20201005 trans

Cao Runxin 曹润鑫

Modern Interpreting with Digital and Technical Aids

Challenges for Interpreting in the 21st Century

Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University/China

Abstract

The world is growing in tandem with the Internet, freedom of travel and globalization. Inevitably translation and interpreting are in greater demand, especially online during the coronavirus pandemic. With the beginning of the 21st century, interpreting faces new technical and digital challenges requiring new methods of delivery. Technical developments in the course of digitization have been on the rise and are approaching real-time use simultaneous capability. The technology supporting the interpreter is becoming more and more effective, while an increasing number of systems, such as artificially intelligent programs, are competing with the human being. The interpreter must now be a technology organizer and adroitly adapt to technologically predefined interpreting situations, such as video conferences with augmented reality, tele-interpreting, etc.

Chang Huiyue 常慧月

The movements of migrants within the EU and the influx of refugees from crisis areas outside of it render community interpreting especially of rare languages in unprecedented demand, often resulting in the unsavory use of non-professional and sub-standard interpreters. Existential problems for the entire profession become apparent. Due to networking via the Internet, unqualified interpreters pour onto the market from low-wage countries: with dumping prices and low-quality services, they discredit the profession of the professional interpreter. Meanwhile remuneration practices have been declining, with payment of interpreting services often being delayed or payment defaulted. All these lead to a devaluation of the profession of the interpreter while digital technology throws into doubt the need for the role of the human as interpreter or translator.

Chen Han 陈涵

The positive side of technological advancement is that communication (including translation and interpretation) becomes digital and therefore can be enhanced with artificial intelligence. This enhancement takes interpreting and translation to a new quality level. Translation and interpretation theory needs to adapt to translation and interpretation in the age of artificial intelligence, the focus, which has moved with the functional approaches to the translator, now moves to the target text audience. The new way of interpreting is a human, but digital-technically determined hybrid form of human-machine interactive interpretation, with due respect for the human participation expressed in the form of professional remuneration.

Chen Hui 陈惠

Keywords

interpreting; artificial intelligence; simultaneous interpreting; real-time support; interpreting technology; digitalisation; interpreting software

1.Literature Review

In 2006, Honegger notes in a survey that most prospective interpreters do not use software in the interpreting booth, but work with paper glossaries which they have created with MS Word or MS Excel. Fantinuoli (2011, 50) states five years later that most interpreters still manage their terminology traditionally with MS Word or MS Excel. In 2015 20- to 30-year-old interpreting students state in a survey by Gacek that "software solutions are not sufficiently known among prospective interpreters and therefore are not used" (Gacek 2015, 82). The purpose of the present study is therefore to draw attention to the functionality of software for interpreting booths.

Chen Jiangning 陈江宁

The conference interpreter Anja Rütten (2007) presents valuable information in her information-rich overview, Information and Knowledge Management in Conference Interpreting, and in her numerous blogs in 2013 and 2014 about experiences with hardware and software in conference interpreting. In this paper, also lists of software and technology from Drechsel's interpreting practice in 2005, 2013 are used.

Standard works on the craft of interpreting (Pöchhacker 2004; Stoll 2009) also form the basis of the present study. Only their suggestions are taken up here and they ought to be reconsidered from the perspective of support by software and technology. In addition, current individual studies are evaluated, such as on distance interpreting (Kalina 2010) and explanations on the use of office programs (Fantinuoli 2011), on web corpora (Gurevych 2013), and on Qtrans (Scholz 2008; Gacek 2015). To compare it with the analogue age, the very early Braun 1999 study on video conferencing is used.

Chen Jiaxin 陈佳欣

Since software and technology are developing rapidly, a study inevitably becomes obsolete quickly. To arrive, nevertheless, at more generally valid statements, the present study focuses on developments and functionality, explaining concrete software and hardware only by way of example, with the knowledge that products are often replaced by others and that only a few can last for a long period of time. In order to get an overview of software and hardware, the current master's thesis by Gacek (2015) is used. However, it only refers to a small selection of products and does not come to generally valid conclusions. This study also addresses the polarizing discussion on how much technology and software the interpreter needs. While Spitzer provocatively speaks of the "digital dementia" of interpreters in 2012, Conway (2014) has taken a more balanced approach to the question of the cost-benefit ratio of the computer in the interpreting booth.

Chen Jingjing 陈静静

This paper will also introduce special aspects, like problems posed by trendy community interpreting (Andres 2009) and cheap competition for interpreters, as well as placing networked communication and work on texts in the context of the development of swarm intelligence and a collective consciousness. Finally, a new type of interpreting is called for, which expects at least technical competence from the interpreter, and at most a hybrid human-machine working method. In this paper, the thesis, already passionately advocated historically, that the computer or artificial intelligence could never replace the human being in certain functions such as language (Austermühl 2004), is no longer categorically excluded.

Chen Sha 陈莎

2.Simultaneous Technology/Technology Working in Real Time

While in the past technology did not allow simultaneous work support, i.e. it was not possible for translators to work with simultaneous or consecutive interpreting, this disadvantage seems to have been largely overcome technically at the beginning of the 21st century, although there are still too few apps that make use of these new possibilities.

Arguments against the positive effects of advanced technology include references to over-coding, the abundance of information, etc. These phenomena appear to be a hindrance, especially in connection with the interpreting profession, which requires the highest level of concentration.

Chen Sunfu 谌孙福

Spitzer (2012) for example, poses the question of whether computer work causes a mental deterioration of society. Rütten (2014a), on the other hand, refers to Spitzer, pointing out the advantages of the computer, arguing that it has voice output, retrievability through full-text search, spell checking, sorting, categorization and transmission functions. She suggests as a compromise: "Talking about research, challenging one's own memory and always asking about what is meant and the context - if we take this to heart, we have a good chance of making the computer a valuable training tool and an excellent assistant.”

Chen Yongxiang 陈永相

2.1 Technology to Support the Interpreter

2.1.1 Preparation

Even if a consecutive interpreter is standing next to the speaker, armed with a stenographer's notepad and pencil, and interprets him or her in an apparently analogous manner, even he or she cannot do without technology these days.

Even during the preparation stage, his duty of care requires him to take into account the accessible sources, some of which are electronic.

Even more technical possibilities are offered if the interpreter asked to use his own initiative receives speech manuscripts beforehand. These can be scanned, transcribed and prepared, for example by automatic color coding of verbs and realities, which Stoll (2009, 84f.) also recommends for analogue preparation, as it improves anticipation and simplifies syntactic planning.

Cheng Yusi 成于思

In addition to the concrete preparation of the text to be interpreted, more general preparation can also be supported technically.

Drechsel (2005, 16f.) lists, for "preparation for the conference topic and the creation of glossaries, electronic tools such as search engines, web catalogues, topic portals, scientific websites, company or customer websites, library catalogues, online libraries, specialised services for e-publications, online magazines, newsgroups and others are used.”

Online comparison with existing acronyms/abbreviations (Stoll 2009, 85) is also helpful.

除了准备好口译稿以外，常规上还需要更多技术上的支持。

德雷克塞尔（Drechsel）（2005, 16f.）列举到，筹备会议主题，创建词汇表可以用到这些电子工具，如搜索引擎，网页目录，主题访问入口，科技网，商贸网，图书目录，线上图书馆，以及为电子出版物，在线杂志和新闻组等专门设置的服务。

此外，和现有的缩略词进行在线对比同样有帮助。（Stoll 2009,85）--Cheng Yusi (talk) 01:44, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

除了对所要解读的文本进行具体的准备外，更多的一般性准备也可以在技术上得到支持。德雷克塞尔Drechsel(2005，16f.)列举到 ：“准备会议主题和建立词汇表时可使用的电子工具。如搜索引擎、网页目录、主题门户、科学网站、公司或客户网站、图书馆目录、在线图书馆、以及电子出版物的专业服务、在线杂志、新闻组等。"除此之外，与现有的缩略语/缩写进行在线比较(Stoll 2009, 85)也很有帮助。--Jiang Hao (talk) 02:38, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Deng Jinxia 邓锦霞

Of course, ad hoc knowledge acquisition (Gile 2009) prior to the conference also counts as preparation, such as requesting speech manuscripts and presentations, often in file form. Preparation does not only take place in the weeks before the assignment ("advance preparation", Gile 2009), but also on site a few minutes before the assignments ("last minute preparation", Gile 2009) and during the interpreting breaks ("in-conference preparation", Gile 2009). Stoll categorizes the areas of interpreting preparation as "general technical", "terminological" and "interpreting strategy" (Stoll 2009, 86).

Ding Daifeng 丁代凤

Here, search engines or electronic dictionaries are often faster than paper dictionaries. Moreover, if, for example, the conference program/list of speakers is updated on a website, the interpreter can adjust his or her planning by accessing the website without further consultation with the client.

In principle, all technical aids should meet the requirements of being user-friendly, having a fast or real-time response time and being manageable.

Fang Jieling 方洁玲

2.1.2 Speech to Text in Real-time with Low Error Rate

Every smartphone today has a mode or apps with which it records speech and converts it into text in real time with a now justifiably low number of errors. This simple function alone is valuable for the apparently analogue consecutive interpreter: He can put his shorthand pad in a folder in which, for example, the smartphone is inserted on the left and has written down the spoken text as text.

Gan Fengyu 甘奉玉

While he works with his notes in interpreting notation on the right, as he used to do on the right, and can insert the pen into a holder on the folder if necessary, the transcription on the left enables him to find his way back into the context at a glance or, at most, with a wiping movement in the event of a pause in his hesitation (colloquially known as a 'hang up') or even a 'blackout'.

Drechsel (2013) demonstrates the use of the following programs/websites on the Ipad (which helps him to concentrate on individual processes): Documents (manages documents and allows editing), Interplex, LookUp (terminology databases), Wikipedia, Google.

Gao Mingzhu 高明珠

Tablets like the Ipad have the following advantages over the conventional laptop, notebook or netbook in the cubicle: They are lighter, smaller, handier, the battery lasts longer, typing is silent, you can use apps, your work is not interrupted by updates or pop-ups, you can take notes by hand and record things in the background for archiving or follow-up. Of course, due to the data protection regulation, the consent of the client must be obtained before recording.

Gong Yumian 龚钰冕

The disadvantage of not being able to see several windows at the same time appears to be an advantage to Drechsel (2013) from his personal experience, because it allows him to concentrate better on one thing. However, he neither has all the Office applications with him nor his domestic terminology databases. A possible compromise could be a laptop with a touchscreen.

从德雷克塞尔（(Drechsel） (2013)的个人经历来看，不能同时看到几个窗口的缺点似乎是一个优势，因为这使他能够更好地专注于一件事。然而，他既没有所有的Office应用程序，也没有国内术语数据库。可能的折衷方案是用一台带有触摸屏的笔记本电脑。--Gong Yumian (talk) 15:24, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

从德雷塞尔(Drechsel)(2013)的个人经历来看，不能同时看见几个窗口同时也是一个优点，因为这样可以使更好地专注于一件事儿。然而，他既没有办公软件地应用，也没有国内术语语料库。唯一一点好的就是他有一台触屏笔记本电脑。--Han Wanzhen (talk) 15:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Gu Dongfang 顾东方

2.1.3 From Text in Source Language to Text in Target Language

Not yet very professional but available as prototypes are transcription systems that offer a translation in a second screen (e.g. translator.google.com, fanyi.baidu.com, for European languages DeepL.com) in addition to the real-time transcription of the source language presented in 1.1.1. On the smart device, for example, an upright screen can be divided into an upper transcription area and a lower translation area.

Guan Qinqing 管钦清

Here, too, constant trial and error is required to improve the quality of the interpretation. It is also individually different how much different information the individual interpreter is able or used to process. If the flow of data is too large, there is a risk that concentration or the flow of production will be impaired.

2.1.4 Keyword Cloud

Helpful for the interpreter's work is the insertion of key terms and their translation into the target language in real time in the form of dynamic clouds, i.e. in real time and the longer a pause before the interpretation of the relevant term lasts.

这里也是如此——提高口译质量需要不断进行试错。同样，每位译员本身能够，或者是说适于处理不同信息的数量也有差别。如果数据流太过庞大，就会存在译者专注度降低或是译文产出量减少的风险。

2.1.4 关键词群

输入关键词或者通过动态云即时将源语转化为目的语，这对译者的工作大有帮助。比如：在对相关术语进行口译之前及时停顿或停顿更长时间。--Guan Qinqing (talk) 02:22, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Gui Yizhi 桂一枝

In my opinion, the development of a corresponding app would be a desideratum. It would not be used intensively, but would be conceived as an additional screen for the corner of the eye, which is preferably perceived subconsciously and which one can turn to when one has a hesitation pause and is looking for stimulation. Here, terms that have been interpreted according to the proposal should turn green and others grey. It should be possible to turn back the displayed cloud by fractions of a second in the timeline by pointing and wiping. Of course, it should be capable of learning, i.e. it should be able to memorize frequent non-standard translations and offer them itself.

