History of Translation Studies 10

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Functional Equivalence

== On functional equivalence and formal equivalence and their application in translation 陈静静 Chen Jingjing== (please add your student number and major)--Zeng Xinyuan (talk) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Abstract

Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal equivalence and functional equivalence which pursues the equivalence in form and content and that in function between the two languages separately. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.

Translation plays an indispensable role in modern cross-cultural communication. In this process, translators are supposed to achieve the equivalence between the source text and the target text to the greatest extent. Translation theory is of great importance to steer them towards this. Nida put forward the well-known theory of formal and functional equivalence, the former of which pursues the equivalence in form and content and the latter of which pursues equivalence in function between the two languages. This paper focuses on their introduction and differences as well as their application in translation so as to provide more guidance for translators and promote people’s deeper understanding on functional equivalence and formal equivalence.--Zeng Xinyuan (talk) 13:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

key words

functional equivalence, formal equivalence, translation

摘要

翻译在现代跨文化交际中起着非常重要的作用，而在这一过程中，译者需要尽可能实现源文本和目标文本之间最大的对等。翻译理论在其中则对译者具有非常重要的指导作用。奈达提出了“形式对等”和“功能对等”理论，“形式对等”是以源语为中心，追求原文形式和内容之间的对等，而后者强调实现两种语言之间功能上的对等。该论文主要对形式对等和功能对等进行简单介绍并分析两者之间的差异以及它们在翻译之中的运用，以使译者对它们有更为深入的了解。

关键字

功能对等，形式对等，翻译

Introduction

As a specific form of cultural activity, translation is characterized by the interactive conversion of bilingual (original language and target language), but this does not mean that translation is limited to a certain language operation or language activity. This phenomenon of bilingual interaction or cultural interaction with language as a mediator, and the resulting variations in phonetics, words, grammar, and style, are by no means covered by linguistic theory.

Nida, a American linguist, translator and translation theorist, conducted his academic activities based on the translation of the Bible. During this process, Nida proceeded from actual conditions and developed his own translation theory, which eventually became one of the classics in translation studies. Meanwhile, he believes that translation should play a communicative role due to its essence. During the translation process, it is necessary to consider factors such as the author, text, background and readers so as to make the recipients understand the translation more easily. It is actually based on this idea, the concept of functional equivalence theory came into being. He pointed out that the theory of functional equivalence includes form equivalence and content equivalence. When the two contradict, he is convinced that the content comes first and the form comes second. This is also the first principle of functional equivalence. The second principle of functional equivalence is that you can’t simply focus on content as Nida believes that content precedes form does not mean that translators need to give up form and devote themselves to content. He suggested that when the translator cannot take into account the two at the same time, he should consider the content first, and at the same time, try to make the style of the translation close to the style of the original text. In order to balance the relationship between the two, Nida also proposed a series of improvements. The third principle is that Nida requires natural and smooth translation. In order to obtain a true and smooth translation, Nida believes that readers of the source language and cultural context and target language must be considered.

Functional Equivalence

In order to set a standard for the transition between the source language and the target language, Nida, based on the essence of translation, put forward the theory of dynamic equivalence but later replaced it with the name of functional equivalence as he was convinced that it will better reflect the communicative function.(尤金·奈达．语言文化与翻译［M］．严久生，译．1998)

Functional equivalence mainly includes lexical equivalence, syntax equivalence, textual equivalence and stylistic equivalence. According to Nida, when translating, you need to use the most appropriate, natural and equivalent words to express the information of the source text, that is to say, functional equivalence is prior to formal equivalence. Therefore, we need to try to achieve equivalence in form when we pursue the equivalence in content. In the book “Language, Culture, and Translation”, Nida divides functional equivalence into “minimal equivalence” and “maximum equivalence”. The basic point of “functional equivalence” is to compare the way of readers' understanding and appreciating the original text with those of the target text, and requiring the readers of the target text to be able to perceive the translation. The extent to which readers of the original text understand and appreciate the original text is called the minimum functional equivalence.The readers of the target text should basically be able to understand and appreciate the target text in the way that the original reader understands and appreciates the original text,which is called the maximum functional equivalence.

To accurately reproduce the source language culture and eliminate cultural differences, the translator can follow these three steps. First, the translator should strive to make the translation not only conform to the semantics of the original text but also reflect the cultural characteristics of the original text. However, two kinds of languages represent two completely different cultures and similar elements may exist in the two cultures but they can't be exactly the same. Therefore, it is impossible for a translator to fully display the cultural connotations of the original text. Second, if meaning and culture can’t be taken into account at the same time, the translator has to abandon the formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the semantics and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation. Third, when changing the form still doesn’t work, the translation technique of “reconstruction” can be used to achieve the equivalence in meaning between the source text and the target text. It means transforming the deep structure of the source text into the surface structure of the target text , that is, the cultural connotations of the source text could be elaborated by words of the target language. In terms of the the status of source text and the translator, according to this theory, minor adjustment of the source text is allowed when necessary but we are not encouraged to modify it. Consequently, it seems that the source text is in a high position so the translator must give preference to it. From the perspective of translation standard, domestication is preferred in functional equivalence when we consider the cultural factors. What’s more , it is commonly used in literary translation. Functional equivalence is of great importance for it brings the contest between the literal translation and free translation to an end and provides a new translation standard, but on the other way, it turns the translation into an activity merely concerned with language.

Formal equivalence

Formal equivalence, though seeking equivalence as well, focuses mainly on the form and content, attempting to achieve complete consistency of information and structure between the source text and the target text. It includes three parts: (1) Consistency of grammar, that is , grammatical elements of the source text should be consistent with those of the target text. (2) Consistency of expression, which means the words and phrases of the target text should keep the original connotation expressed in the source text. (3) Consistency of the meaning in the source context, signifying that the context created by the source text should be kept in the target text. (UGENEA．NIDA．,2005:167）

Gloss translation can best reflect the features of formal equivalence as explanation will be used to better reappear the meaning and context of the source text, thus enabling people to have a better understanding of the source language and the source text. This is, however, hard to achieve for there are great differences existing between different languages especially between Chinese and English.

