tasks for the relevant department of the government. On March 26, 1950, China Daily published three papers on translation criticism with the title of “Taking Serious Attitude to Translating” by the Divisions of People’s literature and People’s Field for Arts. That is to say, the first new chapter of translation criticism began in early 1950’s in China. (孙致礼 1996，193)

In Dong's opinion, translation criticism is of great importance in that it is conducive to solving many practical problems and makes great contribution to cultivating translation talents, improving translation quality and developing translation criticism research itself. Dong Qiusi also put forward seven valuable Suggestions on how to carry out translation criticism: Firstly, distinguish established translators from novice ones. If a famous translator is irresponsible, he should be seriously criticized. For new translators, try to point out their mistakes. What is more important is to tell them how to correct mistake. Secondly, pin down the key points. The number of translation work is too large to criticize each of them. Thirdly, master principles and solve the issue of principles in translation through some typical cases. Fourthly, recommend successful experience and avoid simply criticizing mistakes. Fifthly, correct bad attitudes towards work. Translators and publishers should be responsible and meticulous respectively and avoid being perfunctory. Sixthly, establish correct theory. Translation theory is the foundation of translation criticism. Without the guidance of translation theory, translation criticism will become unclear about what is right or wrong. Seventh, conduct critical attitude. Critics should seek truth from facts, be kind to others and try to be unbiased and objective.

What’s more, Dong put forward the proposal of “constructive translation criticism.” He illustrated that the constructive translation criticism was “to deal with fundamental problems, which have not been handled properly for long, with the aid of some typical examples.” He further explained “It is only by means of intensively reading one book and extensively reading many books that we can focus on criticism priorities, obtain a practical criticism criterion, so that we can criticize or appraise fairly and appropriately, the people to be criticized can be convinced, and readers can benefit. This kind of translation criticism can be called truly constructive.”  (Dong 1951, 609)

Reviewing the history of translation criticism 50 years ago, constructive translation criticism was quite rare. Apparently, translation criticism lacked theoretical self-consciousness. Due to the lack of supervision and guidance on practice, it was difficult to make thorough and reasonable explanations for many phenomena in the history of translation. Given that Translation criticism tended to be mixed with translation theory. Dong Qiusi separated translation criticism from translation theory and focuses his research on the construction of translation criticism. At that time, it was of extreme historical significance to emphasize the importance of the construction of translation criticism.

3.2 Translation Theory

Although the study of stage translation theory had been making progress and had made some achievements, there were still many problems, which were mainly manifested in the lack of system, scientific research methods, pure theory explorations and communication with the West. In his article The Cultivation of Translators, Dong Qiusi expressed his regret that China had not established a complete theoretical system of translation until the People’s Republic of China was founded in 1949. Dong Qiusi held that the construction of translation theory was a long and arduous mission, the finishing of which required a lot of people to spend a long time, adopt scientific linguistic methods, and carry out in-depth investigation and research. In order to accomplish the task smoothly, he proposed a two-step strategy. The first step was to solve some important issues in the translation field in a short time. Second, long-term planning should be implemented simultaneously with short-term planning, including compiling Chinese Translation history, sorting out and explaining China's local translation experience, absorbing and drawing on the essence of foreign theories and so on. After a long period of construction and the full development of the theoretical system of translation, some translation problems involved in the first step of the scheme would be finally solved.

Dong Qiusi's main views on the guidelines for the construction of translation theory can be summarized as follows: adopting scientific linguistic methods, focusing on traditional Chinese translation theories, learning from foreign translation theories and closely connecting with practice. Dong suggested that like all other scientific theories, Chinese translation theory has its own general and specific features. On one hand, it should correspond with the general laws of science; and, on the other hand, it should possess its own distinctive features of its own time and place. It should draw on the theories and experiences of foreign countries, but it is absolutely not a blind copy. In other words, there is no shortcut. What is required is the investment of human and material resources of our country. He put forward that we could not simply expect foreign countries to establish translation theories for our use. Theories stem from experience. We already had a preliminary theoretical foundation and over-one-thousand-year translation experiences, including the experiences of translating Buddhist Scriptures in the early period of Tang Dynasty, and those of many translators like Lu Xun, Qu Qiubai since the May Fourth Movement. Therefore, it would not be difficult to establish a complete theoretical system if we could collect, analyze, refine and develop the experiences of our own country.(汪庆华 2016， 86-88) After the founding of New China, Dong Qiusi took the lead in openly criticizing the traditional translation theories in China. Not only did he point out the crux of the slow development of Chinese traditional translation theories, but also, more importantly, he clarified the study objects of Chinese translation theories and the guidelines for the construction of translation theories.

3.3 Translation History

Dong Qiusi are also a pioneer in the study of translation history. As we know, the study of translation history had been neglected for quite a long time. Although there had been relevant researches before Dong Qiusi, for example, in 1940, Huang Jiade(黄嘉德) edited a collection of Translation Studies entitled The History of Translation, which excerpted the pertinent articles of Hu Shi and other translators in this field, we could not find anyone who formally came up with the history of translation as a specialized field of translation studies prior to Dong Qiusi. The study of the history of translation is a basic step which plays a decisive role in the construction and development of translation as a discipline. Dong Qiusi also attached great importance to the study in the construction of his translation system. In "On the Construction of Translation Theory", he wrote We should compile the History of Chinese translation, sum up the translation experience since the Eastern Han Dynasty from a correct historical point of view, and grasp the right direction and principles in the process of development. Dong Qiusi stated that any research field inevitably had its own clear direction and principles if it wante to develop into an independent discipline. As far as the field of translation studies is concerned, the study of translation history undertakes this task. The history of translation provides necessary documents for the construction of translation as a discipline. The study of the history of translation is favorable to understand the natural characteristics of translation and to provide reference for the construction of translation study. In the past, translators and researchers were bound to come across problems similar to those we encounter today, and have struggled to solve them. The ideologies, the development level of language and cultural in the Times they lived in would also have influenced them, so that they made choices on many issues such as translation standards, translation methods and translation functions. By sorting out the relevant experience and theories of translators throughout the history and mastering the development history of Translation in China, we can draw lessons from them, which is of enlightening significance to the confirming of status of the translation as a discipline. (汪庆华 2016, 90)

4. conclusion

From the second half of the 1940s to the beginning of the 1950s, Dong Qiusi had a comprehensive and in-depth reflection on many important issues in traditional Chinese translation studies, such as translation standards, the nature of translation, the creativity of translation etc., among which there were multiple original perspectives, such as: the translation criteria are adhered to based on text styles; Literary translation is "re-creation"; The essence of translation is "science", etc. In the early 1950s, Dong Qiusi established a translation framework consisting of translation criticism, translation theory and translation history. This viewpoint is not only leading in China, but also in the history of translation studies around the world. Chinese translation experts and scholars generally agree that Dong Qiusi is the founder of the establishment of the translation discipline. In terms of the historical contribution to the construction of the translation discipline, Dong Qiusi can be regarded as a worthy pioneer.

References

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Translation Criticism

On Translation Criticism-based on back-translation 丁代凤 Ding Daifeng

Abstract

Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism. Due to the change of time and space, translation criticism needs to be carried out from different perspectives. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author finds two common problems in translation criticism: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism. Based on the analysis of the relationship between back translation and translation criticism, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and illustrates the roles of back translation in translation criticism. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism.

Key words

translation criticism; back translation; translation testing; cultural communication

题目

论翻译批评—基于回译

摘要

无论在国内还是国外，翻译实践的历史可谓悠久。而只要有翻译实践，就会有翻译批评。由于时间与空间的变化，翻译批评也需从不同的角度进行。基于前人的研究以及自身的翻译实践，作者发现目前普遍存在于翻译批评中的两个问题：1）在翻译实践过程中缺乏翻译批评意识；2）在翻译批评过程中，缺乏对空间和时间变化的意识。基于对回译与翻译批评二者关系的分析，作者对回译法在词汇以及文本当中的应用分别进行了分析，阐述了回译法在翻译批评中作用。作者在论文中分析了大量的实例，尽量做到有理有据，希望本论文能够给其他研究翻译批评的学者些许启发。

关键词

翻译批评；回译；翻译检测；文化交际

Introduction of translation criticism

Translation practice has a rather long history both at home and abroad. Once there is translation practice, there is translation criticism(Wang Kefei 1994,33). As for translation criticism, it refers to the evaluation of a translation under certain social conditions, following certain translation principles and using certain methods. It is one of the three major components of translation studies, and it also serves as an internal driving force for the disciplinary construction of translation. As the characteristic of one language is different from the other, it is difficult for us to judge whether a translation is appropriate or not. In the process of translation, we have to take both language and culture into consideration.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) That is to say, we also have to lay equal emphasis on language and culture when we judge a translation. As a complete paragraph or passage is composed of many words and sentences, we are prone to analyze each word and sentence when we assess the quality of a translation. If we analyze a passage under the reader-oriented translation criticism principle, then the translation should be easy to read and be accepted by its readers. If we analyze a passage based on the translator-oriented translation criticism principle, the translated version should be in line with the original text in terms of meaning as much as possible. However, this far from enough.

Given the translation practice takes place at different times and in different cultural backgrounds, we should adopt different perspectives to examine a translation accordingly(Xu Jun 2016,439). When it comes to the translation of Buddhist scripture in the Han Dynasty, its main purpose is to spread its doctrine, so what the translator needs to do is to grab its main idea. But when it comes to the sci-tech translation during the Westernization Movement in modern times, the main goal of this kind of translation is to learn advanced technologies from developed western countries, so the translator have to make sure that the translation of each sentence in the original text should be totally correct and their translations should be operational and practical.

According to Professor Xu Jun, translation activities have always existed in human history, and their forms and connotations are constantly enriched because of the social, economic and cultural development.(Xu Jun 2014,288) Therefore, translation practice is a dynamic process, and that means translation criticism should be conducted under a certain historical and cultural context. Taking the factors mentioned above into consideration, the author found that there are still two problems existing in translation criticism, they are: 1) lack of translation criticism in translation practice; 2) lack of awareness of time and space change during the process of translation criticism.(Wang Jianguo 2005,78) Generally speaking, the author tries to solve these two problems of translation criticism by using the back translation method and analyzing the texts related to back translation, thus improving the current situation of translation criticism.

Relationship between translation criticism and back translation

There are a large number of translation methods available for us to choose when we do some translation, such as free translation, literal translation, transliteration, amplification, omission, back translation and so on. Among these translation methods, no translation method can have the same effects on testing the original text as back translation. Literally, back translation is the process of translating a text that has already been translated into a foreign language back to the original language(He Xianbin 2002,45).

In A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China, Fang Mengzhi had divided back translation into three categories. They are back translation for testing, back translation for research and mechanical translation.(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97) Here, the author will mainly talk about back translation for testing. According to Fang Mengzhi, back translation for testing works as a kind of question type, aiming to test and find out the problems existing in the translation process(Fang Mengzhi 2011,97). As such, back translation for testing has the same purpose as translation criticism. This just proves that it is the right choice to apply back-translation method to translation criticism.

Back translation plays a irreplaceable role in comparing the similarities and differences between the structures of the original text and the translated version.(He Xianbin 2002,46) During this process, we can have a better understanding of the characteristics of the two languages involved. When we translate text A into text B, if we want to examine the quality of text B, an appropriate way is to translate it back into text C which is almost similar to text A in terms of its meaning and structure. Unlike other ways used in translation criticism, back translation offers us three different texts. Text A, the original text, will be the best material for us to examine the quality of our translation. Although text A serves as a criteria for us to conduct translation criticism, we can not decide whether the translation is good or not simply by judging the degree of similarity between text A and text C. We all know that every coin has two sides. On the one hand, there is no doubt that text A and text C can not be exactly the same. This is mainly because different languages have different language structures and different ways of expressing ideas. Even the one who do the back translation is exactly the writer himself or herself, the vocabularies and sentence patterns he or she uses will change over time. On the other hand, if the structures of text A and text C are very similar, it may means that text B only apply literal translation and its translation may not very elegant to some extent.

What we should we do is not only just to focus the correctness of each word and sentence, but to ensure similar or even same effects on cultural communication. That is to say, there is no need to pursue syntactic and lexical consistency in text A and text C. Otherwise, anyone who holds the text A will criticize your translation and say that there is still some difference between text A and text C, and your translation is still not good enough(Si Guo 2000,119). Therefore, back translation will not make any sense in the process of translation criticism.

Analysis of texts related to back translation

As our country continues to deepen the reform and opening-up policy, we have began to come into contact with more and more foreign words. Meanwhile, quiet a few foreign literary work related to Chinese culture and history have merged(Tan Zaixi 2018,3). For translators, it is a rather trick task to deal with such words, expressions and texts. In this part, the author will mainly analyze two situations of the use of back translation, namely, back translation in words and expressions and back translation in different texts.

Back translation in words and expressions

Actually, back translation usually takes place at the word level. We can find that many Chinese words in our daily life come from western countries, such as 莎士比亚(Shakespeare), 华伦天奴(Valentino), 猎头(head hunter), 唐老鸭(Donald Duck), 雅思考试(International English Language Testing System, also known as IELTS), 阿司匹林(aspirin) and so on. At the same time, some foreign literati and scholars in China usually change their names or take a Chinese one. Here are some typical examples: 赛珍珠(Pearl S. Buck), 利玛窦(Matteo Ricci), 费正清(John King Fairbank), 马悦然(Goran Malmqvist) and葛浩文(Howard Goldblatt). Likewise, there are also many English words and expressions coming from China, such as Confucius(孔子), Long March(长征), tofu(豆腐), litchi(荔枝), chow mein(炒面), brainwash(洗脑), long time no see(好久不见) and so on. When we translate these two kinds of words, we have to make sure that our translation is completely the same as the original word. Because the translations of these words are fixed in the target language, we should not take it for granted that we can translate them by virtue of our own experience or in a normal way.(He Xianbin 2002,45)

Back translation in texts

Generally speaking, translation criticism usually take place in literary text. There are a large number of famous work related to back translation, such as Moment in Peking written by Lin Yutang, Joy Luck Club written by Amy Tan, The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck, My Country and My People written by Lin Yutang, Naked Earth written by Eileen Chang and so on. All these work are written in English, but the contents in them are all related to China. Some of them are written by overseas Chinese writers, and some of them are written by those foreign writers who have lived in China for a rather long time, so the authors of these works all have a great understanding of China’s society and its national conditions(Li Changbao 2019,133).

If we translate these kinds of work back into Chinese, this process is called rootless back translation. In this process, we have to pay particular attention to the cultural communication effect of its Chinese translation. Next, the author will analyze some literary texts by using the back translation method so as to compare the different structures of English and Chinese and illustrate how back translation functions in the process of translation criticism. Here are some examples and their analyses:

(1) Original Text: Now this magistrate was a poor man and had not seen so much money in his life time before, being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father, who had put all the money he had and could borrow to buy this place for his son, so that from it the family might acquire some wealth. (Buck 2016,272)

Target Text: 这县官原是个穷汉，一辈子不会见过这么多的款子，他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置，他父亲用了自己所有的以及能够借到的钱给儿子买到这官缺，目的是那家从此可以发财了。(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)

This paragraph is excerpted from The Good Earth written by Pearl S. Buck. As the most famous novel of Pearl S. Buck, The Good Earth describes the situations of the farmers in China in the early 20th century, aiming to show a real China to the western world.(Buck 2016,272) In order to compare the structures of the original text and the target text, the author tries to translate the target text back into the original text by means of some popular translation websites. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation:

The county magistrate was a poor man, and he never saw so much money in his life. He got this position by his father’s gaining, and his father used all his money and the money he could borrow to buy this official vacancy for his son, with the aim that the family can get rich from now on.

Here, “他靠了他父亲的鑽营，才谋到这位置” is translated into “He got this position by his father's gaining”. But in the original text, it is “being only newly risen to his position through the bounty of his father”. In Chinese, we usually use many short sentences to express one thing, while a long sentence with many clauses are commonly used in English. Besides, “官缺” in the target text is “place”, while it becomes “official vacancy” when using the back translation method. The word “place” here refers to a position that is available for or being used by somebody. That exactly proves that English usually uses a simple word to express a rather complicated meaning. Hu Zhongchi extends the meaning of “place” and translated into “官缺”, which ensure the translation is in line with the the expression habits of Chinese and the background in The Good Earth.(Hu Zhongchi 1933,270)

(2) Original Text: “It was accompanied by ‘dragon-and-phonex cakes’, silks, tea leaves, fruits, a pair of living geese, and four jars of wine.” (Lin Yutang 1998, 78)

Target Text: “......送有龙凤饼、绸缎、茶叶、水果、一对鹤、四坛子酒。”(Zhang Zhenyu 2005,46)

This sentence is excerpted from Moment in Peking. It describes some gifts that the bridegroom should present to the bride when they get married. Here is the translated version offered by Sougou online translation: There are dragon and phoenix cakes, silks and satins, tea leaves, fruits, a pile of cranes and four jars of wine. Based on the translation given by Sougou, we can easily find that there are some differences between it and the original text. Firstly, “绸缎” is translated into “silks and satins” by Sougou. Actually, “绸缎” in Chinese refers to silk products in general. Therefore, the target text translated by Zhang Zhenyu is more idiomatic. According to Qian Zhongshu, translation is like painting, what we should pursue is the similarity in spirit rather than the similarity in form. As such, there is no need for us to translate every word in the original text in order to pursue royalty. Secondly, “一对鹤” is translated into “a pair of cranes” by Sougou. The meanings of living geese and crane are totally different. In China, cranes represent longevity. It is obviously not customary for men to give cranes to women when they get married. Therefore, “a pair of living geese” had better be translated into “一对活鹅” rather than “一对鹤”.(Wu Yangbo 2010,133)

(3) Original Text:余幼聘金沙于氏，八龄而天。娶陈氏。陈名芸，字淑珍，舅氏心余先生女也，生而颖慧，学语时，口授《琵琶行》，即能成诵。四龄失怙，母金氏，弟克昌，家徒壁立。芸既长，娴女红，三口仰其十指供给，克昌从师，修脯无缺。一日，于书簏中得《琵琶行》，挨字而认，始识字。刺绣之暇，渐通吟咏，有“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥”之句。(Shen Fu 1878,8)

Target Text: I was engaged in my childhood to one Miss Yu, of Chinsha, who died in her eighth year, and eventually I married a girl of the Ch’en clan. Her name was Yun and her literary name Suchen. She was my cousin, being the daughter of my maternal uncle, Hsinyu. Even in her childhood, she was a very clever girl, for while she was learning to speak, she was taught Po Chuyi’s poem, The P’iP’a Player, and could at once repeat it. Her father died when she was four years old, and in the family there were only her mother(of the Chin clan) and her younger brother K’ehch’ang and herself, being then practically destitute. When Yun grew up and had learnt needlework, she was providing for the family of three, and contrived always to pay K’ehch’ang’s tuition fees punctually. One day, she picked up a copy of the poem The P’iP’a Player from a wastebasket, and from that, with the help of her memory of the lines, she learnt to read word by word. Between her needlework, she gradually learnt to write poetry. One of her poems contained the two lines:“Touched by autumn, one’s figure grows slender, Soaked in frost, the chrysanthemum blooms full.”(Lin Yutang 1936,10)

This passage is excerpted form Six Chapters of a Floating Life written by Shen Fu in the Qing Dynasty. Later on, it was translated into English by Lin Yutang. Based on the translation of Lin Yutang, Li Hui translated it back into Chinese. Here is the translation of Li Hui:

我年幼时与金沙于氏小姐定亲，于氏八岁而亡，最后我娶了亲族陈家的姑娘。陈氏名芸，字淑珍，是我的表姐，我舅舅心馀先生的女儿。芸自小聪慧伶俐，在她学说话时，教她白居易的长诗《琵琶行》，她很快就能背诵。四岁时她父亲去世，家中只有她母亲（金氏）、弟弟克昌和她自己，家境几乎一贫如洗。芸年岁稍长即学做女红，供养一家三口用度，并始终设法按期付克昌的学费。一天，她自废纸篓中捡得《琵琶行》一诗，凭着对此诗的记忆，便从上面逐字逐句学认起来。刺绣的闲暇，她渐渐学会学诗，其中一首里有如下两句：“秋侵人影瘦，霜染菊花肥。”

By comparing the original text and the translated version of Li Hui, we can easily find that the translation of Li Hui is obviously shorter than the original text. What is more, the translation of Li Hui is more like an explanation of the original text rather than a new text using the back translation method. The difference of these two texts lies only in the usage of some Chinese words because of the change of the times. For example, “失怙”, which means somebody lose his or her father, was changed into “父亲去世”. “修脯”, which means a gift or reward for the teachers in the Qing Dynasty, was changed into “学费”. Likewise, “书簏” was also changed into “废纸篓”. In order to ensure readability, Li Hui used the words popular in the present, which means that the era in which a translator live will influence the words he or she adopts. This also proves that Mr Lin Yutang has totally understood the meaning of the original text and used the free translation method so that the translation of Li Hui can be in line with the original text in terms of meaning. At the same time, all the words in the translation of Li Hui are rather easy for readers to accept, which means that Mr Lin Yutang has attached much importance to the the cultural communication in order to promote foreigners’ understanding of China and spread China’s culture.

As the economy in China is booming and the cultural exchanges between China and the rest of the world are increasing, translation plays an more and more important role in promoting the cultural soft power of China. Although most translation criticism activities take place in the field of literary text, we should put equal emphasis on the development of translation criticism in both literary text and non-literary text, thus improving our translation quality as a whole. Here is an example of the back translation method used in the non-literary text:

(4)Original Text: Coal is the most abundant energy source in the world, but opponents to its use are more vocal than ever.(excerpted from the Financial Times)

Target Text: 煤炭是是全球储量最大的资源，但反对使用煤炭的声浪逐渐增长。

This paragraph is excerpted from the Financial Times, which mainly describes the decreasing demand of coal. The author tries to translate the target language back into the original on her own, and use online translation website to translate it respectively, here are the two translated versions:

1. Coal, the most abundant energy resource on the globe, is now facing increasing backlash. (trans by the author)

2. Coal is the resource with the largest reserves in the world, but the voice against the use of coal is increasing gradually.(trans by Sougou translation)

By comparing these two translated versions offered by the author and Sougou respectively and the original text, we can easily find that there is still a big gap between them. For the same expression “声浪逐渐增长”, the translation of the author only expresses its superficial meaning, which is only faithful but not elegant. Similarly, the translated version offered by Sougou only use free translation without paying much attention to idiomatic expressions in English. However, the expression “are more vocal than ever” exactly corresponds to “声浪逐渐增长”. The word “vocal” is a word related to voice, so does the word “声浪”. The target text has ensured the same effects of cultural communication and made the passage more vivid and attractive.

Application of back translation

Based on the examples being analyzed in the previous part, the author will mainly introduce when back translation should be applied to translation criticism and the roles of back translation.

At first, back translation help us improve China’s external image(Tan Zaixi 2018,2). Just as example 3 mentioned in the chapter three, this example is excerpted from a very famous work written by a Chinese, then another Chinese person who masters English has translated into English. If we want to understand how foreigners perceive the history of China and make sure that the English version can produce an impact on the spread of Chinese culture, we have to assess the quality of the English version. Of course, the most important thing is to ensure that all the contents are correctly translated. But except that, we should also ensure that the values are correctly conveyed. It is commonly known that the original text can not be totally the same as the target text because of the language differences. By translating the target text back into the original language, we can have a strong sense of the inner meaning of the target text, and we can also know how foreigners feel when they read the target text.

Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality.(He Xianbin 2002,46) For example 1 and 2 in the chapter three, their main purpose is to show the image of China in a specific time or context. Therefore, we have to make sure that every word is correctly translated. However, we should not only pursue faithfulness and expressiveness, but pursue elegance as well. Just like the example 4 mentioned above, no matter how our translation correct is, we still can not make our translation as idiomatic as the original text. Only when we know that there is still a much room for us to improve, can we try our best to improve our translation abilities.

Finally, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation for we have to do the translation twice.(He Xianbin 2002,47) Usually, back translation takes place in a certain context or a relatively complete text so that we can avoid only analyzing the target text word by word or sentence by sentence. What is more, the usage of words and expressions may change with the times. As far as the author concerned, back translation is another way to rewrite the original text and make it more acceptable for the readers now.

Conclusion

As China’s comprehensive national strength continues to increase, more and more researchers and scholars in the field of translation studies and translation practice have attached more importance to the cultural communication so as to promote the development of Chinese literature and culture. However, the translation market is still a mixed bag because of lack of awareness of translation criticism.(Fan Dongsheng 2000,33) When scholars began to pay attention to translation criticism, many problems still lie in this field. For example, translation criticism is usually conducted in literary texts, and there is lack of general principles to conduct translation criticism. Among various methods that can be applied to the improvement of the translation quality, the author particularly choose the back translation method.

There is no doubt that translation criticism can have a great influence on the improvement of the general translation quality in our country. Based on previous studies and personal translation practice, the author analyzes the application of back translation in words, expressions and texts, and respectively illustrates three roles of back translation in translation criticism. Firstly, back translation help us improve China’s external image. Secondly, back translation plays a key in improving our translation quality. And thirdly, back translation greatly helps us assess the whole structure and general meaning of the translation. The author analyzes a large number of examples in this thesis and tries to be reasonable and well-founded, hoping that this thesis can give some inspiration to other scholars who study translation criticism. However, there are still some limitations in this thesis. At first, the selected examples are limited in genre and can not fully explain all the problems. Secondly, back translation can only be applied to a certain situations because of the complexity of the translation activity. Learning is a lifelong process, the author will continue to study in this field in her later study life, hoping that the translation quality in China will gradually improve in days to come.

References

Buck, S. Pearl. The Good Earth [M]. New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc., 2005.

Lin Yutang. Moment in Peking [M]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1998.

Buck, S. Pearl赛珍珠.(1935).大地 [The Good Earth]. trans by Hu Zhongchi胡仲持. Shanghai: Kaiming Bookstore开明书店.

Fan Dongsheng范东生.(2000).翻译的本质与翻译批评的根本性任务 [The essence of translation and the fundamental task of translation criticism]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal(04): 32-36.

Fang Mengzhi方梦之.(2011).中国译学大辞典[A Dictionary of Translation Studies in China]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社．

He Xianbin贺显斌.(2002).回译的类型、特点与运用方法 [Types，features and methods of application of back translation].中国科技翻译Chinese Science&Technology Translators Journal(04):45-47+54.

Li Changbao黎昌抱, Tu Qingyin屠清音.(2019). 无本回译研究纵览 [An overview of research of rootless translation]. 中国翻译Chinese Translators Journal 40(03): 130-140.

Lin Yutang林语堂.(2005).京华烟云 [Moment in Peking]. trans by Zhang Zhenyu张振玉. Xi’an: Shaanxi Normal University Press陕西师范大学出版社.

Si Guo思果.(2000).翻译研究[Translation Studies].Beijing:China Translation and Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜.(2018)翻译与国家形象重构——以中国叙事的回译为例 [Translation and National Image Reconstruction: The Case of China Narratives and Cultural Back-Translation]. 外国语文Foreign Language and Literature 34(01): 1-10.

Wang Jianguo王建国.(2005).回译与翻译研究、英汉对比研究之间的关系 [The relationship between back translation and translation studies and contrastive studies of English and Chinese]. 外语学刊Foreign Language Research(04):78-83+112.

Wang Kefei王克非.(1994).关于翻译批评的思考—兼谈《文学翻译批评研究》[Reflections on Translation Criticism—A Study on Literary Translation Criticism].外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research( 3) : 33-36．

Wu Yangbo吴央波(2010).华裔英语文学翻译中的文化还原问题—以《京华烟云》为例[Cultural Restoration in the Translation of Chinese English Literature—A Case study of Moment in Peking].重庆科技学院学报(社会科学版)Journal of Chongqing University of Science and Technology(Social Sciences Edition)(07):132-134.

Xu Jun许钧. (2016).论翻译批评的介入性与导向性——兼评《翻译批评研究》 [On the Interventionism and Orientation of Translation Criticism—A Review of Research on Translation Criticism]. 外语教学与研究Foreign Language Teaching and Research 48(03): 432-441+480.

Xu Jun许钧.(2014).翻译论[On Translation].Nanjing:Yilin Press译林出版社.

Analysis of Liang Shiqiu's domestication and Foreignization translation strategies on the Shakespeare's plays. 苏琳 Su Lin

Abstract

     Translation is an "art of choice". Translators are always faced with the choice of domestication or foreignization in the process of translation. The basic task and requirement of translation lies in that the translator can transcend the differences between languages and cultures and achieve the harmony and unity of the two cultures. Therefore, the principle of "appropriateness" is very important. The famous Chinese literary translator Liang Shiqiu translated independently The Complete Works of Shakespeareby using the  translation strategies of "the doctrine of the mean", that is, foreignization is the main translation strategy, and domestication is the supplementary translation strategy, which embodies the principle of "appropriateness ". His translation strategy is based on the openness and inclusiveness of the language and culture itself, which not only fully conveys the meaning of the original text, but also has the translator's careful intervention, which is conducive to the mutual communication and penetration of different cultures.

Keywords

Liang Shiqiu; Foreignization; Domestication; The Complete Works of Shakespeare

摘要

翻译是一门“选择的艺术”，译者在翻译过程中，始终面临着应该采用归化还是异化的问题。而翻译的基本任务和基本要求在于译者能跨越语言文化间的差异，求得两种文化的协调统一，因此“适度”原则很重要。我国著名的文学翻译家梁实秋独立完成的汉译《莎士比亚全集》就采用了“中庸”的翻译策略，即以异化为主，归化为辅，体现了“适度”的原则。他的此种翻译策略立足于语言文化本身的开放性、包容性，既充分传递了原文意义，又有译者的谨慎介入，有利于不同文化的相互交流与渗透。

关键词

梁实秋；异化；归化；《莎士比亚全集》

Contrast between literal translation and free translation 刘艺 Liu Yi

Abstract

The discussion of literal paraphrase has been present throughout the development of translation theory. However, the ongoing debate between literal and paraphrase is not always at the same level and about the same translation issues. Literal translation and paraphrase can be regarded as both translation methods and translation strategies, and the discussion of literal translation and paraphrase first requires a conceptual analysis of the two terms and a clarification of the scope of the discussion. The theories of literal and free translation in Chinese and Western translation studies can be examined from the meta-theoretical level, which not only enables a rational understanding of the debate between literal and free translation, but also enables a better understanding of the relationship between translation theory, practice and their historical contexts. In this paper, we first analyze the concepts of literal translation and free translation, and then Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the application of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. At last, we will analyze the relation between literal translation and free translation.

Keywords

free translation, literal translation, application.