In the post-processing phase, the program should offer a list of terms to be practised and has the non-standard translations approved manually by the interpreter.

Guo Lu 郭露

2.1.5 Effects of Technology

The interpreting profession has changed due to hardware and software development, especially since the 1990s, which has essentially made interpreting easier and better. Whether a technology or an app makes it into the consecutive or simultaneous interpreting situation and even into the interpreting booth is subject to the highly subjective decision-making power of the individual interpreter, just like the interpreting notation, which varies from person to person. New techniques should only be tried out if they bring about a real improvement in use.

2.1.5 科技的影响

电脑软硬件的不断升级使得口译的专业程度也逐步提高，20世纪90年代以后，软硬件的发展让口译更加简便的同时，也提高了口译的准确性。一种技术或一款软件能否应用于交传、同传甚至是口译箱，极大程度上取决于译员本身，和口译符号一样，译员与译员之间各有不同。新的技术只有真正带来革新才能投入使用。--Guo Lu (talk) 01:49, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

2.1.5 科技的影响

20世纪90年代以来，由于电脑软硬件的升级，口译的专业性也不断提高，这在降低了口译难度的同时，也提高了其准确性。正如译员之间口译符号各不相同，一种科技或一款软件能否应用于交传、同传甚至是口译箱，极大程度上取决于译员本身。新科技应该加以试验，以检测其是否能带来革新。--Li Liqin (talk) 02:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

2.1.5 科技带来的影响 电脑软硬件设施的完善使口译员的职业发生了改变。特别是自20世纪90年代以来，译员的工作变得更加方便和成熟。正如不同译员间的口译笔记符号是有差别的一样，一项技术或软件能否被应用在交传或者同传的场合或者进入同传箱，取决于译员个人的主观决断。新的技术只有在实际使用中带来进步，它才有被尝试的价值。--Zhou Shiqing (talk) 02:53, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿

Han Haiyang 韩海洋

It is not in anyone's interest to use the latest technology for its own sake if this means a loss of quality in the interpretation. Conversely, an interpreter should be open to accept new techniques and software if they can improve his work.

2.1.5.1 The Presence of the Interpreter at the Place of Assignment

The interpreter can influence physical and spatial matters by being present at the place of assignment:

a) He/she can acquire vocabulary in advance in exchange with the client, compile vocabulary lists, practise them and also physically take them into the booth as paper printouts or on the screen.

Han Wanzhen 韩宛真

b) He can request speech manuscripts in advance or speak directly to speakers on site and ask for a copy of their speech manuscripts.

c) In case of early contact with the Interpreter Equipment Company, he may be able to influence positioning the interpreting booth so that he can see the speaker and the PowerPoint presentation. In the case of video conferences (e.g. by zoom, voom/Tencent Meeting, BigBlueButton, Skype, Tencent Classroom, MS Teams etc.), he can make sure that he can see all the speakers, including those who appear on screens, so that he can also recognize non-verbal signals and incorporate them into the interpretation. In principle, it is recommended that the interpreter is also shown on screens or in video conferences on a small side window in order to better understand the interpretation.

b)他可以提前要取演讲稿或者直接跟在场的讲话者要一份他们演讲稿的复印版。

c)如果译者早一些与翻译设备公司沟通交流的话，他也许能够选择口译室的位置，这样的话他就可以看见讲话人和幻灯片演示文件。如果是视屏会议（如zoom,腾讯会议,BigBlueButton,Skype,腾讯课堂，MSTeams等），他要确定他能够看见所有的讲话人，包括那些出现在屏幕上的，这样的话他就可以识别一些非语言信号，并且将其融入翻译中。原则上，为了让大家更好地理解翻译，译者也应该出现在镜头里面或者视频会议地小窗口里面。--Han Wanzhen (talk) 15:45, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

He Changqi 何长琦

d) Before the event, the interpreter can be introduced to the interpreting equipment by the technician and test the audio system, determine and announce the channel-language assignment (experienced clients post these and instruct the staff who issues the receivers to inform the participants of the assignment), adjust the volume of the headphones and arrange the aids on the work table.

Hu Baihui 胡百辉

e) He/she can coordinate with his/her interpreting colleague regarding, e.g. glossaries, agenda, and exchange documents, then both can determine the approximate intervals between changes or simply notice during the assignment if the colleague is at a loss and give a helping hand with writing a missing term on a piece of paper. He/she can also nudge him/her to draw his/her attention to something. He/she can share glossaries and documents electronically, e.g. with the Interplex program simply with a swipe to the left. He/she can also take over the interpretation prematurely in case of exhaustion of his/her colleague.

Hu Huifang 胡慧芳

The number of distance interpreting assignments has already been increasing before the coronavirus pandemic, but with Corona, it exploded. Before Corona, a combination of telephone and web communication was used. With the coronavirus pandemic, Zoom was used more frequently and the Business version comes with a conference interpreter menu.

AIIC, BDÜ, European institutions and other international organizations agreed (Kalina 2010) on the following conditions as minimal professional standards for distance interpreting:

Hu Jin 胡瑾

- As a rule, a direct view of the room should be possible.

- To avoid multilingualism, distance interpreting should only be used in exceptional cases when more than six active languages are spoken. But even then, as many booths as possible should be available in the room and the booths of the distance interpreters should not be too far away.

- High-definition monitors should be installed in front of and not in the booths.

- The remote interpreter should be able to communicate directly with the client and the cameramen.

- Teams should regularly consist of a minimum of three remote interpreters".

Ji Tiantian 纪甜甜

2.1.5.2 Higher Validity through Explanation and Correction Functions

In the university lecture hall, students critically accompany, verify and check for errors in the statements of the lecturer by simultaneously reading in Wikipedia, Baike Baidu, etc., and in search engines such as Google, and Baidu and, if necessary, manually validate or question the statements in accompanying chats (e.g. in the WhatsApp or WeChat group of the course). In a technically mediated interpreting situation, it is now possible to show alternative translation suggestions to participants. This is useful in reducing misunderstanding when a) politically/religiously/culturally sensitive terms appear, b) different groups of recipients may have different understanding of the same term, for instance, a socialist-authoritarian country and a liberal-democracy] state perceive political ideologies, systems and concepts through a spectrum of shades and hues. Recognition of the various nuances, the multifaceted implications and the degree of value-laden presumptions for each individual recipient serve to ease tension and foster communication.

Jiang Fengyi 蒋凤仪

2.1.6 Special Features in the Booth

Computers or smart devices allow you to view presentations, documents and notes. However, reference by typing during the interpreting process is hardly possible due to time constraint. Therefore, text to speech and speech to text modules become more important.

In exceptional situations, such as a 'blackout' or a hesitation break, the technique of stalling, i.e. inserting neutral expressions without new information together with deceleration of the target text production, could be useful strategies (Pöchhacker 2004, 132ff).

Jiang Hao 姜好

2.1.7 Software Examples

When naming selected software, I follow the list and evaluation of Janovska (2011).

To this day, interpreters continue to manage their terminology with Office programs such as Word or Excel (Fantinuoli 2011, 50). However, searching is cumbersome with Ctrl+F, and only the first entry found is displayed. Better suited are Interplex simple, LookUp (search without Enter key, which also has a separate module for Word, Janovska (2011, 80); it also has input fields such as customer, topic and project for additional information, terminology extraction, vocabulary trainer, semantics filter and sorting functions, Honegger (2006, 2) and Rütten (2014f), Terminus (a) good multilingual terminology management system and TermDB developed by conference interpreter Christian Vogeler but discontinued in 2012. But here, too, Fantinuoli (2011, 51) complains that the hit rate cannot be reduced by stop words and that the errors in the glossary cannot be corrected. 2.1.7软件范例 在命名选定的软件时，我遵循Janovska（2011）的列表和评估。 时至今日，口译员仍在使用Word或Excel等办公程序管理他们的术语（Fantinuoli 2011，50）。但是，使用Ctrl+F进行搜索很麻烦，并且只显示找到的第一个条目。更适合的是Interplex Simple，Lookup （搜索时无需回车键，且也有单独的Word模块，Janovska（2011，80）；它还具有客户、主题和项目等输入字段，以获取更多信息，术语提取、词汇训练器、语义过滤器和排序功能，Honegger（2006，2）和Rütten（2014f），Terminus（一个）良好的多语言术语管理系统和由会议口译员Christian Vogeler开发的TermDB，但在2012年停产。但是在这里，Fantinuoli（2011，51）也抱怨说，使用停用词无法降低点击率，并且词汇表中的错误也无法得到纠正。--Jiang Hao (talk) 02:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Jiang Qiwei 蒋淇玮

Gacek (2015) presents numerous programs: Interpreters' Help (Gacek 2015, 55), a new browser-based web application from 2014 for all browser-based operating systems and for Boothmate for Mac OS X. It offers the possibility of synchronization offers with fast search function. The currently available beta version and the license for students are free of charge.

Gacek (2015, 56) also introduces the Glossary Assistant program, which is still in development. It presents glossaries clearly on tablets, - the focus is not on mobile phones, - and makes them editable, see also Rütten (2014g) and Martin (2014). The program is currently only available for Android tablets and is free of charge.

Kang Haoyu 康浩宇

The Intragloss program, which Gacek (2015, 57) presents, was "developed by AIIC conference interpreter Dan Kenig and software developer Daniel Pohoryles". "The aim of the program is to facilitate the creation and use of even extensive multilingual glossaries". "Glossaries can be created directly within a preparation document or within a website.” Gacek values this as “very useful” and gives the example “making a list of problematic terms after receiving a last-minute document”. He also points to the fact that “Appropriate filter and sorting functions alphabetical, by website, by chronological order are also provided. A glossary created from a web page is automatically updated, which is an advantage for future. Like InterpretBank software, Intragloss also offers the possibility of automatic translation of terms, with the search for translation suggestions in large translation portals (IATE, GDT, Linguee, Termium, WordReference, etc.). Other useful functions include the clear comparison of different language versions of a document". A free trial version is available for Macintosh devices, see also Kenig (2014). Gacek（2015,57）提到的Intragloss程序是由“AIIC会议口译员Dan Kenig和软件开发者Daniel Pohoryles共同开发的”。“该程序旨在促进更广泛多语言术语表的创建与使用”。“术语表可在现有文件或网站上直接创建”。Gacek认为该功能非常有用，并举例指出“在接受最新文档后，该程序便可罗列出其中的问题术语”。他还指出，“该程序还支持适当的排序功能，可以按照字母，网站和时间顺序来进行排序。网页创建的术语表还能自动更新，这在未来是一大优势”。像InterpretBank软件一样，Intragloss也为自动翻译术语创造了可能，只要在大型翻译门户网站（例如IATE, GDT, Linguee, Termium, WordReference）搜索翻译建议即可。除此之外，另一有用的功能便是明确对比文件的不同语言版本。Macintosh设备提供了免费试用版，另请参见Kenig（2014）。--Kang Haoyu (talk) 03:20, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Kang Lingfeng 康灵凤

Gacek (2015, 61-63) tests and describes in detail the InterpretBank program in version 3 2014, which aims to "provide interpreters with a sophisticated corpus-linguistic tool". "InterpretBank was developed by Claudio Fantinuoli, a graduate interpreter working in the Department of Translation, Linguistics and Cultural Studies at the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz" (Gacek 2015, 62). "InterpretBank is a modular tool that provides interpreters with computer support in the field of knowledge and terminology management before, during and after a simultaneous interpreting assignment" (Gacek 2015, 63). Gacek lists the three modes offered by the program: "TermMode: Module for creating and managing glossaries; in addition, various functions can be used, such as automatic translation of terms and searching for definitions from the Internet. MemoryMode: Module for visual memorization of bilingual glossaries. ConferenceMode: Module for cabin-friendly reference during the interpretation." (Gacek 2015, 63).

Kong Xianghui 孔祥慧

Rütten (2014) judges: "Very user-friendly, many nice functions; organised by glossaries (which, technically speaking, are subject areas tagged to each entry), has all the essential data categories (customer, project etc.) and a very nice flashcard-like memorising function. The quick-search function ignores accents. It is limited to five languages and you cannot add endless numbers of individual data fields. Intrepretbank is platform independent, works on Windows, Mac and Android (Gacek 2015, 63), costs 69 Euro, for students 39 Euro, university teachers (and their students) get a free demo license.

The interpreters also use very simple websites and programs such as the search engine Google, the Internet encyclopaedia Wikipedia, dictionary programs such as Langenscheidt and systems for teamwork such as Google Docs. Typical concordance programs are WebSleuth, WebResearch, Black Widow, Site Ripper.