From the perspective of linguistics, the biggest difference between them is that Chinese is a parataxis language while English is hypotaxis, that is to say, English is an overt cohesion-prominent language and its clauses are often arranged with connectives while Chinese is a language that connectives are not compulsory and its clauses are often short and its structure is not so complex as that of English. Besides, the former is a more static language in which nouns and adjectives are always used, but the latter a more dynamic one, verbs are more active. English has a systematic grammar but Chinese seems freely arranged. Furthermore, in English, nouns, prepositions and pronouns are always used like personal pronouns “we” “they” “you” and relative pronouns “that” “which” “whose” in long and complicated sentences to make them more explicit and avoid repetition. In Chinese, pronouns are rarely used as the structure of the sentences is relatively loose and short sentences are preferred, so it seems more appropriate to use verbs. From the perspective of voice, it is evident that passive voice is frequently used in English especially in texts concerned with science and technology as western people seem to be more objective when viewing the world and they attempt to employ passive voice to make their description more objective. Chinese, however, are more subjective, so they often use active voice to express opinions.

Relationship between functional equivalence and formal equivalence

In the book “Scientific Exploration in Translation”, he proposed and distinguished the concepts of “formal equivalence” and “dynamic equivalence”. “Formal equivalence” means stressing more on information itself, in terms of both form and content. This sort of equivalence, however, is rare, so he lays stress on dynamic equivalence.

For formal equivalence, source text is prior to other elements, so the translator must strictly follow the ideas, sentence structure as well as rhetoric. In this case, the translator are not allowed to add any other information at will and is restricted by many factors. Nevertheless, for functional equivalence, the translator can supplement their own understanding on the basis of the source text to make the translation more lively and vivid, actually a better and more innovative way to reproduce the source text. Take a sentence for example: “ I gave my youth to the sea and I came home and gave my wife my old age.”, this sentence can be translated into different versions. If with a way of formal equivalence, it can be translated into “我把青春给了海洋，我回家时，给妻子的只有迟暮之年。”, which seems more direct and similar to the original sentence in structure. When translated based on the functional equivalence, it will be like this: “我把青春献给了海洋，等我回家见到妻子的时候，已是白发苍苍。”, which is much more vivid and easy to understand for the target readers.

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence, though stressing equivalence in different aspects, are actually interdependent. Form in translation refers to the rhetorical function and skills as well as the sentence structure. Without formal equivalence, we are not able to guarantee the accuracy of the translation let alone achieving functional equivalence. Likewise, without functional equivalence, formal equivalence will be meaningless.

Furthermore, functional equivalence and formal equivalence are both regarded to be relative. (余敏军，2009:193）That is to say, this sort of equivalence is impossible to be wholly and fully achieved as a great number of differences exist between Chinese and English. Chinese and English differ in language structure, mode of thinking, cultural background and etc. As a matter of fact, sometimes when we translate Chinese into English or English into Chinese, we can’t even find the corresponding word thus even more difficult to achieve the equivalence in lexis and sentence structure. From the perspective of cultural influence, readers of the source text and the translation will hold different views even towards the same thing due to different cultural backgrounds. For instance, Chinese people will express their feeling by dint of material objects while the Western countries focus more on science and will employ it to account some social phenomena.

Translation is the reproduction of the source language information in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language, including the reproduction from semantics to stylistics. That is to say, in Nida’s view, functional equivalence should take precedence over formal equivalence, but it is not only about content, regardless of form. While achieving equivalence in content and information, it also requires equivalence inn form as much as possible. But actually of the two, priority is given to equivalence in content.

Application of functional equivalence and functional equivalence in translation

Functional equivalence and formal equivalence are vital translation theory for guiding the translation practice. This theory has lifted the restrictions of traditional ideology and provide a new perspective for translators.

Lexical equivalence

Firstly, as I have mentioned above, sometimes it is difficult to find the corresponding word when translating. For instance, in China, “慢走” is frequently used when our friends or guests we are not familiar with is going to leave. People in western countries, however, are unlikely to express in this way. Instead, they simply say “Bye” or “Have a nice trip!”. The latter actually will be used only when friends plan to travel somewhere far away. These two expressions in English bear different meaning compared with the expression in Chinese. Therefore, faced with such situation, we have to choose words or phrases to express it in a different way based on the context. For example, we can express it as “Take care. Hope to see you soon.” to express our feeling in a polite and emotional way.

Furthermore, there are some words or phrases containing cultural connotations in both Chinese and English. When translating such words or phrases, we must explore the underlying meaning and try to explain it in detail, helping readers to have a correct and good understanding towards it. Take “Achilles’ heel” for instance, it can be translated into “阿格硫斯的脚后跟” in a direct way. However, Chinese people knowing nothing of “Achilles’ heel” will find it difficult to understand. Considering the needs of people under Chinese background , we have to explain this word and uncover the real meaning this phrase intends to express. Actually, Achilles, the son of Neptune, is a heroic person. It is said that his mother dipped him wholly except his heels in the river Acheron to make him impervious to sword or spear. Thus this phrase is supposed to translated into fatal weakness. Likewise, “Victoria girl” should be translated into “思想保守的女性” as England was relatively conservative in Victoria period so later Victoria, the queen’s name, was used to refer to those conservative women.

It is very common that a word in English may bear several different meanings so in this case, we have to guess the meaning according to the context. For example, the word “club”, which is very familiar to us, can be used as a verb as well as a noun. At the first thought, “俱乐部” will come to our mind but in the following sentence, it doesn’t make sense if we translate “club” into “俱乐部”. “When civil rights leaders are clubbed, whipped and tramples by white lawmen as feral white onlookers cheer, the youngsters seemed aghast.” In that sentence, it is obvious that “club” is used as a verb. Considering the meaning of “whip” and the original meaning of “club”, we can find that “club” here may refers a sort of hitting. Consequently, we have consider carefully over and over again and determine the meaning of a word after having grasped the rough meaning of the sentence.