摘要

在翻译理论的发展过程中，关于字面转述的讨论一直存在。然而，直译与意译的持续争论并不总是在同一层面上，关于同一翻译问题。直译和意译都可以看作是翻译方法和翻译策略，讨论直译和意译，首先要对这两个术语进行概念分析，明确讨论范围。中西方翻译研究中的直译和意译理论可以从元理论层面进行考察，这不仅可以理性地认识直译和意译的争论，而且可以更好地理解翻译理论、实践及其历史背景之间的关系。本文首先分析了直译和意译的概念，然后在论文中通篇介绍了直译和意译的应用，并用一些例子来说明它们在谚语和成语中的应用。最后，我们将分析两者之间的关系。

关键词

直译，意译，应用。

I. Introduction

In intercultural communication, translation plays a very important role. Translation is the process of replacing chapters of material in one language (source language) with chapters of material in another language (target language), How to effectively translate between English and Chinese? The two languages have both commonalities and differences, as they belong to different language families: English is an Indo-European language, while Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan language family. However, there are some common points between the two languages, such as the same subject-predicate word order and the same verb-object word order. In order to realize the interchangeability of the two languages, we have to make use of some translation methods, such as literal translation and paraphrase translation.

The essence of translation is the conversion of information from one language to another or to several languages. In the translation process, translation is influenced by many factors, including contextual and cultural factors. Among translation strategies, literal and paraphrase are the most popular. Both literal and paraphrased translations have their own applications and cannot be generalized. Translators need to make good use of both literal and paraphrase translations in order to produce good translations. Literal translation and paraphrase are important translation strategies, and they are related, complementary and inseparable.

II. Sources of Literal and free Translation

In the West, during the Roman era, literal translation was used to translate Greek into Latin. Later, Cicero advocated paraphrasing to preserve the overall style and power of the language (Tan Zaixi, 2009:19). After that, people used these two translation methods to translate, literal translation and paraphrase translation. In China, as early as the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, the famous Buddhist scripture translator Zhi Qian put forward the idea of "not emphasizing the wording, but keeping the original meaning" as a method of literal translation.

"In his disciple Zhi Qian, he opposed such a literal translation from a stylistic point of view, and advocated a free translation. His disciple Zhi Qian, on the other hand, opposed such literal translation from a stylistic point of view and advocated free translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the commentator of Buddhist scriptures translation, Dao An, advocated literal translation of every word of the scriptures, without any addition or deletion to the original text. Kumarajiva, as the representative of the School of Free Translation of Buddhist Scriptures, proposed the method of free translation as "faith-based," "Tao practicing and compounding," and "making quality rather than wild". In his evaluation of his translation, Liang Qichao said: "All translations by Xuanzang, for the original, either add or subtract, in order to achieve the purpose." In the 1930s, both Lu Xun and Qu Qiu Bai advocated literal translation, Zhao Jing Shen favored free translation, and Lin Yutang advocated the integration of literal and free translation.

III. Definition of Two Translation

3.1 Definition of Literal Translation

Literal translation refers to a method to render of text from one language to another by following closely the form of the source language. Definitely different from mechanical translation (word for word translation), literal translation shall provide fluent and accurate translation that is easily comprehended by the readers of the target language. "The so-called literal translation is a translation method or translated text that keeps the content and form of the original text" (Feng Qinghua, 2002:37). There are a lot of differences between English and Chinese, but there are some commonalities between the two, which is the basis and reason for the existence of literal translation.[1]

Mr. Mao Dun once explained and emphasized that literal translation is not a dead translation of "word for word, not one more, not one less" [2]. The real intention of literal translation is not to distort the creative purpose of the original work, but to express the spirit of the original work.

You can also say that it refers to translate a sentence originally, keeping the original forms, including construction of sentences, meaning of the original words, and metaphor of the original and so on. It can not only reproduce the meaning and frame of language, but also keep its vivid image figure of speech and novel and unique expressive ways so that readers can comprehend the origin’s literal grace.

For example: The winter morning was clear as crystal. The sunrise burned red in a pure sky, the shadow on the rim of the woodland were darkly blue, and beyond the white and scintillating fields patches of far off for forest hung like smoke. Literal translation: 冬天的早晨水晶般明澈。纯净的东边天上朝日烧的通红，林子边上的影子时暗蓝色，隔着那耀眼的白茫茫的天野远处的森林像挂在半空中的烟云。 This translation keeps the original form and meaning totally. It comes out the author’s writing style and transfer the source language to target language perfectly.

3.2 Definition of Free Translation

Free translation is a method to deliver the intended meaning of the source text without paying attention to details such as syntax, style and so on of the original text. Free translation is suitable in case the translation is difficult to be understood or accepted by the readers or the translation seems not as attractive or powerful as the original text by approach of literal translation. It can also means a method of making the target text smooth and perfect .On the basis of them, places of word and constructions of sentence have to be almost changed to suit real meanings of original text.[3]

In general, a paraphrase is a translation that is consistent with the original text in terms of content, but changes in form. In short, the translation should be faithful to the basic content of the original text, while the form of expression should be original. In the history of Chinese translation, the definition of free translation is also divided. For example, Fu Lei believed that a paraphrase should, to the maximum extent possible, maintain the syntax of the original sentence, not that the grammar of the original sentence can be completely thrown away. It is not that the grammar of the original sentence can be left out completely. Eskridge once said that a translator cannot arbitrarily add or delete sentences from the original in order to achieve the standard of "up" translation, but that the original should be taken into consideration. According to Qian Gechuan, although the translations use paraphrase and change form, they should still be faithful to the original.

For example: It’s an ill wind that blows nobody good. Free translation: 对于某些人有害的事可能对于另外一些人有好处。 In this translation, we can see that there is no word in Chinese that equivalence to the word “wind” in English. So we use free translation which not only keeps the original meaning but also makes source language to target language comprehensively. However, free translation does not mean to neglect or add the original. When to use free translation, translator must know both source language and target language very well, including the cultural background, the equivalence words and make the translation fluent and comprehensible. Free translation is a flexible translation skill. Once literal translation can not express the original well, it’s time to use free translation.

IV. The different applications of literal and free translation

4.1 The application of literal translation

Firstly, if it is possible to translate literally, translate it word-for-word. The advantage of literal translation is to keep the liveliness of the text which has rhetoric in it. Let’s take two sentences below as examples:

(1) For my father know and I know that if you only dig enough, a pasture can be made free. Literal translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，只要挖到一定程度，早晚可以在这里劈出个牧场的。 Free translation: 因为我父亲知道，我也知道，功到自然成。

(2) But I hated Sakamoto, and I had a feeling he’d surely lead us both to our ancestors. Literal translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定领着咱们去见祖先。 Free translation: 但是我恨坂本，并预感到他肯定会领着咱们去送死。

For the first one, we can see the free translation expressed the general meaning of the original sentences with the metaphors. It’s better and comprehensive. But for the second one, though free translations make sentences more fluent, literal translations are closer to the original and express author’s emotion much lively. Because the differences of two languages, sometimes it is difficult to retain the intrinsical thoughts and style of the source language. Secondly, some sentences are hard to translate literally in some circumstances, especially the different expression of metaphors, proverbs and idioms. To people in English speaking countries, they are hard to understand some old sayings in Chinese and literal translation is unacceptable in this situation. They can’t get the original meaning accurately. For example:

(1) Our son must go to school. He must break out of the pot that holds us in. Literal translation: 我们的儿子一定得进学校，他一定得打破这个把我们关在里面的罐子。 Free translation: 我们的儿子一定要上学，一定要出人头地。

(2) Their legs moved a little jerkily, like well-made wooden dolls, and they carried pillars of blank fear about them. Literal translation: 他们的腿轻轻痉挛地移动着，像做得很好的木偶一样，他们随身携带者黑色的恐怖柱子。 Free translation: 他们每向前迈进一步，腿就抖动一下，好似精致的木偶一样，他们身上带着一股阴沉的杀气。

In these sentences, literal translation is improper. We cannot use literal translation if the presentation of the version does not conform to that of the source language. “Break out the pot that holds us in” is an English idiom. When we translate it to Chinese, we have an idiom “出人头地” that has the similar meaning. Generally speaking, literal translation is the basic technique in translation practice. It can keep the original form, including sentences’ structure and the original expression. But sometimes it needs some necessary changes to make the ways of expression be consistent between source language and target language.

4.2 The application of free translation

First of all, we use free translation when it’s difficult to translate them literally; especially there are differences on the ways of expression between the two languages. Moreover, in some sentences, though literal translation can make it understandable, it cannot express the profound meaning smoothly. Under this circumstance, free translation can help us get a better result. For example:

(1) It is an ill bird that fouls its own nest. Literal translation: 弄脏自己巢的鸟的确是一只坏鸟。 Free translation: 家丑不可外扬。

(2) Cast pearls before swine. Literal translation: 把珍珠扔到猪前面。 Free translation: 对牛弹琴。

Free translation should be fluent and natural. It can express the general idea without paying much attention to the details; especially in the translation in idioms or proverbs. Secondly, never add our own emotion to the translation. A successful translation must be objective and clearly. Free translation gives the translators more freedom to express source language and readers can get the original meaning comprehensively. Once the translators add their own emotions to it, the two version’s readers would have different feelings on the same task. Finally, free translation is a flexible and technical skill. The translators must learn abundant knowledge and possess the general knowledge of both the two countries as much as possible. More extensive knowledge translators have, more completely they can comprehend the meaning of the original task.

4.3 The comparison of applications of literal and free translation

4.3.1 What are the advantages of literal translation? Generally speaking, the use of rhetoric in a text makes it more vivid and lively, and through literal translation, the rhetoric of the original text is preserved and the target language is similar to the original text. In contrast, free translation only reflects the general idea of the original text, and the original rhetoric disappears through the original translator's ingenuity and processing. So, in general, literal translation is a good choice. For example,

For Maria, this is a great success in her life, just as the brave winning over a great battle against the gigantic man in the black forests.

Literal translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功, 这种成功就好像她英勇无畏地战胜了黑暗森林中的巨人。

Free translation:在玛丽亚看来, 这是她一生中最了不起的成功。 In this sentence, the literal translation only reflects the main idea of the original, which is too simple and bland, and the metaphorical rhetoric and description of the character's psychological state are lost. The literal translation, however, is much clearer and more vivid than the free translation, which is more vivid and natural. Due to language differences, it is sometimes difficult to retain the ideas and style of the original text in the translation process. The advantage of literal translation is precisely this: it can keep the ideas and style of the original text.

4.3.2 A literal translation is not the same as a word-for-word translation.

What is word-for-word translation? --When translating, every word in the source language is considered, and every word in the target language is translated one by one.Usually, the target reader does not know what the translated text is really saying, and this is also a word-for-word translation. For example,

John had to face the music after his father came back for he had broken his father’s expensive vase. Literal translation :在他的爸爸回来后, 约翰不得不面对音乐, 因为他打碎了爸爸的昂贵的花瓶。

The translation of these two sentences is clearly not in line with the Chinese way of expressing oneself; it is word-for-word, sentence-for-sentence, and overly rigid. It does not conform to the way the target language is expressed, and the meaning it is intended to convey is ambiguous, making it difficult for the target reader to understand what the translator is trying to say. A word-for-sentence translation is a substandard translation, as it confuses the target audience. A literal translation retains the style, rhetoric, and structure of the original text, while at the same time making the necessary adjustments to make it smooth, clear, and acceptable to the target language. After reading, the target language reader can have almost the same feeling as the source language reader. Some people make the mistake of thinking that a translation that keeps the structure and form of the original text exactly the same is a literal translation, confusing the concepts of literal and word-for-word translation. In the end, literal translation is not a word-for-word translation; it is an acceptable and flexible translation.

4.3.3 Some sentences should not be directly translated Some source sentences are difficult to translate. Some sentences do not fit the way the target language is expressed after literal translation. Different countries have different cultures, different customs, different rhetoric and different ways of expressing the same idea, and different idioms. In China, people usually use some idioms to describe an event or a person, and this is also the case in foreign countries. In the eyes of Westerners, Chinese idioms are very difficult to understand. In these cases, the result of a literal translation would be unacceptable. When the target language readers read such a translation, they cannot know the exact meaning of the source language, because the message in the target language is ambiguous. For example, if:

The bastard finally kicked the bucket in an accident. Literal translation:那个坏蛋最后踢了木桶在一场交通意外中。 Free translation:那个坏蛋最后在一场交通意外中丧命。

4.3.4. The literal translation of this sentence is nonsensical, even absurd; but with a paraphrase, the translation becomes clearer and more acceptable to the target audience, and is culturally appropriate. But under what circumstances should a literal translation be done? How to use literal translation correctly? When the expression of the source language is not the same as that of the target language, literal translation should not be done. As a translator, you should pay attention to the following aspects:

Firstly, to understand the culture of the source and target language, to acquire as much extensive knowledge as possible, and to become more familiar with the issues talked about in the source language, otherwise the translation work cannot be carried out. We often have the experience that we do not know or do not understand something, even after it is explained to us, because we do not have the appropriate knowledge. Therefore, a professional translator must have some knowledge of the relevant discipline or specialty. If a translator does not know the material he wants to translate and the content of the knowledge of the relevant discipline involved, his translation will be unqualified.

Secondly, it is very important to understand the information in the source language correctly and thoroughly. The translator should not only know the apparent meaning of the text, but also read through the original text to thoroughly understand the idea and meaning of the original text. If a translator only knows the literal meaning of the original text, and translates literally, then his translation will not be successful. The target language reader will be confused when reading such a translation, and will have a different feeling between the intended message of the original text and the translation, or even a misunderstanding.

Third, translation is not the same as reading. When reading, it doesn't matter how we understand or whether we can understand or misunderstand, because the reader's level is limited. Reading is only a sense of self. But a translation can affect other people. Therefore, translators should have a thorough understanding of the information in the source language and repeat the information correctly. Fourth, improve the acceptability of the translation. From the above, we know that the translation should be consistent with the expression of the target language, so that it can be easily accepted by the target language readers. In fact, it is not difficult to preserve the style of the source language; the real difficulty is to translate the source language into a language that is consistent with the mode of expression of the target language.

Literal translation is a basic skill necessary for translation work. It preserves the form of the source language, including the sentence structure and diction. Sometimes, it makes necessary changes to the source language to make it closer to the expression of the target language and to make the translation more acceptable. But literal translation is not a panacea. Translators should expand their knowledge and practice extensively. After all, practice is an important aspect of translation work.

4.4 The application of literal translation and free translation in idiom

Idiom is also a kind of saying. Idiom is an expression, word, or phrase that has a figurative meaning that is comprehended in regard to a common use of that expression that is separate from the literal meaning of definition of the words of which it is made. Idioms are numerous and they occur frequently in all languages.

The formation of idiom accords with the formation of culture. It is to say that the culture give birth to the idiom. Thousands of years ago, people draw lessons and experience from their daily life and then write down to tell their generations what they have gotten. As a result, most of idioms mirror almost everything related to the life. They contain experience and philosophy. We should know the basic structure of the sentences well, rather than the face value of words. Only in that way you would know what shouldn’t be reserved and what can be ignored.

Every country has its own unique culture. We know most idioms are produced by farmers, hunters, and fishermen and came from daily life. So they often use much different imagery in the idioms. England is an island and fishery country so a great number of English idioms relate to fish and sea. On the contrary, China has been an agricultural country with a very large agricultural population. As a result, we have a great many Chinese idioms that contain farming experience, especially we use animals to signify person. When we translate the idioms, in some circumstance we can translate them literally; but under most circumstance, in order to make readers understand, we take free translation.[4]

These imageries should be translated freely. For example:

(1) Teach fish to swim. Free translation: 班门弄斧。

(2) Beat the dog before the lion. Free translation: 杀鸡儆猴。

(3) One must howl with the wolves. Free translation: 入乡随俗。

(4) Love me, love my dog. Free translation: 爱屋及乌。

(5) Put the cart before the horse. Free translation: 本末倒置。 5 The relationship of These imageries can be translated literally.

For example:

(1) The style is the man. Literal translation: 文如其人。

(2) To be on thin ice. Literal translation: 如履薄冰。

(3) Hasty makes waste. Literal translation: 欲速则不达。

(4) Fish in troubled water. Literal translation: 浑水摸鱼。

(5) Business is business. Literal translation: 公事公办。

(6) Honey sweet words. Literal translation: 甜言蜜语。

(7) A gentleman’s agreement. Literal translation: 君子协定。

4.5The application of literal translation and free translation in proverb

Proverb is a kind of sayings. It prevails in the community with concise words. Most proverbs reflect the practical experience of working people's life and are generally passed down orally. (http://baike.baidu.com/view/23790.htm，2010) It is mostly spoken in the colloquial form of phrases or rhymes easy to understand. And proverbs are to some extent similar to idioms, twisters, common sayings, and aphorism. Readers can enrich themselves with plentiful interesting information of other cultures by familiarizing themselves with proverbs. Thus, the function of proverb translation is not only to absorb and introduce the vivid expressions, but also to enrich the readers with the culture of other nations and learn their basic philosophy of life or world.

In order to understand the features of proverb translation, let’s take some examples:

(1) One boy is a boy, two boys half a boy, three boys no boy. Literal translation: 一个男孩是男孩，两个男孩抵半个，三个男孩什么都不是。 Free translation: 一个和尚挑水吃，两个和尚抬水吃，三个和尚没水吃。

(2) One picture is worth a thousand words. Literal translation: 一张图胜过千言万语。 Free translation: 百闻不如一见。

(3) Where there’s a will, there’s a way. Literal translation: 有一种意愿，就有一种方法。 Free translation: 有志者事竟成。

(4) A new broom sweeps clean. Literal translation: 新扫帚能打扫干净。 Free translation: 新官上任三把火。

(5) The same knife cuts bread and fingers. Literal translation: 同一把刀可以切面包也会割到手指。 Free translation: 水能载舟，亦能覆舟。

(6) The pot calls the kettle black. Literal translation: 锅笑壶黑。 Free translation: 五十步笑百步。 From these examples, when the metaphors are different, free translation could help us understand the source language better. However, in some circumstance, Chinese proverbs have the same meaning, expression ways and metaphors using, taking literal translation is easier and convenient. For example:

(1) Books are ships that pass though the vast sea of time. Literal translation: 时光好比汪洋，书籍好比航船。

(2) Hedges have eyes, walls have ears. Literal translation: 隔篱有眼，隔墙有耳。

(3) Out of sight, out of mind. Literal translation: 眼不见为净。

(4) Like father, like son. Literal translation: 有其父必有其子。

(5) Well begun, half done. Literal translation: 好的开始是成功的一半。

V. The relation between literal and free translation

Because of the different metaphors and imageries using between English and Chinese, once we cannot translate literally, we should make some changes. Such as “dog” signifies good things in English but just on the contrary in Chinese. So sometime we choose free translation to make the sentence perfect. (1). Both literal and literal translations are intended to be accurate, both figurative and spiritual reproductions of the original meaning of the work, and there is no good or bad in either. "Among wolves one must howl" can be literally translated as "你在狼群中必须得嗥", or it can be translated as "入乡随俗". Nevertheless, we must note the difference between these two translation strategies. Literal translation has a higher requirement for "faithfulness to the original", and is usually used for scientific, legal, and other texts, because it must be precise and not misleading to the reader. In addition, literal translation can also be used to translate general everyday language. In contrast, free translation is more abstract and is generally used to translate poetry, prose and other literary works, expressing the main connotation of the original work with divergent thinking to increase its beauty and artistry. (2) Literal translation and free translation are not mutually exclusive, but complementary and inseparable.

VI. Conclusion

Throughout the thesis, we have introduced the definition of literal translation and free translation and used some examples to show their application in proverb and idiom. According to the analysis, we know literal translation and free translation are two basic methods in translation practice. Literal translation emphasizes both the form and meaning of the text, while free translation lays stress on the conveying of the spirit of the text. However, literal translation is different from word-to-word translation or dead translation, which converts words out of the text simply. Free translation, on the other hand, translating the text in a flexible way does not means to translate random but reasonable. Both of the two methods have their own beauty. Literal translation can keep the original expressing style and meaning of the text and achieve formal equivalence between Chinese and English. And it can be more directly in the expression. But not all sentences can be translated literally. In some circumstance, especially the poetry, proverb and idiom, literal translation shows its limitation. So we use free translation. The beauty of free translation lies in its freedom of the forms. It does not pay so much attention on details of the source language and it demands the translators to handle target language culture and customs and readers of target language could accept the translation easily and clearly. It can be used when literal translation cannot be taken. Translators should remember not to add their own emotion in their translation task, for that will make the readers have the different feeling in two languages versions then the translation is not appropriate. And free translation is not uncontrolled translation, it also require the correctness. Literal translation and free translation are two main forms of translation. They are not repulsive but complementary. In practice, we should not stick to one of the methods. We can translate the texts neatly and take the right method which is more suitable for the practical situation. Every country has its own history, culture and customs. Those aspects could be reflected by their language expressing. A good translator should have more extensive knowledge and apply these two methods flexibility, experientially and properly. We must accumulate knowledge of different nations in our daily life, read more books and practice as much as possible.

References

[1] 方仪力. 直译与意译:翻译方法、策略与元理论向度探讨[J]. 上海翻译, 2012, 000(003):16-20.

[2] Wei Lu;Hong Fang.Reconsidering Peter Newmark‟s Theory on Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2012,2(4):741-746.

[3] 朱丽云;徐静娴.有关直译和意译的讨论.汉字文化.2019年(14):107-108

[4] 高强;李曹.浅谈直译法与意译法在翻译工作中的应用.科技信息(科学教研).2008年(14):265-266

[5] Wensheng Deng.“Cultural Self-confidence” or “Cultural Trust”—A Proposal for Teaching Literal Translation[J].Theory and Practice in Language Studies,2020,10(3):300-305.

[6] Rui Manuel Cruse.The Importance of Literal Translation in the Process of Learning English as a Foreign Language[J].The ESPecialist: Research in Language for Specific Purposes,2011,31(1).--Liu Yi (talk) 09:02, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

Cultural Differences

The Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences 李凌月 Li Lingyue 202020080611

李凌月 Li Lingyue

Abstract

Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. Due to the differences in geographical environment, religious beliefs and customs, English and Chinese idioms have different cultural characteristics and cultural information. Translation is not only an interlingual communication, but also a cross-cultural transfer. Cultural factors are often the focus and difficulty in translating idioms. Mastering the principles and methods of idiom translation is not only conducive to the translator's translation, but also conducive to the further construction of cross-cultural communication.

Key words

idiom translation; cultural differences, cross-cultural communication; translation principles; translation methods

题目

从文化差异看英汉习语的翻译

摘要

习语是各民族、地域和社会特有的文化产物。它蕴含着久远的历史背景和丰富的文化内涵，不但反映了各民族丰采多姿的社会生活，且承载着独特的语言美感。因地理环境、宗教信仰、生活习俗等方面的差异，英汉习语具有不同的民族文化特色和文化信息。翻译是语际交流，更是跨文化的迁移。文化因素往往是翻译习语时的重点和难点。熟练掌握习语翻译的原则和策略，不仅有利于译者的翻译，且有利于跨文化交流的进一步构建。

关键词

习语翻译、文化差异、跨文化交流、翻译原则、翻译策略

1. Introduction

Idiom is a cultural product of various regions. After the passage of time and the social and cultural changes and development of various regions, idioms have formed a unique cultural system, which is also a reflection of local cultural thoughts. It not only contains a large number of language and local living habits, but also reflects the local history and culture. Idioms have stable structure and distinctive national color, fixed form and profound implication. Idioms are one of the most effective ways of emotional expression, which can achieve the purpose of communication in a proper and implicit way. Therefore, idioms are widely used in people's daily communication activities, as well as in various language textbooks and classroom teaching contents and practices. Idioms are also the crystallization of the wisdom of the peoples of the world and the gem of the language essence. They are the concentrated expression of national personality and national culture, and contain rich and colorful intension. Stylistically, idioms in a broad sense include proverbs, slang, colloquial, twin words, trinomials, catchphrase, lexical phrase and habitual collocation. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

2. Features of Idioms

2. 1 Vividness

Many idioms use some images to reflect the meaning it expresses, and use a lot of rhetoric, such as metaphor, metaphor, personification, etc., especially the metaphor. These images and rhetoric increase the language effect of idioms, make them more vivid, and the language color more lively. For example, in Chinese, there is the saying of “漏网之鱼”, which literally refers to the fish escaping from the fishing net, which is used to describe the escaped criminals or enemies; another example is “光阴似箭，日月如梭”, which compares time to an arrow and a shuttle, which means that time passes by amazingly fast, just like an arrow out of a bow and a shuttle in operation. In English, for example, armed to the teeth, a snake in the grass. These idioms use rhetorical devices and some images to describe their meanings. In this way, not only can the language be vivid and vigorous, but also the rhythm is beautiful and easy to read. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

2. 2 Historic Background

Idioms are all developed from people's long-term life and practice. They have certain historical imprints, and different nationalities have different expressions. For example, the idiom “换汤不换药” has a certain historical origin. Literally, it means to change the decoction water, but the prescription has not changed. Although the name and form of metaphor have changed, the content is still the same. As we all know, traditional Chinese medicine has existed since ancient times and is very popular. In this way, this proverb is obviously historic. In English, “at the eleventh hour” comes from the Bible. Even if the employees who enter the vineyard at 11 o'clock only work for one hour, they will be paid the same wages at 12 o'clock as those who enter the vineyard before 11 o'clock. It means that 11 o'clock is the last time, but it is still not too late. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

2. 3 Stability

The stability here mainly refers to the stability of the structure and semantics of idioms. After a long period of continuous development and evolution, idioms gradually have certain norms, and their structures are no longer inconsistent. Idioms cannot be reduced or changed at will, nor can their structures be changed at will. Chinese idioms often retain the form of ancient classical Chinese, and their grammatical structure is different from that of modern Chinese. Taking “唯命是从” and “何陋之有” as examples, here “是” and “有” are the signs of the advance of the object, that is, to obey orders, there is no rudeness. In English idioms, the singular and plural can't be changed at will, and the part of speech can't be transformed at will. Just like Chinese, it can't increase or decrease components or change sentence structure arbitrarily. For example, we can't change it to “hang by hair” or “hang by a hair of his”. This is the stability of English and Chinese idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

2. 4 Semantic Unity

The semantic meaning of an idiom is a complete and indivisible entity. Therefore, we can't understand the idiom according to the meaning of the words that make up the idiom. Otherwise, we will make the mistake of taking the literal meaning for granted. “Pull one's socks up” cannot be understood as “lifting one's socks up” according to its four parts. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020) Of course, the structural stability of idioms is not absolute. Many idioms in both languages have their own variants. The change of idioms must be based on the overall meaning and basic structure of the prototype idioms, and be accepted by convention. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

2. 5 Euphony

Idioms often use the harmony of pronunciation and structure to achieve the catchy, harmonious and pleasant effect. In terms of pronunciation, alliteration and final rhyme are mainly used to increase the phonetic beauty and rhetorical effect of idioms. For example, “hot and heavy”; “money makes the mare go”; “by hook or by crook”; “fair and square”; “wear and tear”; “A friend in need is a friend indeed”. In terms of structure, it is reflected in the neat antithesis and the use of repetition to form idioms. For example, “like father, like son”; “out of sight, out of mind”; “cool and calm”; “safe and sound”. On this point, Chinese idioms are more incisive, and most of them are four character structure. Such as “匆匆忙忙”，“如火如荼”，“兴致勃勃”. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)

English and Chinese belong to different language families, English belongs to Indo European language family, Chinese belongs to Sino Tibetan language family, English belongs to hypotaxis language, and Chinese belongs to parataxis language. There are many static words in English and dynamic words in Chinese. Chinese idioms are very expressive, especially idioms with stable structure, many overlapping words and harmonious syllables; English idioms often bring beauty of sound in word stress, sentence stress and pitch fluctuation. (Ma Guozhi, 2019)

3. Cultural Differences in English and Chinese Idioms

3. 1 Differences Based on Natural Environment

People living in different natural environment will form different culture, because each culture will have different characteristics according to its region and climate environment. Idioms, as a unique cultural gene, fully integrate the differences of natural and geographical environment. It can be said that the specific geographical environment is the basis for creating a specific culture, which makes the language in the culture be expressed through different idioms. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

Chinese people live in a semi closed continental geographical environment with mild climate, and their self-sufficient small-scale peasant economy can meet people's living needs. Therefore, people believe that a good harvest cannot be separated from the gift of nature. They pay attention to the unity of man and nature, and pay more attention to human relations. Since ancient times, the Han nationality has given priority to agriculture, so many of its idioms are related to farming and planting. For example, “吃饭不忘种田人”；“不耕不种，终身落空。”；“瓜熟带落”；“生米煮成熟饭”；“牛郎织女”；“巧妇难为无米之炊”；“一份耕耘，一份收获。”and so on.