Kong Yanan 孔亚楠

Terminology extraction enables Easy Concordance, and Concordance. Text to speech can handle most operating systems (Microsoft Windows, Macintosh Operating System), there are also special programs for it like Ivona Reader (from 49 €) with the free MiniReader version, TextAloud (19.99 €). There are programs for fast reading (so-called "Improved Reading") like "A Faster Reader" (for Android smart devices) and programs for managing documents like the app "Documents" (for Apple iOS), in which among other things search functions can be used and a web browser can also be opened, or OneNote. The website www.wortwarte.de is supposed to present neologisms, but it is not up to date (visited September 11, 2020 by M.W.).

术语摘录使简单词汇索引以及词汇索引成为可能。大多数操作系统都具备文语转换功能（如微软视窗、Macintosh 操作系统），还有一些特殊软件也会用到文语转换，例如带有免费微型阅读器的Ivona 阅读器（49欧元起）以及TextAloud （19.99欧元起）。像“A Faster Reader”(安卓手机系统)这样的用于快速阅读（所谓的“拔高阅读”）的软件，以及文献管理软件，例如“Documents”(苹果手机系统)，都具备搜索、网页浏览或者电子笔记功能。www.wortwarte.de是一个提供新词的网站，但它并不是一个最新的网站版本。（M.W.于9月11日访问过这个网站）--Kong Yanan (talk) 01:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Lei Fangyuan 雷方圆

The program BootCaT creates topic-specific web corpora: "The users first define the search terms. Then, web pages are collected, which contain the combination of these search terms", see Gurevych (2013, 546). At the end a text corpus is created, “with which one can quickly get an overview of the content and terminology, for example, of the keywords ‘energía solar’ in Spanish or ‘solar energy’ or ‘solar power’ in German”, see Rütten (2008). 程序BootCat 创建特定主题的网络语料库：“用户要首先定义搜索词，然后收集包含这些搜索词的组合的网页“，详见Gurevych(2013,546).最后创建了一个语料库，“通过该语料库可以快速检索内容和术语，例如，关键词西班牙中的‘energía solar’或德语中的‘solar power’，详见Rütten (2008)。--Lei Fangyuan (talk) 02:56, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Lei Kuangxi 雷旷溪

In addition, there are Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans-Search Bar. The latter is rated by Gacek (2015), 50 as "no pop-up windows, faulty queries or other inconveniences". Also Scholz (2008) presents Qtrans: "One of the great advantages of the tool, however, is its low threshold: the software can be used without training, is system-independent, requires no installation and is immediately ready for use.” Scholz also explains, that it is not based on its own search technology, but passes parameters to other services; “therefore it is easily adaptable and can integrate any internal and external data sources via HTTP” (Scholz 2008). 此外，还有Termprofile, Endnotes, Qtrans等搜索栏，后者在2015年被Gacek评为“没有弹窗困扰、错误查询和其他不便之处”。在2008年Scholz这样介绍Qtrans搜索栏：“不过，该工具最大的优点之一就是它的门槛低，这款软件无需培训就能使用，独立于电脑系统，不需要安装就能使用。”Scholz还解释说它不是基于自己的搜索技术,而是将参数传递给其他服务，“因此，它兼容性很强，并可以通过HTTP集成任何内部和外部数据源。”--Lei kuangxi (talk) 03:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Lei Kuangxi

Li Haiquan 李海泉

For preparation and simultaneous use, there is the glossary software Interplex, which is capable of handling multitasking. It can import glossaries from Word or Excel and is available for Windows, iPhone and iPad. In 2020, it costs US$ 75 and there is a free demo version available. More features for conference interpreters are offered by Term LookUp, which cost US$99 in 2019. In 2020 the author of this paper only found the free version and IntelliWebSearch (free).

在准备和同步使用用途上，有一个术语表软件-Interplex，它能同时处理多项任务。它还可以从Word 或Excle导入词汇，也适用于Windows，iPhone和iPad。2020年，它花费了75美元，获得了一个免费的试用版。Term LookUp（术语查找）为会议口译者们提供了更多的功能，在2019年这花费了99美元。2020年，网页负责人只发现了这个免费版和IntelliWebSearch（免费）。--Li Haiquan (talk) 01:07, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

在预备翻译和同声翻译方面，术语软件Interplex能处理多项任务，该软件能从Word或者Excel导入术语，并且在Windows,Iphone和Ipad上都能使用。2020年，用户花费75美元才能使用该软件免费的试用版。2019年，会议口译员花费99美元就能在TermUp软件使用更多的功能。2020年，本篇文章的作者只能找到这个软件的免费版本和IntelliWebSearch软件（免费）。--Kong Yanan (talk) 02:09, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Li Lili 李丽丽

2.2 Simultaneous Interpretation with Video Conference Systems

The current video conferencing systems all allow simultaneous interpretation. For this purpose, every participant simply needs two devices and joins two meetings at the same time. For more languages, more meetings are offered. Common solutions are BigBlueButton (open source, free), Zoom, Skype for Business, Microsoft Teams, WebEx, Zoom, GoToMeeting and in China voom (alias WeMeet, Tencent Meeting), TencentClassroom, WeChat.

Li Lingyue 李凌月

Every participant should mute his/her microphone (except when speaking) and can listen to the original language on the first device and use one ear plug from the 2nd device to listen to the target language. If the original language does not need to be heard, the participant can also turn off the sound of the 1st device and plug in both ear plugs from the 2nd device or listen to the sound from the loudspeakers of the 2nd device. It is not recommended to have both devices on loudspeaker at the same time to avoid acoustic feedback. Sometimes, if the web speed is too slow, turning off the camera (not the loudspeaker) may help. 每位参与者应将其麦克风静音（讲话时除外），并可在第一台设备上收听原始语言，并使用第二台设备的一个耳塞收听目标语言。如果不需要听到原始语言，参与者也可以关闭第一个设备的声音，并插入第二个设备的两个耳塞，或者从第二个设备的扬声器中收听声音。不建议两个设备同时安装在扬声器上，以避免声音反馈。有时，如果网速太慢，关掉相机（不是扬声器）可能会有帮助。--Li Lingyue (talk) 08:22, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

每位参与者应将其麦克风静音（讲话时除外），并可在第一台设备上收听原始语言，并使用第二台设备的一个耳塞收听目标语言。如果不需要听到原始语言，参与者也可以关闭第一个设备，并插入第二个设备的两个耳塞，或者从第二个设备的扬声器中收听声音。不建议在扬声器上同时安装两个设备，以避免回声。有时，如果网速太慢，关掉相机（不是扬声器）可能会有帮助。--Li Haiquan (talk) 01:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Li Liqin 李丽琴

With the business version of Zoom, you can simply choose the language channel by clicking on a flag. As the host of the meeting, one must activate the interpretation function and invite the respective interpreters.

在使用Zoom的商业版时，你只需点击代表各国的旗帜图标来选择语言频道。作为会议的主持人，你必须先激活口译功能，并邀请相应的译者进会议。--Li Liqin (talk) 15:21, 7 October 2020 (UTC)

使用Zoom商业版时，点击各国国旗图标就能选择不同的语言频道。作为会议的主持人，你先要打开口译功能，才能邀请对应的译者进入会议。--Guo Lu (talk) 01:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

对于商业版的Zoom，您只需单击一个标志即可选择语言频道。作为会议主持人，必须激活口译功能并邀请相应的口译译员。--Li Lingyue (talk) 08:23, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

在使用Zoom商业版软件时，你只需点击旗帜图标就能选择语言频道。作为会议主持人，你必须具备解释功能，并邀请相应的口译员与会。--WuQiong (talk) 15:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Li Luyi 李璐伊

So far, conference interpreters often sat in the back of the conference in their boxes and where not visible to the audience. With video conferencing systems like Zoom it is now technically possible to blend in a video of the interpreter, which enhances understanding. However, so far the video conference communication situation still feels artificial, much different from the analogue situation, with only faces, voices and shared screens.

Li Meng 李梦

The next generation of digital communication and interpretation is the Virtual Reality Room (e.g. using the hardware Oculus Quest VR glass and the software Spatial), in which participants can upload a photo to create realistic avatars and then ‘look around’ to see the speaker and the interpreter. The participants can even ‘walk up to’ the speaker to sit in the first row or they can ‘place’ speaker and interpreter next to each other.

Li Yongshan 李泳珊

2.3 Artificially Intelligent Programs as Competition for Interpreters

The debate about the extent to which technology can replace humans is as old as the first fantasies of artificial humans. It is still a polarizing discussion today and is conducted in a highly emotional manner.

Austermühl (2004) explains: "We believe that even the latest technology and up-to-date machines cannot replace the human brain when it comes to language transfer. Many times, the concepts are too complex to reduce them to the level of machine-readable language."

Li Yu 李玉

2.3.1 Machine Translation vs. human translation

For this section 2.3.1 I am indebted to the final exam paper of my student Jia Liwen 贺丽文 from my 2019/2020 Master course on Translation Studies at Hunan Normal University, Foreign Studies College. Although I come to slightly different conclusions, the paper sums up some discussions I had with the students in class and provides literature review and a field study worth quoting extensively here.

Lin Min 林敏

Machine translation, commonly known as MT, can be defined as “the application of computers to the translation of texts from one natural language into another” (Huchins 1986, 1). The term “machine” is outdated, since we refer to computers today or to digital/eletronic instead of analogue translation, the term “machine translation” is mainly understood in contrast to human translation and therefore has potential to sustain.

Lin Xin 林鑫

Machine translation pioneers were the United States, the Soviet Union and European countries. The initial stage can be dated 1947-1954: In 1946, the world’s first electronic computer was born. Soon, in the second year, 1947, an American scientist Warren Weaver and a British engineer A. D. Booth firstly proposed to translate languages by modern electronic computers. It was in 1954 that Georgetown University cooperated with International Machine Cooperation (IBM) on a project, which created the world’s first machine translation system breaking the restriction of word-to-word translation. It was recognized as a breakthrough of machine translation and demonstrated to the public and the scientific community the feasibility of machine translation for the first time.

Ling Zijin 凌子瑾

From 1954 to 1975, we may define a second stage, with climax and stagnation. Due to the success of Georgetown-IBM system and the potential social, economic and intelligence benefits, quite a few countries including the United State, Soviet Union, and Japan invested heavily in the research and development of machine translation. Then, there was an upsurge of machine translation research all over the world.

Liu Bo 刘博

In 1956, the Chinese government released its “1956-1967 Prospective Plan of Science and Technology Development”, in which “automatic translation” was listed as an important task in item 41.

The poor translation caused by the rough design of the first generation machine translation system and the exaggeration of the computer capability eventually led for some people to lose confidence in machine translation. In 1964, the US Automatic Language Processing Advisory Committee (ALPAC) established by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) carried out an investigation on machine translation including its speed, quality, costs and the demand of it and had a sound and comprehensive test, count and analysis.

Liu Jinxingqi 刘金惺琦

Later, in 1966, ALPAC published the results of the survey and its main conclusion was that no further research should be undertaken on machine translation considering its low speed, low accuracy, higher costs than human translation and inability to overcome semantic barriers. Affected by this report, researches on machine translation declined sharply and even led to a 10-year slump worldwide.

Liu Liu 刘柳

After a quiet decade of 1970s, thanks to the development of computer technology, linguistic theory and artificial intelligence research, the increasing demand for translation, and the unremitting efforts of some machine translation researchers, research on machine translation revived in the early 1980s, therefore we can define the recovery stage from 1975 to 1987. During this period, machine translation researchers no longer were blindly optimistic, instead, they paid more attention to the basic aspects of machine translation research, thus studies on machine translation systems and their development were more practical and rational, and eventually the second generation of machine translation systems emerged.

Liu Ou 刘欧

In 1975, the European Atomic Energy Agency (EURATOM) began to install SYSTRAN. In 1976, the University of Montreal, Canada, and the Translation Bureau of the Federal Government of Canada jointly developed a practical machine translation system (TAUM-METEO), officially providing weather forecasts in May 1977. This was the only machine translation system that directly published translations without post-translation editing. It marked the practical application of machine translation in technical languages and the maturity of machine translation technology in technical languages. Many of the methods and technologies used by the second generation machine translation were relatively mature and some of them are still used these days.

Liu Yangnuo 刘洋诺

Since 1987 until now, we are in the prosperity stage. Many institutes and universities began their researchers in machine translation. Since 1989, the appearance of the third generation machine translation method based on corpus has changed the vision of the whole machine translation research, marking a new period for machine translation. Many famous machine translation systems were released at this period, such as the KY-1, being developed by the Chinese Academy of Military Sciences, MT-IR-EC, an English-Chinese title and catalog translation system, developed by the Research Institute of Post and Telecommunication Science, and Huajian Chinese-English machine translation system, developed by Huajian Co. Ltd.

Liu Yi 刘艺

Due to the rapid development of computer software and hardware technology, large-scale corpora which can be read by computer can be widely used in machine translation. The larger the corpus, the richer knowledge of human linguistics it contains, and the better the quality of machine translation will be. As long as the corpus was large enough, it was expected to cover all language phenomena. In this way, the key question here is, how to automatically or semi-automatically mine relevant translation knowledge from the corpus and effectively organize the knowledge base.