Syntax equivalence

Syntax equivalence is far more complicated and difficult to achieve compared with lexical equivalence with great differences existing between Chinese and English. Therefore, we need to employ proper translation skills to cope with different sentences.In English, people prefer to be direct so the most important part of the sentence is most likely to be presented at first while in Chinese, people are accustomed to organize the sentence in a natural order, that is, from facts to conclusion or from reasons to result. Sometimes we can translate the sentence from word by word or phrase by phrase but in most cases we will change the order based on the common expression ways of target language to make the sentence more understandable to the target language readers. The example can be seen as follows: “Additional social stresses may also occur because of the population explosion or problems arising from mass migration movements--themselves made relatively easy nowadays by modern means of transport.” Translation: 由于人口的猛增或大量人口流动（现代交通工具使这种流动相对容易）造成的种种问题也会对社会造成新的压力。

We can see that in the Chinese version, order of the reason and the result is reversed to make the sentence more smooth. When translating, we can choose literal translation so as to achieve the formal equivalence or we can seek free translation to based on functional equivalence. In daily life, we Chinese often greet people with “吃了吗?去哪啊?” as we regard food as something that matters much to our life. As a matter of fact, these words bear no actual meaning but a simple way to greet. Thus we will translate that sentence into “Hi, how are you? What a nice day, isn’t it?”. There is a special kind of interrogative sentence in English called disjunctive question like the following dialogue: “You’re not a student,are you?” “Yes, I am.” Here, in this dialogue, we can see that the answer is positive but if translated into Chinese, it will be like this: “不，我不是学生”, which actually is negative.

Texual equivalence

Text, or discourse is a coherent and cohesive unit, achieved through one or more sequences, which are composed of components that are closely related to each other. Pursuing the equivalence in words or sentences can absolutely not satisfy, we need to pay more heed to textual equivalence. A sentence can be translated in different ways but we have to choose one based on the context.

Example: “祥子！”她往前凑了凑：“我有啦！” “有了什么？”他一时蒙住了。 “这个！”她指了指肚子。“你打主意吧！” Translation: “Xiangzi,” she came closer. “I am in trouble!” “What trouble?” He was startled. “This!” She pointed her belly. “What was you going to do about it?” According to China’s traditional customs, women would always express their being pregnant in an indirect way like “我有了” in Chinese instead of “我有孩子了”. In this situation, “我有了” here is translated into “I am in trouble!” as she conceives a baby before she marries, which is deemed as a behavior that is in grave breach of the norms of Chinese society.

In addition, we need to take the situation or background in which the texts took place into account and endeavor to get the inner connotation it bears. Example: So that when lieutenant Osborne, coming to Russel Square on the day of the Vaux hall party said to the ladies,” Mrs Sedley,ma,ma,I hope you have room, I haveasked Dobbin of ours To come and dine here, and go with us to Vaux hall. He was almost as modest as Joe. Here “modest” in the last sentence can’t be translated into “谦虚的” as it will confuse the readers and it is far from that. According to the description of Joe above, we can figure out exactly his characteristics, so we can reasonably infer that it actually means shy.

The last element we should never ignore is cultural context given that there are great cultural differences between English and Chinese. We are supposed to consider the cultural background of the author of the source text as well as certain hidden or ineffable Connotations. Example: She had thin blond hair and her face was pretty and Petite in a Regency way, oval like a miniature, though she had a harsh way of speaking--perhaps the account of the school, Roedean or Cheltenham Ladies’ College, which she had not long ago left. We can’t simply translate it into “长着细细的淡黄色头发，脸蛋娇小玲珑，一副摄政时期的模样。” as here the word “Regency” still seems confusing to us. Instead, the translation should be like this: “她长着纤细的淡黄色头发，漂亮的鹅蛋脸小巧玲珑，颇符合摄政时期的风范......” and add the explanation that “ ‘Regency’ refers to the period the son of George the Third reigned, during which those slender women are regarded to be the most gorgeous.” In this way, readers will have a more clear sense of this.

Stylistic equivalence

Popovic put forward the stylistic equivalence and define it as the functional equivalence between the source text and the target text. We will find different types of texts in the process of translation and we must achieve the equivalence in styles according to the functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory. Such equivalence is best reflected in the translation of poetry, which is characteristic of rhyme and cultural connotations. Example: 清明 杜牧 清明时节雨纷纷，路上行人欲断魂。 借问酒家何处有? 牧童遥指杏花村。 Translation by Wu Juntao: The Pure Brightness Day By Du Mu It drizzles thick and fast on the Pure Brightness Day, I travel with my heart lost in dismay. “Is there a public house somewhere, cowboy?” He points at Apricot Village faraway.

In this translation, “清明节” has been translated into “Pure Brightness Day”, which may seem not completely fit as it simply reflect the features of this day from the surface. In this way, target readers may have little knowledge about this and treat this day as a normal pure and bright day. However, functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory can be vividly reflected in the following content. The translator has achieved equivalence both in content and form as he rhymed and expressed based on the form and content of the source text, trying to make target readers have a good understanding of the source text based on the information expressed in the translation.. Translation by Xu Yuanchong: The Mourning Day By Du Mu A drizzling rain falls like tear on the Mourning Day; The mourner’s heart is going to break on his way. Where can a wineshop be found to drown his sad hours? A cowherd points to a cot ’mid apricot flowers.

In this translation, Xu Yuanchong attempts to give a more detailed and vivid description of the scene and the feeling of the person in this poetry. In addition to simply expressing the content from the surface, he digs the deep connotations the poetry contains, thus making the translation more simply to be understood and the target readers grasp a deeper understanding of the content, theme and emotion.

Conclusion

Translation theory has been playing an vital role in the process of translation, as always said, theory guides practice while practice testify to theory. Functional equivalence and formal equivalence theory matters a lot and has guided a great deal of translation practice. Though having gone a lot of years and some limitations having been found, Nida’s theory is still worthy learning whether at present or in the future. Therefore, we should choose to apply functional equivalence or formal equivalence based on specific condition to achieve the most appropriate and fit translation.