Greece, the birthplace of western culture, is an open marine geographical environment. People need to fight against the harsh nature for a long time. Therefore, it has formed the tradition of exploring and conquering nature. The geographical environment makes the fishery, shipbuilding and shipping industry flourish and develop. Therefore, English idioms naturally have a lot of things about the sea. For example, the English idiom “spend money like water” is used to describe the waste of money and extravagance, while the Chinese idiom uses the idiom “挥金如土” to express this meaning; In English idiom, “between the devil and the deep sea” means “进退维谷” in Chinese idioms; Similar English idioms about ships and water are: “to keep sb's head above water", “miss the boat”, “rock the boat”, “feel at sea”, “in the same boat”, “take the helm”, etc. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

In addition, English and Chinese idioms also reflect the differences in weather and climate between China and the West. In addition, due to the differences in geographical environment, the “west wind” in English is equivalent to the east wind in Chinese. Just as Shelley, a famous English poet, praises the west wind in his ode to the west wind, in English, the west wind has warm and pleasant meaning, while in Chinese, the west wind is bleak and desolate. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

3. 2 Differences Based on Religion

The development of human religion has gone through a process from irrational witchcraft and superstition to mature and non-exclusive rational religious civilization. As different cultures choose different scales in the process, the development direction and track of religion are also different, which reflects different temperament. In the attitude towards religion, Chinese culture reflects the love of real life and has the value scale of humanism, while the western culture shows a yearning for the transcendent other side of the world and praise God. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

As early as the Xi Han Dynasty, Buddhism has been introduced into China from ancient India. After a long time of development, it has become China's largest religion and related idioms, such as “平时不烧香临时抱佛脚”；“放下屠刀，立地成佛”；“借花献佛”; While in the western countries, as early as the first century A.D., Judaism, the source of Christianity, was born. In the later period of the Roman Empire, it was established as the state religion, and then developed through the monopoly in the middle ages. Christianity was closely related to the life of Westerners. The idioms such as “Judas kiss”, are used to describe shameful treachery; “as old as Adam”, means very old; “God help those who help themselves” and so on. Nowadays, these two religions have been integrated into the eastern and Western cultures respectively, and become an inseparable part of the daily life. Therefore, it is very important to deepen the understanding of Chinese and Western culture through idioms. (Liu Mingjuan, 2020)

3. 3 Differences Based on Historical Allusions

Every nation has its own history and culture, which leads to different customs due to different historical cultures. In fact, many idioms come from history, which mainly come from historical stories or historical documents. These idioms are simple in structure and far-reaching in meaning, so they cannot be understood and translated only from the literal meaning. For example, “周瑜打黄盖，一个愿打一个愿挨”，“姜太公钓鱼，愿者上钩”，“身在曹营心在汉”，“三顾茅庐”,“名落孙山”. Many of these idioms, come from history and have profound significance. In western countries, there are many idioms related to history, such as "an apple of discord", which comes from the Greek story of the war caused by an apple. “Greek Gift” is also derived from Greek mythology. At that time, the Trojans gave the Greek horses as gifts, and there were many soldiers in the horses, which led to the defeat of Greece. There is a certain historical story behind each idiom. Therefore, in order to translate idioms better, we must understand the history and culture of the West. (Chen Jian, 2016)

In China, “dragon" is our spiritual totem, a symbol of auspiciousness and power. Chinese people are also proud of being the descendants of dragon. However, in the eyes of Westerners, there is no such special feeling for “dragon”. Even “dragon" is regarded as a dreadful monster with teeth and claws. (Chen Jian, 2016)

3. 4 Differences Based on Living Customs

The difference of life customs is often one of the important reasons for language differences. Due to the differences of national customs and habits in different countries, there are great differences in attitudes and views on many things. Western civilization has the characteristics of searching for the outside world and a strong desire to conquer. This has formed the British and American people's outlook on life that emphasizes innovation, enterprise and boldness, which can be reflected in idioms such as “knowledge is power”. The English idiom “bread is the staff of life” embodies his pragmatic outlook on life, while “money talks" embodies his pursuit of material interests and utilitarianism. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

In Chinese idioms, the spirit of “collectivism” and “selfless dedication” is often emphasized, such as “天下兴亡，匹夫有责”. Take the attitude towards animals as an example. In Western English speaking countries, dogs are regarded as the most loyal friends of human beings, and are often loved by people. Therefore, there are many English idioms about “dog", such as: “a lucky dog”, “every dog has his day”, “love me, love my dog”, “rain cats and dogs”, “the dog days of summer”, “work like a dog”, etc. However, in Chinese culture, “dog” is often regarded as a humble animal, it is often given a derogatory meaning in Chinese idioms, such as: “狗咬吕洞宾，不识好人心”、“狗口里吐不出象牙”、“狐朋狗党”、“狗急跳墙”、“狼心狗肺”、“狗腿子”、“丧家之犬”and so on. In Chinese idioms, we often find such examples as “静如处子，动如脱兔” praising rabbit's cleverness and agility. However, in English idioms, rabbit has become a synonym for timidity. Therefore, “as timid as a hare" can be used to express the meaning of “胆小如鼠” in Chinese. Custom is the hotbed of idioms, and the idioms which record the national customs and culture are also shining the glory of national culture in the language. (Deng Qiufeng, 2020)

4. Translation Principles and Methods of English and Chinese Idioms

Chinese and foreign theorists have put forward different opinions on translation standards. From Yan Fu's “faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance”, Fu Lei's “spirit like but not form like”, to Zhang Peiji's “faithfulness and smoothness"; from Qu Qiubai's “equivalent concept” to Eugene A. Nida's “functional equivalence” or “dynamic equivalence” We can see that these propositions influence each other, complement each other, and constantly improve. Although the emphasis is different, the central point is that the translation should faithfully and accurately express the meaning of the original text, maintain the style of the original work, and faithfully oppose the appearance of the original work. The so-called faithful expression of the original meaning should refer to the literal meaning, the image meaning and the implied meaning of the original text. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has three meanings at the same time. Some may only have literal meaning, but have no image meaning; some may have both literal meaning and image meaning, but have no implied meaning. In particular, it is impossible for any two languages and cultures to be identical. (Chen Jian, 2016)

4. 1 Translation Principles

4. 1. 1 Retain the Cultural Characteristics of the Original Language

Idioms are unique cultural products of different nationalities, regions and societies. It contains a long historical background and rich cultural connotation. It not only reflects the colorful social life of all ethnic groups, but also carries a unique aesthetic feeling of language. When translating idioms, the translator must flexibly deal with it according to the specific situation of the context and retain the cultural characteristics of the original language. For example, “上天” is the ruler of heaven and earth in ancient Chinese view, which is usually translated as “heaven”. Christianity believes that God created heaven and earth, human beings, animals and plants, and is the master of all things in the universe. When encountering similar concepts in English and Chinese, translators should be careful to keep the cultural characteristics of the source language and not borrow the surface corresponding sentences in the target language. (Wang Xia, 2019)

4. 1. 2 Keep the Style of the Original Language

Translation is not only the conversion of words and sentences, but also the expression of the original idea in the target language. The ideological connotation is often contained in the style. Therefore, it is very important to show the style of the original text in translation practice. Only by doing the corresponding style can we accurately convey the ideological connotation of the original text and make the target language readers understand the essence of the original text. However, it is extremely difficult to achieve the corresponding style, because people from different cultures have great differences in the way of thinking and cultural concepts, which requires the translator to first understand the ideological connotation of the original text, to figure out the style of the original text, and then to express this style in a flexible way of target pragmatics. This kind of flexibility is indispensable in the translation of literary works. (Wang Xia, 2019)

The art of translation lies in keeping the style of the original text in the translation. To do a good job of translation, we need to have the ability to express the style while recognizing it. The translator should try to preserve the style of the source language in the translation. If the idioms are archaic, they need to be translated more quaint. If the idioms are colloquial, they should be translated lively and colloquial. (Wang Xia, 2019)

4. 1. 3 Do Not Take Words Too Literally

In the translation of idioms, the translator often only interprets the literal meaning of the text, which cannot correctly express the true meaning of it, so that the translation completely lost credibility. In idiom translation, it is difficult to judge the meaning of an idiom with a certain word from its literal meaning. It is necessary to understand its original meaning, transferred meaning and the relationship between it and other words, and its context, so as to make clear its real meaning.

4. 2 Translation Methods

Idioms are not only rigorous in structure, concise in form, incisive in meaning, vivid in image and alive in expression, but also rich in cultural information. Therefore, when translating idioms, it is the most difficult to maintain the flavor of the original language and conform to the habits of the target language. However, not every sentence, every idiom and vocabulary in the original text has the equivalent expression of two languages at the same time. Moreover, the culture carried by any two languages cannot be completely equivalent. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

The choice of foreignization and domestication has always been one of the core issues in the field of translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of domestication. His translation thoughts are mainly embodied in the theory of "dynamic equivalence" and "functional equivalence". Nida advocates domestication translation from the perspective of readers' acceptance, and believes that the translation should be as fluent as the original without any traces of translation. On the contrary, Vernuti, a translation theorist who first combines domestication and foreignization with translation, is a representative of foreignization. On the basis of deconstruction and from the perspective of cultural colonialism, he put forward “impedance translation”, advocating that when translating a foreign language into English, it should retain the characteristics of the source language rather than follow the norms and patterns of the target language, so as to resist the cultural hegemony. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

Due to the different characteristics, forms and meanings of idiom culture in Chinese and Western countries, it is necessary to think twice in choosing translation strategies. In the process of translation, we should try our best to keep the characteristics of the original text and meet the requirements of readers. It is not enough to use a single translation strategy. We should analyze the specific situation and take its advantages to achieve the best effect. (Zhou Suhan, 2017)

4. 2. 1 Literal Translation

Literal translation is a kind of translation method that maintains both the content and the form of the original text, especially the metaphor, association and national and local characteristics implied in the original idioms, without violating the language norms of the target language and causing wrong associations. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)

Although the cultural background is different, human beings as a whole have many common factors, such as happiness, anger, sadness, joy and life, old age, disease, death and so on. These things determine that in the language and culture, English and Chinese have a lot of the same artistic conception, especially idioms, most of which come from feelings and life experiences. Therefore, when the same image is read in different languages, the same association can be aroused in people's mind. In idiom translation, those images and metaphors that can cause the same feelings and associations can be directly translated by literal translation. For example, Blood is thicker than water (血浓于水); Kill two birds with one stone (一石二鸟) ; A good medicine tastes bitter (良药苦口); To add fuel to the fire (火上浇油); Practice makes perfect (熟能生巧); to fish in the troubled water (浑水摸鱼). The Chinese word “纸老虎" is literally translated into “paper tiger". Foreigners not only seem to understand its meaning, but also feel very vivid, so it has become the official British and American national language. In addition, “丢脸" in spoken Chinese is also translated into “lose face”; and “走狗” is translated into “running dog”. Literal translation helps to maintain the style of the original text, and can also introduce new words, syntax and expressions to enrich the content of the language. (Zhang Yanxin, 2017)

4. 2. 2 Borrowing

In both Chinese and English, some synonymous idioms are consistent in content, form and color. They not only have the same meaning and rhetorical color, but also have similar forms or metaphors. Borrowing means that when some English idioms and Chinese idioms are consistent or basically consistent in meaning and form, they can be replaced by corresponding idioms in translation. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

For example, wall have ears (隔墙有耳); lain sail (一帆风顺); Love me, love my dog (爱屋及乌); When shepherds quarrel, the wolf has a winning game (鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利); Set a fox to keep one' s geese (引狼入室). In western culture, cunning foxes are specially designed to steal geese. If the geese are handed over to the foxes, it is like sending sheep into the tiger's mouth, which is almost equivalent to the Chinese saying “引狼入室”, and the translation is very vivid. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

It can be seen that borrowing can not only maintain the charm and form of the original text, but also be easily accepted by readers or listeners. However, when using borrowing, we should pay attention to the fact that although some English and Chinese idioms have similar literal meanings, their meanings are very different. At this time, we can't pull them together, or we will destroy the image of the original text and appear far-fetched, There are even misunderstandings. For example, “pull one's leg” seems to be the Chinese word for “拉后腿”, but the two idioms have completely different meanings. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

4. 2. 3 Free Translation

Each national language has its own vocabulary, grammar, sentence pattern and expression. When the content of the original text conflicts with the language standard of the translation, literal translation is not suitable, and the same idiom cannot be found for borrowing, so the free translation method should be adopted. Free translation cannot be confined to the expression form of the original text, but it must faithfully express the content of the original text. Such as The kettle and the (一丘之貉); Once in the blue moon (千载难逢); Actions speak louder than words (事实胜于雄辩); The apple of one's eye (掌上明珠). (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

In addition, some idioms contain historical allusions or ancient people's names, and some involve place names or religions. If they are translated literally, they will be very difficult for the target readers to understand. At this time, it is better to adopt the free translation method, because on the one hand, it can reflect the simplicity of the original text, on the other hand, it is more acceptable to the readers. For example, “赔了夫人又折兵” comes from the allusions of the Three Kingdoms. We can translate it into “suffer a double loss instead of making a gain”. “A new broom sweeps clean” cannot be translated as “新打帚打扫得干浄”，and it should be“新官上任三把火”。Therefore, free translation should be used as a major method in the translation of English idioms which possess metaphor. Of course, the use of free translation will inevitably damage the image metaphor of English idioms and reduce the expressive power, which requires translators to be more careful in translation and make full use of the advantages of Chinese to make up for it. (Hu Gangliang, 2019)

4. 2. 4 Annotation

Some idioms have strong national and local characteristics or allusions, and some involve ancient names or place names. We can fully express their significance only after we understand their historical background and the source of ancient books. In the process of translation, if the original text is translated literally, it is difficult for readers to fully understand its implication; if free translation is adopted, the unique image and style of the original text cannot be retained. At this time, the use of annotation to translate can not only make readers understand the original meaning, but also help readers to further understand the potential meaning of the language itself. for example, “The heel of Achille”: the literal translation of such idioms will make Chinese readers feel confused. The ancient Greek hero Achilles was carried upside down by his mother after he was born and soaked in the river Styx, so he was invulnerable. However, his heel was not immersed, which made him his only fatal weakness. In later battles, he did die of heel injuries. When we encounter such idioms, we can translate them with annotation, that is, Achilles' heel (fatal weakness) will be clearer. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

From the above translation examples, it is not difficult to find that although the annotation method can keep the original flavor of the original language, and can take into account its form and other aspects, some translations are somewhat lengthy and cumbersome, thus losing the characteristics of short, concise and humorous. Therefore, this method has some limitations. (Guo Huiqing, 2019)

5. Conclusion

This paper mainly compares English and Chinese culture from four aspects: regional culture, religious culture, historical culture and custom culture, and then analyzes the differences between English and Chinese idioms, and puts forward some translation methods, including literal translation, borrowing, free translation and annotation. Idioms are characterized by rich cultural connotations, and the quality of their translation is closely related to the degree of cultural understanding. The translation of idioms needs to express the implied cultural meaning and communicate with the target audience smoothly to achieve better communication effect. Therefore, this paper compares English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of language and culture, analyzes the differences between English and Chinese Idioms from the perspective of culture, and deeply understands idioms, so as to put forward appropriate translation methods and promote communication. However, the comparison of English and Chinese culture and the translation methods are not comprehensive enough and need further study.

6. References

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Wu Xiaoli吴晓莉.(2008). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [On the Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Cultural Differences]. "鸡西大学学报" [Journal of Jixi University].(05):87-88.

Ma Guozhi马国志. (2019). "文化视域下的英汉习语对比与翻译" [Comparison and Translation of English and Chinese Idioms from the Perspective of Culture]. [Science and Education] "科教文汇". (03):180-183.

Guo Huiqing郭卉青. (2019). "从英汉文化差异看英汉习语翻译" [On Idiom Translation from the Perspective of Cultural Differences between English and Chinese]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (23):218-219.

Zhou Suhan周苏菡.(2017). "从文化差异的角度看英汉习语的翻译" [Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Their Translation]. "湖北函授大学学报" [Journal of Hubei Correspondence University].30(23)167-169

Deng Qiufeng邓秋峰.(2020). "浅谈中英习语的文化差异和翻译" [On the Cultural Differences and Translation of Chinese and English Idioms]. "校园英语" [Campus English]. (04):242-243.

Chen Jian陈坚.(2020). "基于英汉语言文化对比探析习语的翻译方法" [On the Translation of Idioms based on the Comparison between English and Chinese]. "商务英语教学与研究" [Business English Teaching and Research]. (00):92-99.

Zhang Yue张悦.(2013). "试论英汉习语的文化差异及教学思考" [On the Cultural Differences between English and Chinese Idioms and Teaching Thinking]. "中国教育学刊" [China Education Journal].

Cultural Differences On English Interpretation And The Coping Strategies 马娟 Ma Juan

Abstract

English interpretation as a cross-cultural social activity refers to the cultural differences between English and Chinese. Because of cultural differences in these asapects such as historical background , customs, religion and the way of thinking, English interpretation is necessary to take all of these influences into consideration and the interpreter must have a penetrating mind of the cultural differences.When the interpreter does English interpretation, he must know the coping strategies to grapple with these problems caused by cultural differnences so as to transmit the proper,correct and decent information to the target audiences.

Key words

Cultural differences; English interpratation; Coping strategies;

摘要

英语口译作为一个跨文化交际活动，涉及到英语和汉语的文化不同，因为历史背景、习俗、宗教和思维方式等等这些方面的不同，英语口译必须把这些因素的影响考虑进去，口译员也必须有跨文化交际意识。

关键词

文化差异；英语口；应对策略；

Introduction

1.1.Research Background From the ancient time to now, the communication between peoples and nations is achieved through language. Because of the multitude of human’s languages in the world, translating rises in response to the proper time and conditions. Translating is divided into two kinds; one is translation and the other is interpretation. On the ground that interpretation is characterized by the properties of presence, time limit and live, it plays a prominent part in our daily life. However, as we all know, people are living in a speech community. Hence, They are immune to the culture of the community. It is precisely because the communication between people in different communities has this sort of characteristic, the interpretation between these communities speaking different languages is the transfer of ideas and cultures. Thus we can see that the interpretation as a cross-cultural activity, it can not avoid the effects of cultural differences between the target language and the source language. As we all know, Chinese as an oriental language and English as a western language originate form two kinds of completely different community background, geographical conditions and cultural setting. Thus it is not hard to imagine the colossal differences behind these two languages, a simple but all-round representative of all the differences between these nations. So the interpretation between Chinese and English is obviously a way of culture spreading, which is absolutely influenced by the cultural differences between two or more sorts of cultures. Additionally, from the previous practice of cultural communication, a great number of interpreters chorus that the cultural differences affects the interpretation, a information transfer activity, a lot. For the sake of the cultural differences, it follows some problems caused by these differences such as misinterpretation and an informational loss in the process of English interpretation. Only can these problems be solved, a relatively complete and successful communication can be reached. 1.2.Research Significance In that many problems are produced by cultural differences between Chinese and English, there must be some solutions to these problems in order to pursue better communication between people and facilitate the exchange of man’s ideas and minds. Therefore, this thesis is also going to introduce some kinds of coping strategies to improve the effects of interpretation despite of the long-existed cultural differences between the west and the east. These coping strategies stretch from the ideal aspect to action aspects. Because the cultural differences includes many aspects such as way of thinking, customs and religious culture, it is required that the interpreter is capable of clearly mastering the two languages and also understanding the cultural differences in all aspects. That is to say, the interpreter must have a awareness of cross-culture and a master of all kinds of flexible switching skills between Chinese and English, which are as follows; they are literal translation, free translation, literal translation with a annotation or the method to borrow synonym in English and so on. All these coping strategies that will be advocated in this thesis are beneficial for achieving better effect of information transfer and also the culture exchange. To sum up, the research significance of this thesis is to improve the effects of English interpretation to guarantee a higher quality of the integrity on the information transfer and the same reaction of the listeners through the use of these strategies, and thus to promote culture exchanges between China and the west in spite of the influences of cultural differences. 1.3.The Structure of the thesis The thesis is divided into five parts. The first part is to explain the research background and the research significance of this thesis. With the development of globalization, exchange between nations and peoples is more and more frequent. As a witness and an indispensable participant of the international communication, interpretation plays an important role in this process. Nevertheless, for the sake of cultural difference between China and the west, there is always some misinterpretation and informational loss in the process of information exchange. Given this, the thesis also takes a part in the group that aims to find some strategies to improve the effect of interpretation. With the help of these strategies, the English interpretation may be more better in the aspect of informational transfer and emotional expression. The second part will have an outlook of several cultural differences between China and the west. On account of a long period of discrepancy in the lifestyle, customs, geographical environment, religious belief and history, the difference between China and the west is countless. This thesis just give explanation to some of them. The effects of these differences caused in the English interpretation will be down to the point in the third part. The effects of the influence is so colossal that the interpreter can not ignore them when they are doing the interpretation. The forth part will finally make an account for the antidote to the problems that are evoked by cultural differences. This strategies will do a favor to the integrity of informational transfer and emotional expression. The five part concludes the whole thesis. As the conclusion, this part will be responsible for the variety if the cultural difference and the effects of the cultural interpretation on the English interpretation and most importantly the strategies to the settlement of these problems led by cultural differences.

The Several Aspects of Cultural Differences Between Chinese and English

During a long period of individual development of culture, there are many aspects of cultural difference existing between China and the west.These differences are influenced by plenty of factors such as historical culture, regional culture, custom culture,religious culture, digital culture and social code. 2.1.Historical culture First and foremost, the definition of historical culture would be introduced. The difference in historical culture here lies in cultural accumulation of the social heritage and the specific historical and cultural development process. These differences generally are reflected in the allusions, proverbs, idioms and so on .For thousands of years, China is an agricultural country and thus has developed the agricultural culture which largely influenced the shape of language. As the Sapire-Whorf hypothesis has demonstrated. the culture of a community can influence people’s in this community way of thinking. The way of thinking straightly decides how people use their language to express a signifier. On the contrary, the western countries have been living next to the ocean and thus progressed an ocean culture. Under the influence of this kind of lifestyle, western people pays have developed the respect of the spirit of adventure, which reflects in their language performance is their direct expression of their emotion. Contrast to the ocean culture, Chinese people have worked on the agricultural production generation after generation. So they are more inclined to adopt the euphemistic expression because they have the modest and reserved character compared with the western people. These two kinds of completely different character reflects clearly in their language expression. 2.2.Regional culture China is located in the east of the earth while the west countries set in the other side of the world. The spatial distance is considerable and also the differences in the geography is immense. China is a land of high plateau and has more high mountain ranges, which gives rise to huge temperature difference between territories and vagaries of climate. While the Europe is a land of plains with a law altitude. On the side, because the west is on the edge of the Atlantic Ocean, the weather is moderate oceanic climate where the four seasons is like spring. Considering these regional differences leading to the distinctive climate on the year, they inevitably exert an influence on the culture and people’s way of expression. For example, the British people who speak English as their mother tongue are characterized by slight melancholy and are more conservative, partly because of their changeable weather on the whole year, than Americans who also speak English.Generally speaking, the phatic communion between British people whether they are strangers or not is often about the weather. The topic on the weather is the expected and inherent greetings between British people. Similarly, the feature of geographical territory plays an part in Chinese people’s culture and their way of talking. Because China has a vast land for farming and the weather is also naturally suitable for the plant of rice. Chinese people have been dependent on the rice for making a living, which has been generated the agricultural culture after thousands of years. Therefore, the greeting between Chinese people is always about the food. When they make an acquaintance with someone, they will say “Have you eaten？” in a general way. It’s worth noting that when a Chinese people ask you this question, you can not mistaken their intentions. The implied meaning of this sentence is just “hello” rather than the invitation of you to go their home to eat. From these two examples, we can distinctly have a grasp of the difference on their way of expression caused by regional difference. 2.3.Custom Culture Every nation has its own inherent customs through thousands of years’ cultural accumulation. These customs originate from people’s way of life and habits formed over thousands of years. They are deep-rooted in their culture to the extent that the later generations even have no awareness of the reason why to use them but have to abide by these customs habitually. By this token, a nation’s customs generated over their generations have so tremendous power over this nation’s way of action and way of expression. 2.4.Religious Culture The element of religion influences and to some degree plays a decisive role in people’s moral value and belief. As we all know, in the history people in the English world have a firm belief in the Christianity while Chinese people tend to believe and receive an influence of Buddhism and Confucianism. A huge gap between these kinds of cultures can be obviously seen in the aspect of the nature of religion. Christianity believes in the God named Jesus who can show people the truth and thus belief in the God is the trust in the truth. However, in the Buddhism, the disciple of the Buddhism believe in the Buddhist thoughts which they deem as divinity. Furthermore, the Buddhism is to teach people some Buddhist thoughts while the Christianity is a real religion. Similarly, the Confucianism is also to moralize and educate people and it can not be taken as a religion in a strict way. 2.5.Digital Culture As a part of culture, the digital culture as a matter of fact is influenced by other kinds of cultures such as religious culture and custom culture. Digital culture can be seen as a reflective of the other culture mentioned above. However, the difference reflected by digital culture also plays an important part in the huge background. There are many different linguistic use of digital characters between Chinese and English. For example, many idioms can find the track of digital characters such as “七嘴八舌”“三心二意”“四面八方” ans so on. When these idioms are translated into English, we can not use the literal translation otherwise the target audience will be completely confused. Instead of direct translation of these digital characters in the idioms, the translator or the interpreter normally adopt the free translation to explain the deep meaning contained in these idioms. Additionally, some likes and dislikes for the digital characters between English people and Chinese people is also different. For example, Chinese people have an affectation of number six and number eight and dislike number four. While for the English people, affected by the religious culture, they dislike number thirteen.In the West, most people believe in Christianity, while in the Bible, Jesus, the most revered figure, was betrayed by his thirteenth disciple. Therefore, in the eyes of westerners, the number 13 represents deceit and betrayal, and is regarded as an unlucky number. Therefore, in western countries, there is usually no 13th floor, or row 13 seats on the plane. People’s preference for the digital characters mirrors their language use. They will be inclined to use the digital character that they dislike to represent some bad things and bad luck. Instead, the digital characters they are fond of are mostly to be on behalf of good luck and merry things.Different countries have different religious beliefs and customs, and different cultural differences lead to different concepts of numbers. (Li Jing, 20) 2.6.Social Code Among all these parts, the social code can be seen as the most direct way to differential the cultural differences between two societies when we step into a new society. Due to the differences in the social norms that Chinese and Western cultures rely on in the process of linguistic and non-linguistic coding, Chinese and Western cultures have fixed patterns that are restricted by their national cultures in such aspects as greetings, apologies and comity, acknowledgements, taboo euphemisms, terms, topic selection, polite culture, etc. Therefore, there are obvious differences between Chinese and westerners in greeting, saying goodbye, praising, thanking, inviting, apologizing and so on, which leads to cultural conflicts. For example, when people meet in China, they often ask each other some questions about family, income, marriage experience and other aspects of life to show their concern, but such topics will make westerners very disgusted, they think it is a violation of their personal privacy. Obviously, in contact with the target of the negotiation, if we don’t try to avoid such questions, definitely it can lead to culture clashes. For another example, Chinese people stress vanity and courtesy Li, and their words are often duplicative and contemptuous of others. When people in the west abuse their personality and self-affirmation, they will feel very confused when they hear Chinese people deny others' praise or their own achievements, and think Chinese people are dishonest and hypocritical. Therefore, in cross-cultural business communication, if we ignore the differences in communication principles and modes caused by the different social norms between China and the West, we will use the communication habits of our own nation and misunderstand both sides due to cultural differences, which will lead to the failure of communication and even bring serious consequences. (Shihuiying, 20)

The Effects of The Several Aspects of Cultural Differnences On English Interpretation

As mentioned above, there is so much cultural differences existed between the western culture and Chinese culture. These cultural differences are bound to have an impact on the language use. As we all know, the English interpretation directly has a relation with the language differences. Thus, when it is concerned with English interpretation, it must take the cultural differences into consideration. This part will mainly demonstrates the several aspects that the cultural differences has influenced on the English interpretation. 3.1.Lexical Representation Because every nation has its own unique history and culture, way of life and diet is also have many differences, so in the diet and lifestyle of interpreting, something with untranslatability in translation, this requires two process to further explain the culture of different places. For example, in the north of China, people will light their own stoves and watch them, while there is no kang in the West. Therefore, if the translator only has to suffer directly when translating, the recipient will not know why. In the same way, the Chinese rice cake "zongzi" and so on need to have the awareness of cultural difference in the interpretation, and the information needs to be further processed and exported. 3.2.Pragmatic Rules The pragmatic rules of appellation are quite different in Chinese and Western cultures. In more formal occasions, the Chinese people in general like the title after the surname plus I, said the respect, for example, director of the "king" Eva airways had scheduled another round-trip charter "teacher zhang, at the same time, China has a good traditional virtue, pays attention to pecking order, such as" big jiu "enforced" elder sister-in-law "sister", while westerners for appellation is simpler, more formal occasions, married with known people before the surname plus Mr Or Ms, for unmarried with MR. or Miss is not a Teacher Zhang, but can be addressed on a first-name basis. In informal situations, westerners will usually address the Teacher by his or her first name. For the pragmatic rules of communication, China and the West are also quite different. In China, people like to say "have you eaten yet? Where are you going? This, to westerners, is an invasion of privacy. It simply means that westerners feel that someone is inviting them to eat or that they are likely to be followed. Therefore, this cannot be translated directly into "Have you eaten? Where are you going?" ", but through cultural transformation, translated in a western way into "How do you do? How is everything going?" 3.3.Way of Thinking Different forms of social development lead to different values for each nation. This also affects the interpreter's translation quality and the accuracy of information transmission. For example, at the end of a group meeting, Chinese people like to end the meeting with a solidarity speech, such as "let's work together to achieve greater success!" As long as we keep our hearts together, we will have a better tomorrow. "In the eyes of westerners, these seem to have little to do with themselves. Therefore, in interpreting activities, information should be processed to express the information presented in the source language based on the thinking mode of westerners. 3.4.Historical and Cultural Background， 可否替换成习语的使用 China has a long history, and its long history has created many historical figures and events, such as the Terracotta Warriors, imperial officials and the Great Wall. Similarly, due to its different development history, the West also has its own unique historical figures and events, such as Shakespeare, the poet emerging in the Renaissance. Therefore, in interpreting activities, if the interpreter simply translates the names of historical figures and events, the recipient of the information will be confused and the information transmission will not be able to reach the role of "bridge".(Liu Yang, 2019）

The Coping Strategies of The Influence

As the reality that there is much more cultural differences between the Western culture and Chinese culture is presented in front of the interpreters working on the English interpretation. And furthermore these differences have some effects on the cultural exchange activity——the English interpretation. To improve the efficiency and quality of the English interpretation, some strategies must be employed in the process of English interpretation. These strategies involves many aspects such as.......

Each of them can be correspondingly to the solution of the problems that caused by cultural differences. 4.1.Domestication And Foreignization Domestication and foreignization are widely used techniques in translation. Domestication means to take the target language or target language reader as the destination, and to adopt the expression way used by the target language reader to convey the content of the original text, so that the translation can be easy to understand. In translation, foreignization ADAPTS the language characteristics of foreign cultures, absorbs the expression ways of foreign languages, and requires the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expression ways of the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to turn the target language into a destination. Many scholars believe that naturalization should be the main method to deal with cultural differences in interpretation, which is reasonable and wise to a certain extent. However, if the interpreter finds that the audience does not understand it well enough, he should try to find the closest expression in the target language or be easily understood by the audience. 4.2.Find Natural Equivalence At its core is its principle of functional equivalence. This principle emphasizes that what the translator pursues is not literal correspondence but the reflection of cultural factors in the translation to achieve functional equivalence. In dealing with cultural differences, the search for natural equivalents is always the most desirable strategy because it best represents the source language information of the target language. In general, natural equivalents can be achieved in the following ways. 4.2.1.Transliteration There are some things or things that cannot be found in other cultures. For example, there are a large number of things that cannot be found in Chinese and English, and the translation of these things is transmitted to other cultures by transliteration.