由于计算机软硬件技术的飞速发展，可以被计算机读取的大型语料库可以广泛应用于机器翻译中。 语料库越大，它包含的人类语言学知识就越丰富，机器翻译的质量也会越好。 只要语料库足够大，就可以涵盖所有语言现象。 这样的话，关键的问题就是如何自动或半自动地从语料库中挖掘相关的翻译知识并有效地组织知识库。--Liu Yi (talk) 15:13, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Liu Yiyu 刘怡瑜

The Translation Memory (TM) technology in Trados’ Translation Workbench and the latest near-human translation machine translation systems introduced by Google, Language Weaver, Meaningful Machines and other companies since the new century and the development of artifical intelligence are all the results of the successful application of corpus technology in machine translation research.

Liu Zhiwei 刘智伟

There are two recent Chinese books on MT, by Liu Miqing and Xu Jin. Both Liu Miqing and Xujun uphold the dogma that human translation cannot be replaced by machine translation, although they don’t reason their opinions. Liu Miqing comments on the so-called misunderstanding “If machine translation succeed, then translators will lose their jobs”: “This kind of worry is unnecessary, and human translation will be in demand at any time” (Liu 2010, 402). Xu Jun states: “On the basis of the existing linguistic level and the research level of computer artificial intelligence, it is impossible to develop a machine translation system that completely replaces human translation” (Xu et al. 2009, 339-340).

Lou Cancan 娄灿灿

Both of them use the same categorization of machine translation development stages as mentioned above. Both divide traditional machine translation methods into two categories: Rule-Based and Corpus-Based. The former builds the translation knowledge base on dictionaries and grammar rule bases, while the latter builds it by making full use of the corpus. Corpus-based methods can be subdivided into statistics-based machine translation and example-based machine translation.

Luo Weijia 罗维嘉

Since language has the characteristics of flexibility and openness, the development of a machine translation system based on grammar rules is greatly limited due to the lack of human thinking and the lack of the ability to identify the text or become aware of it. On the contrary, example-based machine translation has enjoyed unprecedented development since the 1980s. With the revival of statistical methods and corpus methods, corpus-based machine translation systems based on statistics and examples are beginning to be used for large-scale processing of language materials and real texts.

Luo Yuqing 罗雨晴

Both authors think that translation memories are very useful. Because unlike machine translation, the translation memory technology cannot translate the entire text, but can offer previously translated phrases from documents stored in its database. Through comparing, retrieving and reusing previously translated texts, translators can promptly determine how to accomplish the translation in a more efficient way. That is to say, the help of a translation memory makes translating more convenient and it makes it more effective for translators to deal with some complicated source texts through translation memory administration.

Ma Juan 马娟

2.3.1.1 Advantages of Machine Translation

1. Among the advantages of MT are its speed and availability. If one visits a foreign country, a smart phone may make up for lack of language skills. Several free applications will help them translate texts, images, voices almost immediately, anytime and anywhere. One can take a picture of a sign and read it in one’s own language. Special apps help during conversations with foreigners. The accuracy is not high, but is also not needed in these basic conversations, which are low-end texts.

Ma Shuya 马淑雅

2. Another major advantage of machine translation are the low costs, some services even come for free. For some large enterprises and professional translators, there is an initial financial investment to buy translation software like Trados, which pays off in the mid-run.

3. Another merit of MT is the sheer volume of translation. A small application can conduct large-scale translation work in a short amount of time, impossible for humans.

4. Also for human translators, MT is a helpful tool, professional translators and interpreters can save energy and improve their efficiency. In many disciplines, there is a huge amount of specialized vocabulary, which also changes fast. MT can make sure that all special terms are translated consistently in the same way. Most human translators prefer electronic dictionaries over paper dictionaries, e.g. because they have search functions and are updated online.

Ma Zhixing 马智星

5. MT tools also enable teams of human translators to increase their efficiency of cooperation, including joint databases and standards of translation. The trend towards MT is irreversible.

2.3.1.2 Disadvantages of Machine Translation

1. A MT can only be as good as its input, processes and self-learning algorithms. In the field of speech translation, MT depends heavily on speech recognition technology. In 2020, most speech recognition systems require speakers of the standard language (e.g. Mandarin instead of Cantonese). People’s accents, dialects and other influences like a noisy background affect the accuracy of speech recognition.

2. MT depends on connectivity and electricity. Many users become aware of this dependency when they use a translation application on their smart phone and suddenly the network connection is broken or the battery is empty.

5.机器翻译工具也可以提高人工翻译团队的合作效率，包括共享信息库 和翻译标准。机器翻译的潮流是不可阻挡的。

2.3.1.2机器翻译的弱点

1.机器翻译只能跟它的输入、程序和自我算法一致。在公开演讲翻译领域，机器翻译很大程度依赖演讲读取科技。在2020,绝大多数演讲读取系统要求演讲者是使用标准语（不用方言而是用标准语）。人们的口音、方言和其他影响因素（比如说一个嘈杂的背景环境）都将影响演讲内容读取的精度。

2.机器翻译取决于连接和电力。很多使用者在他用智能手机的翻译应用时，突然遭遇网络不好或者电池没电，才意识到这个的重要性。--Zhixing ma (talk) 02:37, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Meng Ying 孟莹

3. The establishment of the corpus is the foundation of modern MT, but the corpus itself has its limitations. Modern MT, especially in many small languages, has a small corpus. For example, under the same circumstances, sometimes the accuracy of Lao translation is not as good as that of English. Also commercial reasons may play into this.

4. Almost all MT requires human post-editing. With the progress and development of science and technology, the accuracy of MT software is getting better but so far does not match human translation quality. The text after machine translation requires proofreaders to make final modifications to the translation to ensure that it is correct and has an appropriate style.

Mo Ling 莫玲

5. MT still has deficits to understand in which context a word is used. In many languages, the same word may have several completely unrelated meanings, such as the word “spring” in English, which most commonly means “春天” in Chinese, but also means “弹簧” , “泉水” and “活力”. Another example is the word “门槛” in Chinese, which can refer to the “threshold on the door”, but the most common meaning is “the difficulty of a thing” or “the conditions for doing something”. In these cases, the context has a great influence on the meaning of words, and the understanding of the meaning depends largely on the clues one can get from the context. So far, the main advantage of human translators is the true understanding of a sentence, which is connected to relating words with their context. Another advantage is that a human translator can creatively polish the language to obtain not just a complete and accurate translation, but an appropriate one. This is undoubtedly still a big challenge for MT.

对不同的语境所该用的对应的词语的理解，机器翻译仍然存在着不足。在许多语言中，同一个词可能有几种完全不搭边的含义。比如说英语中的“spring”,在中文中最常见的意思为 “春天”，但是这个词也有“弹簧” , “泉水” 和“活力”的意思。另一个例子就是中文中的“门槛”，其可以指“门上的一道坎”，但最常用的含义是指“某件事的难度”或是“做某事的一种状态”。在这些例子当中，语境对词义有很大的影响，并且对词义的理解取决于上下文给出的线索。当前，人工翻译的主要优势在于可以将词语和语境联系在一起，从而理解句子的真正含义。人工翻译的另一个优势就是可以创造性地优化语言，从而不仅可以让翻译准确完整，而且翻译得十分恰当得体。无疑，这对机器翻译来说仍然是一项巨大的挑战。--Mo Ling (talk) 02:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Mo Nan 莫南

6. MT so far does not possess cultural sensitivity. Human translators constantly study the relevant cultures, expand their knowledge and are able to understand specific situations. Human interactions and emotions are complex and machines lack initiative and the ability to understand or recognize slang, jargon, puns and idioms, so that the resulting MT may not conform to the values and norms of the culture of the source language and/or of the target language.

2.3.1.3 Comparison of Machine Translation with Human Translation

Machine Translation can be compared with human translation in different areas and under different aspects.

Nie Xiaolou 聂晓楼

1. In the film and television industry, there is a large demand for translation of quotes (subtitling), and the difficulty lies in the individuality of each speaker which should correspond to a characteristic style depending on the speaker. The screen format requires short and pithy translations. What’s more, in the current movies and TV plays, there are a large number of terms fashionable in the internet. The film title itself has to take all possible connotations as well as marketing aspects into account, so a human translator will think it over and over again.

Ou Rong 欧蓉

2. In the political and the diplomatic field as well as in international negotiations between countries or institutions: In these fields, human interpretation and translation is still widely used, since translation mistakes may have severe consequences for the relation of countries. When country leaders meet, the cultural accumulation of the translators can enable them to identify which content may not offend both sides and then pick the best translation.

在政治和外交领域以及国家或机关之间进行国际谈判中，人类的翻译解读仍被广泛使用，因为翻译错误会对国家之间的关系造成严重影响。国家领导人见面时，译者的文化积累能让他们确定哪些内容可能不会冒犯双方，然后选择最佳翻译。--Ou Rong (talk) 08:14, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

在政治外交领域及不同国家机构之间的国际谈判中，我们仍广泛使用人工口译和笔译，因为翻译错误可能会对外交关系造成严重后果。不同国家的领导人会面时，译者凭借其文化积累来甄别何种内容并不会冒犯双方，并以此选出最恰当的翻译。--Peng YuZhi (talk) 08:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Ouyang Jinglan 欧阳静兰

When a country leader tells a joke which is not funny in the target culture, the human translator may improvise with telling a different joke, ensuring that the visitor will laught too and the whole atmosphere stays relaxed as intended. With MT, diplomatic accidents or cultural conflicts might happen. In the first half of 2018, AI simultaneous translation was applied for the first time at the Boao Asia Forum. However, the system broke down, resulting in low-level mistakes such as inaccurate vocabulary translation and repetition. Mistakes like these are avoided by professional (human) interpreters.

Ouyang Ling 欧阳玲

3. Legal and technical communication. Legal translation, as well as medical, pharmaceutical, chemical etc. must be accurate, because a translation mistake may have severe consequences. The human translator spends additional time to make repeated efforts to avoid ambiguity and to improve the accuracy of the words used. Many specific terms in professional sectors have a broader or a different meaning in the standard language. For example, prejudice refers to damage, counterpart refers to a copy with the same effect, more complicated, for example, dominion refers to full ownership in civil law and sovereignty in public international law; Estoppels means that one cannot go back on the word in contract law, while in criminal procedure law, it means “forbidden to reverse confession”. Secondly, a large number of legal terms, such as “defendant”, “cause of action” and “damages”, usually do not appear in the common language. These characteristics of legal terms require people to carefully weigh and compare when translating, and give appropriate translations in specific situations.

Peng Dan 彭丹

4. Literary translation. MT in general cannot compete with human translation in the field of literature, since these kinds of translations are more complex. A typical characteristic of Western literature is to avoid repetitions. If, for example, the source is a Chinese work of literature, repetitions are more common. MT would translate these repetitions repetitively, while humans would be creative to find synonyms and variations. A good translation of literature should enable target readers to understand the world created by the source culture author and properly realize his beliefs, ideas or other things the author wants to convey through his work. Also, subtle references to other works of literature are harder to grasp by MT than by a human translator. There are often a lot of images (comparisons, illustrative expressions, motifs, metaphors, allegories) in literary works, and images have vague characteristics. When translating and dealing with these images, even experienced translators carefully consider and repeatedly weigh them. Literary works express the rich emotions of humans, it may be happy or sad, and half sad and half happy. In order to understand the subtlety of this, the translator needs to read the text carefully and weighs it over and over again. Only after careful reading and repeated deliberation the translator can really understand them and thus produce a good translation. Literary works are often historic.

Peng Juan 彭娟

In different periods, literary works created by different writers have their own imprint of their times. When people look at past literature, they cannot only translate it from the contemporary viewpoint. Therefore, when reading the original text, the translator should figure out the author’s writing intention and the emotion to be conveyed according to the background of the times, the writer’s experience, the writer’s style, etc. in order to better understand the original text and in order to better carry out the translation. Obviously, MT systems are not yet able to deal with these complicated processes. Last but not least, literary works are often fictional, and the fictional world is often beyond the imagination of the real world. Even if the machine can input all the literary works and their corresponding translations in different languages into it to build a huge corpus, literary works stay always full of infinite creativity and imagination. The current MT systems may be able to give a proper translation of some sentences of literary works, but from the perspective of development, the premise of machine translation is to establish a corpus first, thus it is always lagging behind and can never keep up with the pace of literary creation and innovation.

Peng Ruihong 彭锐宏

2.3.1.3 Field Study

In November 2019, we conducted a simple field study. We selected an original text (https://b23.tv/av9604542) among the quotes of the American movie The Pursuit of Happiness 《当幸福来敲门》: “People can’t do something themselves, they wanna tell you you can’t do it. If you want something, go get it. Period.”