Proper application of formal equivalence helps to preserve the spirit and unique features of the source text and to further promote people to have a good grip of foreign culture and customs. However, more often than not, it is difficult to find an English sentence pattern that is completely equivalent to express the same connotation in Chinese. Therefore, the translator needs to convert the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is, using the corresponding words in the target language to directly explain the connotation of the original text, so that the target readers can more easily accept the translation. According to Nida’s translation theory, dealing with cultural differences is closely related to the reproduction of the source language in the target language from semantics to stylistics. Only when the translation reproduces the style and spirit of the source language from the language form to the cultural connotation, the translation can be called an excellent work. This method provides a good example for translation studies in every countries. For our country, it reminds us that translation studies should absolutely limited to the field of translation. We must break the boundaries of disciplines and combine other sciences to study translation. In this way, translation theories derived from scientific evidence will be much more scientific and systematic.（张赟娇,张 军,2018:114)

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Functional Equivalence in the Translation of Ken Liu-A Case Study of Folding Bijing 肖茜 Xiao Xi

肖茜 Xiao Xi No.202020080654

Abstract

Hao Jingfang's science fiction "Folding Beijing" won the Hugo Award for Best Novelette in 2016. The success of this fiction is inseparable from Ken Liu's rigorous translation work. Focusing on the response of the target readers, the translation of this fiction not only retains the meaning and style of the fiction, but also effectively transmits the Chinese culture, which is in line with the requirement of the theory of Nida's functional equivalence to "quality of a translation in which the message of the original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the receptors essentially like that of the original receptors". The theory of Nida's functional equivalence, one of the earliest translation theories introduced into China, has produced a profound effect on translation studies in different literary genres. This paper studies the English translation of Folding Beijing and analyses Ken Liu's application of functional equivalence in translation, and proves the value of functional equivalence theory in the translation of science fiction.

Key words

Functional Equivalence; Folding Beijing; meaning; style; culture

题目

刘宇昆翻译中的功能对等-以《北京折叠》为例

摘要

郝景芳的科幻小说《北京折叠》获得了2016年的雨果奖最佳中篇小说奖，该小说的成功，离不开刘宇昆严谨的翻译工作。该小说的翻译以关注译文读者反应为出发点，既保留了小说的意义与文体风格，又有效传递了中国文化，这与功能对等理论提出的“努力创造出既符合原文语义又体现原文文化特色的译作”的要求相契合。奈达功能对等理论，是最早被引进中国的翻译理论之一，对中国各文学类型的翻译研究影响深远。本文对《北京折叠》的英译本进行研究，分析刘宇昆在翻译时对尤金奈达功能对等理论的运用，展现功能对等理论对科幻小说翻译的价值。

关键词

功能对等；《北京折叠》；意义；风格；文化

Introduction

In the science fiction Folding Beijing, the future Beijing is overpopulated. In order to solve this crisis, people transform it into a folding city with strict hierarchy. The folding city is divided into three spaces. They share 48 hours, and the first space is occupied by the upper classes of society, who have a 24-hour time cycle at their disposal; The second space is occupied by the middle class, who can spend 16 hours; The third space is inhabited by the lower classes, who have only eight hours of the night. Lao Dao belongs to the third space. He wants his daughter to go to a good school, and he ventures into the second and third space to deliver letters to others in order to make money. Although the novel is a futuristic science fiction, it is also realistic, revealing the class differences in the process of urbanization and modernization.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:25）

This science fiction novel has many Chinese characteristics and has many local Chinese words. The cultural differences between China and the West caused by regional factors and customs are a big problem for translation. The translator should not only consider the readers' understanding and feelings, but also ensure that the local colors in the works are not deleted. Functional equivalence theory shows that translation should not be limited to form, and translators can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve the equivalence of content and information.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:33）

Nida's functional equivalence theory has exerted a far-reaching influence on China, and also brought new and effective translation guidance methods to translators. We can see that when Ken Liu translated science fiction, he was also trying to achieve the balance and coordination between the translation and the original text. From the perspective of functional equivalence theory, this paper analyzes the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspectives of meaning, style and culture, and discusses how the translator achieves the closest equivalence with the original text and whether the ideal equivalence is achieved.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:11）

1. Eugene A. Nida and His Theory of Functional Equivalence

Eugene A. Nida, an American scholar and translator, he explains the dynamic equivalent translation in his influential work Toward a Science of Translating. Dynamic equivalence aims at the closest and most natural equivalence between the target text and the source text, and focuses on the equivalence of readers' response, not just the equivalence of content and form. （Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

In his book The Theory and Practice of Translation, Nida defined dynamic equivalence as follows: Dynamic equivalence is therefore to be defined in terms of the degree to which the receptors of the message in the receptor language respond to it in substantially the same manner as the receptors in the source language.（Nida，2004：24）Nida's dynamic equivalence theory requires that the translation readers' response to the translation should be consistent with that of the original readers. （Nida,2004:24）

Since dynamic equivalence is controversial in some aspects, Nida replaced dynamic equivalence with more perfect functional equivalence in 1993. There are a number of related principles that govern the degree of adjustment necessary to produce a satisfactory equivalent translation. As functional equivalence translation is defined as the closest and most natural equivalent translation of the source language information, three principles should be followed by translators to achieve functional equivalence. Nida divides functional equivalence into categories on two levels:the minimal level and the maximal level in his work Language, Culture and Translating. The minimal level which is a realistic definition of functional equivalence is defined as "The readers of a translated text should be able to comprehend it to the point that they can conceive of how the original readers did" (Nida 1993:118).

In order to achieve functional equivalence, the translator must make the translation fit (1) the context of the source-language message, (2) the receptor-language reader's response, (3) the receptor language and culture as a whole. Nida defined the reader's response as the essence of his functional equivalence theory, that is, from the form and content of information to the reader's response. It is different from the traditional translation theory, which emphasizes the comparison of verbs between the original text and the target text. Functional equivalence concerns reader's responses. If the target language reader's understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the original language readers, the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence. In other words, the functional equivalence of Nida emphasizes the reader’s response to the translation.（Zhao Dandan,2011:1）

2. Three Functional Equivalence in the Chinese Translation of Folding Beijing

2.1 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Meaning

Nida and Taber stated that "translating consist in reproducing in the receptor language the closet natural equivalence of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning." Meaning in this chapter will from three levels to discuss: words, sentences and passages, in other words, these three levels is a detailed analysis of the lexicon, syntax and discourse. According to the functional equivalence theory, translation should not only achieve literal equivalence, but also discover the author's true meaning. The following is a detailed analysis of how to achieve functional equivalence in the translation of Folding Beijing from lexical, syntactic and discourse perspectives.(Nida,2004:12)

2.1.1 Lexical level

In literary translation, how to correctly interpret the meaning of a word or phrase is always a difficult problem. There are two main difficulties in translating the meaning of a word or phrase. One difficulty is that many English words are polysemous, they have more than one meaning, so it is difficult to choose the right English word without causing ambiguity. Another difficulty is that the same meaning can be translated into several English expressions, but we should carefully consider which English expression is most appropriate. In the English translation of Folding Beijing, there are many examples to illustrate how the translation achieves functional equivalence with the source text in the lexical level as follows:（Din Juan,2011:22）