In China, "jiaozi" and "baozi" are different foods, but they are both interpreted as "dumpling", which in English means fruit wrapped in sweet dough. As a result, if "jiaozi" and "baozi" are interpreted as "dumpling", people who have never seen "jiaozi" and "baozi" may misunderstand them and they are transliterated as "icaxi "and "baozi". Similarly, many of the words we use in daily life have transliterations from English, such as "coffee", "gene", "Internet", etc

4.2.2.Explanation of The Literal Meaning Literal interpretation of definitions, also known as direct interpretation. When the cultural connotation of the source language and the target language can be expressed in the same or similar words, it can be interpreted literally. 4.2.3.Explanation of The Connotation When a word or expression cannot find the same meaning and form equivalent to the native-language, its interpretation often abandons the form of the original text and interprets it according to the connotation of the source language. In dealing with these languages, it is necessary to combine the cultural essence of the source language and avoid overly lengthy explanations as much as possible. 4.3.Flexible Handling Because Chinese and English are so different in expression, it is not a one-sitht process to deal with cultural phenomena in interpretation. In addition to the countermeasures mentioned above, to solve specific problems must be combined with the characteristics of interpretation, strive to seek truth from facts. Because the translation has to be done in a very short time. The target language of interpretation cannot be completely separated from the influence of the source language, so in practice, it is necessary to make logical reasoning according to the context, understand its main meaning, and try to use the original meaning of the target language words and phrases to express. It’s better to adopt appropriate domestication or foreignization method to deal with flexibly. The treatment of cultural phenomena in interpretation should focus on naturalization to achieve a better understanding for the audience. For instances, “In the past few days, the election situation in Taiwan has taken a sudden turn for the worst, and all political tricks have been used.” In the past few days, the Taiwan election campaign with dramatic changes, has been fraught with treachery and schemes. However the hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. Some people are trying their best to make the one Who is for Taiwan independence win the election. These two sentences are composed of three four-character phrases and one idiom in two Chinese sentences. It is difficult to accurately express the four-character phrases and idioms in English in a very limited time. Here translators understand the actual meaning of these phrases and idioms through the context, and combine the words of "changeable" and intrigue with the words of "magic trick and Intrigue", which can be translated appropriately and smoothly. Not only does "dramatic change" reflect the original meaning of Chinese, but it also accurately describes the tense atmosphere in Taiwan's election which caused the situation to go into a dramatic downward spiral due to the hidden exhaustion of political scheming and cunning. The hidden intention of Sima Zhao is clear for anyone to see. The hidden intention is clear for anyone to see. In this translation, the interpreter makes logical reasoning according to the context of the main text and adopts the domestication method to get rid of the shackles of The Chinese sentence pattern, which not only concisely expresses the meaning, but also makes a net profit. Since interpretation, as a form of translation, has the function of cultural communication in a certain sense, foreignization has its own value in dealing with some special cultural phenomena. Take this sentence as an example. “人们说, 到了北京不吃烤鸭是最大的遗憾。在就餐之前, 我向大家简单介绍一下烤鸭和它的来历。”And its translation is “People say that it would be a great pity to visit Beijing without tasting some Beijing Roast Duck .It really makes sense. Now , before we start to eat , I' d like to tell y ou something about this specialty.” Here, the direct alienation of Beijing Roast Duck into "Beijing Roast Duck" will not cause the guests' misunderstanding, because the term "Beijing Roast Duck" is a cultural vacancy in English, and the real object is placed in front of the guests to make it clear at a glance.( Zhong Zaiqiang, 20)

Conclusion

In summary, this chapter is all about the cultural differences between Chinese culture and western culture. These differences range from the religious aspect to the consciousness aspect such as the way of thinking. There is no question that these aspects have done a lot of influences in our way of expression during our interpretation. For instances, it will have an impact in our lexical expression, pragmatic rules and way of thinking. To have a pursuit of the efficiency and better informational transfer, this chapter offers some strategies to achieve this goal. These strategies is very beneficial and they include foreignization and domestication, achievement of the natural equivalence, transliteration and some flexible handling in accordance with the specific situation. With the help of these practical strategies, the interpreter can produce a more incredible and proper translating. Ultimately, a bridge can be build . In the end, though the cultural differences is still at present, the people from two different cultural backgrounds can be understandable for each other.

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Polysystem Theory and Cultural Turn-吴琪 Wu Qi，202020080653

吴琪 Wu Qi

Abstract

Even Zohar took the lead in putting forward polysystem theory, which was further developed in the descriptive translation studies put forward by his student Gideon Toury. On this basis, Susan Bassnett and André Lefevere first put forward the concept of cultural turn. Now, the issue of cultural factors in translation studies has received considerable scholarly attention. This paper sorts out several reasons why translation studies turn from linguistic studies to cultural studies bascically in chronological order. By revealing the role of cultural factors in translation, their influence on translation strategies and translation studies are objectively analyzed. Finally, it looks forward to how translators can better spread Chinese culture with the help of the cultural turn that has not disappeared.

Key words

Polysystem theory; Cultural turn; Translation studies

题目

多元系统理论和文化转向

摘要

伊文·佐哈尔率先提出了多元系统理论，并在他的学生吉迪恩·图里提出的描述性翻译研究中得到进一步发展。在此基础上，苏珊·巴斯内特和安德烈·勒弗维尔首次提出了文化转向的概念。目前，翻译研究中的文化因素问题已经引起了学术界的广泛关注。本文基本按时间顺序梳理了翻译研究从语言学研究转向文化研究的几个原因。通过揭示文化因素在翻译中的作用，客观地分析了文化因素对翻译策略和翻译研究的影响。最后，展望了译者如何借助尚未消失的文化转向之风更好地传播中国文化。

关键词

多元系统理论；文化转向；翻译研究

1. Introduction

The overall structure of the study takes the form of five chapters. Chapter I will systematically contextualize the research by introducing the historical background and ideological resources of polysystem theory；Chapter II will deal with the research carried out mainly by Zohar and Toury to develop polysystem theory and its application in translation practice; Chapter III will review the studies related to cultural turn; Chapter IV will clarify advantages and disadvantages of scholars’views on the role of cultural issues in translation studies；Chapter V will give a brief look forward to future research trends.

2. Development of polysystem theory

2. 1 Research Background

2. 1. 1 Historical Background

The representatives of Polysystem theory are Israelite scholars Zohar and Toury. Israel is an emerging country established after World War II. and there are almost no native cultures and literary works. The development of its own culture can only rely on absorbing the excellent cultures of other countries. In this context, Zohar can only focus on translated works(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:1).

2. 1. 2 Influence of ideological sources

Russian formalism prevailed in the 1920s, and the goal of Russian formalism theory was to improve the status of literature in society. Formalist scholars believed that "literary works should be regarded as a part of the whole literary system instead of being an independent research object", and they also put forward the concepts of "defamiliarization" and "literariness", aiming at establishing a research field for literature and distinguishing it from other disciplines. Zohar studied Russian formalism and Czech structuralism for many years, on the basis of which, in the 1970s, he put forward a new Polysystem theory to guide translation studies. Polysystem theory was proposed by Itamar Even Zohar(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:2).

2. 2 From Linguistic-centered to Cultural-centered

Chomsky put forward transformational generative grammar in the mid-late 1950s, which deeply influenced a group of linguists and translators and changed the position of structural linguistics established by Saussure. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Science of Translation, also known as the Linguistic Approach, emerged with Nida, Jacobson, Newmark, and so on as its representatives. They maintained that translation studies were regarded as a subsidiary discipline of linguistics. They also proposed that the task of translation was to achieve functional equivalence, that is, translating should consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style. Gradually, translation studies were restricted to the micro-linguistic level, with emphasis on the text, and the subjective initiative of translation was ignored. Translation studies focused on discussing the differences and discovering the laws between languages, then, a set of mechanical rules that could guide translation were summarized, translation studies were treated as a "science" with a complete theoretical system. This also formed a mindset, which narrowed the translator's eyes to the information level of the original text, ignoring the influence of wider culture and these factors on the generation and acceptance of the translation(Zhu Huichao 2017,88).

Also, in the 1970s, Zohar put forward Polysystem theory based on Russian formalism, and he thought that the process of studying translation is also the process of studying the target language culture. Polysystem theory studies literature from multiple perspectives, not just in the field of literature, but through the study of other extension factors, it studies literary translation more comprehensively and deeply(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:113).

Toury, a student of Zohar, put forward Descriptive Translation Studies (DTS) and translational norms, which provide a more perfect research idea for cultural studies. The International Association for comparative literature held a seminar about polysystem theory which allowed more scholars to study Polysystem theory and descriptive translation(Zhang Suwen 2019,93).

By the mid-1990s, the cultural turn completely broke the situation that translation studies were confined to micro-linguistics. At that time, translators have shifted their focus from the micro-linguistic level to the macro-cultural level. Scholars, such as Susan Bassnett, Lefevere, and Venuti, began to pay attention to other factors outside the source text such as culture, philosophy, politics, poetics, and so on. Thanks to the efforts of these scholars, more intellectuals have been influenced by developments in cultural studies. They believed that because the source text is produced placed in the specific context of the cultural environment, the target text should not be regarded as a simple transformation between languages. Of course, in the process of translation studies, translators are most concerned about disciplines across the cultural spectrum. The emergence of cultural studies opened a new door for closed translation studies at that time. This new paradigm broadened the scope of translation studies and played a vital role in the construction of translation studies(Zeng Wenxiong 2006,196).

2. 3 Representatives of Polysystem Theory

2. 3. 1 Main points of Zohar

In order to better explain the theoretical core of the Polysystem system, I would like to roughly explain several basic concepts of the Polysystem system. First, what is the definition of Polysystem systems? Zohar generalized it as follows: The social symbol system is multiple and dynamic，which is composed of several different systems (such as culture, language, literature, society). Because the various systems interact and connect with each other, the status of each system is not equal，some subsystems are at the center, but some are at the edge. Second, what does the polysystem theory refer to? It points out that in different periods, the culture of a certain society may be superior or inferior to another culture. In different historical contexts, translators will choose different translation strategies. Translators' choice of strategies will change in diverse situations, thus forms a dynamic translation study. Third, how are the levels in the Polysystem system classified? Zohar locates his translation studies in a Polysystem system of literature and classifies them according to the scale of their scopes. For example, the first layer is distinguished by country, the second layer is classified by literary type, the third layer is distinguished by whether it is translation literature, and the fourth layer is classified according to which country the original text comes from(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:45).

Zohar was the first to uncover the status of translated literature and point out that translation literature can be a major role in the cultural system. For example, the three translation climaxes in Chinese history have functioned as a key element of the formation and development of Chinese culture(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:46).

He stated that, in three cases, the system of translated literature will be at the center.

①. When a polysystem has not yet been crystallized, that is to say, when a literature is"young," in the process of being established(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994); Take Israeli literature as an example, Israel was established after the second world war. The original Hebrew cultural tradition is very weak. So it is necessary for this country to introduce advanced literature from western countries and translate classical literature from other countries so that they can provide new thoughts and skills for the local country(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).

②. When a literature is either“peripheral”(with in a large group of correlated literatures) or “weak,” or both. when a literature is either “peripheral”, it will approach mainstream literature. The best way to approach it is to learn its techniques and skills by translated literature which can provide samples for imitation(Gillespie & Even-Zohar, 1994:47).

③. When there are turning points, crises, or literary vacuums in a literature. For instance, after WWII, the vibrant American literature in the past two decades end abruptly and experienced a period of stagnation, because the existing literary model can no longer arouse the creative enthusiasm of a new generation of writers(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:47).

When it comes to the position of literature, notice that，firstly，the innovation of the “weak” literary system is much lower than that of the center literary system. But we still have to affirm its function to spur it. Second, some literary systems are relatively strong when they are formed, and their own literary systems are often in the central position and are not easily influenced by other systems. Therefore, when the translated literature system is at the marginal position, in most cases, literary translation is required (sometimes even necessary) to use words close to the target language as much as possible, so that the source language culture can be integrated into the target language culture and the target language readers can accept it more easily, which creates contradictions, because, by introducing excellent works from other regions into the target language, It should be aimed at absorbing the high-quality culture of other countries, but if all the cultural features, new ideas, and expressions of the source language are eliminated in translation, then the translated literature will always be in a marginal state in such a system(Gillespie & Even-Zohar 1994:50).

2. 3. 2 Main Points of Toury

Based on Zohar's theory, Toury made the following efforts to establish a generalized and authoritative theory to describe translation. Above all, he proposed that the methodology of translation should be divided into three steps. First, the source text should be evaluated in the target cultural context to analyze its significance and acceptability; Second, the target language should be considered according to the target language environment; Third, a comparative analysis should be made between the source language and the target language, so as to identify the translation transformation between the two texts, and then the translation is constantly improved and perfected. This can be used to explain the factors that influence or determine translation quality; Besides, it is convenient to guide the translation practice of different topics by establishing relevant corpora. With the continuous advancement of translation and the accumulation of a large number of materials, different translation models can be concluded by conclusions, and finally, the universal rules for describing translation can be drawn, which is part of Toury's description translation theory. Moreover, Toury put forward the concept of translation norms, which he thought were generally accepted and used by translators in the process of translation. These norms are social and cultural restrictions on specific times, and people need to comprehend them through the necessary process of education and socialization. This is a powerful regulation，which means once they are established and recognized, translators must strictly abide by them, just like social legal documents. It can be seen that Toury's theory is also based on the specific social and cultural context, and especially pays attention to the descriptive research of translation. His translation research method can be generalized as follow: before the research, a pre-set standard should be established, and then verified step by step in the process of translation research. Finally, the target text and the original text are compared, and the governing standards of the translated works are analyzed. Toury further suggested that translators can classify themselves into different standards, including source language standards, target language standards, and so on(Gao Feng & Zhang Deng 2018,63).

Toury's theories also attract more and more scholars to study translation from a cultural perspective. Likewise, Andrew Chesterman put forward new translational norms based on those of Toury's. He holds that the most important norm is "expectation norm", that is, readers' expectation of the influence and communication power of translated works, and other norms are restricted by this "expectation". It can be said that these two viewpoints provide the initial inspiration and theoretical basis for "cultural turn”(Wu Ji 2018,205).

2. 4 Polysystem Theory’s Influence on Translation Strategy

Zohar discusses the translator's choice of different translation strategies for foreignization and domestication when the translation literature system is at the center or marginal state of the polysystem. Foreignization and domestication were put forward by American translation theorist Lawrence Venuti in 1995 in The Translator's Invisibility. Historically, foreignization and domestication can be regarded as extensions of literal translation and free translation, but they are not completely equivalent terms. The core issue of literal translation and free translation is how to deal with form and meaning from the micro-linguistic level. Domestication refers to the translation strategy of adopting a transparent and fluent style in translation to minimize the strangeness of the original text. Foreignization refers to the translation that deviates from the local mainstream values, preserves the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text, and brings readers into foreign contexts. In other words, foreignization translation requires the translator to be close to the source text and adopt the expressions to convey the original content. It can be seen that literal translation and free translation are mainly limited to the language level, while foreignization and domestication are based on the cultural context. The differences between them are obvious and cannot be confused(Song Yue 2018,93).

In translation practice, translators often choose the appropriate strategies according to the specific status the target culture places in the multicultural context. If the source text plays a central role in the whole language communication, the translator is more inclined to not be limited by the language model of the target text and can restore the content of the source text to the maximum extent, which can introduce a new language mode from the source text to the target language. If the source text plays a secondary role in the cultural system, usually, the translator will integrate the source text into the target language context to enrich the target language color(Song Yue 2018,94).

For example, before the May Fourth Movement, translated literature was at the edge of the literary polysystem. Translators tend to adopt domestication translation strategies. Influenced by the Chinese literary tradition, Lin Shu adopted domestication in order to meet the needs of readers. Therefore, his translation works were restricted by the target language, and he translated the western source text into familiar ancient classical Chinese language, so that readers can more accept and recognize this translation activity(Xuan Huifang 2019,92).

For example:

Source text: I’ll fight for my liberty to the last breath I breathe. You say your fathers did it; if it was right for them. It is right for me(BEECHER & DAVID).

Target text: 盖吾之自由，必与持压力者抵死争之，必胜而后已。该美国之自由，美国同英伦力争而得。今吾之自由，必当力与美人争之(Stwoe, Li Shu, & Wei Yi, 1981)。

However, situations are not always the same. Liang Shiqiu began to translate Shakespeare's plays in the early 1930s. Here, the number of translated literary texts was in a growth trend. At the time of the translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream, China was eager to rejuvenate the country by absorbing foreign cultures. Translated literature had a higher position in the pluralistic system of Chinese literature. Fang Ping's translation began in the early days of the founding of the People's Republic of China. Literary and artistic creation at this time emphasized the socialist characteristics of literature, and a lot of socialism excellent literature swarmed. Affected by ideology, China was resistant to the literary works of capitalist countries. When translating and researching with a strong color of ideology and class struggle. It can be seen that when Fang Ping translated and introduced A Midsummer Night’s Dream, translated literature was not at the center of the literary polysystem(Ji Qiming 2016,66).

According to the polysystem theory, Liang Shiqiu should adopt foreignization and Fang Ping's translation strategy should accept domestication. However, in the practice of translating A Midsummer Night's Dream, this is not the case. Here are examples.

Source text: “By’r lakin, a parlous fear(William).

Liang’s version:天啊， 是可怕的紧。

Fang’s version:我的圣母娘娘,这可不是跟你闹着玩的事啊。

The translation strategy Liang adopted is foreignization, while Fang Ping used the translation strategy of "domestication."

The above application gives us inspiration, that is, in specific translation activities, the cultural exchange between the source language and the target language is complicated, which leads to the diverse choices of translation strategies. Therefore, translators can give full play to their subjectivity and choose appropriate translation strategies based on their knowledge and personal understanding. Not strictly abide by a certain theory, because translation is a process of dynamic communication and re-creation, and it is not rigid and static. In the process of translation, only combined with specific cultural context and personal understanding, can translators figure out the best translation strategies and methods. Only by combining scientific theory with translator's subjectivity can we accomplish every translation activity best(Ji Qiming 2016,67).

3. Development of Cultural Turn

The view of "cultural turn" was formally put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere in the book Translation, History and Culture： A Sourcebook in the 1990s. The cultural turn mainly depends on the scholars of cultural approach, who actively advocate translators to shift their eyes on translation studies from the text itself to the cultural context outside the text, so as to change the long-standing existence of translation studies as the "vassal" of literature and art, and promote translation studies to become an independent discipline. Among them, Bassnett is one of the leaders, and her works often reveal the importance attached to the cultural background in translation studies(Bassnett, 1995). Translation has indeed become an independent discipline with its own characteristics under the active propaganda of the cultural approach, which has also become the basis of extensive research on cultural turn in translation studies. Bassnett also has a famous metaphor about culture and language, which also expresses her emphasis on culture. She points out that culture is compared to the human body, and language is the heart of this body. Only when the heart and body interact can human vitality continue; Therefore, surgeons can't ignore the whole body that bears the heart when performing the ng surgery on the heart, similarly，it is dangerous for translators to treat the text isolated from culture(Lefevere 2004:110).

The concept “cultural turn” was put forward by Bassnett and Lefevere inheriting Zohar's polysystem theory, which has attracted many scholars to discuss the phenomenon of "cultural turn" in translation. This theory examines translation activities from a macro perspective, that is, it puts translation in the context of culture, instead of exploring translation in a vacuum separated from culture and context. Using Zohar's polysystem theory, the cultural school holds that culture has a restrictive effect on translation, and shifts the focus of translation studies from the original to the target text, from the author of the original to the translator of the target text, from the source language culture to the target language culture, and has a deeper understanding of the position and role of the target text. At the same time, it is noteworthy that Jacques Derrida, a famous philosopher, put forward the theory of "deconstructionism", which holds that the meaning of words is not only restrained within the source text but also multiple factors can influence it. He also points out that the original author is not the only creator, which also inspires scholars of cultural school to think about the role of translation and enhances the social status of translated works(Bassnett 1995:88).

Chinese traditional translation theory is influenced by the thought of cultural turn, and the cultural turn has occurred in history. Xuan Huifang(2019)mentioned that the cultural turn of Chinese traditional translation theory can be regarded started from the scientific and technological translation in the late Ming Dynasty. Chinese translators, such as Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao and Yang Yanjun, were the first to advocate transferring translation from religion to natural science. They also jumped out of the linguistic category of contrast between the source language and target language and directly introduced Chinese traditional translation theory into the social and cultural background concerned by the cultural school. At that time, translation theories began to focus on how to use translation as a tool to stimulate national consciousness. China lagged behind the West in terms of science and technology and ideas. Therefore, the purpose of translation was to absorb the essence of Western culture and arouse the learning enthusiasm of the Chinese. Only by learning the strengths of others can we surpass others. The function of translation is to convey new knowledge and ideas. As to the type of the source text, they tend to choose the technology that is closely related to people's lives and most urgently needed by the country, such as western astronomy, meteorology, machinery and land construction, and other related books. According to Lefevere, translators at that time were sponsors of translation activities, and they regarded translation as a way to maintain feudal autocratic rule, so the scope of attention was very narrow, and the cultural turn at this time was not obvious(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

Only later on, especially in the late Qing Dynasty, the feudal rulers adopted a policy of seclusion, which hampered China's progress and its exchanges with the outside world. That state was completely broken by the Opium War, which also crushed the illusion that many people thought the Qing Dynasty was powerful and stimulated many literati to "opening the eyes to observe the world". Many translators have translated a wide range of foreign newspapers, histories, geography, and other books, not just scientific texts. Many defeats pushed more Chinese people to recognize the deficiencies of their own and the strength of the West. Although they were not direct translators, they acted as sponsors, which was the main reason for the abundance of translated works and the rapid development of cultural turn at that time. However, it didn't take long for the Westernization Movement to fail, which inspired some elites to realize that China's backwardness was not in technology at all, but in its feudal autocratic system. The reformists, represented by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, have become new sponsors. In this short period of only ten years, a large number of excellent translators have appeared, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. Lin Shu, in particular, did not understand any foreign language but translated a lot of works, like la Dame aux Camelias，Uncle Tom's cabin and David Copperfield, etc. Dictated by others, he translated in classical style. Such kind of translation to some extent can be said to be no respect to the original text. This also reflects that the purpose of translation at that time was not to highly restore the thoughts and styles of the original text, but to convey conducive information part of the original text to the target readers. This period was also the development period of the cultural shift of Chinese translation theory(Xuan Huifang 2019,96).

Developing to the May Fourth Movement, the ideological emancipation of Chinese intellectuals was more extensive. During that period, the translation mainly focuses on how to transform Chinese traditional culture benefiting from western culture and make the Chinese nation rejuvenate. The translation is regarded as an important tool to promote social change. Some scholars believe that the transmission of western new ideas is also to import new expression methods, and at the same time, in order to break the feudal traditional ideas, more intellectuals began to call for the use of vernacular Chinese. For example, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai, who are well known to us, are representative figures. However, not everyone supports this idea. Mei Guangdi proposes that while introducing western culture, we should also carry forward the traditional culture. Western advanced ideas and technologies are needed to be absorbed, but it does not mean that our own language form, Classical Chinese, should be abandoned. But it can be seen that their ideas have not been widely supported. Just like Gu Zhengkun's viewpoint, unlike the cultural turn that emerged more than 100 years later in the West, cultural translation and translation studies in China at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century has presented its obvious characteristics of subjectivity(Xuan Huifang 2019,95).

4. Judgement

Since both the polysystem theory and cultural turn are not universal, so they have both advantages and disadvantages at the same time. We should keep rational and critical thinking when studying these theories, and treat their influence on translation studies objectively and dialectically.

4. 1Advantages

Polysystem theory makes translation studies no longer an isolated linguistic study, but brings descriptive translation studies and cultural turn to translation studies. Linguistic schools tend to pay too much attention to static semantic contrast, focusing on language patterns or underdeveloped literary theories, while the polysystem system combines translation with many factors such as the cultural context, social conditions and politics, especially affecting translation studies at the political level, such as post-colonial translation studies, feminist translation studies and cannibalistic translation studies derived from historical events. Generally speaking, these theories have opened up a wide research field for translation studies, which makes translation studies no longer in a vacuum environment, and opens up a way for translation studies to finally get out of the prescribed aesthetic limitations(Zhang Xiujuan 2017,47).

To enable people to look at translation from a broader perspective and grasp its true nature, people will not be limited on the equivalence between the source text and the target text, but also regard the target text as an entity in the target system to study its various properties. This is the very point that developed into Toury's "Target-oriented approach"(Zhang Suwen 2019,94).

Since the translation is not only selected from several existing linguistic models but restricted by various systems, we can understand the translation phenomenon from the perspective of wider inter-system transmission. After fully understanding this phenomenon, it can also be used to guide us on how to better promote our own culture through translation, which is an unprecedented opportunity for translation studies. At the same time, according to Zohar's theory, we can also know that only with a higher level of research can we better convey our own culture and contribute to our translation studies(Zhao Bo 2017,112).

4. 2 Disadvantages

Polysystem theory and the view of cultural turn neglect the translator's subjectivity, and the principle of choosing original texts is determined by the situation that dominates the (native) polysystem, which means that texts are chosen because they are consistent with the new methods of target literature, and also because of their possible innovative role in target literature. However, the choice of the target text is not only determined by the polysystem, but also by the translator's subjectivity. Translators will try their best to choose texts or familiar genres consistent with their own styles to give full play to their advantages and improve the quality of translations(Wu Ji 2018,205).

Although the linguistic school pays too much attention to the micro-level of translation studies, which limits the development of translation studies, scholars such as Nida and Newmark put forward a series of scientific theories to study translation by studying syntax and vocabulary, which has merits. However, the attitude of the cultural school towards the linguistic school is to completely negate and abandon it. According to the cultural school, before putting forward the theory of cultural turn, translation studies lacked a set of macroscopic theories to guide them and did not form a theoretical system to guide translation practice, which is undesirable. At the same time, the cultural school's eyes are completely detached from the text, exaggerating the influence of macro factors other than the text, which has been criticized by later generations(Wu Ji 2018,206).

5. Conclusion

The following conclusions can be drawn from the present study. Taken together, these findings suggest a role for cultural elements in promoting translation studies. Up to now, polysystem theory and cultural turn still have a wide influence on translation studies, and cultural factors are still important factors that must be considered in translation activities. The findings reported here also shed new light on the responsibilities of today’s translators. When the earth is like a "village", our cultural exchanges with other countries are getting closer and closer. It is necessary for contemporary translators to think about how to maintain cultural confidence through translation and effectively convey excellent culture to other countries. In the process of translation, translators should not only pay attention to linguistic equivalence, but also change their attitudes, think from the perspective of cultural exchange. They should explore a way to combine the inspiration of the polysystem theory and cultural turn, give full play to their subjectivities, and make efforts to tell Chinese stories well and build China's translation system in the world(Han XUe 2019,138).

6. References

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BEECHER, S. H., & DAVID, B. UNCLE TOM'S CABIN: Harvard University Press.

Gillespie, G., & Even-Zohar, I. (1994). Polysystem Studies. Comparative Literature, 45(4), 374.

Lefevere, A. (2004). Translation/history/culture: a sourcebook: 上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai foreign language education press].

William, S. A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Yale University Press.

Zeng Wengxiong. 曾文雄. (2006). 翻译学“语用学转向”:“语言学转向”与“文化转向”的终结. [Pragmatic turn in translatology: the end of linguistic turn and cultural turn]. 社会科学家[Social Scientist],（05）,193-197.

Gao Feng, &Zhang Deng. 高峰, & 张灯. (2018). 翻译研究发展的推动力——多元系统理论研究. [The Driving Force of the Development of Translation Studies: A Study of Multiple Systems Theory]. 吉林省教育学院学报[Journal of Educational Institute of Ji Lin province], 34(02), 62-64.

Han Xue. 韩雪. (2019). 多元系统翻译论本土化策略及其创新性研究[Research on Localization Strategy and Innovation of Multi-system Translation Theory]. 福建茶叶[Fu Jian Tea], 41(02), 137-138.

JI Qiming. 纪启明. (2016). 莎士比亚戏剧中意象的厚重翻译法—以梁实秋的《仲夏夜之梦》译本为例. [Heavy translation of images in Shakespeare's plays —— Taking Liang Shiqiu's translation of A Midsummer Night's Dream as an example]. 青岛科技大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Qingdao University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition)], 32(03), 64-67.

Stowe, Lin Shu &Wei Yi. 斯托, 林纾, & 魏易. (1981). 黑奴吁天录 [Uncle Tom's Cabin]: 商务印书馆[Commercial Press].

Song Yue. 宋越. (2018). 浅析多元系统理论在文学翻译中的应用. [On the Application of Multi-system Theory in Literary Translation] 教育教学论坛[Education Forum],(34), 93-94.

Wu Ji. 吴际. (2018). 翻译学中“文化转向”的前世今生. [Past and Present Life of "Cultural Turn" in Translation Studies]. 校园英语[Campus English],(10), 205-206.

Xuan Huifang. 轩慧芳. (2019). 中国传统译论中的“文化转向”.[Cultural Turn in Chinese Traditional Translation Theory]. 延安大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Yan'an University (Social Science Edition)], 41(03), 92-96.

Zhang Suwen. 张素文. (2019). 探析多元系统论的理论构建.[On the theoretical construction of polysystem theory] .文理导航[Wenli Navigation],(03), 93-95.

Zhang Ziujuan. 张秀娟. (2017). 对翻译研究“文化转向”的思考.[Reflections on the Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. 文化创新比较研究[A Comparative Study of Cultural Innovation], 1(11), 48-49.

Zhao Bo. 赵勃. (2017). 多元系统翻译理论的批判性阐述. [Critical exposition of multi-system translation theory]. 北方文学[North Literature],(12), 112.

Zhu Huichao. 朱慧超. (2017). 简析翻译学中的文化转向. [A Brief Analysis of Cultural Turn in Translation Studies]. 文教资料[Data of Culture and Education], 000(009), 86-88.

The Influence of Cultural Differences on Translation Methods 姚佳 Yao Jia

Abstract

Translation activity may appear to be a communication and transfer between languages, but it is closely related to culture. Language and culture permeate each other, and no language can be created and developed without its cultural background, while cultural differences also affect the language expression of the users to a certain extent. In this paper, we analyse the main cultural differences in translation in terms of historical background, way of thinking, social customs and other factors, but the existence of cultural differences makes translation activities often face some difficulties, which requires translators to master translation skills and correctly look at cultural factors in order to achieve the purpose of communication.

Key Words

Cultural differences, Translation methods, Influences, Translation skills

摘要

翻译活动看似是不同语言之间的交流与转换,实则与文化密切相关。语言与文化之间相互渗透,任何语言的产生与发展都离不开其文化背景,而文化差异在一定程度上也影响着使用者语言的表达。本文从历史背景,思维方式,社会习俗等因素来分析翻译中几种主要的文化差异,而文化差异的存在又使翻译活动常常面临一些困难,这就要求译者熟练掌握翻译方法和一定的翻译技巧,正确看待文化因素,从而实现交流沟通之目的。

关键词

文化差异,翻译方法,影响,翻译技巧

Introduction

The long-term transmission of culture depends on language. Language has always been an important basis for cultural inheritance. And it is also one of the tools used by different cultures in communication. The exchanges between different countries and regions have deepened in recent years. The demand for translation activities has been increasing, and the requirement for translation quality has also been gradually improved. Translation is a cultural communication activity between different countries. It is not only the conversion of two sets of language symbols. In a sense, translation has gone beyond language and become a cultural transfer between countries. There are certain differences in social values and ways of thinking between China and the West. So it is easy to make mistakes in English translation if many words are understood purely from the point of view of performance. This, coupled with the fact that different nationalities are often influenced by their own culture in the course of their historical development, can also lead to errors when translating between Chinese and English. In the face of cultural differences, we should choose appropriate translation methods to achieve the purpose of communication. In recent years, the focus of translators has gradually shifted from language level to cultural level. They have started to study translation methods from a cultural perspective.

The Main Aspects of Cultural Differences in Translation

Translation is the process of transforming a relatively unfamiliar expression into a relatively familiar one. Wang Zuoliang, a famous translator and linguist, once said that translators are dealing with individual words, but they are facing with two large cultures.(Wang Zuoliang 1997, 42) Therefore, translation should include not only language but also culture. The development of each country's language has gone through a long process of cultural accumulation and it is influenced by its own history, culture, ethics and many other aspects. The differences between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in the following aspects: historical background, way of thinking, and social customs.

2.1 The Historical Background

Every country has a unique historical background, which inevitably gives rise to different cultural forms in the course of development. And this has a significant impact on the language as a carrier of culture. At the same time, differences in language can have a huge impact on translation activities. This requires the translator to be able to understand the different historical circumstances of the source and target language in order to improve the level of accuracy of the translation.