Here are five MT versions from Sogou, Baidu, Netease Youdao, DeepL and Google respectively:

Sogou translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_1): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，去拿吧。句号。

Baidu translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_2): 人们自己做不到，他们想告诉你你做不到。如果你想要什么，就去拿。周期。

Youdao translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_3): 当人们做不到一些事情的时候，他们就会对你说你也同样不能。如果你想要什么，就去争取。时期。

Google translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_4): 人们自己无法做某事，他们想告诉您您做不到。 如果您想要一些东西，那就去买。 期。

DeepL translation (http://bit.ly/trans_ex_5): 人们自己做不到的事情，他们就会告诉你，你做不到。如果你想要的东西，去得到它。句号。

The human translation (https://b23.tv/av9604542) is:

有些事人们自己办不到，他们就刚跟你说你也办不到。如果你想获得什么，就去争取。就这么简单。

Peng Xiaoling 彭小玲

The original text is relatively colloquial, so the overall difficulty for translation is not so high, but still the five versions of machine translation are not ideal, only the versions translated by Netease Youdao and DeepL are acceptable, but also unsatisfactory in comparison to the human translation.

原文本是相对口语化的，因此翻译的总体难度不是很大。但是机器翻译的五个版本仍然不甚理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本尚可接受。然而较之于人工翻译，它们还是无法令人满意。--Peng Xiaoling (talk) 14:46, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

原文是比较口语化的，因此翻译的总体难度不是很高，但是机器翻译的五个版本仍然不太理想，只有网易有道和DeepL翻译的版本是可以接受的。但是与人工翻译相比，还是不太能令人满意的。--Liu Yi (talk) 15:18, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

原文本来偏口语化，因此翻译难度总体不大。尽管如此，机器翻译的五个版本仍然不太理想，只有网易有道和DeepL的翻译差强人意，但却仍无法和人工翻译相提并论。--Guan Qinqing (talk) 02:43, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Peng Yongliang 彭永亮

In the first sentence of Sogou and Baidu translation, the word “something” is ignored and the overall coherence of the translation is not high. It is also not consistent with Chinese habits. In the first sentence of the Netease Youdao translation, “当……的时候” is added, which is feasible, but compared with human translation, it is not concise enough. The DeepL translation starts strong, but does not persuade with the arbitrary addition of “的”, which destroys the grammar. The Google translation “无法做某事” reads awkward in Chinese, the reader rather would expect something like “办不到的事情”, also the auxiliary verb “想” is not appropriate.

Peng Yuzhi 彭育志

For the translation of the second sentence, the handling of “go and get it” in Sogou and Baidu, obviously does not conform to the context in the movie, while DeepL at least uses “得到”. Although in Chinese, “take it” has the meaning of “拿” or “去拿”, in this movie, in combination with the context at that time, “take it” should be translated as “追逐”.

在翻译第二句时，搜狗和百度对 "go and get it" 的翻译显然没有遵照电影的情境；而DeepL起码翻译成了 “得到”。虽然在汉语中 "take it" 有“拿”或“去拿”的意思，但在这部电影中，结合当时的情境来看，"take it" 应该翻译成“追逐”。--Peng YuZhi (talk) 08:37, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

在翻译第二个句子时，搜狗和百度对 "go and get it"的翻译显然没有考虑电影中的背景，而DeepL起码将其翻译成了 “得到”。尽管在汉语中， "take it" 含有“拿”或“去拿”之意，但若结合这部电影当时的背景，应该将 "take it" 译为“追逐”。--Peng Xiaoling (talk) 15:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Qi Kai 漆凯

In addition, it is worthwhile to point out that the translation of “take it” in Netease Youdao is the same as the human translation. However its translation of “wanna something” as “想要什么” is not as good as the human translation of “获得什么”. Google’s translation of “get” as “买” seems to point to a corpus with commercial texts.

Qu Miao 瞿淼

With using the polite addressing “您” and the non-understandable ending with “期。”, in comparison to its competitors, Google has failed this test by far. Finally, for the last sentence, the word “period” is directly and roughly translated into “期”, “周期” and “时期” by three machine translation systems.

Quan Meixin 全美欣

Although the word “period” by DeepL and Sogou comes very close to the meaning, the human translation makes it better understandable with “就这么简单”. Here, the machine translations fail to take the context into consideration.

Sagara Seydou

None of the above mentioned MT-produced versions can provide an expressive and smooth translation, let alone equal or surpass the human work. The MT versions do not conform to the Chinese speaking habits. There is still a long way to go for MT, especially for Sogou, Baidu and Google, to improve their translation quality.

Shi Diwen 石迪文

However, when MT will succeed, is not a question of faith, it is simply a cost-benefit question that will be economically decided. Nowadays, the cameras of smartphones can be used to watch an object or a text, which is then subtitled in a given target language by augmented reality (e.g. iTranslate, Translate, Speak & Translate, DeepL, Google Translator etc. for Iphone).

Shi Haiyao 石海瑶

The WeChat app, for example, also imitates the layout and font, making it increasingly difficult to visually determine that it is a translation and not the original. Even the mundane automatic translation work (machine translation), which used to be reserved for expensive specialist programs, is now accessible to a wide range of users via websites such as translate.google.com, deepl.com or fanyi.baidu.com and can also be activated in browsers so that the websites are displayed in the desired language.

Si Yu 司妤

Translations are generally worse than those produced by trained human translators. Nevertheless, some website operators are satisfied with the quality, so they have their websites automatically translated and thus attract more users. There are also hybrid solutions such as automatically translated websites with the possibility that trained and untrained users can suggest translation corrections, which can then be implemented partially automatically with quality assurance elements (translation evaluation, frequency of correction suggestions, etc.).

这种翻译的质量总体来说比那些来自专业人工译者的翻译要差。尽管如此，一些网页的运营者还是对这种质量颇为满意，他们于是对网页进行自动翻译以吸引更多用户。他们也想到了多种解决方案，比如：自动翻译的网页允许专业和非专业用户提出翻译改正建议，这能够让翻译自动进行，且还有一定准确性保障。（翻译评估，一定频率的翻译校准建议之类）--Si Yu (talk) 15:14, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

这种翻译的质量总体上比训练有素的译者所作的译文质量要查。然而，一些网页运营者对这种翻译质量很满意，于是他们用自动翻译来翻译网站，从而吸引更多的用户。还有一些混合的解决方法，比如：自动翻译的网站，训练过和没有训练过的译者都可以为修改翻译提出建议，这种做法既能够使部分翻译自动进行，也具有一定准确性保障。（翻译评估，更正建议的频率等）--Wu Yilu (talk) 15:38, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

总体上来说，这种翻译的质量比训练有素的译者所作的译文质量要差。然而，某些网页运营者对这种翻译质量颇为满意，便用自动翻译来翻译各自的网页，从而来吸引更多的用户。还有一些混合式解决方法，比如：自动翻译的网站，经过训练和未经训练过的译者都可以为翻译修改提出建议，这种做法既能够使部分翻译自动进行，也能保障一定准确度。--Wang Meiling (talk) 02:49, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Song Jianru 宋建茹

For clients who expect higher quality, machine pre-translation and subsequent error correction currently occasionally appears to be more cost-effective than fully human translation. Overall, Google Translator has made great progress in recent years. Fanyi Baidu recently showed off with a simultaneous interpretation of a speech recorded live on video.

Su Lin 苏琳

Human translators also do not just use their brains, they use translation memories such as Trados, Across, Transit, MemoQ, WordFast, Pasolo etc., in order to have the same terms or sentences displayed in the same way, for example in technical manuals, which deal with the 1:1 translation of technical terms. Here both sides seem to come closer to each other.

Tan Xingyue 谭星越

Currently, no program can translate better than humans. There are simply too many factors to be taken into account in order to avoid e.g. unexpected comedy because a certain expression does not seem appropriate in a certain situation. Of course, the human translator is not immune to such 'translation mistakes', but he or she often recognizes them and can correct them afterwards if necessary. Here, the human consciousness cannot yet be achieved or simulated by machines.

Tan Xinjie 谭鑫洁

Automatic simultaneous interpreting appears even more difficult than automatic translation, as the transmission process is carried out in real time. In addition, the machines still lack the various means of expression accompanying the pure translation text. This does not only refer to non-verbal interpreting - there are also conference interpreters who often only listen to the translation via headphones.

Tan Yuanyuan 谭媛媛

But also the possible variations in vocal reproduction, such as volume, speed, variation in intonation, intonation of the sentence melody, etc., often offers the possibility to enrich the information of the pure text. Nonetheless, these are precisely the fields that are currently being researched and that increase the acceptance and subtlety in the expression of artificial intelligence.

但是，音量，速度，语调变化，句子旋律的语调等声音再现的可能变化，也常常提供丰富纯文本信息的可能性。尽管如此，这些恰恰是当前正在研究的领域，提高了人工智能表达的接受度，增加了微妙性。--Tan Yuanyuan (talk) 08:27, 8 October 2020 (UTC) 而声音再现中可能出现的变化，如音量、语速、语调、句子旋律的抑扬顿挫的变化等，往往提供了丰富纯文本信息的可能性。尽管如此，这些恰恰是目前正在研究的领域，用来提高人工智能表达的接受度和微妙性。--Yang Yi (talk) 15:37, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Tang Bei 汤蓓

The fact that the targeted concentration on translation errors and their causes promises success in further development is demonstrated by the leap in quality of translation services when comparing early and current Google and DeepL Translator versions.

通过比较早期及现在的谷歌翻译与Deepl翻译器的版本，人们发现翻译服务质量的巨大提高证明了有针对性地集中研究翻译错误及其原因能确保翻译发展的进一步成功。--Tang Bei (talk) 01:55, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Tang Ming 唐铭

2.4 Transition of Interpreting Situations through Technology/Digitization

The interpreter must increasingly adapt to technically predefined interpreting situations, such as video conferences with augmented reality, tele-interpreting, etc. It is expected that the interpreter is familiar with the various hardware and software models of interpreting technology and organizes this technology.

2.4 技术化/数字化口译的转变 口译员必须逐渐适应技术上预定义的口译情况，例如增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，并且应当熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。

--Tang Ming (talk) 07:56, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Tang Ming

2.4 口译形势在技术化或数字化下的转变 译者必须要逐步适应在技术上预定义的翻译情况，比如增强现实的视频会议、远程口译等，也应该熟悉并学会组织口译技术的各种硬件和软件模型。--Ou Rong (talk) 08:48, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Ou Rong

Tang Yiran 汤伊然

According to the early Braun 1999 study on interpreting in video conferences, the interpreter's job description is already changing towards becoming a technology organizer. Due to the rapid progress in technology, the technical problems, quality losses and malfunctions, on which the study focuses, are outdated. Rather, today's technology must be assumed to be largely trouble-free to perfect for the purpose of interpreting, often even offering functions that the users do not (or can not) exploit at all.

Tao Ye 陶冶

The following disadvantages of early video conferencing at the time of the study have since been reduced:

a) Social presence - through the new techniques with VR glasses (like Facebook’s Oculus Quest) and, if necessary, whole-body tactile suits, the presence is sufficiently simulated so that the human mind is able to fade out the technical mediation of the presence after a period of getting used to it. The "technically caused restrictions of interaction" thus become negligible.

Wang Meiling 王美玲

The "restricted field of vision" of the interpreter complained about in the study can now be extended by virtual or augmented reality glasses. It should also be pointed out that even with conference interpreters, e.g. incorrect planning of interpreting booth locations where there is no clear field of vision for the speaker or PowerPoint or simply unforeseeable events such as overcrowded conference rooms so that standing listeners block the view are part of everyday life.

Wang Xuan 王轩

b) The same applies to the unnaturalness of the discussion situation that was noted at the time. Since the perception of technology fades into the background, the technically mediated interpreting situation is increasingly been accepted as just as natural or unnatural as the analogue/presence.

Wang Yu 王煜

3. The Impact of Migration: Community Interpreting and Rare Languages Through migration, foreign-language people come into a community and are dependent on interpreting services in government offices and hospitals due to a lack of knowledge of the local language. While offices often leave the task of finding an interpreter to the foreign language speaker, they do not set any qualification or quality requirements.

Wang Yuan 王源

As a result, relatives or acquaintances are often hired as one-time lay interpreters whom the foreign language speaker entrusts with the interpretation. However, the quality is often lower than that of trained interpreters. Trained interpreters would often be simply too expensive for the foreign language speaker in such situations (Moratto, 2020).

Wei Honglang 韦洪朗

In the case of community interpreting in hospital, the patient is usually not responsible for providing an interpreter, e.g. because he or she arrived at the hospital unexpectedly or is restricted in mobility due to illness/injury or hospitalization and should not be burdened additionally. Accordingly, the hospital maintains a pool of community interpreters. As field studies, e.g. by Andres (2009), show, non-professional interpreters are also hired where necessary out of cost reasons.

Wei Yafei 魏亚菲

4. Existential Problems for the Interpreting Profession Due to networking via the Internet, unqualified interpreters are pouring into the market from low-wage countries, bringing the profession of the professional interpreter into disrepute as a result of dumping prices and poor-quality work, especially for inexperienced clients.