Example 1: “食客围着塑料桌子，埋头在酸辣粉的热气腾腾中，饿虎扑食一般，白色蒸汽遮住了脸。油炸的香味弥漫。货摊上的酸枣和核桃堆成山，腊肉在头顶摇摆。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:1）

"Customers packed the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls, which were immersed in the aroma of frying oil. They are heartily with their faces buried in bowls of hot and sour rice noodles, their heads hidden by clouds of white steam. Other stands featured mountains of jujubes and walnuts, and hunks of cured meat swung overhead." (Ken Liu 2015)

Chinese people can imagine the scene of street stalls when talking about plastic tables, but other people can't understand it. Therefore, the translator uses the word "the plastic tables at the food hawker stalls" for readers to understand. "Sour and spicy powder" is originally a kind of Chinese noodles. The author uses "hot and sour rice noodles" to describe the taste of sour and spicy and the raw material of noodles is rice.（Din Juan,2011:23）

Example 2: “这时彭蠡出现了。他剔着牙，敞着衬衫的扣子，不紧不慢地踱回来，不时打饱嗝。彭蠡六十多了，变得懒散不修边幅，两颊像沙皮狗一样耷拉着，让嘴角显得总是不满意地撇着。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:3）

"Finally, Peng Li appeared: His shirt unbuttoned, a toothpick dangling between his lips, strolling leisurely and burping from time to time. Now in his sixties, Peng had become lazy and slovenly. His cheeks drooped like the jowls of a Shar-Pei, giving him the appearance of being perpetually grumpy." (Ken Liu 2015)

The translator uses "a toothpick dangling between his lips" to describe the action of picking teeth，it's more detailed and vivid. “懒散不修边幅” is translated into "lazy and slovenly" to describe Peng Li is neglectful of his appearance. “显得总是不满意地” is translated into "the appearance of being perpetually grumpy", in this way, the translation better expresses the author's intention to express the meaning of looking bad-tempered. （Din Juan,2011:23）

Example 3: “霓虹灯亮了，商铺顶端闪烁的小灯打出新疆大枣、东北拉皮、上海烤麸和湖南腊肉。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:9）

"The neon lights came on. Tiny flashing LEDs on top of the shops formed into characters advertising jujubes from Xinjiang, lapi noodles from Northeast China, bran dough from Shanghai, and cured meats from Hunan." (Ken Liu 2015)

The author did not translate directly “闪烁的小灯” into "the little flashing lights ", but "Tiny flashing LEDs". This is also because of the translator's own understanding of the text, he wants the readers of the English translation to understand that the lights are advertising, so that customers can see and understand the selling points of the store. At the same time, “拉皮” is a special noodle in northeast China, and there is no corresponding suitable English word, so the author uses "lapi", which is to show the original meaning.（Din Juan,2011:23）

2.1.2 Syntactic Level

Syntax, usually defined as the study of how to construct sentences correctly with words in a language. In literary translation, the translator should make the syntax easy to be understood by the reader. The translator should take full account of the syntactic differences between English and Chinese. （Din Juan,2011:24）

The difference of syntax between English and Chinese are mainly reflected in three aspects. First of all, conjunctions and relationship between words in English use frequency is very high. Secondly, English speakers put attention on object consciousness and used to the order from a small object to a large one, from specific to general; In Chinese texts, there is usually a temporal, spatial or causal sequence of time sequence. Finally, English language usually emphasizes important information at the beginning of a sentence, while the Chinese language tends to process information from the obsolete to the fresh for the purpose of impressing people.（Din Juan,2011:24）

In order to achieve functional equivalence with the original text, we should not only translate the meaning of words, but also translate the syntactic structure into a proper form. The following are some examples to show that how English translation oh Folding Beijing achieves functional equivalence to the original text in syntactic level: （Din Juan,2011:24）

Example 1: “ ‘现在政府太混沌了，做事太慢，僵化，体系也改不动。’他说‘等我将来有了机会，我就推快速工作作风改革。干得不行就滚蛋。’他看老刀还是没有说话，又说, ‘选拔也要放开。也向第三空间放开。’” （Jingfang Hao 2016:15） "‘The current government is too inefficient and ossified,' he added quickly, ‘slow to respond to challenges, and I don' t see much hope for systematic reform. When I get my opportunity, I'll push for rapid reforms: Anyone who's incompetent will be fired.' Since Lao Gao still didn't seem to show much reaction, he added,‘I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion, including opening up opportunities for candidates from Third Space.'" (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that in the translation of this paragraph, the translator obviously adjusted the word order, and the words said by the same person before the pause were pushed into the next sentence, in order to conform to the logic of English readers. “选拔也要放开” ,the literal translation of this sentence must be incomprehensible to the readers, so the readers have supplemented and translated this sentence into "I'll also work to expand the pool of candidates for government service and promotion", The translator perfectly explains what "放开" means.（Din Juan,2011:25）

Example 2: “昏黄的灯光中，老刀想起过去。一个人游荡在垃圾场边缘的所有时光。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

“Lao Dao talked about his lonely childhood. In the dim lamplight, he recalled his childhood spent alone wandering at the edge of the landfill.” (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the text refers to “过去” twice with emphasis. In order to achieve the same emphasis in the English translation, the author chose to adjust the word order, placing "In the dim lamplight" between the two sentences, rather than using a subordinate clause like "…childhood that…".（Din Juan,2011:25）

Example 3: “再回到第三空间，他感觉像是已经走了一个月。城市仍然在缓慢苏醒，城市居民只过了平常的一场睡眠，和前一天连续。不会有人发现老刀的离开。”（Jingfang Hao 2016:34）

"Returning to Third Space, Lao Dao felt as though he had been traveling for a month. The city was waking up slowly. Most of the residents had slept soundly, and now they picked up their lives from where they had left off the previous cycle, No one would notice that Lao Dao had been away." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, we can see clearly that English has many more conjunctions than Chinese, like "as though", "from where" and "that", this is because of the difference in syntax between the two languages.（Din Juan,2011:26）

2.1.3 Discourse level

Nida believes that a close, formal translation may be difficult for readers because of the intricate nature of the discourse structure and the presupposed knowledge about the contents in the original text. Therefore, it is necessary to choose a way of "rewrite" to make the translated text acceptable to readers. In literary translation, the translator should pay attention to both the content and the structure of the discourse. In the process of translation, the translation should be equivalent to the original text in the level of discourse. The following part selects a dialogue and its English translation in Folding Beijing as an example of literary translation to achieve functional equivalence in discourse level.(Din Juan,2011:27）

“所以” 她给老刀夹了新上来的热菜，“你能不能暂时不告诉他？等我……有机会亲自向他解释可以吗？”

老刀没有动筷子。他很饿，可是他觉得这时不能吃。

“可是这等于我也得撒谎。”

依言回身将小包打开，将钱包取出来，掏出五张一万块的纸币推给老刀。“一点心意，你收下。”(Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"And so"—she spooned a serving of the new hot dish onto Lao Dao's plate—"can you please not tell him, just temporarily? Please…give me a chance to explain to him myself."