First of all, we can see the difference in historical background between China and the West in the process of historical development. Agriculture has always been the lifeblood of the country's development, and the development of agriculture is even directly related to the stability of society. The Chinese people have created many excellent cultures through their industrious agricultural work. As a result, Chinese culture is rich in written expressions relating to agriculture. One of the most unique expressions of Chinese culture is the agricultural proverb. It is a fixed phrase that is widely spread among the people. It reflects the principles of agricultural production and summarises a wealth of experience in simple, popular, concise and vivid words, which is a cultural treasure of the Chinese nation and has always been loved by the people. We can appreciate the unique charm of Chinese culture in some idioms. For example, "cast pearls before swine"(对牛弹琴). We cannot simply interpret this as throw pearls at pigs, for this does not conform to the practical use of Chinese adage. And we can see another example, "As you sow, so shall you reap"(种瓜得瓜种豆得豆) We must realize that many expressions of proverbs in Chinese have been endowed with profound connotations. The deep meaning of this proverb is that one cannot enjoy the fruits of one's labor without putting in it a lot of hard work. There are many other Chinese agricultural proverbs. For example, “There are three rains in the early spring, all over the place”(立春三场雨,遍地都米), “Snow is in the field, wheat is in the barn”.(雪在田,麦在仓). As for Britain, it is an island country surrounded by the sea. Its national development is closely related to Marine civilization. Britain's development into the "empire on which the sun never sets" in the 18th century was largely dependent on overseas colonial expansion. Even in today's society, Britain's national development cannot be achieved without its favourable Marine environment. Moreover, Britain has a temperate maritime climate, with humid climate and good vegetation, which makes it very suitable for sailing and grazing. Therefore, there are a lot of idioms related to sailing or sheep herding in English culture, such as, “A small leak will sink a great ship” (微小的裂隙能使一艘巨轮沉没), “A smooth sea never makes a skillful mariner” (平静的大海孕育不出优秀的水手), Being on sea, sail; being on land, settle. (在海上就航行,在陆上就安居).

Secondly, we can find the cultural differences between English and Chinese from the specific historical background. “In the time of Queen Elizabeth, for example, government loyal Jesuits protested against a "fish only Friday" rule imposed by the Catholic Church, which opposed the government. In this context, "Juhn can be relied on, He eats no fish and plays the game" should be translated as "约翰忠诚可靠".” (Lu Wei 2019, 200) If we do not analyze the specific historical background directly, it is bound to lead to cultural cognition errors. In Chinese, "鸿门宴" should be translated as "Hongmen Feast with a trap for the invited", but it is easy to translate into "Hongmen Feast" if the translator does not know the historical background of the appearance of the word "鸿门宴", which would create a barrier to cultural exchange. Therefore, it can be seen that cultural background has a great impact on the smooth progress of translation activities, and translators can better choose translation methods only if they are proficient in the cultural background of source language and target language.

2.2 The Social Customs

Customs and habits are mainly reflected in the language and behaviour that people use in communication, which is most likely to reflect the human mind and convey certain meanings. If, in the process of cultural exchange, there are significant differences in customs between countries, this can often lead to misunderstandings when expressing their views. The differences in social customs between China and the West can be extremely obvious. Therefore, in translation, the influence of language and behavioural habits on translation activities cannot be ignored. The differences between English and Chinese social customs are mainly reflected in customs, manners and habits of life.

“We can feel the differences between Chinese and Western customs through people's habitual cognition of some animals in their daily life. ” (Wang Jingjing 2013, 28) In China, for example, the dog is a relatively lowly animal. Since ancient times, those Chinese idioms related to dogs have mostly expressed derogatory meanings. For example, "狼心狗肺","鸡飞狗跳" . In English-speaking countries, dogs mean the opposite. For example, "Love me, Love my dog"(爱屋及乌), A lucky dog(幸运儿), etc., which reflects the love of dogs in English-speaking countries. In addition to dogs, we can also see the different meanings of cats in different Chinese and Western customs. In Chinese culture, cats do not show a one-sided extreme phenomenon. Although there are derogatory words such as "猫儿偷腥","猫儿念经-假慈悲", there are also "无论白猫黑猫,抓到老鼠就是好猫". In general, cats are relatively neutral in Chinese culture. In Western customs, black cats are often associated with negative connotations. “Cats are known in the West as the familiar of witches and wizards, which stems from a medieval superstition ---- The Satan, the devil's favourite incarnation, was a black cat that witches used to take with them as a familiar.” (Zhu Yahui 2014, 25) For example, the idiom “she is a cat”. The translator cannot simply translate the literal meaning into "她是一只猫", but should put it in the context of certain western social customs. So the proper translation should be "a woman with a hidden agenda". Some Cat idioms are unique to English culture, such as "Cat s paw." The idiom comes from The Monkey and the Cat, written by the famous 17th century fable writer La Fontaine. “The cunning monkey wanted to eat the chestnuts from the fire but was afraid of being burnt, so he encouraged the cat to take the chestnuts out of the fire with his paws, but when the cat asked for his share, the monkey ate all the chestnuts.”(Wang Aihua 2008) This idiom is used to describe a person who is used to do risky things. If such cultural differences are not well understood, there will be a lot of translation misinterpretations.

In addition to the animal derivation, the same colour also has different meanings in both Chinese and English cultures. For example, in Chinese, blue generally represents a bright or relaxed feeling. In English expressions, blue generally stands for melancholy and deep depression. In Treasure Island, when Jim and his crew are faced with pirates, they are put in a very bad situation. “If we had been allowed to sit idle, we should all have fallen in the blues, but Captain Smollett was never the man for that”.(Stevenson 2013, 118) The word blue here refers to their emotionally depressed state. When translating 'blue' as it is used here, the different customs and habits of English-speaking countries should be taken into account in order to avoid incorrect translations. Here's another example of red. Chinese people believe that "red" stands for fighting spirit, passion and joy. Since ancient times, weddings and festivals have been celebrated with red lanterns and colours. But in the West, red represents blood, it represents killing, it represents death. For example, red alert (空袭) 紧急警报,see the red light (觉察危险逼近). In the process of translation, we should have a deep understanding of the cultural background of customs to ensure the accuracy of words and to avoid unnecessary misunderstanding or even wrong translation.

2.3 The Thinking Mode

“The way of thinking is the synthesis and unification of the stereotyped forms, methods and procedures of thinking of the subject in the process of reflecting on the object.” (Chen Hongwei&Li Yadan 2005) “The way of thinking is mainly composed of eight elements: knowledge, conception, method, intellect, emotion, will, and language habits. These elements are interconnected and interact with each other to form a dynamic, organic and complex system. It is the characteristics of each of these elements and their structure that define the nature, type and characteristics of the way of thinking and produce differences in the way of thinking.” (Lian Shuneng 2002) Different ethnic groups not only have different national cultures, but also have their own different ways of thinking and thinking characteristics, which is what we call thinking differences. Each language reflects the thinking characteristics of the people who speak it, and the English and Chinese languages are no exception. The differences in thinking styles are mainly reflected in the different lines of thought that people are used to, and the different perspectives that are favoured in thinking.

Chinese people think in a forward direction, while Westerners think in a reverse direction. Chinese and Westerners may use completely different, or very different, language to describe the same objects or images. It is not difficult to find that English is used to describe and explain things from small to big, from special to general, from individual to whole. The Order of Chinese is generally from big to small, from general to special, from whole to individual. “When introducing people, Chinese usually lists titles first and then calls them by name, and the titles are listed from the largest to the smallest. English is to announce a name first and then speak a series of duties from childhood to adulthood.”(Liu Wenhui 2002) For example, “现任中国共产党中央委员会总书记，中共中央军事委员会主席，中华人民共和国主席，中华人民共和国中央军事委员会主席于2020年一月十七日对缅甸进行了国事访问”.This sentence, if it is to conform to English language usage, should be translated as “January 17, 2020 saw the state visit to Myanmar of Xi Jinping, currently general Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission, President of the People's Republic of China, and Chairman of the CPC Central Military Commission”.

Chinese people think in a spiral way while Westerners think in a straight line way. The Chinese people's philosophical thinking is good at making Chinese people think in a broad way. “No matter doing or speaking, they always do everything from the surface to the point, from the big to the small. First, they have a general view of the whole situation and make plans; then, they refine details and make plans. Westerners, on the contrary, like to think from the detailed to the overall, from the single to the whole, which is a completely different way of thinking”. (Li Dan&Zhou Xiaoling 2006) It is a reflection of culture and also affects culture. Therefore, Chinese people always put the overall situation in the spiral thinking, while Westerners always put a straight line thinking and a straight line clue in it.

The Chinese like to "paint the dragon and dot the eyes". First, they like to put unimportant information on the top, and then talk about the main content, such as people and events, event results. “In narration, the emphasis of a sentence is usually placed at the end of the sentence, and the story is explained first, and then the theme is entered. The way of argument is the consequence of the first cause; Give the premises before you make a conclusion; Give the background first, then the topic.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) The Western way is to come straight to the point. “The way they speak is the opposite, picking the main ones first, as if telling the answer first and then announcing the process. The narrative sequence is to first state the results and then analyze the reasons. Make a conclusion before you give a premise. Explain the topic first, then the background.”(Bu Jia 2012, 123) Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the word order in the English-Chinese translation so as to conform to the narrative logic of the two languages. For example, "求稳定、谋发展、促合作 , 是当今各国人民的共同愿望"。This sentence can be translated into：It is the common aspiration of all the people in the world to m aintain stability, seek development andpromote cooperation.

Influences of Cultural Differences on Translation

Translation is not only the transformation between languages, but also the transformation between language forms, and even the transformation of culture. Therefore, in the process of language translation, communicative context, which refers to cultural factors, should be considered. On the one hand, culture is common, and there will be some overlap between cultures, which is also the basis of translation. On the other hand, the culture is also diverse, which is the difficulty of translation. The cultural diversity and uniqueness between English and Chinese often lead to lexical vacancy, semantic conflict and other phenomena that hinder translation. This requires translators to pay attention to such cultural differences and choose appropriate translation methods to solve the translation difficulties and make up for the lack of culture in the process of translation.

3.1 Lexical Gap

Language is the carrier of culture. Every language has its own cultural peculiarities. As a cross-language and cross-cultural communication activity, translation not only conveys text information, but also inherits cultural significance. However, "different cultures break down and describe the world in different semantic categories. Therefore, some semantics in one culture may not exist in another language."( Lado 1957, 78 ) This phenomenon is known as semanticzero. Practice has proved that the great differences between Chinese and English traditional cultures make English and Chinese words and meanings often difficult to correspond one to one, which makes translators have to take necessary strategies to eliminate or reduce barriers to communication. “Language is a culture created by people in the process of long-term practice, which naturally reflects the objective material world. If something does not exist in the community, there is often a vacancy in the meaning of the word.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, silk, which was not used by westerners at first, belongs to one of the earliest inventions in Chinese history. It was not until the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC-8 AD) that Zhang Qian, on his mission to the Western Regions, opened the door to China and the West by opening the "Silk Road", which connected the Mediterranean countries and spread silk to the world. So, English borrowed Chinese pronunciation to translate the word. Another example is Peking Opera, which is beloved by the Chinese people. It is a comprehensive art that combines singing, reading, doing and playing. However, opera, dance drama and drama that Europeans and Americans like are all in a single form. There is no dance in opera and no singing in dance drama, while drama is mainly dialogues. In view of this, the translator needs to make English readers fully and correctly understand the differences between Chinese quintessence and other art forms. In China, for example, there was no "咖啡"coffee, "冰淇淋"icecream, "沙发"sofa, etc., which had to be completely transplanted from English. But as time changes and cultural exchanges, the development of material culture in China has been synchronization with the west, even beyond. Such as "可乐"(cola), "自助"(buffet), "互联网" (Internet), "超市"( supermarket ), the previous social lack of cultural awareness in China such as vocabulary, has now been welcomed the broad masses.

The lexical vacancy also appears in the different gods known in the East and the West. Westerners believe that God created human beings and dominated the world, while The Chinese traditionally accept the myth that Pangu created the world and Nu Wa made man. They believe that the Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva have supernatural powers and are able to "save suffering and all living beings". Similarly, the Puritans and Protestants in The English language had a color of religious movement that was not known in China as Puritans. Therefore, it is not easy to translate both in form and in spirit. Chinese people attach great importance to ethics, order of seniority and clear distinction between seniority and inferiority. “In the appellation of relatives in Chinese, clan relationship is very complicated. In contrast, English kinship terms are more vague and general.”(Cui Jing 2012, 38) For example, the English uncle, aunt, and cousin only show gender and simple relatives， the only way to tell them apart may be by their name. In addition, words with Chinese institutional culture characteristics, such as lunar solar terms, heavenly stems, earthly branches and traditional festivals, have no meaning at all in English. Such as The Chinese "清明", "端午", "拜年", "一国两制", and in English “Christmas”, “Easter”, “capitalism” and so on.

3.2 Semantic Conflict

Due to the macroscopic similarity of human living environment and thinking structure, "what can be said in one language can be expressed relatively accurately in another language" (Nida, 1975). However, in addition to these semantically consistent words, there are many other pseudo-semantically consistent words between Chinese and English that seem to be the same. “In translation, this seemingly identical but different words and sentences are impossible to achieve the coexistence of source language and target language. We put this seemingly identical but different phenomenon in translation, known as the incompatibility of form and semantics in translation.”(Lu Guoqiang 2012) Incompatibility is contradiction. In translation practice, this kind of form and semantic incompatibility is very deceptive, which often leads to mistranslation of many words and phrases. For example, "这个故事发生在巴黎." "The story takes place in Paris."; "我们的当务之急是要深化改革" "To deepen reform is the most urgent task. ". Grammatically speaking, the above two translations seem to be sound, but they are semantically incompatible. They are all typical examples of Chinglish and should be amended as follows: 1) The story is set in Paris. 2) To deepen our commitment to reform is the top priority.

In addition, there is another kind of semantic conflict, that is, the asymmetry of emotional meaning in Chinese and English translation. In addition to conveying information, language should also express the attitude of the speaker or the author towards what is said and the attitude of the listener and reader, that is to express feelings. In translation, the lack of a thorough understanding of the emotional meaning of a word often leads to incompatibility between form and meaning. The Chinese words for "干部" and "当官的" have the same conceptual meaning but different emotional colors. The former is neutral and sometimes even has a positive meaning, while the latter obviously has a negative meaning. Another example, the Chinese word for "农民". Farmer is a neutral word in Chinese, while peasant has a derogatory meaning in English, referring to a rude and uncultivated person, so it is more appropriate to translate "农民" as a neutral word farmer. "物美价廉", which means cheap and good. "Cheap" often reminds people of a cheap and inexpensive product, while "economical" has the associative meaning of "good and inexpensive". Therefore, the positive word "物美价廉" should be translated into “economical and good” or “nice and inexpensive”.

In translation, the semantic contradictions caused by improper collocation should be paid special attention to by translators. “Collocation meaning is a collocation of associations acquired by a word from the meanings of other words combined with it. In translation, due to improper collocation, a large number of target languages with incompatible formal and semantic meanings are produced.”(Liu Yang 2016, 18) Only by truly mastering both Chinese and English and getting familiar with their fixed collocation patterns and idiomatic expressions can translators avoid mistranslation caused by improper collocation to the greatest extent. “For example, "假花"(artificial flowers); "假牙" (false tooth), "假新闻"(pseudo-event), etc. In each of the above examples, "假" means "untrue" and is the opposite of "true". However, if you use "fake" or "false" in the translation, it is not in line with the English collocation habit.”(Liu Yang 2016, 19) When Chinese people study English, they often suffer from the semantic incompatibility caused by improper collocation. One of the important reasons is that they are not familiar with the national expression methods of English speaking. This kind of English collocation translated by Chinese thinking is something we need to work hard to correct. For example, “学习英语知识”，many people will translate it into "learn a knowledge of English" . But the proper translation is acquire a knowledge of English/has a knowledge of English. Leech pointed out that, unlike other types of meaning, collocative meaning has the property of generalization. It is only a special property of individual words. When it cannot be explained by other types of meaning, collocative meaning is resorted to as a special category. (Leech 1974) The particularity of collocation makes it more difficult for us to improve our expressive ability. Therefore, translators need to keep learning these commonly used fixed collocations to improve the accuracy of translation.

3.3 Use Specific Translation Methods from the Perspective of Cultural Differences

Transliteration is a form of translation based on the pronunciation of the original language, generally based on the pronunciation of the content of the original language to find alternative translations in the target language with similar pronunciation. Transliteration is usually used for translating names, place names, country names, proper nouns or words with national characteristics. The transliterated words can only be used together, not separately, otherwise they have no meaning. Since there is a big difference between China and the West in terms of name calling, the transliteration is usually done by transliteration. For example, Charles is translated as "查尔斯", David Copperfield as "大卫科波菲尔得", Romeo and Juliet as " 罗密欧与朱丽叶". There are many examples of transliteration of Chinese and Western place names. For example, Washington, the capital of the United States, is transliterated as "华盛顿", Florence as "佛罗伦萨", and Bristol as "布里斯托". The list of place names is endless. The phonetic transliteration of place names is too numerous to mention. In addition, due to cultural differences, both Chinese and Western countries have developed their own proper nouns and words with unique national characteristics, which generally require phonetic translations. For example, "功夫" translates into "Kongfu", "秧歌" translates into "Yangko". Another example, there is a famous line from a Tang poem:姑苏城外寒山寺,夜半钟声到客船. “"寒山寺" here is not because there is a "Cold Mountain" outside Suzhou, but because it was named after a monk who was called "寒山" in the Tang Dynasty. Therefore, the translation of “Cold- Hill Monastery” would be misleading as "a temple on Han Shan Mountain," which should be translated as “Han Shan Monastery”. ”(Wang Jianghong 2007)

Literal translation is the translation into English of words and phrases that have the same or similar meaning according to their original meaning. Literal translation is an important translation method that has many advantages, such as its ability to convey the meaning of the original text and to reflect its style. It is estimated that around 70% of sentences are processed by literal translation, so literal translation is a widely used translation method by translators, which shows the importance of this method. However, as there are certain differences between Chinese and Western cultures in various aspects, two situations must be taken into account when using literal translation. The first is to pay attention to the mistranslation of proper nouns or technical terms, and the second is to pay attention to words that have the same form but very different meanings in the two languages. For example, when selling something, you can't call your goods cheap, but inexpensive, because cheap means "of inferior quality"; "继承人" don't use successor but heir; "白酒"is not white wine but liquor.

A free translation is different from a literal translation. A free translation is a translation that is based on the main idea of the original text rather than a word-for-word translation. It is usually used more often when translating sentences, phrases or larger groups of meaning. Free translation is mainly used in situations where the original language and the translated language reflect significant cultural differences. From the point of view of cross-cultural linguistic communication and cultural exchange, free translation emphasises the relative independence of the cultural system of the translated language from the cultural system of the original language, and is more capable of reflecting the linguistic characteristics of the nation. For example, the Chinese proverb "三思而后行"usually translated into "Look before you leap","一朝被蛇咬十年怕井绳"可以译为"A burned child dreads the fire","心急吃不了热豆腐"译为"A watched pot never boils". In English there are also many words that need to be paraphrased and the cultural differences between the two languages in different situations should be respected when translating, otherwise it can lead to misunderstandings in the language transfer. For example, "Every life has its roses and thorns."is translated into："人生有苦有甜。In Hamlet, Act II, Scene 2, there is this depiction and praise of mankind:"What a piece of work is a man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty! In form and moving how express and admirable! In action how like an angel! In apprehension how like a god! The beauty of the world! The paragonof animals!" It was translationed into： "人类是一件多么了不得的杰作！ 多么高贵的理性！ 多么伟大的力量！ 多么优美的仪表！ 多么文雅的举动！ 在行为上多么像一个天使！ 在智慧上多么像一个天神！ 宇宙的精华！ 万物的灵长！" “Words such as "仪表", "天神", "灵长" corresponded to Chinese cultural imagery and free translation was used for this purpose.”(Sun Yiwen 2019, 170)

The skills to choose the proper translation methods from the perspective of cultural differences

The ultimate effect of translation should be that the audience receives complete and correct information and that they have the same experience of reading the translation as if it were their mother tongue. In order to achieve the best possible translation results, it is important to focus on the cultural characteristics of the translation itself and to analyse the target audience of the translation. At the same time, the differences between Eastern and Western cultures should be compared and analysed to identify the cultural factors that influence translation and to clarify that the influence of cultural differences in translation cannot be ignored. The aim is to enable people to face up to cultural differences and to value the dynamic equivalence of translation practice. The aim is to improve sensitivity to cultural differences and the accuracy of language use, to overcome cultural barriers in translation and to achieve intercultural communication.

4.1 Focus on the work itself

When carrying out translation activities, it is essential that the translator carries out an in-depth analysis of the work to be translated. Therefore, the type of work, style, cultural features should be taken into account if the translator wants to achieve the desired results. If the type of work to be translated into English is different, then the requirements can vary considerably. Take the translation of poetry as an example. Poetry is the essence of language and culture. Poetry is usually a harmonious blend of emotions and scenery, and the theme of the poem is usually expressed by the mood. In the process of translating Chinese poetry, the ambiguity of the language and the problems that arise in the translation process actually stem from cultural differences. We can look at an example of Cao Xueqin’s work: "空对着,山中高士晶莹雪; 终不忘,世外仙姝寂寞林."(1982, 17) And the translation is "Vainly facing the hermit in sparkling snow － clad hills, I forgot not the fairy in lone woods beyond the world". (Yang Xianyi 1978, 67) “The "雪" in the poem ostensibly refers to snow in nature, but those who familiar with Dream of the Red Chamber will know that it is actually the Chinese character for "薛". It refers to Xue Baochai. "林" appears to refer to a forest, but actually refers to Lin Daiyu. If the meaning of the puns in a poem is not clear, the original mood and emotion of the poem will be lost and the reader will be less able to understand the meaning of the poem.”(Li Yafeng 2016, 70) Therefore, the translator should never adopt an ambiguous attitude towards the translation of such punning words in poetry. The translator should start from the work itself, thoroughly clarify the cultural background of the original text and the profound meaning of the work, and choose the appropriate translation to reproduce the true meaning of the poem to help the reader better understand it.

In addition, in the English translation process, the translator must have an accurate grasp of the cultural characteristics of each term in order to choose the appropriate translation method, so that the content of the translation is accurate and comprehensive. For example," 汉皇重色思倾国,御宇多年求不得。"It was translated into: “The beauty － loving monarch longed year after To find a beautiful lady without a peer.”(Xu Yuanchong 2010, 222) “The word 'Han Huang' in the poem is the title of the emperor in Chinese feudal society, a term used in China, and Chinese readers are able to grasp the cultural han meaning of it. The word 'monarch' has been chosen to be more accessible to the reader, who has a general idea that he is a ruler of a country and can get a general idea of the meaning of the original poem". (Li Yafeng 2016, 72) We can see that both Chinese and Western cultures have one thing in common: they are the result of a long process of sedimentation and accumulation and are characterised by diversity and stability. English translators must accurately grasp the differences between Chinese and Western cultures and choose a suitable translation method in order to complete the translation work successfully.

4.2 Focus on the reader

In the whole translation activity, the source material, the translation and the reader are the three elements. And translators should not only pay attention to the high degree of restoration of the source material, but also pay more attention to the feelings of the reader and take the readers’ reaction as the fundamental point of reaction. The translation activity itself is to serve the reader, and translators try to make their translations more accurate. If the problem of inaccurate translation still exists, it is necessary to combine naturalisation and alienation to prevent the translation language from being too rigid, and in cases where some local conditions are not understood, markings can be made to enhance the readers’ understanding.

Depending on the type of reader, the translation strategy the translator should adopt should also change. For example, if the reader is a minor, the language used in the English-Chinese translation should be straightforward and simple, and the rationale should be clearly visible. Authentic translation not only restores the authenticity of the linguistic content, but also reflects the vividness of the cultural content, thus achieving the purpose of being available for research. The degree of difficulty, translation method and interpretation of the content should be decided according to the target audience in order to produce different effects for different people and thus achieve the purpose of English-Chinese translation. Eugene Naida has said that as white as snow (白如雪)is translated as "white as goose feathers" where the word is not familiar at all or does not exist in the language, because the readership or group of readers is different. By analogy, the English idioms 'birds of a feather flock together' and 'shed crocodile tears ' can be translated as " 物以类聚, 鸟以群分" and "掉鳄鱼眼泪" at higher readership levels; at lower readership levels it can be translated as "鱼找鱼, 虾找虾" and "猫哭耗子", otherwise it will not only fail to resonate with the reader, but will also confuse the reader. “Eugene A.Nida strongly advocates that the translator should take into account the reader's receptivity, ‘The first task of the translator in a translation is to convey the information in the original text faithfully’, ‘The text must be interpreted correctly for the reader’.” (Tan Zaixi 1984, 21)

4.3 Focus on the dynamic equivalence of translation

The principle of "dynamic equivalence" was coined by the famous American linguist Eugene Nida in the 1960s. According to Nida, "the translation process aims to reproduce the information content of the source language in the recipient language that is closest to the source language, firstly in terms of equivalence of meaning and secondly in terms of equivalence of style”. (Nida 2001, 87) In this concept, Naida emphasises 'closest' rather than 'equivalent'. The so-called "nearest equivalent" means that the information in the source language is reproduced in the target language using the nearest "natural equivalent", so that the translation is as natural as possible, both semantically and stylistically. According to the principle of dynamic equivalence, the translator starts with the reader in mind, and does not focus on the linguistic equivalence between the original and the translated form, but on the meaning and spirit of the original, reproducing the main idea of the original as completely as possible. The measure of a good translation is not how close the form of the translation is to the original, but whether the function of the information to be conveyed is the same as that of the original. The principle of "dynamic equivalence" has enormous implications for intercultural translation. To achieve bicultural understanding and communication, it is necessary to have a deep understanding of the differences between the two cultures and then be flexible enough to use translation methods that faithfully reproduce the cultural flavour of the original.

In translation activities, the treatment of cultural background information is crucial. Translation plays the role of a bridge for cross-cultural communication, and its aim is not only to transform language and text on the surface structure, but also to transfer the cultural connotations embedded in the original work. For example, the famous English poet Shelley's Ode to the West Wind expresses a perfect eulogy of spring with beautiful and rich imagination. Because Britain is located in the northern temperate zone of the western hemisphere, it is subject to oceanic weather all year round, so the west wind generally heralds the arrival of spring. The differences in geographical location and climate between the two countries have resulted in different understandings of the easterly and westerly winds, resulting in different cultural connotations in the language. In order for the readers of the translated text to agree with the readers of the original text, the translator must find a translation in the culture of the target language as opposed to that of the source language. If this geographical and cultural difference is ignored and a literal translation is made, not only will cultural information not be exchanged, but it may also mislead the reader of the translated text.

Over the course of their long history, all peoples have developed cultural symbols, also known as cultural imagery. Cultural imagery is mostly the result of the wisdom, history and culture of each nation. The same object, in a different cultural atmosphere, represents different cultural symbols, carries different cultural connotations and triggers different associations for the reader, leading to different interpretations. As in Jin Changxu's Spring Complaint': "打起黄莺儿,莫教枝上啼；啼时惊妾梦,不得到辽西". The poem vividly expresses the woman's helpless desolation and her fervent longing for her husband, who has left home and gone to the battlefield. As a military stronghold on the northeastern border of the Tang dynasty, "Liaoxi" refers to the area around Yingzhou and Yanzhou, west of the Liao River in the Tang dynasty, and often appears in ancient Chinese poetry, referring to the "battlefield". "This typical Chinese cultural imagery of "辽西" carries a strong sense of Chinese culture that is difficult for Western readers to comprehend. “A literal translation would never work, but a transliteration plus an explanation of the "辽西" as "Liao- xi, the frontier" would make it as much of a cultural fax as possible. The abundance of cultural imagery conveys the cultural connotations of the cultural imagery of "Liaowest" well.” (Ke Zhao 2012, 114) Obviously, if the equivalence of form undermines the equivalence of meaning in the translation process, then the form should not be hesitated to be abandoned in favour of the fidelity of content.

Conclusion

Cultural differences in translation are a complex matter, and there are no fixed rules for dealing with them. Therefore, only with a deeper understanding of the cultural differences between the East and the West can a translator maintain the original style of the translated work and make the translation accessible and acceptable to the target audience. As an important factor in building cultural bridges, translators should be prepared to understand the differences in historical background, ways of thinking, social customs and other aspects of different cultures before processing the translation. At the same time, translators should be able to adopt flexible translation methods according to different situations, overcome obstacles caused by cultural differences in translation activities, and respect other cultures as well as their own.

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Abstract

For a long time, translation has been regarded as a conversion activity between languages. However, with the increasing international communication, translation studies gradually turn to cultural transfer. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to deal with cross-culture involved in translation, namely, TL (target language) culture-oriented domestication and culture-oriented foreignization. Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture,making the target text recognizable and familiar to the readers. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the source text and in turn to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences. Because of the differences between the SL culture and the TL culture,a translator is bound to face a choice. So it is inevitable to have the inclination of domestication or foreignization for a translation. It can be said that the subject of domestication and foreignization is one of the core topics of translation. This paper starts with the historical origin of domestication and foreignization, analyzes their respective strengths and weaknesses and discusses the relationship between them. The paper reaches a conclusion that the relationship between domestication and foreignization is dialectic and they can complement each other in the process of translation. And by analyzing the factors influencing and restricting the choice of translator’s strategy, the author puts forward some methods and means to realize cultural transmission through two translation strategies in order to guide translation practice.

==Key words==: domestication; foreignization; cross-culture translation

摘要

长期以来，翻译一直被视为语言间的转换活动。但随着国际间交往的日益紧密，翻译研究逐渐转向文化间的比较。一般而言，翻译中文化的转换有两种基本策略:即以目的语文化为归宿的归化和以源语文化为归宿的异化。归化是指尽量将译语文化纳入译文读者的知识范围，将作者引向读者;异化是指在翻译中保留原文语言文化的特异之处，将读者引向作者。由于源语和译语文化的巨大差异，译者在翻译过程中必然会面临两难选择，因而一篇译作也必然会出现归化或异化的倾向。可以说，归化和异化的课题是翻译的核心课题之一。 本文从归化和异化的历史渊源入手，分析二者各自的优势和缺陷，探讨了归化和异化两者之间的关系，认为二者既对立又统一，在翻译过程中可以互相补充，并通过选择一些翻译实践的例子加以说明二者的互补性。通过分析影响和制约译者策略选择的因素，作者最终提出了一些能够通过两种翻译策略实现文化传递的方法和手段，以期对翻译实践起指导作用。

==关键词==：归化；异化；跨文化翻译

Introduction

Translation is not only an activity of lingual exchange and information transfer, but also a kind of cultural communication between different countries and nations. With the growing ties among countries, cross-translation has become a hot topic. And in recent years, translators have shown increasing interest in the problems arising from cultural differences in translation. Generally speaking, there are two principal strategies to tackle them in translation, namely, ”domestication” ”foreignization”. The domestication is target language oriented, while the foreignization is source language oriented.

The study on domestication and foreignization has lasted for quite a long time. 