Wen Sixing 文偲荇

From my own field I know well-trained German and Chinese interpreters who interpret in their respective areas of competence for about 850 USD (750 Euros or 3,120 Yuan RMB) plus expenses for half a day or 1,700 USD (1,500 Euro or 11,700 Yuan RMB) for a whole day. But I have also taken part in conferences where an apparently not well-trained Chinese interpreter interpreted.

Wen Xiaoyi 文晓艺

As a rule, the clients were inexperienced and had apparently based their decision on price in particular, and hired interpreters for 450 USD (400 Euros or 3,120 Yuan RMB) half-day or 850 USD (750 Euros or 5,890 Yuan RMB) per day. 通常，客户由于经验不足，显然只能根据价格来聘用口译员，聘用的价格大概是半天450美元（相当于400欧元或3120元人民币），全天850美元（相当于750欧元或5890元人民币）。 --Wen Xiaoyi (talk) 04:14, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Wu Kai 吴恺

As a result, long passages were regularly left uninterpreted, there were pauses lasting seconds or entire speeches remained uninterpreted sometimes due to a lack of agreement between the interpreters, other times perhaps due to technical problems?.

Wu Qi 吴琪

I especially remember a consecutive interpreter who 'interpreted' the various welcoming speeches at a German-Chinese friendship celebration in sections by repeating the same sentence in Chinese: "We are delighted to have such a good partnership which serves international understanding.”

我尤其清楚地记得一位口译员在中德友谊庆典上，将各种欢迎词都译为同一句话：“我们很高兴能发展一段有助于国际间理解的友好伙伴关系。”--Wu Qi (talk) 03:39, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

我尤其清楚地记得一位交替传译口译员在中德友谊庆典上，将各种欢迎词都译为同一句话：“我们很高兴能发展一段有助于增进国际间理解的友好伙伴关系。”--Tan Yuanyuan (talk) 08:34, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Wu Qiong 吴琼

For someone who was not familiar with the subject or did not speak both languages, the event made a perfect, all-round impression, the interpreting was apparently seamless, the audience clapped and laughed in the right places, solely because of the speaker's example and the interpreter's non-verbal signals. The German client was unable to judge the quality of the 'interpretation' due to a lack of language skills.

对于不熟悉该主题或不会讲两种语言的人，这次活动给人留下了完美且完备的印象，口译显然是无间断的，听众在正确的地方鼓掌大笑，这完全是因为演讲者所说的例子和口译员的非语言信号。 由于缺乏语言技能，德国客户无法判断“口译”的质量。--WuQiong (talk) 15:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

对于不熟悉该主题或不会讲两种语言的人来说，这次活动给他们留下了完美且完备的印象，口译显然是无间断的，听众能适时鼓掌大笑，完全是因为演讲者所说的例子和口译员的非语言信号。 由于缺乏语言技能，德国客户无法判断“口译”的质量。--Yang Hairong (talk) 02:08, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Wu Xiang 邬香

It is not known whether the approximately 150 Chinese participants at the event thought that the German speakers always said the same thing, or whether they realised that the interpreter only interpreted the atmosphere but not the specific content of the speeches. Perhaps the interpreter was also competent, but out of political or other consideration avoided any concretization of the idea of international understanding by giving examples?

Wu Yilu 吴一露

The listeners may also not have been aware that one of the speakers was the Lord Mayor, because his introduction and title of office by a moderator was also interpreted with: “We are delighted that we have such a good partnership that serves international understanding.” Experienced clients, on the other hand, are familiar with the quality assurance elements of the industry, such as membership in professional associations, recommendations, etc., and do not question the established fee rates.

听众们可能也没有注意到其中一位演讲者是市长，因为一位主持人也把他的自我介绍和头衔解释成:“我们很高兴能有如此良好的合作关系，这有助于国际间相互谅解。”另一方面，有经验的客户对行业的质量保证要素很熟悉，如专业协会的会员资格、推荐信等，并且不会对既定的收费标准提出质疑。--Wu Yilu (talk) 15:29, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

听众可能还没注意到其中一位演讲者是市长，因为主持人在介绍他的时候，把他的头衔解释为：“我们很高兴能有如此良好的合作关系，这有助于国际之间的相互理解。” 另一方面，有经验的客户熟悉行业的质量保证要素，例如专业协会的会员资格、推荐信等，不会对既定的收费标准提出质疑。”--Xiao Shuangling (talk) 01:13, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Wu Zijia 吴子佳

4.1 Declining Payment Practice The 21st century witnesses the decline in payment morale, with interpreting services receiving delayed remuneration or subject to default in payment. While catering companies of the same event usually get their bills paid, interpreting services, especially for inexperienced clients, appear to be a service that cannot be concretely grasped, measured and seen. All this leads to a devaluation of the performance of the interpreter, his profession and even to a questioning of the role of an interpreter or translator in the modern age.

Xiao Shuangling 肖双玲

Should there really be a free artificially intelligent "conference interpreting version" of Google Translator one day, these clients will probably feel vindicated in their contempt for human interpretation.

5. Networking Takes Interpreting and Translation to a New Level of Quality In the case of machine-assisted translation, for example with terminology database systems such as Trados, there are several windows/screen areas and it can be displayed how you yourself have interpreted/translated a sentence or expression in the past or how other translators have done so.

如果有一天谷歌翻译真的出现了免费的人工智能“会议口译版”，那么那些客户就会理所当然的看不起人类的口译工作。

5.网络将口译和笔译提升到新的水平 在机器辅助翻译的情况下，例如使用Trados等的术语数据库系统，它会有好几个窗口/屏幕区域，显示你自己以前是如何翻译一个句子或一种表达的，或者其它翻译人员是如何做的。--Xiao Shuangling (talk) 01:02, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Shuangling

Xiao Ting 肖婷

The consistent further development of such workstations for interpreters would show in real time how colleagues interpret/translate or have interpreted/translated things. This is conceivable, for example, in the case of important speeches broadcasted live, which are interpreted simultaneously by different interpreters (and possibly AI) for different clients. Thus, as in the case of simultaneous chat commentaries to a live stream, the work of different interpreters on a speech could be observed simultaneously.

Xiao Xi 肖茜

If we take a closer look at this technical networking, parallels to an expanded, collective consciousness, which functions very much like the consciousness of an individual, come to mind. Artificial intelligence research focuses on the learning ability, self-perception and external perception of an individual in order to rebuild it with a machine. When a translator uses a Translation Memory (like Trados, DejaVu etc.), the artificial intelligence shows him/her how he/she him/herself has translated the same or a similar sentence earlier and, if the system is connected, how other translators have or are simultaneously translating the sentence.

Xiao Yining 肖伊宁

The translator, who has several windows open (a dictionary, a speech-to-text module, a machine translation module, a translation memory etc.) may unconsciously use the hints by the artificial intelligence to produce his/her translation or interpretation.

翻译人员在打开多个窗口（词典、语音文本转换模块、机器翻译模块、翻译记忆库等）的情况下，可能会无意识地利用人工智能的提示来进行笔译或口译。

When a huge mass of individuals (even with different languages) react with their thoughts, comments sometimes interpretations on the same sensual impression, artificial intelligence, using Big Data analysis and self-learning algorithms, becomes more than the sum of its parts, crosses the line of swarm intelligence and may be called a consciousness.

当大量的个体(甚至使用不同的语言)对他们自己的想法、评论或者解释（对于同一种感官印象）做出反应时，人工智能使用大数据分析和自学算法，变得不仅是其各个部分的总和，跨越了群体智能界限，可以被称为意识。 --Xiao yining (talk) 15:55, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Xie Fan 解帆

For example, someone is giving a speech, a global audience is watching and simultaneously commenting in their own languages. The AI can filter the most common reaction on the speech, can analyse cultural backgrounds or personality differences, can match similar comments in different languages. We have a stronger concordance of the stream of thoughts between individuals than in the purely passive reading of the texts of a foreign author between reader and foreign author.

Xie Ziyi 谢子熠

There are no brain cells linked between different individuals; rather the thinking during the translation work is visualized: I register how other individuals perform the same thought process and come to mostly different, but comparable, comprehensible results or even, in individual cases, to the same result. This process of constant comparison with the thinking of others is similar to the unconscious management process in the brain of the various subconscious thoughts, where the thought that is reinforced by the most similar thoughts makes it into consciousness.

Xu Jia 徐佳

When interpreting and translating, we have clearly defined thought processes that are predetermined by the source text, thus creating a manageable and thus, to a certain extent, laboratory situation. If it is possible to reach a predominant consensus here, a transfer to the thought process management of several users of the same avatar with the same controlled environment and to livestream situations with the same uncontrolled environment would be conceivable.

Xu Jing 许晶

The next step, therefore, would be to extend this technically supported interpreting and translating work to align the thinking of different individuals in the same situations and to allow common thoughts to form and be visualized as text, for example when enough users write the same thing that is "I am us.". Individual mistakes could thus not assert themselves in the mass, so-called swarm intelligence. Of course, there are also the necessary learning processes with setbacks and nonsense.

Xu Jing 许静

The striving for meaning and for intelligent meaning is a sufficient driving factor for the establishment of a collective consciousness. Who does not shudder when we typed "How boring" during a live broadcast of the speech of the US President? These words were typed simultaneously by 13 million users and thus are selected by the artificial intelligence to be visualized as a statement of collective consciousness.

Xu Mengdie 徐梦蝶

On a much smaller scale shown below is the reaction “How exciting” stated by only 321 users, who therefore were unable to assert themselves. In this way, in a clearly defined setting with clearly defined rules of thought management, one could create collective meaning, e.g. by telling the progress of an action together in a digitally animated feature film, or, in the military use of artificially intelligent robots in war, by using swarm intelligence to develop/change a combat strategy simultaneously during the mission.

如下所示，只有321名用户表示“太激动人心了”，相对来说在数量上要小得多。这些人也因此无法主张自己的观点。这样来说，在一个有着清晰思想管理规则的明确环境下，人们就可以创造出集体意义。例如：通过一部动画电影来讲述一系列情节进展，或是，在战争中使用军用人工智能机器人，通过使用群体智能在任务的执行中同时制定/改变战争策略。--Xu Mengdie (talk) 02:13, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

Xu Pengfei 许鹏飞

6. Further Developing Translation and Interpreting Theories in the Present and the Near Future The history of translation and interpreting studies is as old as translation and interpreting itself, although it was established as a discipline only in the 1960s and 1970s. Translation and interpreting studies changed its paradigms already several times. In ancient times, it was prescriptive, favoring literal or free translation (or combinations like as literal as necessary, as free as possible). It later became more descriptive.

6.近来及不久的将来翻译理论的进一步发展 尽管翻译学在20世纪六七十年代才确立为一门学科，但对翻译和口译研究的历史与它们本身一样悠久。翻译学的研究范式已经发生了数次改变。在古代，它是规定性的，倾向于直译或意译(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)。后来，翻译研究变得更具描述性。--Xu Pengfei (talk) 05:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

6.现在和不久将来口笔译理论的进一步发展 尽管翻译学在20世纪六七十年代才确立为一门学科，但对翻译和口译研究的历史与它们本身一样悠久。口笔译研究范式已经发生了数次改变。在古代，它是规定性的，倾向于直译或意译(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)。后来，翻译研究变得更具描述性。--Yao Cheng (talk) 08:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

6.笔译理论和口译理论在当下及未来的发展 笔译研究和口译研究（翻译学研究）在20世纪六七十年代被确立为一门独立学科，但该学科发展历史之悠久，不亚于口笔译自身的发展。翻译学的研究范式已经发生了数次改变，古代采取的是规定性研究，倾向于直译或意译的翻译方法(或二者结合，尽可能意译，如必要则直译)，后来则更偏向于描写性研究。--Zeng Fangyuan (talk) 08:59, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Yang Chenting 杨晨婷

Contrastive-linguistic approaches with equivalency as the main topic were followed by communicative and then functional approaches. Since the functional approaches also considered cultural backgrounds, it was called the “Cultural Turn”. With the Skopos Theory, the equivalence of the purpose of the source and target texts are stressed over the sacredness of the source, and the translator/interpreter gets back into the focus. Recent developments turned towards a sociology, a culture and the ethics of translation.

Yang Hairong 杨海容

Algorithms have the characteristic that they do not have to understand any more, they just take a huge mass of data and come to results without knowing how. However, translation produced with these algorithms in general are of low quality. In a second step, the algorithms need to be able to learn from mistakes and adjust themselves. These translations are of better quality, but still qualitatively lower than human translations.