Lao Dao didn't pick up his chopsticks. He was very hungry, but he felt that he could not eat this food.

"Then I'd be lying, too," Lao Dao said.

Yi Yan opened her purse, took out her wallet, and retried five 10,000 yuan bills. She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao. "Please accept this token of my appreciation." (Ken Liu 2015)

The conversational habits in Chinese are different from those in English, so some adjustments are often made when translating. The form of the dialogue is not completely translated from Chinese, but for the reader, the understanding of the text is the same. For example，“夹了新上来的热菜”translated into "spooned a serving of the new hot dish", the translator changed the action to "spoon", which is more suitable for Yi Yan's identity image, it is more suitable as a girl in the first space to spoon the vegetables to Lao Dao. “推给老刀”translated into "She pushed them across the table toward Lao Dao", this sentence adds some action to make it more pictorial.（Din Juan,2011:29）

2.2 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Style

Every writer has his own writing style, and no one can imitate it perfectly. That is to say, in translation, it is impossible for the translator to translate the author's writing style exactly the same. Through the application of rhetoric and dialect, the original text shows the language characteristics, and the English translation can also see that the translator tries to achieve the functional equivalence on the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:30）

2.2.1 Rhetoric

First of all, rhetoric is an important part of the study of style. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) believed that style is form and is a counterpart of dialectic. The use of rhetoric can create vivid images, vivid scenes, improve the effect of literature.（Din Juan,2011:30）

Example 1: 老刀的肚子也感觉到饥饿。他迅速转开眼睛，可是来不及了，那种感觉迅速席卷了他，胃的空虚像是一个深渊，让他身体微微发颤。(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Lao Dao's stomach growled. He quickly averted his eyes, but it was too late. His empty stomach felt like an abyss that made his body tremble." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, the original text compares a hungry stomach to an abyss, and the English translation also uses this metaphor to form a rhetorical functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:31）

Example 2: 不远不近的距离，就像遥望西山或是海上的一座孤岛。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10) "The distance was perfect for taking in the whole city, like gazing at an island in the sea." (Ken Liu 2015)

In this paragraph, it is a metaphor, and the words "西山" and "孤" in the original text are not translated, only translated into "an island in the sea", this description is enough to show the image of a folded city.（Din Juan,2011:32）

Example 3: 高楼像最卑微的仆人，弯下腰，让自己低声下气切断身体，头碰着脚，紧紧贴在一起，然后再次断裂弯腰，将头顶手臂扭曲弯折，插入空隙…楼宇由折叠中站立起身，在灰蓝色的天空中像苏醒的兽类。(Jingfang Hao 2016:10)

"The skyscrapers bowed submissively like the humblest servants until their heads touched their feet; then they broke again, folded again, and twisted their necks and arms, stuffing them into the gaps… The buildings unfolded and stood up, awakening like a herd of beasts under the gray–blue sky." (Ken Liu 2015)

It has a personification in this paragraph, "skyscrapers" have "heads, feet, necks and arms", and "like the humblest servants", the use of rhetoric enables people to imagine the folding picture of the city through the human image. By comparing the building to a herd of beasts, it shows its size and the sense of fear and oppression it brings.（Din Juan,2011:33）

Example 4: 直到建成的日子高楼如活人一般站立而起，他们才像惊呆了一样四处奔逃，仿佛自己生下了一个怪胎。(Jingfang Hao 2016:11)

"Finally, when the completed building stood up before them like a living person, they had scattered in terror, as though they had given birth to a monster."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this sentence, although "怪胎" translate into "monster", the "生"express also the same meaning, so the translator does not struggle.（Din Juan,2011:33）

2.2.2 Dialects

Dialect embodies the local characteristics, is the author's own writing style. Sometimes it's a problem in translation. In the following example, we can see how the translator handles this problem.（Din Juan,2011:33）

For example, "伙计" in English "waiter" ,"铺盖卷" in English "bedrolls" ,"闺女"is translated as "real daughter" ,"她们认死理儿" is translated as "they don't know how to be flexible","只是这么多年过来，人就木了." (Jingfang Hao 2016:33) is translated into“But after so many years, you grow a bit numb." (Ken Liu 2015) We can see that when translators translate dialects with Chinese local characteristics, they pay more attention to the level of semantic understanding rather than the formal equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:33）

In short, whether the use of rhetoric or dialect in literature, can fully reflect the author's writing style. Therefore, in literary translation, the translator should study the differences between the source language and the target language in the ways to express stylistic differences, and find out the best way to make up for these differences. In this way, literary translation can achieve maximum functional equivalence at the stylistic level.（Din Juan,2011:33）

2.3 Functional Equivalence from Aspect of Culture

In the process of translation, the cultural difference between the two languages is also an issue that translators should pay attention to. People who come into contact with different cultures have different ways of thinking, values and social customs and so on. Translators need to understand the two cultures and fully express the cultural elements contained in the original text. At this time, translation plays a role in cross-cultural communication. The translator must present the cultural meaning shown or implied in the original text to the readers so that the translation can achieve the cultural equivalence with the original text. In this chapter, we will analyze the English translation of Folding Beijing from the perspective of food culture, folk culture and culture of idioms, so as to explain how it achieves the functional equivalence with the original text.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:47）

2.3.1 Food Culture

The city described by Beijing Folding is the political and cultural center of China, and it is a city with profound cultural deposits. There are a lot of contents belonging to traditional Chinese food culture in the novel. This part will analyze how the translator translates these delicacies to achieve functional equivalence.（Din Juan,2011:39）