There have been numerous disputes over domestication and foreignization both in China and abroad. In these disputes, people have been trying to obtain a conclusion as to which translation strategy is better. They tend to overemphasize one strategy and ignore the positive and indispensable role of the other. In fact, their relationship is dialectic. The paper tries to hold a dialectic attitude towards the dispute over domestication and foreignization and study the relationship between the two and tries to make a conclusion that domestication and foreignization are both useful in translation and translators should choose different strategies in various situations. In fact, an excellent translation always well combines the two strategies.

This thesis mainly consists of three chapters.

Chapter I is a brief survey of the history of domestication and foreignizatio.The paper will provide a detailed account of some fundamental issues in the study of domestication and foreignization, including their definitions, their details and their advantages and limitations.

Chapter 2 presents that the disputes on domestication and foreignization have permeated the history of translation both in the West and in China. The disputes in translation history show that both sides take absolute and one sided attitude towards the two translation strategies and they just overemphasize one of them. Thus many translators feel puzzled at what strategy to choose according to different situations.

Chapter 3 focuses on the factors influencing the choice of the translation strategies. General speaking,there are three major factors: translation purpose, the text type, and the target reader. Understanding these factors can help translators choose an appropriate translation strategy.A translator should try to avoid biases and remain objective. What’s more, he should consider the above three factors before he decides whether to adapt the original text or to retain as much as possible the foreign flavor of the original text.

In conclusion, the writer tries to conclude that a good translator should adopt different devices to realize different strategies according to different situations, and a good translation is one that well combines domestication and foreignization.

Ⅰ A Brief Study of Domestication and Foreignization

In many cases controversy is due to the looseness of clarification of fundamental issues (Hou Yanan 2004,5 ). Many people talk about domestication and foreignization when the fundamental issues are seldom clearly defined.In this chapter, the paper will provide some fundamental issues of domestication and foreignization which are based on the following arguments.

1.1 Definition

The terms of domestication and foreignization were first introduced by the famous American translator Lawrence Venuti in his book The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation, which was published in 1995. Domestication and foreignization are defined by Lawrence Venuti as follows:”Domestication means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignization, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the  foreign culture, making him or her see the cultural and linguistic difference"(Venuti 1995:19-20). Domesticating means bringing the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, making the text recognizable and familiar. Foreignizing, on the other hand, means taking the reader over to the foreign culture, making him or her see the differences.Compared to marriage, translation practice is similar to the marriage of a Chinese girl with a foreigner. By domestication,"the Chinese girl" will be forced to undergo the cosmetic in order to make her look like a westerner. By foreignization, the bride’s appearance will be left intact although she has to put on the western-style wedding gown. Her cultural identity is also kept to the maximum (Chen Fu 2004,4-5).

1.2 Details About Domestication

There are various opinions as to the forms of domestication.According to Ke Ping (Ke Ping 1993,23),domestication only refers to adaptation of words or phrases.That is domestication means that translating a word or phrase which is of target language (TL) cultural color and which is used as frequently in the TL as the original in the source language (SL) (Hou Yanan 20046).Qin Hongwu (Qin Hongwu 2000,372) holds that domestication also includes the adaptation of SL syntactic structure.According to the definition given by Lawrence Venuti, all the forms of adaptation aim to make the TL more acceptable and familiar to the TL readers.

Many scholars who favor domestication have put forward their own point view on domestication. Eugene Nida is widely considered as an influential representative of domesticating translation who puts much emphasis on the communication function of translation.His concept of "dynamic equivalence" or "functional equivalence"in translation is the representative of domestication strategy.Dynamic equivalence is defined as"a translation principle according to which a translator seeks to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the target language wording will trigger the same impact one target culture audience as the original wording did upon the source text audience"."A translation of dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression. And tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture:it does not insist that he understand the cultural patterns of the source-language context in order to comprehend the message”(Nida,1964,159). Therefore, Nida pay much attention to readers response."the relationship between the original receptors and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original receptors and message"(Nida,1964:159).So a translation of dynamic equivalence directs its focus of attention not so much toward the source message as towards the receptor response (Zhou Min 2007, 23) For example,according to Nida’s approach of domestication,the Chinese idiom "智者千虑,必有一失"will be translated into "Homer sometimes nods"; the English idiom "to cast pearls before swine" can be translated into "对牛弹琴". A dynamic equivalent translation shifts the focus from verbal comparison between the originala and translation to readers' response (Zhou Min 2007,24).

Meanwhile, domestication involves alteration of the SL cultural images, syntactic structure, and so on. This kind of alteration is designed to make the translation more understandable and smoother to the TL readers. For example, in Hong Lou Meng,

谋事在人，成事在天。（第六回）

Man purposes, God disposes. (Hawkes)

Hawkes quotes the English proverb directly and make it untouched. In this way,he changes the Buddhist flavor into the Christian flavor. The SL image is replaced with TL cultural image.

He’s always been strong as a mule．

他一向壮得像头牛。

‘牛’is often used to express physical fitness in Chinese culture, while’牛’is expressed in‘horse’or‘mule’according to English expression habits.In summary, domesticated translation can provide readers with closeness,nature and fluency.TL readers easily accept this translation and have more profound understanding of the connotation of the target language(Zhou Min 2007,25).

1.3 Details About Foreignization

Foreignization signifies the differences of the foreign text. Lawrence Venuti,the representative of foreignization, views such kind of translation method as"a strategic cultural intervention in the current state of world affairs, against the hegemonic English-language nations and the unequal cultural exchanges in which they engage their global others” (Venuti 1995,20). Venuti puts forward that foreignization can be a form of resistance against ethnocentrism and racism, cultural narcissism and imperialism (Hou Yanan 2004,10).

Translators who adopt the foreignization strategy try to avoid any alteration or departure from the SL. The culture-specific elements, literary form, and linguistic feature are preserved as much as possible. Foreignization is based on the differences between different national cultures and advocates the original flavor of culture. The purpose of foreignization is to make the TL readers fully experience the exotic atmosphere, feel different nationalities and realize the differences among different language traditions and national cultures by retaining the language styles and national characteristics of foreign countries. Therefore, the appropriate foreignization not only promotes the cultural exchange,but also greatly enriches the expressiveness of the translated language(Tian Yunping 2005,107 ).With the expansion of cultural exchange,many English loanwords gradually infiltrate into Chinese through foreignizing translation and are widely familiar and accepted by us. For example,in English-Chinese translation, we have talk show(脱口秀),ivory tower(象牙塔),crocodile tears(鳄鱼的眼泪),sour grapes(酸葡萄) and so on. And in Chinese-English translation,there are 气功(qi gong),豆腐(to fu),功夫(kong fu),君子协定 (gentleman’s agreement ), 门户开放政策(the open door policy) and so on (Hou Yanan 2004,12).

1.4 Advantages and Limitations of Domestication and Foreignization

Domestication and foreignization are the main translating strategies. While in translation,translators have a tendency to overemphasize the significance of one strategy and ignore the role of the other one. In fact, both domesticating and foreignizing strategies have their advantages and limitations.As the main strategy,domestication holds its advantages. Mark Schuttleworth and Moira Cowie regard domestication as"a term used by Venuti to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent, fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for the TL readers" (Schuttleworth and Cowie,1997,43-44). This involves erasing the linguistic and cultural differences of the original text and adapting them to the norms and conventions of the target culture.Therefore, this target-culture-oriented approach makes the foreign familiar and avoids cultural conflicts and communication barriers. However, every coin has two sides. Venuti holds that domestication has negative connotation "as it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are ‘aggressive monolingual, unreceptive to the foreign’, and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribes foreign texts with TL values and provide readers with the narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other"(Venuti, 1995,20). For example, Nide said that "to grow like mushroom" can be translated into "雨后春笋" so as to achieve functional equivalence, but "雨后春笋" may mislead Chinese readers into believing that there are bamboo shoots in the English-speaking countries.Though domestication is easier for the reader to understand and accept, its naturalness and smoothness of the TT are often achieved at the expense of the cultural messages of the SL. What's more, if the translator always adopts the domestication strategy to replace the cultural differences with the information familiar to TL readers, the TL readers will be further apart from SL culture. Readers just review their own culture which is against the purpose of intercultural communication.

Foreignization, source-culture-oriented approach, respects the foreignness of the source language and culture and try to retain the foreign linguistic forms and cultural differences in target text, so that it enables the target readers to gain "an alien reading experience"(Venuti,1995,20), to know the cultural otherness and to promote cultural communication. Besides, foreignization will play an significant role in preventing cultural hegemony and enhancing the status of foreign culture in the target culture. It is necessary for the target reader to acquaint himself with the foreign culture. What’s more, translation with foreignization could broaden the view of readers.It accords with the needs of cultural transmission and exchanges among different nations.

For instance,there are plenty of expressions concerning animals in every language.The tiger is considered to be the‘king of animals' and stands for dignity in Chinese, while in English,the same meaning is carried by the image of ‘lion’. For example,"他结婚了,太太是只母老虎”,in English, it can translates"He was married and had a lioness at home ". In the foreignized expressions, it is natural for readers to associate them with their native expressions. Through the comparison, they can understand different usages and the exact connotations of the lion and those of the tiger. It is in this way that target readers enrich their acquisition of foreign cultures and accelerate cultural communication (Hou Yanan 2004,14).However,there are limitations in foreignizating translation.Sometimes, alien cultural image and linguistic features may cause information overload to the readers. For example,if the reader can’t understand the ST image, he can’t receive the cultural message contained in the ST, and he may even fail to understand the ST.

Ⅱ Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in History

No study of domestication and foreignization would be complete without consideration of them in a historical perspective.Throughout the history,there are many different opinions on domestication and foreignization in cross-culture translation.

2.1 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in the West

In the west,there are various opinions on domestication and foreignization.It was Cicero in the first century B.C.who first eloquently formulated that a translatormust be either an interpreter or rhetorician (Zhou Min 2007,38).For the next two thousand years, translation theory was mainly limited to a heated discussion of this dichotomy.In the western translation field of today, the loudest speaker for domestication is Eugene Nida, and Lawrence Venuti is the representative of those who favor foreignization.

Domestication recommends fluent translation. Eugene Nida is the representative of those who favor domesticating translation. The concept of dynamic equivalence is a clear indication of his inclination towards domestication. "A dynamic equivalence aims at complete naturalness of expression and tries to relate the receptor to modes of behavior relevant within the context of his own culture" (Nida,1993,159). Dynamic equivalence or functional equivalence is based on the principle of equivalent effect,i.e.the relationship between receiver and message should aim at being the same as that between the original receivers and the SL message(Zhou Ming 2007,41). A minimal definition of functional equivalence is stated as “ The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers of the text must have understood and appreciated it" in the book Language, Culture and Translating (Nida, 1993,117). He claims, "Anything less than this degree of equivalence should be unacceptable"(Nida,1993, 118). The maximal,ideal definition is stated as “the readers of a translated text should be able to understand and appreciate it in essentially the same manner as the original readers did" (Nida, 1993: 118). Nida’s "Dynamic Equivalence" can be viewed as a euphemism for domestication (Zhou Ming 2007,41). This can be evidenced also in Nida's own words "The translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the relevance of the original meaning"(Nida, 1993: 121). All in all, Nida's theory virtually reinforces the status of domestication as a canon in English-language translation.

Since the publication of the Translator’s Invisibility in 1986, Lawrence Venuti has become one of the most prominent figures in contemporary U.S. translation circle. Lawrence Venuti is a major advocator of foreignization. His aim is "rather to develop a theory and practice of translation that resists dominant target-language cultural values so as  to signify the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text" (Venuti, 1995, 23). He states"the fact of translation is erased by suppressing the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text, assimilating it to dominant values in the target-language culture, making it recognizable and therefore seemingly untranslatable. With this domestication the translated text passes for the original"(Venuti,1995,23). Hence,he puts forth the principle of"resistancy" to signify the difference from the foreign text by disrupting the cultural codes that prevail in the target language.

2.2 Disputes over Domestication and Foreignization in China

The disputes over domestication and foreignization can be dated back to the period of translating the Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures into Chinese， which is known as the dispute over"simple translation"(文)and"sophisticated translation"(质) Sutra scriptures. Dao’an (Luo Xingzhang 1984，26) firmly advocated faithful translation of "zhi", namely,foreignizatiing translation. While Kumarajiva is strongly against foreignization. He advocated the translation of "wen".In the 1930s,Zhao Jingshen (Luo Xingzhang 1984:267) proposed the translation principle of “smoothness over faithfulness”. Zhao declared that a piece of translation should be smooth, even if smoothness was achieved at the expense of faithfulness. Thus he chose to “rearrange Yan Fu’s three points in a new order, as follows: expressiveness, faithfulness, elegance"(Luo Xingzhangv1984,267). The most famous Chinese scholar who firmly advocates domestication in the 20th century might be Qian Zhongshu. He insists that the highest standard of translation be "sublimation" and a translation be "so faithful to the source text that it does not read like a translated work, because the text in the source language will by no means read like a translated one"(Qian Zhongshu,1981,18-19). That is to say,a piece of good translation should not reveal its foreignness.Compared with the advocacy of foreignization, the school of domestication is more powerful and popular.Most acknowledged translators century were the representatives of the domestication school,such as Yan Fu,Zhang Guruo,Yang Bi ,just to name a few. (Zhou Min 2007,39) Professor Xu Yuanchong favors domestication. He sees clearly the differences between eastern and western cultures，and proposes the theory of cultural competition to deal with the cultural differences.That is, a translator should make full use of the strength of the TL in order to make the TT more beautiful (Xu Yuanchong,2000:90).As using of four-character-phrases is widely acknowledged as one of the characteristics as well as strong points of the Chinese language,Xu uses a lot of four character phrases in his translation. He also likes to use phrases from ancient Chinese literary works in his translation. For example,“ Elle morul”is translated into“魂归离恨天”which is a phrase used in Hong Lou Meng(Hou Yanan 2004，21).

Ⅲ Factors Influencing the Choice of Domestication and Foreignization

In essence, domestication and foreignization are only two different translation methods used to deal with the linguistic and cultural differences between in the process of translation. Whether to choose domestication or foreignization is determined by many factors. Generally speaking, there are so many factors influencing the translator's strategy choice. For example, the text type,the translation purpose,the target reader, the translators cultural attitude,the context, etc.This paper will make a discussion about the three factors: the translation purpose,the text type and the target reader.

3.1 The Translation Purpose

Translation is a purposeful activity.Any human activity is conducted with certain intention in mind.Translation as a human activity is no exception.According to Manttari，the famous functional translation theorist,translating behavior is a complex activity designed to realize the information convey across different cultures and different languages. In his opinion, purpose principle is the first principle of translation(Zhou Min 2007, 60). As Hermans points out: “Without such intention, without taking into account the function which the translation is meant to serve or the problem it is trying to solve,the translators choices appear whimsical, or pointless,or wholly idiosyncratic" (Hermans,1999,39).Because of the existence of linguistic and cultural differences,there is no complete equivalence between TL and SL.Then what should be preserved and what should be altered, or to what degree the SL should be preserved, in other words, what translation strategies the translator should chose is determined by the purpose of translation (Zhou Min 2007,60-61). On the one hand, if the main purpose of translation is to introduce the culture of the SL, to promote the mutual understanding and communication between different cultures in order to broaden the view of the target readers. We should adopt the foreignization strategy. On the other hand, if the main purpose is for amusement or to please the target readers, and avoid the cultural obstacles or conflicts that may occur in readers reading and comprehending of the TT, domestication should be chosen firstly. Therefore, if translation is for a specific purpose and the task is very urgent, his major concern will be the fluency and readability of the translation in order to avoid obscurity and ambiguity. In such case, the domestication approach is preferable. On the contrary, if translation is for a pressing task of communication,he may adopt foreignization in order to meet the need of appreciating foreign cultures on the part of the readers. For example,in the Chinese sentence "谋事在人, 成事在天", the word "天", in China, is a Daoism concept, while in western we will use 'God'. Foreignization strategy should be adopted if the purpose of translation is to popularize the Daoism and broaden the westerners’ horizon about Chinese culture. The translator can use the word 'heaven' to keep foreign flavors. On the contrary,when the purpose of translation is to make the target readers know the meaning of the sentence and improve the readability of the sentence,domestication should be adopted to make TT more acceptable to the readers and the  word‘god’should be used.

So the purpose of translation can shift cultural orientation, which may also determine which translation strateg to choose,domestication or foreignization in some aspects.

3.2 The Target Reader

In the translating process, the translator acts as the producer and the readers the receptor. The relationship between the producer (translator) and receptor (readers)is considered one of the most important among relations involved in translating process (Zhou Min 2007,67).A translation process is not complete without the participation of the readers.Nida (Nida 1993: 139) once said:“The target audience for which a translation is made almost always constitutes a major factor in determining the translation procedures and the level of language to be employed.” Therefore, the level of the intended readers plays an important role in determining a translator’s  translation strategy. As target readers are different from each other in almost every aspect, the translator is responsible to analyze their respective communicative needs. The readers are the ultimate judges of a translation. Therefore,the first and foremost  thing the translator should bear in mind is to recognize what type of readers his work will probably face.The readers will be they children,general public or experts and so on, in order to have his versions acceptable to the target readers.

Depending on the different groups of readers, the translator can decide which kind of approach he may adopt. For example, for the sentence below, there will be different translations according to different groups of readers.

He is a modern Samson.

(1)他简直就是现代的参孙。

(2)他是一个大力士。

Samson is a character in Bible, who is famous for his strong figure. For readers  who know western culture very well, version(1), which is the result of foreignization,seems to be a vivid translation. However, for those who are not familiar with or those who know little about western culture, version (2) is more comprehensible and preferable (Zhou Min 2007,68).

All in all, translators should pay attention to the target reader in the translating process.Domestication and foreignization both take target readers,their cultural backgrounds,their expectation and the time the are in and so on, into consideration but with different focuses of emphasis. The translator should stress the significant role of target readers in order to make a better translation.

3.3 The Text Type

Different types of texts require different translation strategies. Because different types of ST have different functions and intentions, which requires the translator to choose different translation strategies. So, different types of ST also affect the choice of translation strategies. According to Christiane Nord,translation can be classified into instrumental translation and documentary translation (Christiane Nord,1997,36).Instrumental translation refers to transfer information of communicative activity in the source culture into the target culture in the translating process. This type of translation is mainly used in the true information and tries to preserve the truth. It stresses the transmission of information,which mainly includes non-literary writing such as advertisement, journalistic writing,reports,scientific and so on. Therefore, the aim of translation is to achieve the accuracy of the content and fluency in language without paying attention to the foreign flavor. Thus domestication is more accessible and can be obtained as much as possible.

Documentary translation refers to the translation that is the medium to represent authentic communicative activities in the source language culture for the target readers(Zhou Min 2007,63). Documentary translation is suitable for translating the original expression where the specific language of the speaker or writer is as important as the content. It is often used in fictional texts like literature. Mainly concerning the mental field and imaginary things, this kind of text contains rich cultural connotations, and reflects the social thoughts and customs (Zhou Min 2007,63).So,in the documentary translation, the foreignization strategy is preferable. 

From the above analysis, we could have a conclusion that different strategies should be adopted according to different types of the source text. For example, when translators translate political, historical or philosophical texts,the method of foreignization is often adopted because the aim of these texts is to introduce and reveal the source cultures. On the other hand, when translators translate texts of practical styles, such as notices, news reports, advertisements and popular literature, domestication tends to be the general guideline because the purpose for these texts is to achieve wider readers and better readability (Zhou Min 2007, 64).

In summary, understanding these factors can help a translator to choose an appropriate translation strategy. 

Conclusion

In a word, in the cross-cultural perspective, domestication and foreignization have their own advantages, and have a profound impact on translation. In different contexts, they should be reasonably selected, which puts forward higher requirements for the translator’s cultural literacy. In the process of translation, translators should adopt more appropriate translation methods according to specific problems and specific conditions, so that domestication and foreignization complement each other to achieve the ultimate goal of promoting cultural exchanges and communication. If one-sided emphasis on domestication or the pursuit of foreignization will lead to a very short translation work. Therefore,it is necessary to combine the two methods scientifically and grasp the degree to improve the translation effect.

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Cultural Differences in Interpreting and Corresponding 吴琼 Wu Qiong 202070080644

Abstract

Language and culture are very closely related. It is language that allows culture to be recorded, transmitted and perpetuated. With rapid development of globalization, the demands for interpreting between languages are also increasing. However, cultural differences hinder the smooth expression of interpretation. As Mr. Wang Zuoliang said, "What is the greatest difficulty in translation? It is the difference between two cultures.Something can be told without words in one culture, but in the other culture, interpreters might take a great deal of effort in explaining it." （姜怡.浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[J].海外英语,2014(13)). The same applies to interpretation. This paper will mainly study on the cultural differences analysis, cultural differences in interpreting and corresponding, and corresponding strategies to cope with the cultural differences in interpreting. And hoping it can provide some references for the study of English interpretation.

Keywords

Cultural differences; Interpreting; Corresponding Strategies

摘要

语言和文化之间的关系十分紧密。正是因为语言，文化才得以记载、传播和延续。随着全球化进程的加快，不同语言间的口译需求也日益增加。然而在口译时，不同语言间的文化差异阻碍了口译的顺利进行。就像王佐良先生所言：“翻译最大的困难是什么？就是两种文化的不同，在一种文化里头不言而喻的东西，在另一种文化里头却要浪费很大力气加以解释。”（姜怡.浅谈在口译中如何弥补中英文化的差异[J].海外英语,2014(13)）这句话对口译同样适用。本文将就文化差异的分析、口译及相关活动的文化差异以及其应对策略三个方面对口译及其相关活动的文化差异进行研究，希望能为英语口译的研究提供一定的参考。

关键词

文化差异；口译；应对策略

I. Cultural Differences Analysis

Due to the differences in cultural backgrounds and ways of thinking, English and Chinese often have completely different expressions for many similar concepts. After analysis, the reason can be reflected mainly in three aspects.

I.I. Different Perceptions

Both English and Chinese languages have a time-honored history and connotation. Due to many differences, Chinese and Western perceptions are also very different. For instance, when foreigners talk about "Black Friday", if it is only translated as "黑色星期五" literally in Chinese(target language), the target language receiver may not know the true meaning.Therefore, when interpreters do this kind of translation, regardless of whether it is an "unlucky" day or a "shopping day". The interpretation should be made according to the context. Another example is "touch the wood", which is believed in the West to ward off evil spirits or find protection. Since the origin of the phrase is somewhat related to religious beliefs or superstitions, in addition, there is no similar phrase in China. So in the process of interpreting, we should also pay attention to explaining the meaning of the phrase.

In the West, it is impolite to discuss on a man's salary or a woman's age. It is not even allowed to ask how much are the furniture in their homes. In Chinese, for example, when people praise an old person's good health, they usually say, "您老身子骨很硬朗啊！“ But in English-speaking countries, if you interpret it directly as "Although you are so old, you still look very healthy" will make the other disguised. The reason is that in their view, mentioning age, especially while noticing the word "old" will indicate others'age. So the correct translation would be"You look great or amazing. "

I.II. Vocabulary Absence

"Due to the difference of language and culture, a few vocabulary can not be found in the other language sometimes, and if this happened in the process of interpretation, it can easily lead to information is lost or mistranslated." （范雄杰.浅析文化差异对翻译的影响[J].校园英语,2014(26)) For example, for those foods which are full of Chinese characteristics, i.e. "dumplings" and "doughnuts", they don't have corresponding vocabulary in English, as in English-speaking countries, those foods can hardly be seen or eaten. So in this circumstance, it is very difficult to describe them clearly unless the person concerned sees or tastes them in his own eyes. Therefore, when interpreters encounter such words, they can choose to translate them phonetically, i.e. "Zongzi" and "Youtiao", then explain the words. The full translated sentence should be "Zongzi, a kind of traditional Chinese rice - pudding" and "Youtiao, a kind of deep-fried dough sticks".

Furthermore, the Chinese language is very profound. It has phonetic, direct, and meaningful translations, as well as passages words, multiple meanings, and so on. In contrast, the English language is more direct. For example, in the Analects of Confucius, there is a sentence that reads, "Isn't it a pleasure to study and practice what you have learnt?" In this sentence, the Chinese word "说" is pronounced as "悦", which means pleasant. But in colloquial language, the two are pronounced the same. If the sentence is translated backwards into Chinese, it becomes " It is not a pleasure to learn with perseverance and utilization?" Although the translation conveys the meaning expressed in the original text, the meaning of the original text, the rhythm of the original text is lost due to the absence of the corresponding expressions. In this kind of translation, there is no way to compensate for the cultural differences, but we can only minimize the lack of meaning and try to accurately convey the connotation expressed in the original text as much as possible.

I.III. Different Linguistic Customs

Under the different cultural background and due to different linguistic customs, greetings or other communicative terms are different as well. For example, when Chinese people greet guests, they usually would say, "欢迎各位，一路辛苦了！" In this case, the interpreters can not translate it literally in the Chinese thinking mode"Welcome, everyone! You must be very tired in the long journey". Actually for native English speakers, on such occasions, they should express their concerns rather than greetings. Therefore, according to the English thinking habit, the interpreter can translate it as "How about your flight?" or "You've had a long trip."

China is a country of ceremonies, and Chinese people take modesty as a virtue. When Chinese and foreigners negotiating, the Chinese people used to saying, "请多提宝贵意见。" At that time, if the interpreter translates it as "Please give us your valuable comments.",then it will easily cause misunderstanding. Because English speakers will be puzzled that they are forced to give valuable comments, or you should not mention it. Such a translation is obviously impolite, so it should be translated as "We appreciate your comments." or "Please offer Your comments."

The Translation of Cultural Elements in Tourism Promotional Materials Under Skopos Theory 杨子泠

杨子泠 Yang Ziling 202070080647

Abstract

As China has become an increasingly large inbound tourism country, efforts are put in the promotion of supporting facilities, among which promotion service, especially Tourism Promotional Materials (TMP), is the main way to introduce to not only Chinese tourists themselves but also the great number of foreign travelers, China’s scenic spots, natural resources and culture, and thereby arouse their interest in the landscapes and ancient cultural relics. Therefore, the translation of TMP is of vital importance in the publicity. Based on Skopostheory, this paper first introduces TPMs, then compares cultural differences in TPM translation. Finally it concludes some strategies and techniques used in TPM translation under the framework of Skopostheory. The author deems it that TPM translation should stand on the side of foreigners, meanwhile revealing the main idea of Chinese original sources.

Key Words

TPM translation cultural differences Skopostheory

摘要

中国已经成为了一个旅游大国，政府开始大力完善旅游配套设施，其中旅游宣传服务，特别是旅游宣传资料是向中外游客介绍中国旅游景点，自然资源以及文化的最主要方式，从而激起他们对自然风光和古文物的兴趣。因此，旅游宣传资料对宣传工作十分重要。文章从目的论的角度出发，首先介绍了旅游宣传资料，然后对比了宣传资料中中西方的文化差异。最后基于目的论，文章总结出几种实际可行的翻译策略和技巧。作者认为旅游宣传资料的翻译应该站在外国游客的立场来传达中文素材的主要信息。

关键词

旅游宣传资料翻译 文化差异 目的论

I. Introduction

China is a large tourism country with rapid development of tourism industry. Tourism has become increasingly more an entertainment enriching people’s spiritual life. Serving as promotional materials and advertisements, Tourism Promotional Material (hereafter referred to as TPM) plays increasingly important role in introducing China’s specialty to the world. With the development, more and more TPMs have been translated into English in recent years. Indeed, some good translation materials leave a strong impression on travelers to China, especially those from English speaking countries. It is truly a better way to attract more visitors across the world, to introduce famous scenic spots, tourist attractions and food specialties and to promote the development of international tourism and cultural communication.

TPM, to a certain degree, is a trademark and an external promotion work of tourism destinations, revealing the first image of the tourist attractions, landscapes and the surrounding environments. A good translation is of great significance in the first impression it leaves on potential visitors. Since TPM has a strong effect on the image of tourist attractions in domestic tourism industry, the study of it is of great importance. Mr. Liu Fagong (2012:70) once said, “some translation errors seem to be very slight, but it can reflect the international communicative competence of a certain area or a certain enterprise”. Inappropriate translation will not only lead to cultural misunderstanding, but also result in barriers in the development of international tourism as a whole.

This thesis focuses on the possible strategies to improve the quality of TMP by comparing Chinese and western cultural differences. To guide the practice of Chinese TPM translation, various theories have been adopted and used, among which Skopostheory is going to be testified. The merits of it and the awareness of cultural differences are to be revealed.

Therefore, it first introduces the definition and features of TPM. Then it reveals the difficulties in the translation of TPM caused by cultural differences. After that, the framework of Skopostheory is introduced and the methods and strategies of cultural translation in TPM is discussed under the framework of Skopostheory.

II. Literature Review

2.1 Tourism Promotional Materials (TPM)

2.1.1 Definition of Tourism Promotional Materials In order to define tourism promotional materials, the definition of promotional materials should first be made clear. Mr. Duan Liancheng (1990, 97) has put TPM into two separate categories: the general type and the official type. The former refers to general reports and region guiding brochures, mainly introducing China’s current issues to the public, including introduction of economy, politics, society, culture, people’s living situation and historical heritage. The latter refers to official documents, diplomatic conference and legal instruments, etc. Written in a special form, TPM covers many fields and areas. (Ding, 2008,14)

TPM in this article is the general type, dealing with the tourism industry and resources in tourism cities, which aims at foreign readers. TPM has various types, including books, brochures, maps, paintings, videos, TV documents, newspapers, periodicals and tourism-guided websites as well. TPM serves to depict China’s scenic spots, culture and historical heritages, broadening viewers’ sight, arousing interests among them and finally making them eager to pay a visit.(Yang, 2014,3)

2.1.2 Characteristics of Tourism Promotional Materials

As an informative type of material with certain purposes, tourism promotional materials are very distinct from other type of text, for example news, document, reports etc. They are equipped with features as follow:

Firstly, informative as they are, abundant messages covering all parts of social life are included. Since tourism, nowadays, not simply embraces scenery and transportation, but is a concept including experiencing different culture convention, food distinction and language confliction. Therefore, tourism publicity materials should convey a wide range of ideas that may be involved in tourism activities. (Ding, 2008,1)

Secondly, tourism publicity materials mainly boost deep cultural connotation. They aim at tourists all over the world who come from different cultural backgrounds, who share distinct religions and who have various thinking modes and patterns. To make TPM understood and accepted by all, cultural connotation is to be expressed with the aid of aspects of laws, politics, economics and so on. (Ding, 2008,16)

2.1.3 Function of Tourism Promotional Materials

Intended for the potential tourists, tourism publicity materials provide basic information about destinations, including its cultural background, local people and services. With the assistance of such materials, people’s overview about the target destinations is formed; their interests of visitation are aroused. It aims at convincing tourists, say target readers, of the beauties of destinations. Taken this intention into consideration, TPM contain functions as follows:

First, TPMs are informative and serve informative function. Generally speaking, TPM passes the first images of tourist attractions, cities or provinces on to target readers. Tourism materials such as brochures, photo albums and leaflets impress people at first. TPM carry basic information not only about culture, history but also always nature and ethnic relics as well. (Cheng, 2015,203)

Second, TPMs are attractive, intending to attract people when they see them at the first sight. In order to make it a success, only to provide information is far from enough. A successful promotional material needs to be equally informative and attractive, making the content easy to remember. Rather through their bright colors and magnificent landscapes, TPM are attractive in the way they depict and express. Therefore, often a series of writing techniques are required and used to achieve this effect. (Wu, 2008,319)

Third, apart from being informative and attractive, TPM should be persuasive as well. Actually speaking, persuasive function is the most important of the three functions, as through it visitors’ interests and final minds are to be stimulated. As a promotion function, it is always significant to appeal to target readers.(Cheng, 2015,204)

Consequently, the translation of TPM should also take these three functions into consideration in order to achieve final goal of TPM.