算法具有不再需要去理解的特征，它们只需要处理大量数据，而无需知道如何得出结果。 但是，用这些算法产生的翻译通常质量低下。 第二步，算法需要能够从错误中学习并自我调整。 这些翻译的质量较好，但仍低于人工翻译。--Yang Hairong (talk) 02:01, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

算法的特点是无需理解，它们只需处理大量的数据并得出结果，不必知其处理方法。然而，用算法得出的翻译版本基本质量比较差。第二步，算法需要能够从错误中获取经验并自我调整。这些翻译的质量有所提高，但仍然比不上人工翻译。--Mo Ling (talk) 03:17, 9 October 2020 (UTC)Mo Ling

Yang Hui 阳慧

So before the machine can take over, it needs to understand humans better and needs to be ‘made more human’. Therefore, the understanding we gained through the different translation theories and experiences, we need to put into a complex set of rules, to enable the artificial intelligence not just to come to better results, but also to ‘understand’ why and how.

Yang Yi 杨逸

The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. 口笔译的新形式大多由人工智能处理完成，人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工口笔译中，为特定目标文本的接受者找到最适合和最容易理解的笔译/口译。 Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience. 因此，翻译的重点从译者本身转向了“恰当性”(通过对文化背景和个人性格的分析来评定是否恰当)和综合性，而综合性又将重点进一步放在了读者身上。--Yang Yi (talk) 15:23, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

The new forms of translating and interpreting are mostly managed by artificial intelligence, which applies big data analysis and algorithms on human translation and interpretation to find the most appropriate and most comprehensible translation/interpretation for a specific target text recipient. 新的口译和笔译形式主要由人工智能管理，人工智能将大数据分析和算法应用于人工笔译和口译，为特定的目标文本接收者寻找最合适和最易理解的笔译/口译。

Therefore, the focus shifts from the person of the translator/interpreter to appropriateness (which is defined by analysis of cultural background and individual personalities) and comprehensiveness, the latter moving the focus further towards the audience. 因此，研究的焦点从译员本身转移到通过分析文化背景和个性分析所确定的适当性和综合性上来，后者又进一步地将焦点转移到听众身上。 --Xiao yining (talk) 16:16, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xiao Yining

Yang Yue 杨悦

Since the translation or interpretation may look different depending on the individual recipient, the new translation and interpretation will be individualized and therefore the focus moves not just to the audience, but to the personality of the individual recipient and his/her social and cultural environment.

由于笔译或口译可能会因为接受者的不同而有所不同，因此新型笔译和口译将会注重个性化发展，其重点不仅仅针对于受众，而是针对于接受者的性格以及他/她的社会文化环境。--Yang Yue (talk) 02:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

由于笔译和口译可能会因为接受者的不同而有所不同，新型笔译和口译将会注重个性化发展，因此其焦点不仅仅转移到受众身上，也将关注每个接受者的性格以及他/她的社会文化环境。--Xu Pengfei (talk) 05:17, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Pengfei

由于笔译或口译可能会因接受者个体的不同而有所不同，所以新的笔译和口译将会是个性化的，因而翻译的焦点不仅会转移到受众身上，也会转移到接受者的个性和他/她的社会文化环境上。--Yuan SHiqi (talk) 08:21, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Yang Ziling 杨子泠

7. The New Type of Interpreting The new type of interpreting is a human-controlled, digital-technically supported hybrid form. The interpreter requires technical and digital skills and aids. Translation and interpreting can no longer take place without real-time technology, the minimum requirement is internet access. Quality-reducing factors currently include the use of lay interpreters in community situations, unqualified underpaid interpreters due to a lack of appreciation of the profession by inexperienced clients, and automatic translation programs, e.g., for various language versions of websites. However, a long-term trend toward qualitative improvement of automatic interpreting/translating through AI research can be observed, so that extrapolating past developments, even the complete replacement of the human interpreter by an AI in the future does not seem completely impossible any more.

新型口译是一种人工控制的，由数字技术支持的混合形式。口译员需要专业的数字技能的帮助。 没有实时技术，口笔译活动都无法进行，网络顺畅是最低要求。很多因素都导致翻译质量下降，其中包括，在一般交际场合请用非专业口译人员，经验不足的客户和自动翻译程序公司因缺乏专业认识低薪聘用不合格译者，例如有多种语言转换需求的网站。但是，通过人工智能研究来提高自动口笔译质量的长期趋势仍然存在，因此根据过去的发展趋势，甚至将来人工智能完全取代口译员工作也并非完全不可能。 --Yang Ziling (talk) 00:25, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

新形口译呈人工控制,数字科技支撑的混合形式。口译员需拥有科技和数字技能和设备。 没有了实时科技的支撑，口笔译活动无法实现，而接通网络是最基本的要求。由于客户缺乏对该行业的了解，在交往中使用业余译员，资历不够的低价译员以及使用自动翻译程序，例如多语种网站，这些都是造成翻译质量下降的因素。不过，通过人工智能的研究，我们可以观测到自动化口译，翻译质量提高的长期趋势。所以根据过去发展的推断，在未来，即使用人工智能来完全取代人类口译员也不是完全不可能的事。--Xu Mengdie (talk) 02:42, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Xu Mengdie

Yao Cheng 姚诚

Appropriateness as the Least Common Denominator of Translation and Interpreting Foreword by Martin Woesler, Hunan Normal University, China

Interpreting theories and interpreting studies are as old as human languages. Interpreting practice is exercised as soon as two individuals meet, with verbal and non-verbal languages both being an individual and a shared thing. Every person has his or her personal language and therefore is used to processing input by interpreting.When the person modifies its output according to the recipient, this is also interpreting from the personal language into one which he or she believes is better to be understood by the recipient.

翻译理论和翻译研究和人类语言一样古老。两个人相遇那一刻，翻译实践就开始了，此时，口语语言和非口语语言都既是个人也是两人共享的事情。每个人都有自己的个人语言，因此所有人都要通过翻译来处理输入信息。某个人通过回馈信息修改输出语言，也是将自己的个人语言翻译成他所认为的能被接受者更容易理解的语言。--Yao Cheng (talk) 08:36, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Yao Jia 姚佳

Similarly, a grandmother and her grandchild communicate in the (supposed) language of the grandchild, the grandmother constantly interpreting complex language into a simpler one. This concept of interpreting, also called polyphony, is still valid when it comes to different (‘national’) languages. Depending on personal language abilities, the Anglophone grandmother would also choose simple French to explain things to her francophone grandchild. And in the case of any lack of respective language abilities, she would simplify things in nonverbal communication.

Yi Huan 易欢

The earliest evidence of interpreters dates back to 4th millennium BCE Egypt: They were held in high esteem, they were noblemen or priests. Of course translation as opposed to interpreting needs media (text and/or images etc.). In general, translation started with the introduction of the written script and the first texts around 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia, with Ancient Egyptian and the Yi language in the area of presentday China. The earliest Chinese texts date around 1500 BCE.

Yi Zichu 义子楚

Along the trade route which later was called the Silk Road to Europe. Along this Trade Route, archetype stories were transported and transformed into the languages along the Silk Road, so that we find the archetype of the great flood both in the Gilgamesh Epos around 3000-2500 BCE in Mesopotamia, around 1850 BCE in Egypt, around 950 BCE in the Shijing, around 350 BCE in the Shanhaijing, in ancient Indian tales and in 440 BCE in the Old Testament (of the bible).

You Yuting 游雨婷

Translators had an impact on the historical development of languages. The Roman dramatist Livius Andronicus (c. 285-204 BC) wrote a Latin version of the Odyssey (250 BCE) and a number of plays commissioned for the Roman Games of 240 BCE. His translations of Greek dramas into Latin founded the Roman drama tradition and shaped the Latin language. Already in the 2nd century BC translations from Greek to Latin were so popular that, for the first time in history, two translators (Plautus and Terence) were able to make a living from it.

译者对语言的历史发展有很大的影响。罗马剧作家Livius Andronicus(约公元前285-204年)写了拉丁文版的《奥德赛》(公元前250年)，并为公元前240年的罗马游戏创作了许多剧本。他把希腊戏剧翻译成拉丁文，开创了罗马戏剧的传统，塑造了拉丁语言。早在公元前2世纪，把希腊语翻译成拉丁语就已经非常流行，历史上第一次有两位译者(普劳图斯和特伦斯)能够以此谋生。--You Yuting (talk) 03:40, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Yu Ni 余妮

The German language, for its part, was shaped by a translator Martin Luther, who translated the Bible, commonly read in Latin at the time, into German. The prescription, to translate “word for word” was raised both in China and in Europe at a very early time: In the 5th century Dao An, Director of the Imperial Translation School, advocated strict literal translation of the Buddhist scriptures into Chinese. His prescription came from the fear to miss something from the original. It is important to mention that he did not know Sanskrit at all.

Yuan Shiqi 袁诗琦

The Indian Buddhist monk Kumarajiva (350-410) carried out a great reform of the principles and methods for the translation of Sanskrit sutras. He advocated a free translation approach with the aim to transfer the true essence of the Sanskrit Sutras. He was the first person in the history of translation in China to suggest that translators should sign their names to the translated work. 印度佛教僧侣鸠摩罗吉瓦(350-410)对梵文佛经的翻译原则和方法进行了重大改革。他主张采用意译的方法，目的是传递梵文佛经的真正精髓。他是中国翻译史上第一个建议译者在译著上签名的人。--Yuan SHiqi (talk) 01:15, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

印度佛教僧侣鸠摩罗吉瓦（350-410）对梵文佛经的翻译原则和方法进行了重大改革，他主要提倡意译的方法，目的是传达梵文佛经的真谛。他是中国翻译史上建议译者在译著上签名的第一人。--Yang Yue (talk) 02:35, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Yuan Tianyi 袁天翼

Dao An’s prescription was partly based upon the understanding that the original texts were somehow “sacred”. A similar dogma of literal translations of religious texts was raised in Europe and even determined an ideological battle on free/literal bible translation for centuries. The translator Dolet in 1546 was burned for adding the phrase “Rien du tout. (Nothing.)” to a rhethorical passage about what existed after death.

Yuan Yuchen 袁雨晨

Cicero in his book De optimo genere oratum (The Best Kind of Orator) opposed word-for-word translation. For the orator, the target text had to be as forceful and convincing as the original text. Horace called translators, who translated word for word “slavish”. St. Jerome in his book De optimo genere interpretandi (The Best Kind of Interpreting) in 395 CE advocated: “Non verbum de verbo sed sensum de senso.” (Not word for word but sense for sense.)

西塞罗在其著作《论演说家》中对直译持有反对意见，对于演说家来说，目标文本必须像原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称直译者为“奴隶”。圣·哲罗姆则在公元395年完成的《最好的解释》一书中提出：“不能直译，而要意译。”--Yuan Yuchen (talk) 08:09, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

西塞罗在其《论演说家》一书中反对逐字逐句的翻译。对演说家来说，目标文本必须与原文一样有强大的说服力。贺拉斯称逐字逐句翻译的人为“奴隶”。圣·杰罗姆在公元395年所著的《最好的解释》一书中主张“不要逐字逐句翻译，要意译。”--Zhou Luoping (talk) 02:16, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Zeng Fangyuan 曾芳缘

However, Apuleius altered Greek dramas beyond recognition. Quintilian understood that translations shape also the target language, which he called “enrichment”. He further developed translation studies by establishing terms like metaphrasis (word-for-word translation) and paraphrasis (sentence-by-sentence translation), later further developed by Dryden (1680). Tytler (1797) advocated instead, that the translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work, with the same style, manner and ease.

然而，阿普列尤斯采用意译方法所译的希腊戏剧却令人难以理解。昆体良认为，翻译也可以对目的语进行塑造，这一观点被其称为“增润”（enrichment）。他通过建立诸如metaphrasis（逐词翻译）和paraphrasis（逐句翻译）之类的术语发展了翻译研究，随后德莱顿（1680）对此有了进一步的完善。而泰特勒（1797）则主张，译作应该完全复写出原作的思想，拥有与原作同一性质的风格和手法，并具备原作的通顺。--Zeng Fangyuan (talk) 08:31, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Zeng Liang 曾良

In Republican times, Lu Xun and Qu Qiubai were among the prominent advocates of a literal translation. Chinese translation studies has embraced the English term “translatology”, while internationally, the research is named “translation and interpreting studies”, which is also the term for the volume in hand.

But the dichotomy of free/literal did not shape the whole discourse in translation studies. Other dichotomies were foreignizing/localizing and imitation/re-creation (Dong Qiusi 1946).

Zeng Xinyuan 曾心媛

A prominent advocate of foreignizing was Schleiermacher in the 19th century, who advocated that the source text should shine through the target text, since thoughts would shape the language. This was further elaborated by Walter Benjamin and Ortega y Gasset. The Sapir/Whorf hypothesis is the assumption that different languages lead to a different understanding of the world.

Zeng Yanhu 曾雁湖

Chinese translation studies is not at all referring to a Chinese tradition of translation studies, but to translation studies dealing (also) with Chinese as a language. However, most of the research conducted in this area holds also true for other languages and therefore for interpreting and translation studies in general. It might be questioned if a Chinese tradition of translation theories exists. Students of translation studies often choose the topic “Comparison of Chinese and Western Theories of Translation”.