Example 1: "…面前摆着一盘炒面或炒粉… "(Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"Each kid had a plate of chow mein or chow fun…" (Ken Liu 2015)

"炒面"is a well-known traditional snack in China. The translator makes it into "chow mein", rather than "Chinese stir-fried noodles". In the dictionary, "chow mein" means a Chinese-style dish of fried noodles served with small pieces of meat and vegetables. This translation also makes it more intuitive for the reader to know what the food is.（Din Juan,2011:41）

Example 2: "老葛又拿来半瓶白酒和两个玻璃杯，倒上。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:32)

"…over a half bottle of baijiu…" (Ken Liu 2015)

The foreignizing translation is adopted here, "白酒" is translated into "baijiu" , the translator doesn't use the word like "spirits", it not only retains Chinese cultural characteristics, but also achieves communicative effect.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）

Example 3: "哎，你们知道那儿一盘回锅肉多少钱吗？" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…how much they charge for an order of twice -cooked pork over there?" (Ken Liu 2015)

The special feature of this dish is that it is boiled in water and then stir-fried. The translator captures this feature in the translation, trying to make people understand the meaning of "回锅", and this dish is made with pork, he wants readers of the English translation to see an image of the dish in their heads in the same way that Chinese people do.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:53）

2.3.2 Folk Culture

Chinese people also have their own unique way of life, customs and traditions, behavior patterns and other aspects of vocabulary. The following will analyze the translator's functional equivalence in folk culture.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）

Example 1: "…几个人分吃两个菜…" (Jingfang Hao 2016:2)

"…and they shared two dishes family-style." (Ken Liu 2015)

"分吃" is the most common way of eating in traditional Chinese culture, where several dishes are shared among friends and family. The purpose of the passage is to show the poverty of the boys. The translator takes into account the differences between Chinese and Western cultures，Western behavior is different. so he use the word "shared" and he add the word "family-style" to make it easier for the reader to understand the behavior. （Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）

Example 2: "咱们也算半个老乡吧。”老葛说，“所以不用太拘束。我还是能管点事儿，不会把你送出去的。"(Jingfang Hao 2016:27)

"We're practically from the same hometown! So, you don't need to be so careful with me. I still have a bit of authority, and I won't give you up." (Ken Liu 2015)

The culture of hometown is a major feature of Chinese culture. Those from the same hometown share similar living habits, growing environment and cultural background, so even strangers can get familiar with each other quickly and even help each other. Since Lao Ge and Lao Dao come from the third space, the translator explains the term "老乡" from a geographical perspective. "管事儿"means to have some authority. The translator also explains this word so that readers can understand it easily.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）

Example 2: "一点心意，你收下。" (Jingfang Hao 2016:23)

"Please accept this token of my appreciation."(Ken Liu 2015)

In this passage, Yi Yan said that she hoped Lao Dao could help her keep a secret, so she wanted to give Lao Dao with money. "心意" means money, which is a euphemism used in China when it is inconvenient to offer money directly. In the translation, the translator also considered a euphemistic way of expression, so he used the word "appreciation".（Zhou Xingyang,2018:52）

2.3.3 Culture of Idioms

Idioms are an important part of the extensive and profound Chinese culture. Chinese people always use them in their daily life and in their writing. However, some idioms sometimes have different meanings in different contexts, and the translation should pay attention to the differences between the two cultures.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）

The author used many idioms in the article, such as "饿虎扑食", the translator translated it into "ate heartily", although the translation is easy to understand, but without the image that people are very hungry to eat, from the perspective of functional equivalence, English readers seem to be unable to reach the same level of understanding and response as Chinese readers.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）

And "（盘子）一片狼藉"translated into "The dishes were a mess", it is a brief description of the mess. And "成人之美" translated into "in that case I'll have done a good deed by keeping silent", the idiom in the original text was originally used to describe Lao Dao's feeling that he was keeping secrets and that Yi Yan and Qin Tian might get together in the future. The translator abstractly translated the sentence in the English translation.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:51）

Conclusion

From the analysis of the English translation of Folding Beijing from three aspects: meaning, style and culture with the theory of functional equivalence in this paper, and it is believed that the English translation conforms to the understanding of English readers to the specific information in the text. According to Nida's functional equivalence theory and its translation purposes and strategies, the translator brings a natural and equivalent Chinese translation of Folding Beijing to the English reader.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）

Nida's functional equivalence theory emphasizes that the target language readers' understanding and appreciation of the target language is essentially the same as that of the source language readers, so the target language can be regarded as a functional equivalence translation. Analyzed from three aspects: meaning, style and culture "Beijing fold" English version, you can see on the language, while Chinese and English in logic and grammar are greatly different, there exist many differences in the Chinese culture and western culture, but the translator still tries his best to keep the content of the original text in the translation and find more appropriate words.（Zhou Xingyang,2018:56）

In terms of some specific content, the translator does not translate into exactly the same form, which is also consistent with Nida's functional equivalence theory, because Nida also proposed that translation should not be limited to form, but the translator can make necessary adjustments to the form and structure of the original text, so as to achieve equivalence between content and information. However, in some details, such as idioms, the translator's translation fails to achieve the same effect as the original text, which may be an area for improvement. Nida's theory of functional equivalence does provide a good theoretical model for the translation of science fiction, which is of great value.（Tan Zaixi,1999）

References

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A Study on Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese Version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the Perspective of Functional Equivalence 余妮 Yu Ni

余妮 Yu Ni No.202070080620

Abtract

The Importance of Being Earnest is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. There are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s translation has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation.

The Importance of Being Earnest is a satirical comedy of manners written by Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in the 19th century. Dialogues in this play are sharp, witty, and full of epigrams, which are not easy to translate. Besides, there are many Chinese versions, among which the most popular one is Yu Guangzhong’s version. From the perspective of functional equivalence proposed by Nida, Yu Guangzhong’s version has its own merits. Guided by the functional equivalence theory, this paper explores the translation strategies of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues in Yu’s version. It helps to create more excellent translation and promote the development of drama translation. --Yang chenting (talk) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Key Words

Functional Equivalence; The Importance of Being Earnest; Yu Guangzhong

题目

功能对等理论下余光中译《不可儿戏》分析

摘要

The Importance of Being Earnest是19世纪爱尔兰剧作家王尔德所写的一部讽刺风俗喜剧。他的作品妙语逼人，警句诸多，想要译得传神并不简单。在众多译本中，余光中的译本《不可儿戏》最受推崇。从奈达提出的功能对等视角分析，余光中的译本确有其出色之处。本文以功能对等理论为指导，探究余光中译本中剧名、人名及人物对话的翻译策略。从而创造出更优秀的翻译作品，推动戏剧翻译事业的发展。

关键词

功能对等；《不可儿戏》；余光中

Introduction

“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version.