III. Difficulties in The Translation of TPM Caused by Cultural Differences

The so-called cultural difference is what people form in different ecological and natural environment, such as various language, knowledge, belief, outlook on life, values, ways of thinking, ethics, customs and other aspects of social life. In their own living environment, distinct ethnic groups create their own unique cultural system, shaping their own culture. The difference of culture, especially between Eastern and Western countries, leads to people's different understanding and interpretation on the same thing or even causes misunderstanding (Yu, 2000,58).

3.1 Differences in Psychology

For domestic and foreign tourists, they have different tourism motivations, which reflects their different cultural and psychological state. Because most of the tourists at home are familiar with attractions of the historic events, the anecdotes, and the poetry, their purpose is to relax, enjoy the nature, taste the local food, and experience the cultural atmosphere. However, as for foreign visitors, their main motivation is to experience the exotic culture, hoping to get knowledge and to enrich their life experience in China. A qualified translator must always understand this difference, and then take effective measures, to the maximum extent, to meet the needs of readers.(Wu, 2008,328)

3.2 Differences in Food Culture

Chinese pay close attention to diet, and have formed a rich diet culture, emphasizing color, smell, taste of each dish. However, some foods, such as traditional salted production, are not good for the body with some auxiliary materials due to the pursuit of taste. In the process of cooking, Chinese fry the dishes in many ways. To name the dishes, menu also expresses the people's pursuit of beauty, such as Sixi Wanzi, glutinous Rice Balls etc. They have all been granted special meanings. Nevertheless, people in western countries focus on nutrition. They pay attention to the quantity of protein, Calorie, and raw materials in each food. So American "KFC" -- Kentucky Fried Chicken -- is a simple combination of production process and the raw material. So in the translation of diet culture, translators should also take into account the differences between Chinese and western people.(Cheng, 2015,232)

3.3 Differences in Customs

Every nation has its own unique folk customs. Many foreign tourists are very interested in Chinese people's way of life, especially the origin of some festivals and the way local people celebrate them. For example, during Chinese lunar spring festival, people make dumplings and eat them. During Chinese Lantern Festival, people boil sweet dumplings and hang up lanterns. Tomb-sweeping Day is not only a solar term, but also a day for people to worship ancestors. Dragon-Boat Festival and Mid-Autumn Festival have customs respectively. In western countries, they have Halloweens and Christmas, carrying distinct cultures as well. People in China bow to Heaven and Earth as part of a wedding ceremony while westerners go to churches. Westerners have Valentine's Day and China Double Seven Day. Although the origins are different, they have evolved into special days for lovers to exchange passion between each other. Increasingly more young westerners know The Legend of Love in China. Therefore, apart from distinctions, culture also has something in common, which makes it translatable and understandable.

3.4 Differences in Religions

The majority of westerners believe in Chris, and Chinese people have more religious belief include: Buddhism, Taoism, Islam, Catholicism and Protestantism. They are having far-reaching influence on people's ideology in China. These places have also become the tourist hot spots. Temples, Buddha, Buddhist scriptures in many attractions have attracted a large number of foreign tourists across the world. (Cheng, 2015,38)

IV. Tourism Text Sources Translation Under Skopos Rules

4.1 A Functionalist Theoretical Framework: The Skopostheory The functionalist approach to translation came into being in the late 1970 in Germany. After its emergence, it had become a prominent strategy and one of the dominant theories used in translation studies. A German scholar Hans J. Vermeer (Vermeer, 1879,208) first proposed Skopostheory which is widely applied in translating various projects. Skopostheory is to be the functionalist theoretical framework of this research.

4.1.1 An Overview of the Functionalist Approach

According to Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,43-44), the purpose of translation theory is to achieve an understanding in the course of translation behavior. The act of translation was purely a linguistic activity then. Because of the limitations of linguistic theories, translation theorists started to approach the act of translation in a different point of view in the 1970s. Therefore, the functionalist approach to translation began to emerge. According to Nida, “translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style” (Nida & Taber, 1983,12). Later, Nida proposed dynamic/functional equivalence theory, which breaks the stereotype of the traditional linguistic approach and then leads the way of further studies. This theory is very practical in TPM translation because it achieves functional equivalence while sharing the same purpose of TPM translation.

4.1.2 Development of Skopostheory

In Paul Kussmaul’s (Kussmaul, 2005,37) point of view, the functional approach is closely related to Skopostheory. To translate the source text into a new language, target readers’ culture characteristics, religion relics and historical backgrounds are to be considered, which determines whether the source texts are to be preserved, modified, or even changed. As TPM is highly practical and pragmatic, its function value is not to be ignored. In Nord’s (Nord, 2005,10) words, “in the translation of practical texts (such as advertisement, instructions), instead of literary works, theorists adhering to equivalence are more likely to adopt the method of non-word-for-word translation. They choose translation methods followed by identifying different or even contrary standards in accordance with different types of texts and genres of discourses, which makes them more on fused by equivalent theory”. Some scholars agreed with Nord’s view and made functional approaches more practical in translation, which makes the theory more useful in TPM translation. Consequently, the Skopostheory developed with the main study of the four theorists: Katharina Reiss, Hans J. Vermeer, Justa Holz-Manttari and Christiane Nord.

Katharina Reiss (Reiss, 2004,32) first put forward the concept of text topology, denying the proposal that any target sources not equivalent to the original ones are considered as “non-translation”. Reiss pointed out comprehensive communicative translation, which made the ideas equivalent to the corresponding sources rather than individual words. His contribution laid the foundation for the development of Skopostheory. Katharina Reiss’s view better serves the function purpose of TPM translation, making Chinese traditional culture features well revealed in a foreign way.

Vermeer was the first one who proposed Skopostheory. According to his theory (Vermeer, 2000,228), “translation is a type of human action”, and “any action has its own purpose (skopos)”, thus “translation is an intentional and purposeful behavior”. It can be concluded that translation is a purposeful action aiming at target readers, so the target text should bear fully their culture, religion and background to be better appropriate.

Then Skopostheory was improved by Justa Holz-Manttari (Manttari, 2001,35) with his translation action method. Translation is defined as “a complex action designed to achieve a particular purpose or function”(Nord, 2005,16), and according to Holz-Manttari, it should be regarded as the “translation action” instead of “translation”. Her theory highlighted oriented outcome and driven purpose. Moreover, the commissioner is concerned. The translation action proposed by Holz-Manttari is later widely used in TPM translation due to its practical features.

Christiane Nord (Nord, 2001,197) finally refined Skopostheory by proposing her own functional practice “function plus loyalty”. She added the concept of “loyalty” to the framework of functional approaches. In her theory, “Function refers to the factors that make a target text work in the intended way in the target situation” (Nord, 2001,125), which is basically in accordance with Vermeer’s view.

4.2 Skopos Rules (Wu, 2008,28)

Skopos rule itself is above all in three rules. There are many purposes in the field of translation, but skopos refer to the purpose of target text. According to it, what determines the process of translation is not source text itself or the effect it has on target readers, but the expected function of the target source. Therefore it is regarded as results determining methods.

Second one is the coherence rule. As a target source, the translation is for target readers who share different cultural backgrounds or religion relics and who are going to find the parts that interest them. In this regard, translators should bear in mind their distinct backgrounds and cultural situations, making the translation reasonably understandable and acceptable.

The third rule is the loyalty rule. Since target text is originated from the source text, they are related to each other. However, the relationship is depended upon the skopos and explanation of the translator.

According to Skopostheory, the skopos rule is above all to follow, then the coherence rule and then the loyal rule.

4.3 The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory

Translation of TPM aims at ordinary foreign tourists, introducing Chinese tourism industry and various natural resources, not including monographs for experts traveling in China(Cheng, 2008,30). Tourism promotional materials are practical, which arouse interests among tourists. As a result, TPM translation should first follow the basic rule of Skopostheory.

The purpose of the target text-oriented principles are concerned about the target text itself and the tastes of readers. The majority of the source text is written to attract tourists at home, so it will not have the same effect on foreigners. If the source text is created for translation, the translator is also short of indispensable target culture. The translator should be aware that he is translating one culture to another and that he needs to pick out useful information from source text. Furthermore, the source text is one kind of all messages. It does not necessarily be the primary standard. Translation should aim at tourists, so translators should translate to attract them and arouse their interest. This is the final goal of TPM translation. TPM can be various in style and form. As for a translator, cultural elements are huge challenges. However, under Skopostheory, it is to pass cultural messages on to potential foreign visitors.

What is more, those who travel distances to China are not only for bird viewing landscapes, but also for exotic culture and lifestyles. Therefore, culture translation should include as many Chinese cultural messages as possible, to a certain degree, following the third rule – loyalty rule.

V. The Translation of Cultural Elements in TPM Under Skopostheory

Skopostheory

Traveling is not only for landscapes but cultural differences as well. The translation of TPM is intended to attract visitors to come and consume. Consequently, cultural translation is a matter of primary importance.

Susan Bassnett (Bassnett, 2002,59), the famous Britain translation theorist, pointed out four specific concepts in Cultural Translation Theory. Firstly, translation should be based on the culture rather than text itself. Secondly, translation is not simply to decode restructuring, but a communication process. Thirdly, target text should not be restricted to source text, and should focus on functional equivalence in two cultures. Last but not least, there are difference norms and standards for translation in different period, each meeting distinct needs. The translation of cultural elements in TPM is to meet the need of people experiencing Chinese local culture. There are various cultural elements in TPM, such as food culture, custom, religion, poetry and landscape architecture etc. Under the framework of Skopostheory, the translation strategies of cultural elements can be concluded into transliteration, literal translation and free translation.

5.1 Transliteration with Explanation Transliteration is often adopted when translating Chinese words that do not exit in English. However, only transliteration may lead to misunderstanding sometimes, therefore, it is usually followed by explanations. Explanations always well express the meaning, enabling target readers better understand the different culture it embraces

Example 1. 烧卖 Shaomai (Steamed Pork Dumplings)

          豆汁  Douzhir (Fermented Bean Drink)
          汤圆  Tangyuan (Glutinous Rice Balls)
          驴打滚  Lüdagunr (Glutinous Rice Rolls with Sweet Bean Flour)
          油条  Youtiao (Deep-Fried Dough Stick)

Examples of transliteration are often found in food translation. Chinese traditional foods are short in Chinese and rarely seen in western countries as well. Therefore, only using transliteration is hard to explain clearly what the main source of the foods are and how they come into being, as these elements are highlighted by western countries. So transliteration is followed by explanation in such translation.

Example 2. 土家族建筑的独特之处在于，在正屋左右两端建有吊脚楼。吊脚楼分上下两层，楼上有伸出的悬空走廊，下面有雕刻而成的柱脚。走廊外沿两边，檐角翘起，雄伟壮观。

The special feature of the Tujia architecture – Diao Jiao Lou is represented by the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars on both side of the main room. There are two stories in the house, the upper floor of which has an extending corridor seemingly suspended in the air while the lower one has sculpted pillars on the ground. Grand are the eave points tilting up on both ends of the corridor edge. (Xu, 2007,133)

People take granted for “吊脚楼” in Chinese, because the name suggests the appearance of the building. However, when translated into English, Diao Jiao Lou is followed by explanations – “the house with an extending corridor supported by wooden pillars”. If it is literally translated, the sound effect of revealing a picturesque image will not be achieved.

Example 3. 文人墨客常以古代美女西施来比喻西湖的娇美，因此它又有“西子湖”的美称。

Many men of letters like to compare the West Lake in Hangzhou, whose Chinese name is Xi Hu, to the famous beauty Xi Shi of the Spring and Autumn Period, calling it “Xi Zi Hu”, where “zi”, in Chinese, is used to refer to a female.

In this example, if translation stops by transliteration, target readers will not get the full picture of the history behind the West Lake. The impression made on them will not that deep so it may not achieve the effect of attracting them to visit. Therefore, explanation is indispensable in such special words that merely exist in Chinese.

5.2 Literal Translation

Literal translation refers to the faithful translation that is loyal to original sources. The translators do not need to make any adjustment in addition to the sentence structure due to the essential information and not much special cultural contents provided in original sources. This translation method is often used in the introduction of the area, location, development and entertainment. The examples are as follow:

Example 4. 酸辣汤 Hot and Sour Soup

         老醋蜇头 Jellyfish with Black Vinegar 
         砂锅排骨Stewed Spare Ribs in Casserole
         三鲜海参 See Cucumber with Three Delicacies (Cheng, 2015,234)

In this menu, literal translation is used because essential information has been given and there is not much special culture contents. Under this circumstance, literal translation will not lead to misunderstanding among target readers.

Example 5. 弟子数百里受业仙师,纵不能得长生术,或小有传习,亦可慰求教之心。《老山道士》

I came hundred miles to study under such an immortal master as yourself. Even though I cannot learn the art of everlasting life, there are many be some small skills you could impart that would appease my wish for learning. (The Taoist of Lao Mountain)

In this example, these Taoism related words and expressions reflect an aspect of Chinese traditional culture. With the development of cultural communication, when translating these culture-loaded words, literal translation is practical when target readers are able to understand. Because it can better pass Chinese traditional culture on to foreigners, keeping them interested in Chinese traditions. In this example, “仙师” is translated into “immortal master” and “长生术”, art of everlasting life.

Literal translation is practical for TPM that does not contain specific substantive cultural content. It is not necessarily to adopt various methods to translate.

5.3 Free Translation Considering that not every original text can be literally translated because of the differences of sentence structures or words. Free translation is to express the original meaning in a complete English way, not word for word or sentence for sentence translation, which focuses more on the content of sentences. Translators should pay more attention to the whole meaning rather than single words.

Example 6. 夫妻肺片 Pork Lungs in Chili Source

          蛋黄狮子头 Stewed Meat Ball with Egg York,
          蚂蚁上树 Sauteed Vermicelli with Spicy Minced Pork

There are many original dish names with no sources in them because they always have stories behind and are often well-known among Chinese, however, with which foreigners will be frightened. These examples often contain exaggerated elements. If translated literally, it will not express the original idea or the true features of the dishes which foreigners value most.

Example 7. 梁山伯与祝英台的故事，是西湖爱情的又一不朽之作。(Wu, 2008,342)

Translation 1. The love story of Liang Shanbo and Zhu Yingtai is another imperishable work of the West Lake Romance.

Translation 2. Butterflies Romance, known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet, is another heartbreaking love story engendered by the West Lake.

The first version is noticeably literal translation, without the explanation of the two names. In China, the names are well-known to all. However, it is not the same story with westerners. After reading the first version, they are not deeply impressed. Therefore, here merely transliteration cannot work. In comparison, the second translation takes free translation, omitting the names and adding “known as a Chinese Romeo and Juliet”. In this way, they immediately know what has happened by the West Lake, because they are quite familiar with the love story between Romeo and Juliet.

Example 8. 南京的风俗：但凡新媳妇进门，三日就要到厨房收拾一样菜，发个利市。这菜一定是鱼，取“富贵有徐”的意思。 (Wu, 1958,285)

The custom in Nanjing is for all brides to invite good luck by going to the kitchen on the third day and cooking a fish, which stands for fortune. (杨宪益、戴乃迭译) (Bao, 2001,340)

In this sentence, it is “收拾” in Chinese and “cooking” in English. In Chinese “收拾” has many meanings such as tidy(the room), clear away(the kitchen), and even repair(a bike). However, these are not related to the dishes. So Mr. Yang and Mr. Dai used free translation and put it into “cooking”. Then the idea is clearly delivered.

Example 9. 《好了歌》

        世人都晓神仙好,
        只有功名忘不了!
        古今将相在何方?
        荒家一堆草没了!

Translation from H.B. Chorley (1892) All men spiritual life know to be good, But fame to disregard they never succeed!

From old till now the state-men where are they? Waste lie their graves，a heap of grass extinct．

Translation from E. Hudson (1928) To train for a saint we know is best， But love of fame distracts our minds． Where are homebred sages now? Grass grows on their place of rest．

Translation from Mr. Wang Jizhen (1987): They all know the freedom of the immortals But Reward and Fame they cannot forget． Where are the ministers and generals past and present? Under the neglected graves overgrown with grass．

Translation from Hawks (1999): Men all know that salvation should be won. But with ambition won’t have done, have done． Where are the famous ones of days gone by? In grassy graves they lay now, every one.

This poem is the combination of Taoism “quietism” and Buddhist “nothing concrete”, reminding people not to be tired of fame and wealth.

In H.B. Chorley’s version, “神仙” is literally translated into “spiritual life”, which means spiritual and religious, not revealing the artistic conception of “神仙”. E. Hudson put it into “saint”, which is used to describe a person who is kind, good, or holy, not showing the value of “神仙” indeed. According to Mr. Wang, “immortals” is used, conveying living or continuing forever, which also does not give the whole picture of the goodness of “神仙” in Chinese. In comparison, Hawks adopted the word “salvation”, which means something that prevents or saves someone or something from danger, loss, or failure, and the explanation is equal to Christians belief in which only God can save mankind, and all the well-being comes from God’s gift. He used the method of free translation, making target readers has the same recognition as source text readers.

Free translation is widely used in TPM translation when much special cultural content is included and literal translation is not practical. Free translation can better maintain cultural features of original sources while expressed in a foreign way.

VI. Conclusion

Tourism promotional materials translation plays an important role in the development of tourism. Translators should not translate word by word or sentence by sentence, but they should translate under a certain theoretical guidance, adopting some translating methods and strategies and taking into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures. Only in this way can translation be possibly understood and accepted.

Tourism promotional materials are practical, aiming at attracting potential visitors to come and visit China after reading them. In this regard, they should be translated under the framework of Skopostheory. Based on translation practice, this paper studies the method of translation from several cultural points under the guidance of Skopostheory.

Part one gives a brief introduction of this paper. Part two discusses the definition and the main features of TPM and the importance of a better translation. Then it analyzes the difficulties in translation caused by cultural differences and the framework of Skopostheory. Finally, under this framework, translation strategies and methods are discussed.

There are many other aspects in the field of cultural differences in tourism promotional materials, such as poetry, landscapes and architecture etc. Due to the limited length of the paper and my own knowledge, other parts cannot be fully illustrated. To conclude, it is worthwhile to study TPM translation from the perspective of cultural differences.

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Functional Equivalence

Research on C-E Translation of Corporate Publicity Texts from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 彭锐宏 Peng Ruihong Student Number 202070080641

Abstract

With the further deepening of global economic integration, more and more Chinese enterprises are going to the global market and the English translation of enterprise publicity text becomes the bridge between domestic enterprises and foreign customers. The English translation of the publicity texts of Chinese enterprises includes a large number of excellent translations; But at the same time, there are many enterprises publicity English translation with bad quality. In the practice of translation of publicity texts of enterprises, Nida’s functional equivalence theory can well guide the translation of publicity materials of enterprises. Therefore, this paper compares China’s corporate publicity texts with foreign corporate publicity texts and makes deep discussion and exploration in C-E translation of corporate publicity texts.

Key Words

corporate promotional materials; Functional equivalence; translation methods

题目

功能对等视角下企业外宣文本英译研究

摘 要

随着全球经济一体化进程的不断发展，越来越多的中国企业开始走向全球市场，企业外宣文本的英译文本成为了国内企业与国外客户联系的桥梁。查阅我国企业外宣文本的英译本，其中不乏大量优秀译作；但同时,也有不少企业外宣英译文本的质量有待提高。在翻译企业外宣文本实践中，奈达的功能对等理论能够很好地指导企业外宣资料的翻译。因此本文将中外外宣文本进行对比，并对中外企业外宣文本的英译做深入的分析探讨。

关键词

功能对等理论；企业外宣文本；翻译方法

I. Introduction

Nowadays, with the development of economic globalization, corporate publicity texts are used frequently across the world. Corporate publicity texts constitute an important part of corporate international publicity. The translation of corporate publicity texts has become a significant bridge and connection between different countries in the world in the exchange of trade and culture, which poses a brand new challenge to translators across the world. Corporate publicity texts translation is different from other types of translation because of its unique vocabulary and syntactic features. The study of domestic corporate publicity texts translation mainly focuses on stylistics, registration or functional grammar. The study of corporate publicity texts translation started late. Fortunately, Chinese scholars have recently strengthened research in this area, including language features, translation standards and translation strategies for corporate publicity texts translation. However, the results of Chinese corporate publicity texts translation research are relatively limited. There is a lack of systematic theoretical research and lack of comprehensive articles on the description of some translation examples. At present, domestic research on this aspect is mostly empirical and decentralized. How to systematize existing theories, how to develop in depth, and to propose a clear methodology are important topics for each researcher. This paper studies the translation of commercial contracts based on Nida’s functional equivalence theory. This paper first reviews the current research status of corporate publicity texts translation, and points out the application value of functional equivalence theory in corporate publicity texts translation. Then the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed and elaborated from two aspects: vocabulary and sentence structure. On this basis, the linguistic features of corporate publicity texts are analyzed through examples. This article focuses on the translation of corporate publicity texts. Based on the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores and studies the translation of corporate publicity texts, which is expected to enrich the application of translation theory and research. In addition, it helps to draft and translate corporate publicity texts for companies outside China for reference and guidance.

II. Brief Introduction to Functional Equivalence Theory

The functional equivalence theory exerts a significant influence on translation in the world. Nida is one of the founders of the western linguistic translation theory. One of his greatest contribution to the translation theory is to put forward the functional equivalence theory, a theory that is different from most of the early theories that focus on the verbal comparison between the SL and TL. Nida attempts to provide a new way to generate equivalents that take into account the relationship between receptors and text. It is believed that “the relationship between the target language receptor and the target language text should be roughly equivalent to the relationship between the original receptor and the original text.” The basic ideas of Nida’s functional equivalence theory are mainly reflected in the following three aspects.(Nida,1993)

2.1 The Concept of Equivalence

One way to defining functional equivalence in translation is to describe it as “the natural equivalent of the source language information” .There are three basic terms in this definition that deserve our attention: closest, natural, and equivalent. “equivalent” here should not be understood as the meaning of “identity”, but should only be understood as “close”. Functional equivalence translation focuses on the equivalence of receptor “response” rather than the equivalence of linguistic forms. Using the term “equivalent”, Nida recommends to bring the response of the target language receptor as close as possible to the response of the source language receptor.(Nida,1964) In terms of language, the term “natural” means that the presentation must be readable (related to the linguistic form) and understandable (related to the content) to the target recipient, as different languages have different grammatical features and vocabulary. As far as culture is concerned, functional equivalence is considered to be rendering. Translators should be familiar with the cultural patterns familiar to the target receptors, and translators should domesticate those foreign cultural patterns. It is allowable to make some adjustments in the form and even in the content to achieve a functionally equivalent effect. Nida uses the term “closest” to describe the proximity between the source language and the target language. Functional equivalence requires the highest degree of proximity. Personally, the author believes that the word “closest” should be analyzed in two different ways: linguistic form and meaning discourse. The ideal situation is to make the version of the form and meaning “closest” to the original message. No aspect should be sacrificed at the expense of the other, but in fact, in translation practice, problems between linguistic forms and discourse meanings always occur, especially when it comes to culturally loaded words or expressions. The transferred information directly determines the response of the target receptor, so in most cases, the linguistic form is forced to give way to the transferred information in order to obtain the closest response between the receptors in two different cultures.

2.2 The Concept of Receptor Response

It is essential that functional equivalence be stated primarily in terms of a comparison of the way in which the original receptors understood and appreciated the text and the way in which receptors of translated text understand and appreciate the translated text. From this point of view, we can see that Nida emphasizes the response of different receptors ‘source language and target language, i.e, language function, instead of language form. Functional-equivalent translation is receptor-directed and places great emphasis on the response of target receptors. In judging the version, Nida put the receptor in a very important position. Traditionally, translation has always been judged by the comparison between the original text and the translated text. Compared to formal equivalent translation, functional equivalence translation focuses more on the response of the receptor and the naturalness of the target language rather than the linguistic form.(Nida,1993)

2.3 The Concept of Diversity

Functional equivalence theory provides varying degrees of sufficiency for the minimum translation to the largest qualified translation, rather than a fixed standard. In the case of given the minimum and maximum levels, all translations between the two levels are considered acceptable. Nida pointed out many different factors that the adequacy of translation depends on“the reliability of the text itself, the discourse type, the intended audience, the manner in which the translated text is to be used, and the purpose for which the translation has been made.” All of these factors can produce enough translations. In fact, a series of different degrees of equivalence are understandable and reasonable. Therefore, functional equivalence theory provides translators with more freedom to deal with specific situations. (Nida,1993) Compared with many other translation theories that attempt to develop a single standard, functional equivalence theory not only establishes an ideal definition of translation, but also has the lowest standards, and allows for a wide variety of translations. As mentioned above, according to the theory of functional equivalence, the response of the target reader to the translation should be basically consistent with the response of the original reader to the original text. To this end, Nida emphasizes that the translation should faithfully convey the original information. As a propaganda text, the corporate text is reflected in the recommendation of enterprises and the promotion of corporate products. The translation should faithfully conveys the original information, so that the target reader can obtain the same amount of information as the original reader, understand the enterprise, produce a response consistent with the original reader, and then recommend the enterprise among the target readers, so that the reader can recognize the business philosophy of the enterprise and have confidence in the company’s products. The similar response of readers is what Nida’s functional equivalence theory emphasizes. Therefore, equivalence theory can be used to guide the translation of corporate texts. At the same time, Nida also emphasized that the translation should conform to the expression habits of the translated words. The corporate publicity text of the company represents the image of the company in the eyes of the reader. The original text of the company’s external materials is in line with the reading habits of the source language readers. The translation cannot be bound by the structure of the original text in the text. Moreover, the translation should conform to the reading habits of the target language reader. Functional equivalence proposes the lowest level of equivalence and the highest level of equivalence, and translations within both limits are acceptable, but the quality of the translation is different. When translating a company’s external propaganda text, the translator can use the functional equivalence theory as a guide and adopt appropriate translation methods to make the translation conform to the reading habits of the target readers, and to achieve the highest degree of equivalence of the translations as much as possible. Therefore, functional equivalence at the specific translation operation level can also guide the translation of the corporate publicity text.(Nida,1969) Based on the above two points of analysis, it is feasible that functional equivalence theory guides the translation practice of corporate publicity texts.

III. Features of Corporate Publicity Texts

With the vigorous development of Chinese enterprises, more and more enterprises are turning their eyes to foreign countries in order to open up a larger and broader market and development space. Of course, the quality of their products is significant. In addition, the quality of the corporate publicity texts translation is also a very important part. To produce high-quality translation, translators need to grasp the characteristics of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts, compare them, find differences, and translate them with the guidance of functional equivalence theory. Corporate publicity texts have their own unique characteristics. The two main functions of corporate publicity texts are information function and imperative function, and communication are its characteristics. There are four basic elements in the process of foreign exchange: communicators, translators, communication channels and foreign audiences. Chinese corporate publicity texts have obvious Chinese expression characteristics: pursuing the glory word and abusing the “flowers of speech”; using empty phrases, slogans, and official language. In the process of translation, the language, culture, politics, economy and ideology in the primitive and translated language society play a significant role in macro or micro. In order to achieve effective translation of foreign materials, it is necessary to understand the translation principles (information prominence, summoning and simplicity), the content of translation, and specific purposes on the basis of understanding the characteristics of the text itself. At the same time, the factors of the target language, reader response and translation culture should be taken into account. In the process of translation, we should follow the style of the target language, focus on the reader, pay attention to the reader’s reaction, respect the culture of the target language, and moderately control the value information between the source language and the detailed language to ensure the realization of intercultural communication. In contrast, foreign corporate publicity texts highlights the delivery of practical information for the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and service and the company can obtain a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focuses on the history, performance and future development of the company, rather than the ideological and political belonging of the company.

3.1 Features of Chinese Corporate Publicity Texts

The Chinese corporate publicity text offers readers a view of beautiful language and strong momentum; while the text provides corporate information, it also allows readers to gain aesthetic enjoyment in reading. Specifically, Chinese corporate publicity texts have the following main features:

3.1.1 Four-character Structure

The corporate publicity text presents the soft power of enterprise competition, and its function is to promote the enterprise, recommend products and services. In order to attract readers and realize the function of corporate publicity texts, Chinese corporate publicity texts often have a four-character structure. The four-character structure has rich and concise forms. It is a unique structural form of Chinese and an expression favored by Chinese readers. The proper application of the four-character structure in the corporate publicity text can not only enhances the cultural connotation of the enterprise, but also enables the text to be neat, rhythmic and musical, so that the corporate text is more aesthetically pleasing than the general text. Moreover, corporate publicity texts satisfy the aesthetic psychological need, enhance the appeal of the text and leave a good impression in the minds of customers. E.g: “The core concept of a company’ s culture is ‘至诚无息,博厚悠远’ .” “至诚无息,博厚悠远”源自《中庸》,原文是“故至诚无息。不息则久,久则征。征则悠远。悠远则博厚,博厚则高明。博厚,所以载物也；高明,所以覆物也；悠久,所以成物也。博厚配地,高明配天,悠久无疆”Qiao Junchen, Du Yuzhu, 2007) Combined with the actual situation of the company, this company has integrated and summarized this famous saying. It has condensed the “sincere and uninteresting, profound and far-reaching”. These two four-character structures illustrate its corporate culture, and make the readers add a sense of trust to the company, which makes the company take an advantage in the market competition. In another example, in 2013, China Petroleum & Chemical Corporation ranked first in the top 500 Chinese companies. The company also likes to use the four-character structure in its text. On the basis of full investigation, they formulated and promulgated the outline of China’s petrochemical enterprise culture construction, and announced the outline to the public, leaving a deep and good impression on the people. The outline puts forward the corporate tenet of “发展企业,贡献国家,回报股东,服务社会,造福员工” and reaffirm the enterprise spirit of “爱我中华,振兴石化”. Moreover, the outline also clarify the fine style of “精细严谨,务实创新” and establish the business philosophy of “诚信规范,合作共赢”, and comprehensively promoted the development of company’s corporate culture. The above examples show that the four-character structure is a feature of the domestic corporate propaganda text. Appropriate use of the four-character structure can increase the vividness and attractiveness of the text, and is conducive to the propaganda function of the corporate propaganda.