Zhang Hu 张虎

However, they get frustrated because they cannot find elaborated theories coming from China and they end up calling normative prescriptive concepts like “xin, da, ya” (faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance) by Yan Fu “translation theory”. Yan Fu’s three ideals are better called a prescriptive recommendation for practical translation strategies. Of course the ideals are questionable, for why should a postmodern poem including the stuttering line “I, I c…, I can’t breath!” be translated into an elegant line in a different language?

Zhang Hui 张慧

Similarly, the “transfiguration theory” by Qian Zhongshu with his concept of the “sublime” may count as an important statement, that translation and interpreting cannot be analyzed and understood to the last resort and keep their air of mystery. However, recent neurological research and artificial intelligence research have been tackling this last resort already.

同样，钱钟书的“转化理论”和他的“化境”概念可以作为一个重要的说明，即翻译和口译不能够被分析和理解到最后，并保持其神秘性。然而，最近的神经学研究和人工智能研究已经在解决这一最后的手段了。--Zhang Hui (talk) 14:57, 8 October 2020 (UTC) 同样，钱钟书的“转化理论”和他的“化境”概念可以算作一个重要的说明，即不能够将笔译和口译分析和理解为最后一种手段，而忽略其艺术性。然而，最近的神经学研究和人工智能研究已经在解决这一最后手段了。--Zhao Xiaoyan (talk) 15:07, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Ling 张玲

Still, Chinese is an important language and it has some characteristics, which make research especially on Chinese in translation and interpreting studies valuable. One characteristic is that the meaning of a sentence may change totally until the very end of the sentence. Imagine just a “……的说法我反对。” (… is a statement I oppose.) at the end. Therefore, the decalage for conference interpreters interpreting from Chinese into other languages is quite long.

Zhang Peiwen 张佩闻

Seyed Hossein Heydarian has analyzed the statistical occurrences of certain translation strategies with different pairs of languages. According to his findings, every language has a specific fingerprint of translation strategies, each fingerprint referring to specific language pairs.

The first lay interpreters naturally reflected on their interpreting work and this was the start of theories and studies. As soon as the written language was invented, critical reflection also started and with it translation theories and translation studies.

Zhang Qi 张琪

The first thoughts about transferring the meaning of one language into a similar one of another language were prescriptive with precepts and principles, sometimes exaggerated into dogma with people not adhering to them being tortured or executed, especially in the religious context, when the original was declared “holy” and certain groups claimed the monopoly authority of interpreting. During translation history, the perspective changed from “prescriptive” to “descriptive”, reflecting a more neutral approach of analysis.

一开始将一种语言的含义转换为另一种相似含义的语言的想法是有规定和原则的，它有时被夸大为教条，尤其是在宗教环境中，当宣布原语言为标准或某些团体声称拥有口译权的时候。人们不会遵循这些规定而遭受酷刑或处决， 在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--Zhangqi (talk) 09:00, 8 October 2020 (UTC) 将一种语言的含义转换为另一种语言的类似含义，对于这一最初想法，人们奉为规定性原则。在某些情况下，尤其是宗教环境中，这一“原则”甚至被夸大为教条，声称原文是神圣的东西，一些团体甚至扬言有权垄断翻译。因此，人们只要是不遵守，要么接受酷刑，要么直接处死。在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--Kang Haoyu (talk) 03:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

一开始将一种语言的含义转换为另一种相似含义的语言的想法是要遵循约定俗成的规定和原则的，它有时被夸大为教条，人们便不会遵循这些规定因而遭受酷刑或处决，尤其是在宗教环境中，当宣布原语言为标准或某些团体声称拥有口译权的时候。 在翻译历史中，观点从“规定性”变为“描述性”，反映了一种更为中立的分析方法。--You Yuting (talk) 03:47, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Zhang Weihong 张维虹

However, translation theory needs to be able to go beyond the description of translation to show parallels and differences between different translation processes in order to come to a generalized model which could serve to help understand the process better. Translation theories can also offer different translation methods/strategies depending on intersubjectively comprehensible criteria.

Zhang Xueyi 张雪仪

In the Renaissance, the most extensive treatise on the topic of translation is the Interpretatio linguarum (1559) by Laurence Humphrey. It is situated in the context of a debate initiated by Joachim Périon in 1540, who analyzed Cicero’s recommendations on translation. Cicero proposed, that the purpose of a translated speech was to be persuasive, therefore the translator needed to be free in his translation and not be bound by the original and by the request of a literal translation.

Zhang Yinliu 张银柳

Périon shifted the focus from the dichotomy of literal/free to the people involved in translation and to the interpersonal act. Humphrey understood translation as self-expression, a very modern understanding. There is an interesting new study by Sheldon Brammall (2018) in the Review of English Studies 68 (288) documenting the debate. It includes an annotation of the Interpretatio in 1570 by Gabriel Harvey. He recognized the text as an important document of early English translation studies. The text questions the applicability of the concepts in Interpretatio.

Zhang Yu 张瑜

In the 1960s, translation was simply an element of language learning. Translations of Aesop’s Fables in several languages (including in Chinese by Jesuit missionaries in China) were efforts at transmitting language learning textbooks. Only in the 1970s, did translation studies start to become aware of itself as an academic discipline, starting with a volume edited by André Lefevere. Some scholars chose the perspective of the contrastive approach.

Zhang Yujie 张毓婕

Eugene Nida, a bible translator, derived theory from practice while introducing linguistic theory and formal equivalency into translation studies. He defined verbatim translation, literal translation, faithful translation, semantic translation, compilation, free translation, authentic translation and communicative translation. Later, his research was further elaborated with strong linguistic approaches and theories of equivalency and was followed by methods from discourse analysis and the speech act theory (translation as a communicative act in a social cultural context).

Zhang Yuxing 张宇星

There was a revival of the descriptive approach, which regards the target text as most important, and then the Skopos theory, which advocats functional equivalency and values the translator as most important. In the early 1990s, as a reaction to linguistic ‘scientific’ analysis, the theoretical and methodological shift in Translation Studies towards cultural studies is primarily associated with the works of Susan Bassnett, André Lefevere, and Lawrence Venuti.

Zhao Xi 赵茜

The volume at hand is both from practitioners in the field and scholars who embed their research in the theoretical framework of the field as well as into its development. In the field of translation and interpreting studies, the claim about Asian or Western traditions is overcome. We have international scholars from both sides whose only qualification is their expertise in the field. Still the voices are diverse, since they cover a large range of topics and perspectives, symbolizing how diverse the research is today. The key word today is transdisciplinary research.

Zhao Xiaoyan 赵晓燕

In translation history, especially when translation studies consisted mostly of prescriptions, ideals were pursued and equivalency was sought for, although a source text and a target text can never be totally equivalent. The myth of untranslatability was created by Wilhelm von Humboldt in the 19th century and further elaborated by L. Weisgerber in the 20th century, although everything is translatable. 在翻译史上，尤其是当翻译研究主要集中在翻译方法方面时，翻译就开始追求完美和对等，即使源语和目标语根本不可能完全对等。虽然一切语言都是可译的，但是19世纪威廉·冯·洪堡创造了不可译性这个谬误，20世纪里奥·韦斯伯格又对这一观念进行了进一步阐释。--Zhao Xiaoyan (talk) 14:57, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

在翻译史上，尤其是当翻译研究主要集中在翻译方法方面时，翻译就开始追求完美和对等，即使源文本和目标文本根本不可能完全对等。虽然一切语言都是可译的，但是19世纪威廉·冯·洪堡创造了不可译性这个谬误，20世纪里奥·韦斯伯格又对这一观念进行了进一步的阐释。--Zhang Hui (talk) 15:06, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Zheng Huajun 郑华君

It is more a question of appropriateness and acceptance of a translation. Evaluation criteria for the quality assessment of translations have been developed, although it can never objectively be judged, how far the translation result (also called “translat”) corresponds to the source text. In certain situations, it is appropriate to translate a pear into an apple (for example if the function of this fruit in the story stays the same and for the target audience apples are as common as for the source audience pears).

Zhou Luoping 周罗平

As we have witnessed during the history of translation studies, the concentration has been on the different actors in the field of translation: “Skopos” concentrating on the function for the target audience and on the person and intention of the translator, “foreignizing” the text by moving it closer to the source author (and staying loyal to him/her) or “localizing” it, thus moving it closer to the target audience. 在翻译研究的历史中，我们见证了翻译领域中不同的行动者的关注:“目的论”关注目标受众的功能，关注译者的个人和意图，“异化”文本，让其更接近原文作者(并保持对原文作者的忠诚)，或者“本土化”文本，从而更靠近目标受众。--Zhou Luoping (talk) 14:30, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

在翻译研究史上，对翻译领域不同角色均有所关注：“目的论”关注目标受众，注重译者自身及其目的，“异化”强调使译本尽量接近原文作者（并忠实于原文作者），亦或“本土化”，强调使译文尽量接近目标语受众。--Cheng Yusi (talk) 02:03, 9 October 2020 (UTC)

Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿

“Hybrid men-machine translation” moves the focus to the individualization of the target texts, tailoring translations to the needs of individual readers/spectators. Neurology will map the thought processes necessary to create a thinking artificial intelligence and even tackles issues like consciousness, (self-)awareness, understanding as well as artificially enhanced human translation, swarm intelligence and consciousness. “人机混合翻译”关注目标文本的个性化，以满足读者或观众的个性化需求。人们根据神经学原理打造出会思考的机器人。机器人可以向人一样思考，甚至还具有意识，自我意识，理解能力，以及人为强化人工翻译，群体意识和意识。--Zhou Shiqing (talk) 02:28, 8 October 2020 (UTC)Zhou Shiqing 周诗卿

“人机结合翻译”关注的是目标文本的个性化，根据读者或观众的个人需求提供量身定制的翻译服务。神经学将编制出一套思维程序，必要时打造出一个可以像人一样思考的机器人，甚至还能解决问题，不仅具有意识、自我认知和理解能力，同时具有人为强化的人工翻译、集群智能和集体意识。--Yuan Yuchen (talk) 08:52, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Zhou Shuyao 周书尧

Besides this trend towards individualization, there is a growing interest in sociology to understand translations as social processes and to concentrate on the interaction between the different actors.

Zhou Siqing 周思庆

Certain things have turned out to be of eternal wisdom. It is also important to know your native language well, not just the foreign language. 结果证明有些事是永恒的智慧。不仅是学习外语，学习母语也很重要。--Zhou Siqing (talk) 14:24, 8 October 2020 (UTC)

Zhou Yiwen 周艺文

We have also witnessed a journey of theories over the centuries, which all highlight different aspects of the phenomenon. They constrain themselves to the medium, the area, the grammatical level, the text-type, to certain problems (like establishing equivalence), they are oriented at products, functions or processes.

Zhou Yuanqu 周园曲

All these theories are at hand today to explain different parts of the translation process. We see different functional approaches, empirical-pragmatic ones, including didactic questions instead of old normative/prescriptive translation studies, approaches from the neurological and the social sciences, all trying to become aware of the translation process.

Zhou Yujuan 周玉娟

However, as Mary Snell-Hornby requested already in 1988 with her proposition of “integrated translation studies”, these theories need to be seen together as one today.

All of these theories can be boiled down to one question they serve: Is the translation appropriate? In other words, is it adequate, suitable, reasonable, fair, just, apt, situationally fitting, does it work in the target language/culture?

Zhu Meimei 祝美梅

Therefore, the “Appropriateness Theory” is the final theory of all translation theories. Of course there may be different answers to the question of appropriateness in different times and from different actors, perspectives, disciplines etc. An evaluation of the appropriateness of a translation can only be relative and never absolute.

Zhu Suyao 朱素瑶

Therefore it is necessary to establish a system of evaluation, valuing the different aspects such as the function of the text, loyalty to the author, the ideals of literal/free translation, and how far a translation can ‘work’ in the target language.

Of historical importance is the question for appropriateness, which in turn leads us to fundamental ethical questions: Should you report things you overheard from the foreign negotiation team to your own team to enhance your own team’s chances?

Zhu Xu 朱旭

Is it appropriate to tell a standard joke in the target language when the country’s leader has told a racist joke? What implications does it have about the foreign country’s leader, when he laughs at your standard joke? The country’s leader may think he laughed at his (racist) joke. Is it appropriate to take over the role of a negotiation participant when you are hired for interpreting? (See the contribution in this volume.) When you are a wartime interpreter: Is it appropriate to translate propaganda and to interpret for a dictator?

Zou Xinyu 邹鑫雨

Is it appropriate to translate the German order “Feuer!” [Shoot!] by the German commander into French if the collaborating French soldiers would commit a crime against humanity when they understood and executed the order? Where to draw the line to refuse to translate? What consequences does it have if you refuse? What responsibilities do interpreters and translators have? The Appropriateness Theory is complex and shows us that a Code of Ethics needs to be established.

Bochum/Germany, September 30, 2020