3.1.2 Curve Thinking

When expressing in Chinese, the Chinese are accustomed to knocking out sideways, turning around, explaining the external environment, and then speaking the main purpose, reflecting the characteristics of curved thinking. This feature is also reflected in the corporate publicity texts. The corporate publicity texts often list the excellent achievements of the company in various aspects, and then the central idea of the bright future of the enterprise. To this end, the corporate publicity texts firstly give the facts, draw conclusions, and then use the inductive method which is in line with the curve thinking to introduce the enterprise and the products of the enterprise to our customers. For example, Aucma wrote in his external text: “澳柯玛拥有员工7000多人,具备年产冷柜300万台、冰箱300万台、生活家电500万台、洗衣机400万台、电动车100万辆、自动售货机1万台的生产能力,营销网络覆盖全球五大洲100个国家和地区,呈现出蓬勃向上的发展态势。” The text first enumerates the number of employees, annual production capacity, and broad product sales channels, and finally proposes the main purpose of Aucma’s development prospects. The method of first dividing and then concluding is in line with the thinking and reading habits of the Chinese people, which helps the company to win the reader’s goodwill. The corporate publicity texts written by the curve thinking is in line with the reading expectations of domestic readers. Such text helps to promote the enterprise. At the same time, the Chinese corporate publicity texts also focus on the second-person perspective to recommend companies.

3.1.3 The Third-person Perspective

The Chinese corporate publicity texts often adopt the third-person perspective, and regard the enterprise as the narrative theme, highlighting the subjectivity of the enterprise. This kind of perspective makes the reader feel that the facts stated in the text are objective, without personal feelings, exaggeration, and then trust the enterprise. The following example sentences are taken from Zoomlion’s official website: “中联重科股份有限公司创立于1992年,主要从事建筑工程、能源工程、环境工程、交通工程等基础设施建设所需重大高新技术装备的研发制造,是一家持续创新的全球化企业。 中联重科成立20年来,年均复合增长率超过65%,为全球增长最为迅速的工程机械企业。 中联重科是中国工程机械首家A+H股上市公司。 中联重科开创了中国工程机械行业整合海外资源的先河……” When introducing a company, Zoomlion’s publicity texts often refer to the enterprise as the company name. Using a third-person perspective, the name of the company can continually stimulate the minds of customers and leave a deep impression on the minds of customers; at the same time, it makes the texts of the propaganda objective and authoritative.

3.1.4 With Political Color

China’s socialist economic system determines the dominant position of state-owned enterprises in the Chinese economy. At the same time, private and individual enterprises are also an important part of the socialist economy and make positive contributions to the development of socialist construction. Party organizations in state-owned enterprises, private enterprises and individual enterprises play a guiding role in China’s economic development. Therefore, Chinese companies have an ideology with a strong political color. When discussing the nature of the enterprise, the corporate publicity texts emphasize the care and support of the Chinese Communist Party. Domestic customers believe that the party branch of the company reflects the recognition and attention of the state to the enterprise. Therefore, in the corporate publicity texts, domestic enterprises have focused on highlighting the work of their party construction departments, enhancing the soft power of enterprise competition, and winning the trust of customers. The official website of Sinopec Group has a column of “Party Construction” advocates the activities organized by the company in the implementation of the party’s guidelines, which shows that the company has always supported the party’s leadership. Domestic readers believe that their development prospects are worth looking forward to with the trust and support of the party. Therefore, this part of the content has important publicity value in the external propaganda text for domestic customers. It can be seen from the above analysis that the Chinese corporate publicity texts have formed four characteristics of this type of text in order to better recommend the enterprise. These characteristics are in line with the reading habits of domestic readers and can be accepted well by readers, thus effectively realizing the function of corporate texts.

3.2 Features of English Corporate Publicity Texts

The purpose of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts is to recommend corporate products and services to customers. The functions and purposes of the two are the same, but their direct readers are different, and their styles are naturally different, showing their different characteristics. To be specific, western corporate publicity texts have the following characteristics.

3.2.1 Use Common Vocabulary

The western corporate publicity texts advocate the beauty of simplicity, use everyday vocabulary, and are easy to read, which can meets the needs of customers at all levels of reading, and achieve the effect of the enterprise propaganda. These everyday vocabularies help to build a bridge of communication between readers and businesses, making it easy for companies to reach their customers. Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts frequently use everyday vocabulary. For example, Wal-Mart’s slogan “Have money, Live better”. It not only reflects Wal-Mart’s business philosophy, and draws closer to the customer’s psychological distance, bringing customers a sense of intimacy. Moreover, it also makes Wal-Mart leave a good impression in the hearts of customers. There is such a sentence in Chevron’s official website: “We also care about the environment and are proud of the many ways in which our employees work to safeguard it.” The “care about and are proud of” in the sentence explain the company’s efforts in fulfilling its environmental responsibilities, and familiar words make customers feel more intimate. The sentence also adds a sense of closeness and trust of the company. An example in the official website of the automobile giant GM is: “Our culture, one which represents diversity, inclusion, mutual respect, responsibility and understanding, welcomes fresh perspectives and varied experiences.” The familiar vocabularies of “mutual”, “fresh” and “varied” in the sentence embody the closeness of the enterprise. Among them, “fresh” and “varied” highlight the company’s continuous innovation and introduction of various talents when providing high-quality products to customers, so that the products can meet the needs of customers to the greatest extent. Western companies have a large number of everyday vocabularies, which not only make the text easy to read, but also have a sense of intimacy. In the meanwhile, the everyday vocabularies can eliminate the strangeness of customers to the company.

3.2.2 Linear Thinking

Westerners follow linear thinking. When communicating, westerns often get to the point, unlike the Chinese who are mealy-mouthed. This linear way of thinking is also reflected in the text of western corporate publicity texts. In narrative, westerners are accustomed to first explaining the main points and then interpreting them. The layout of the articles follows the principle of from general to concrete, from general to example, and from whole to individual. The linear thinking in the western corporate publicity texts: using the deductive method, the important information is placed at the beginning of the paragraph, and then the cases is used for argumentation. This is in line with the reading habits of western readers and is conducive to propagandizing the company. For example, when GM introduced the development process of the company, it has the following text: In fact, there are a lot of exciting things to share about our company. This text is straightforward to show that GM has a gratifying performance, allowing readers to quickly get the meaning of the text, and then use specific examples to prove. The western corporation publicity texts influenced by linear thinking use deductive method of writing, which can help readers quickly find the center of the text. At the same time, the author also found that western corporate publicity texts often introduce enterprises in the first-person perspective.

3.2.3 The First-person Perspective

The function of the corporate publicity texts is to propagandize the enterprise. In order to better perform this function of the text, one can give the text the emotional color. The corporate publicity texts often use the first-person writing when introducing companies. Adopting the first person perspective can give the company vitality, let the company and customers communicate close the distance between the company and the customer, which is beneficial to recommending the company to the customer. For example, Chevron wrote in its corporate profile: “Chevron is one of the world’s leading integrated energy companies. Our success is driven by our people and their commitment to get results the right way.... We explore for, produce and transport crude oil and natural gas; refine, market and distribute transportation fuels and lubricants; manufacture and sell petrochemical products” The example uses “us”, “we” to call the enterprise, letting the reader feel that it is a face-to-face conversation with the company. In this way, the sentence closes the psychological distance between the company and the customer, which is conducive to recommending the enterprise. The first-person perspective of writing has given the company the emotional color. This kind of feeling encourages readers to get in touch with the company.

3.2.4 Focus on the Transmission of Practical Information

The western corporate publicity texts highlight the delivery of practical information of the company, so that customers can have a very clear understanding of the company’s products and services and the company can win a favorable position in the customer’s mind. Therefore, it focus on the history, the performance and future development trend of the company, rather than the ideology and political belonging of the company. Reading Wal-Mart, Chevron and GM’s corporate publicity texts, we can easily find that western companies’ introduction focuses on introducing the history of the company, propagandizing the scale of the business, and explaining the social responsibilities, development prospects, and enterprises of the company. The practical information is what readers care most about, and it is also the most convincing. For example, in its corporate text, GM first focused on the company’s excellent design, quality products and caring services, then introduced the history of the company, its achievements and development prospects, and finally focused on how the company provides its customers with high-end products and high-quality enjoyment. The information such as “safety and Quality” and “Create Lifelong Customers” appearing in the text will leave a deep impression on the customer’s mind and make the customer feel good about the company. In this way, the corporate publicity texts can achieve the functions of recommending the company and products. Through the analysis of the characteristics of the Chinese and western corporate publicity, we can see that the Chinese and western corporate publicity texts have their own characteristics. These characteristics are consistent with the reading habits of the respective text readers, so they can play a very good publicity role in their respective fields. The characteristics and differences of Chinese and western corporate publicity texts require translators to appropriately transform the text structure into the target language structure when translating the Chinese corporate publicity texts. In this way, the translations can have the characteristics of western corporate publicity texts, which are in line with western readers’ reading habit.

IV. C-E Translation Methods in the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory

Combining the theory of functional equivalence, the classification of textual functions, and the theory of translation function, the author believes that foreign translation should follow the principle of functional equivalence and functional translation. Translators should adopt interpretive translation, omission and re-creation methods, and use the strategy of domestication and foreignization .

4.1 Explanatory Translation

Cultural omission is the biggest obstacle of readers in a cross-cultural environment. If the translator ignores the cultural omission or avoids the translation, it will result in the omission and absence of the important information of the original text, which will affect the understanding of the target reader. The translator must create the fullest contextual effect for the target readers and narrow the cultural information, such as: “863计划” “The Match 1986” “Program to stimulate the development of high technologies” “三讲” “the Three Stresses-the stresses of studying ,raising political awareness and ensuring honesty and integrity”

4.2 Omission in Translation

Translators who translate foreign propaganda must cut down some low-value information, try to reduce the reading and thinking burden of the target readers and convey the meaning of the original text. For example: “昆明物华天宝,人杰地灵,曾孕育和涌现出郑和,兰茂,徐霞客,聂耳等许多风流人物,留下了许多历史文物。” “As a place of excellent products and outstanding people, Kunming has numerous historical relics with time passing by.”

4.3 Re-creation Translation

Re-creation translation is not simply a “check-in seat”. It must be multi-level and multi-angled. It must be “designed and meticulously constructed”. It must first adjust, sort, summarize, refine, adjust and then carry on the interpretation. Such as: “把国家电网公司建设成为“电网坚强、资产优良、服务优质、业绩优秀”的现代公司。” “To build a modernized power grid company with a strong grid, excellent assets, service and performance. ” “我厂轴承产品多次荣获国家金奖、国家质量金奖杯,并获重大科研成果奖。” These products are finely machined and highly meet the specifications of relevant standards. Choosing them , you are choosing the best,

4.4 Domestication and Foreignization

In the translation of the corporate publicity texts, in order to make the target readers better understand, it is recommended to adopt the domestication strategy, with the target language culture and readers as the center, and use the easy-to-accept expression method of the target language to make the translation easy to understand. Such as “金鸡奖” translated as “JinJi Award”或 “the Golden Rooster Award”, The effect is not good, but it is naturalized as “China’s Oscar”. The effect is obviously improved. For some languages with Chinese characteristics, the alienation strategy can better preserve its exotic atmosphere, which can let the Chinese culture affects the world. 10 domestication and 10 alienation complement each other, such as: “鸳鸯”, “lovebird” , “龙舟”, “dragon boat” , “公积金”, “public accumulation fund” , “梁祝”, “China’s Romeo and Juliet” , “七彩云南”, “7-Colored Yunnan”, “汉文化”, “the Han Culture”, “中原”, “Zhongyuan”, “the central plains” , and “鱼米之乡”, “a land of rice and fish or a land of milk and honey”等. Foreign translation, aiming to introduce China objectively and truthfully to foreign readers, is a strategic issue. All sectors of society should give more attention and support to quality control, academic control, administrative control, media monitoring, and work together to improve the quality of translation. Foreign translators must have a deep understanding of the corporate publicity texts translation work and have a highly responsible attitude. Translators should take the word seriously and accurately understand the meaning. Translators should pay attention to the cultivation of language skills, expand the knowledge, enhance cross-cultural communication awareness, be familiar with Chinese and English, and strive to become an expert of Chinese and English language and culture. The translation of the corporate publicity texts is “to let other countries and people in the world understand China”, and its translators should uphold cultural conscious and cultural self-confidence and actively deal with the specific words of the original text. In short, the translation of the corporate publicity texts is not a corresponding copy of the machine, but the use of the linguistic advantage of the translation under the guidance of functional equivalence. To achieve effective cross-cultural communication, foreign translations must have sufficient audience awareness and strive to achieve cultural self-awareness and demonstrate cultural self-confidence.

V. Conclusion

To sum up, corporate publicity texts put forward more stringent requirements for the accuracy of the translation. As a translator, one should constantly accumulate professional knowledge and improve professional literacy, which should be combined with specific context. Also, one should be good at making use of grammatical rules and strengthening cultural cultivation to enhance the ability to transform different cultural connotations and enrich the experience of improving the accuracy of translation of corporate publicity texts from practice, in order to promote the smooth development of international communication in the world.

References

• Nida, E. A. Towards a Science of Translating[M]. Leiden: E.J.Brill, 1964.
• Nida, E. A. Language, Culture, and Translating[M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign

Language Education Press, 1993.

• Nida, E. A. & Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation[M]. Leiden: E. J.Brill, 1969.

--Peng Ruihong (talk) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

A Study of Functional Equivalence in Translating Children's Literature---A Case Study on The Lion King 刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei 202020080622

刘智伟 Liu Zhiwei, 202020080622

Abstract

Childhood is the most important stage of life development, and the influence of children's literature on children's education is in the first place. Children's literature is particularly required to be vivid and easy to understand, which requires that translation strategies should be adjusted according to the characteristics of children's psychological development and on the basis of functional equivalence translation theory. Based on the characteristics of children and children's literature, and combined with the translation strategies and methods of The Lion King, the thesis makes a more profound analysis of translation equivalence theory.

Key Words

Children's Characters, Children's Literature, Functional Equivalence Theory --Liu Zhiwei (talk) 01:59, 1 November 2020 (UTC)

题 目

功能对等理论在儿童文学翻译中的使用---以《狮子王》为例

摘 要

儿童期是人生发育最重要的阶段，而儿童文学对于儿童的教育影响处于前位且是第一性的。儿童文学特别要求通俗易懂，生动活泼，这也就要求儿童文学翻译作品应根据儿童心理发展特点、基于功能对等翻译理调整翻译策略。本文主要是通过儿童特点、儿童文学特点，同时结合《狮子王》翻译策略与方法，对翻译对等理论进行更加深刻的解析。

关键词

儿童特点，儿童文学，功能对等理论

Introduction

Children’s literature contains different kinds of genres such as children’s prose, children’s novels, fairy tales and so on, in which fairy tales are the most special one and the most popular one for there are strange plots, vivid expressions and interesting characters helping children form theirs values towards the world. To make English literature suitable for Chinese kids, translators should think about the cultural backgrounds, psychological features and linguistic features of the readers of the works based on the theory of equivalence.

The Introduction of the Theory of Equivalence

Functional equivalence is a translation theory put forward by Eugene Nida, which consists of dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence making great contributions to translation theory. In his book Toward a Science of Translating (1964), he put forward and distinguished what he called dynamic equivalence and formal equivalence for the first time. Later, he expounded dynamic equivalence in his book The Theory and Practice of Translation (1969). Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language. (Nida, 1969) To avoid being misunderstood and provide a clearer meaning, Nida used “functional equivalence” to replace “dynamic equivalence” in From One Language to Another (1986). According to Nida, the best version of translation should never look like a translation. To avoid such feeling of translation, certain fundamental sets of precedence in translating should be established, such as the precedence of contextual consistency, the precedence of dynamic equivalence and precedence of forms that are acceptable to the readers. At the same time, translation should not be isolated and cultural background should be considered and try to make translations with original features and without cultural differences. While there is no possibility to balance between significance and culture, one must abandon the formal equivalence. Furthermore, it is better to recreate when the changes of form cannot show the original meanings of the text. According to the functional equivalence theory, testing the quality of translation does not consist in a comparison of corresponding lexical meaning, grammatical classes, and rhetorical devices to see the extent of verbal consistency, but in the response the readers act after reading the translation. To sum up, the functional equivalence theory focuses on reader’s response, which calls for the response of the original receptors to original text (Jia Xiuhai 2008).

The Salient Features of Children’s Literature

Children’s literature formed in the mid-18th century with the publishment of Émile, ou De l'éducation, a book of Rousseau. The advent of Hans Christian Andersen fairytale marked the beginning of the boom period of world children’s literature. After 20th century, a large amount of excellent works came out all over the world pushing it into another boom period. There was no specific literary works for children in the early period of China until the “New Culture Movement” period when children’s literature occurred to be an independent status. Children’s literature, as a way of enlightenment, is required to be serious but as a kind of reading material for children it is required to be simple and interesting. At the same time, children’s linguistic features, cognitive features and psychological features should be considered in order to meet the needs of children. On the contrary, a lot of authors try very hard to write children’s literature so as to make them “de-adultification”. The beginning of literature is imitation so that a large amount of translation works of children’s literature come out. The difference between English and Chinese is clear but to make language interesting with translating it in proper way is not an easy thing.

Distinct Themes in Children’s Literature

Childhood is the developing period of a man which means it is the most important stage in one’s life and children in this time have a sensitive sense to learning new things. From simpleness to complexity, children have formed a complete system of perception and their understandings change to be deeper from the surface understanding. As a kind of enlightenment, children’s literature provides a way for children to learn simple lessons so that it contains simple but distinct themes, clear but positive themes with educational meanings. Furthermore, children’s literature in foreign countries, especially in British and America, emphasis on maternal love that is often reflected in girls’ childhood. And in children’s literature, it also shows a world in imagination with a sharp contrast with the real world in order to open children’s mind. Children could recognize truth from bad things, beauty from colorful things and kindness form cruel things. At the same time, culture of religion cannot be avoided in literary works. To infuse correct religious ideas properly is what we need to think deeper in case that the literary works should get in the way for children to know the world. To be an excellent translator of children’s literature, one should grasp the distinct theme in each work, paying much more attention to the values that the work wants to show about, for all the literary works for children must have a positive effect on children. In other words, a translator should take the responsibility of choosing best works and translating them from the perspective of a child. Just as Chen Bochui, an author of children’s literature, says that only if an author writes his works through the perspective of a child, hearing by the ears of a child, seeing by the eyes of a child, and feeling by the heart of a child, can he have literary works understood and appreciated by children. It is the same for a translator because translating is like recreating following the footprints of the original works.

Various of Genres of Children’s Literature

Various of genres can be found in children’s literature which consists of poem, novel, fairy tale and allegory and so on. Different genres may show different aspects of the world and different genres may provide different ways to know the world pushing children form a complex but colorful cognitive system. Poem is the most beautiful genre containing impressing rhythm, catchy words, and simple content, which provides an easier way for children to learn to use language in a graceful manner. Novel is usually a long story that consists of a complete system like family or society, through which children could get an overview of the world. Fairy tale is usually different from the real world but reflects the real world in some ways. Children are very fond of this kind of genre for it enriches children’s experience and has an impressive influence on their thinking. Different genre gives different possibilities but rationality and normality should be put in the first place. To become an excellent translator of children’s literature, one must get to know the essence of different genres in order that a translator can transfer his styles easily in different genres. Translation is a complex process that consists of many steps. Zhang Meifang (1999) once pointed out that “In the process of translation, a translator is the recipient of the source text and the producer of the target text either. In this way, he must have text analysis in both of the two processes and compare the results to finish the translation task properly.” Newmark come up with the three steps of translation: firstly, understand and analyze the source text; secondly, conceive a mind map of translating about the choice of words and sentences; thirdly, reproduce the text according to author’s intention, readers’ expectation, and proper regulation. Choosing proper translation strategies through text analysis is necessary.

Vivid Expressions in Children’s Literature

In the period of childhood, language system is not mature enough to accept all the linguistic phenomenon. And children cannot focus on the same thing for a long time so that abstract and complex languages cannot arise their attention. To make sure that children of different ages can understand the expression easily, vivid expressions are acceptable. In 1865, the publication of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland caused a stir and it fully showed the vivid expressions of children’s literature. It is a story about the real experience in wonderland of the sweet girl, Alice. The reason why it is still popular in the world is that it tells an interesting story with simple words and the translation even uses allusions in Journey to the West to stimulate children’s interests. To be a good translator of children’s literature, one must learn children’s psychological and linguistic features in order to translate the literary works in a proper manner. Different from adults, the linguistic competence of children is not as perfect as that of adults. According to a research about linguistic features of children, children acquire intonation of Chinese first and then pronunciation. The acquisition of vowel is much earlier than that of consonants. It is reported that a kid aged three years old making mistakes in speaking language is very normal. Language acquisition in the early age of childhood must go through a specific process and children in this stage don’t have a mature system for language and their cognitive ability is limited so that translators should try to use simple but vivid words to make children of different ages understand texts easily.

Cultural Infusion in Children’s Literature

Cultural confidence is a core point in today’s development in all aspects. Culture is the soul of a nation and it pushes the development of a nation in some ways. It is like an invisible weapon which influences people’s mind and value towards the world. Nowadays, more and more literary works concern more about cultural infusion through which Chinese culture can be spread to the whole world and foreign cultures can come into China either. In this way, literary works are regarded as an important tool to transmit cultures so that assessing literary works can be an essential point. And as a way of enlightenment for children, children’s literature plays an essential role in developing Chinese culture. To be a translator taking the responsibility of exchanging different cultures, one must know the east and know the west. There’s difference in social conventions affected by geographical and historical factors. There’s difference in thinking patterns and authors in the western countries take sentence stricture for granted such as Shakespeare. There’ s difference in etiquette and Chinese culture has been influenced by Confucius. To combine the two kind of different cultures and to make it easy to understand become the key point for translators.

A Case Study: E-C Translation of The Lion King under the Guidance of Functional Equivalence Theory

The Lion King is story written by The Walt Disney Company inspired by Shakespeare’s Hamlet. It has been made into a movie in 1944 when it caused a stir to the whole world. Simba is the little prince of Pride Land, and his father Mufasa was the majestic king. However, his uncle Scar has designs on Mufasa's throne for a long time. In order to take the throne, Scar must eliminate the little prince for Simba will be the next king of Pride Land. Therefore, he has been wrestling to try every means to make Simba go outside of the land where there is no Mufasa protecting Simba, and then waits for the opportunity to kill him with the help of those hungry hyenas who are the army of Pride Land. It is when Simba cannot fight that Mufasa comes to rescue him in time. Later, Mufasa is murdered by Scar who has tried every means to scheme against the real king of the land. After Mufasa’s death, Scar had ulterior motives to make Simba to leave and at the same time, he sent some hyenas to kill him, but Simba escaped to other place with his wit. Simba went through the very hot and dry dessert and encountered a meerkat named Timon and a kind warthog named Pumbaa who witnessed Simba grow into a powerful lion. Not long afterward Simba met Nana, his playmate when he was in his childhood. Nana told Simba that Pride Land had suffered a disaster and she encouraged him to return to the land but Simba was unwilling to get back to the place anymore. Later, Simba met with his father's spirit and decided to restore the country with the guidance of mage Rafiki. In the following struggle to restore Pride Land and save the people, Simba understood the true meaning of responsibility and got victory with the help of his friends and relatives.

The Lion King is a glorious animation that praise justice and love, castigates evil and conspiracy, and it shows respect to the principle of the circle of life, and discloses a philosophy of the whole life. According to Nida’s theory, the translation work must represent the original meaning of the source text with proper words and structure. And to make the target text attract children’s attention, the translation work must find the best way to cater their interests. The translation version of The Lion King is translated by Song Ruixue and published by National Open University Press.

Functional Equivalence at Lexical Level

The use of simple words is the basic feature of children’s literature, through which the translators choose lucid and suitable words for children readers. Just as Nida mentioned that “Translation is the representation of the source text with the closest and most natural words, so the first equivalence is in semantics and the second is in literary genres.”

The Use of Reduplication

From the perspective of linguistic features, the use of reduplication in Chinese gives readers the beauty of rhyme, expression, and form so that it will arise children readers’ interests no matter in the aspect of reading or listening. On the other hand, the intonation will be stressed with the use of reduplication that will strengthen the emotional expression which makes the character more prominent and the translation work more readable.

Reduplication is to reuse the same word so that it gives readers catchy rhythm whish makes the ordinary words special and gives more power to language itself. For example, the use of reduplication combining with the sound shows the mental activity of the character and children readers will easily get the image.

Example 1: The three scared bullies ran away as Scar looked from shadows.

Translation: 三只鬣狗吓破了胆，灰溜溜地逃跑了。刀疤躲在阴影里，看见了这一切。

The first example is taken from the part that Mufasa went to resecure Simba when he was in trouble. Mufasa’s majestic looking was showed up with the sharp contrast with bullies’ coward reactions. The translator doesn’t have a literal translation but adds an adverb in the replication form in which it makes the sentence beautiful in rhyme. Furthermore, the three bullies were scared and regretful at the same time so that “灰溜溜地” represents their psychological activity in a proper way. The coward characters seem to leap off the page, from which children will understand the character better and get the kindness from the bullies.

Example 2: Simba saw his father fall. He ran calling Mufasa’s name but the king was already dead.

Translation: 辛巴眼睁睁地看着自己的父亲掉落深谷，他痛苦地呼唤着父亲的名字，然而木法沙再也无法回应他了。

The second example is taken from the part when Mufasa was murdered by Scar, and Simba could do nothing to help his father so that he just saw the death of Mufasa and felt devastated and self-condemned. For Simba, it is because of his inability that makes his father die who has loved him so much. For children readers, they may regard themselves as Simba who felt depressed and the word “眼睁睁地” causes a feeling of useless, through which children may get to understand the importance of responsibility. In this way, it makes a contrast between the helpless Simba and brave Simba who conquered Pride Land, through which children get a more impressive image of Simba.

Example 3: Scar could not run away. Simba hit him with a powerful blow.

Translation: 刀疤再也逃不掉了。辛巴重重一击……

The third example is taken from the part when Simba began to fight with Scar and he hit him in the last second. The translator translates “with a powerful blow” to “重重地” making the sentence more easy to understand for a child and showing Simba’s power and anger. The use of reduplication not only makes the image impressive but also strengthen the emotion of Simba. It is in this part that Simba revenged for his father. Different from Shakespeare’s Hamlet, Simba didn’t have hesitations but on the contrary, he fought against Scar in a very quick and powerful manner. There is clear boundary between truth and evil so that Simba’s decisive actions show that one must not hesitate to make choice or the devil will go on making troubles.

The background of a story is difficult for a writer to explain to children readers for they don’t have a mature cognitive system to accept all the social and history background. However, the lexical choices of a writer or a translator can be a best way to show the deeper meaning of a simple story. Firstly, the use of republication makes every sentence in the story vivid and clear. Like a poem, the republication in each sentence gives readers beautiful rhythm that helps children form the sense of pace in language. At the same time, it is easy for them to accept this kind of beautiful expressions rather than those straightforward and dull words. Secondly, the use of republication makes each sentence in the story filled with the psychological activities of characters so that the complex changes of a character is showed up through very simple sentences. It is reported that children in the early age when they begin to learn language are very sensitive to every word they heard. And the use of republication helps them to use simple words to show their own feelings. The form of republication itself is a kind of beauty which will fulfill children’s need of appreciation of beauty. To summarize, the use of republication makes the whole text rhythmic, makes the whole story more vivid, makes all characters impressive and interesting.

The Use of Adverbs

The use of adverbs in English is very common no matter in literary works or daily life. Whereas, we may hardly find adverbs in Chines in adults’ daily life. On the contrary, the use of adverbs in children’s literature makes the whole text filled with cute and clear expressions. The acquisition of Children’s emotion is the reflection of psychological states and social environment. According to Donald Olding Hebb, a Canadian psychologist, pioneer of cognitive psychophysiology, children’s emotion and cognition are inseparable. The expression of emotion relies on cognition in some way. In other word, understanding is prior to emotion and emotion is the production of cognition. In some literary works, the use of adverbs gives readers a chance to percept the emotions of characters in order to improve the ability to feel emotion and express emotions in a correct way.

Example 4: All the animals were quiet and bowed in respect to Simba the little lion cub.

Translation: 动物们保持安静，他们心怀敬意地跪拜着小狮子辛巴。

Example 4 is taken from the part when Rafiki ceremoniously marked Simba’s forehead and lift him into the air for all to see. The translator uses the adverb to show the respect of all the animals in Pride Land. The meaning of “bow” is strange for a child to understand for children don’t have any ideas about social conventions and historical background. But the use of this adverbs shows the meaning of it which is a kind of behavior with respect. The social position of little Simba is represented in this way, through which children may understand the etiquette in a social group especially in family. The contrast between the respectable Simba and the Simba chased out by Scar is produced so that the changing features of a character are clear to understand.

Example 5: Simba told Scar his dad had just showed him the kingdom which he was going to rule.

Translation: 辛巴高兴地告诉刀疤，父亲带他参观了整个王国。这里所有的土地都将是他的。

Example 5 is taken from the part when Mufasa takes Simba to visit the whole land except the place under the shadow. The translator adds “高兴地” to show Simba’s excitement in order that children readers can feel Simba’s pure kindness that children will find themselves in this story. Comparing with Scar’s evil, Simba’s innocent character has a more impressive effect resulting in reader’s preference towards Simba.

Example 6: “Being brave doesn’t mean you go looking for trouble.” Mufasa explained gently.

Translation: 木法沙温柔地回答：“儿子， 勇敢并不代表你要到处闯祸。”

Example 6 is taken from the part when Mufasa rescued Simba from the hyenas and he taught him a lesson but in a very gentle way. The image of a father is usually strict and great, and the character of Mufasa makes it gentler which will make children have more admiration towards their father. At the same time, Simba’s mistake doesn’t get serious criticism because he tells the truth to his father. So in this part, children may learn to be a calm person and teel the truth no matter in what kind of situation.

Example 7: “I can’t go back,” Simba replied.

Translation: “我回不去了。”辛巴绝望地说。

Example 7 is taken from the part when all of Simba’s partners come to persuade him to go back to Pride Land. The translator adds a adverb to describe his mental activity at the moment which makes the character round with guilty and desperation. But the word “绝望地” may be very strange for a child within 6 years old to understand because it is a word taught in the primary school so that it is necessary to explain about it. Regardless of this point, the use of this adverb will help children to feel the emotion of Simba who has guilty in his mind but wants to go back to his homeland hopelessly.

To explain about a complex mental activity of the character is a great challenge for a writer or a translator of children’s literature, but the use of adverbs may solve this problem. And the use of adverbs in this story helps children to express their own feelings and expressing one’s own feeling is always a compulsory for a person at all ages.

The Use of Four-Character Idioms

One of the features in Chinese literary works is the use of four-character idioms and it is a way for readers to learn Chinese culture in this way. However, the use of four-character idioms in Children’s literature must be chosen according to children’s cognitive feature and knowledge background.

Example 8: Mufasa asked why Scar had not come for the celebrations. Scar said he forgot.

Translation: 当木法沙询问他为什么没有来参加庆典的时候，刀疤漫不经心地说自己忘记了。

Example 9: Simba went through the very hot, dry desert until he could not go on and he collapsed.

Translation: 辛巴走在一片炙热干涸的土地上，最后精疲力竭地倒下了。

There are only two examples of four-character idioms used in this story. Both examples are taking about the two characters’ mental activities to highlight their mental changes. Due to children’s lack of knowledge storage, the use of four-character idioms give a chance for them to learn knowledge in a pragmatic way.

Functional Equivalence at Syntactical Level

The difference between children’s literature and literatur