“The Importance of Being Earnest is a comedy of manners written by Oscar Wilde in the 19th century, which is also his most successful comedy”(Shi Qiulei,2012). In this play, there are plenty of sharp dialogues, as well as aphorisms. Among its various Chinese versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular, which not only tells us the fabulous story, but also remains the flavor of the source language when translating. This thesis analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from the perspective of functional equivalence. We can know more about the language features and translation strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s version. --Yang chenting (talk) 10:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.

Nowadays, researchers pay more attention to the study of translation. In order to gain experience from famous translators through their translation, scholars carried out a series of researches towards Chinese versions of this play. Chen Yaoyao (2019) studied Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of dualistic nature of the drama. Shi Qiulei (2011) analyzed Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the perspective of cultural turn. Liang Wei (2009) and Shen Zhengrong (2007) compared two Chinese versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Liu Guilan (2015) did the research on the secularization in its Chinese version.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In the 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable for readers. It has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.

The first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest was Tongming Quyi (《同名娶异》) which was co-translated by Kong Xiangwo and Wang Jing in 1921” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). In 1980s, Yu Guangzhong translated it as “不可儿戏”, while Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. As far as I am concerned, Yu’s version is more acceptable, for it has been put on the stage in Guangzhou and Hong Kong for many times, while Qian’s version is rarely followed.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. Through the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.

American linguist Eugene A. Nida put forward the theory of “functional equivalence”, that is, “the translation and the original context should achieve equivalence in functional aspect, rather than rigid correspondence word by word” (Eugene A. Nida,1969), which coincides with the principles of Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest. With the study, we are able to gain suggestions of drama translation and produce excellent works. In this way, readers become more interested in foreign works, which is also beneficial to cultural diffusion.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The next chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author draws the conclusion.

The thesis comprises five chapters. The first chapter mainly introduces the research background, significance and layout of the thesis. Chapter Two gives an introduction of functional equivalence, including others’ views on it and its features. The following chapter focuses on Oscar Wilde and The Importance of Being Earnest, as well as its Chinese versions, especially Yu’s version. Chapter Four is the core of the thesis, which appreciates and analyzes Yu’s version from the perspective of functional equivalence. The appreciation focuses on the translation of the drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. In the last chapter, the author makes a conclusion.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:05, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

An Introduction of Functional equivalence

The Definition of Functional Equivalence

In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, from the perspective of linguistics and according to the nature of translation. In this theory, he pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.

In order to set a standard for the conversion between the source language and the target language and reduce the differences, Eugene A. Nida proposed the famous “dynamic equivalence” translation theory, also known as “functional equivalence”, according to the nature of translation. He pointed out that “translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Nida’s definition of translation indicates that translation is not only lexical equivalence, but also semantic, stylistic and stylistic equivalence.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects: lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, according to Nida’s theory, the translator should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural connotation of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).

The equivalence in “dynamic equivalence” includes four aspects—lexical equivalence, syntactic equivalence, textual equivalence, and stylistic equivalence. In these four aspects, Nida believes that meaning is the most important, followed by form. Form is likely to hide the cultural meaning of the source language and hinder cultural communication. Therefore, in literary translation, we should take the four aspects of dynamic equivalence as the translation principle and accurately reproduce the cultural reaction of the source language in the target language(Guo Jianzhong, 2000).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Three Steps of Translation

Firstly, efforts should be made to create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully display the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.

Firstly, we should create target language that not only conforms to the semantic meaning of the original text but also reflects the cultural characteristics of the original text. “However, the two languages represent two completely different cultures. Cultures may have similar factors, but they cannot be identical. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)” Therefore, it is impossible to create perfect translation which fully displays the cultural connotation of the original text. The translator can only reproduce the source culture to the maximum extent.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Secondly, if meaning and culture cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost no snow in southern China all year round. In their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?

Secondly, if meaning and culture concepts cannot be taken into account at the same time, “the translator has to abandon formal equivalence and achieve the purpose of reproducing the meaning and culture of the original text by changing the form of the original text in the translation” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). For example, the English proverb “white as snow” can be translated into Chinese as “白如雪”. However, there is almost not much snow in southern China all year round. Therefore, based on their cultural background knowledge, there is no concept of “雪”. How to understand the connotation of snow?--Yang chenting (talk) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabulary. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and understand the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)

In the translation, translators can eliminate cultural differences by changing the form of vocabularies. Therefore, this proverb can be translated into “white as mushroom” and “white as egret’s hair”. In the English idiom “spring up like mushroom”, the original meaning of “mushroom” is “蘑菇”. However, when translated into Chinese, it means “雨后春笋” rather than “雨后蘑菇”, because in Chinese culture, people are more familiar with the idiom and the image of “雨后春笋”. (Guo Jianzhong, 2000)--Yang chenting (talk) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Thirdly, if the change of form is still not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Recreate” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.

Thirdly, if the change of form is not enough to express the meaning and culture of the original text, “the translation technique of recreate can be used to solve the cultural differences, so that the source language and the target language can achieve the meaning equivalence” (Guo Jianzhong, 2000). “Re-creation” refers to the transformation of the deep structure of the source language into the surface structure of the target language, that is to explain the cultural connotation of the source language articles with the words of the target language.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:12, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The Importance of Being Earnest and Its Chinese Versions

An Introduction of Oscar Wilde and His Works

Oscar Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. As a “born for art” writer, he was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).

Oscar Wilde, born in Dublin, Ireland, is a “born for art” writer. He was known for his plays, poetry, fairy tales and novels. As a representative of aestheticism, he always deliberately left out the relationship between art and other things. On the surface, Wilde wrote for the pursuit of art, but the essence of his work goes beyond art. He created four comedies in his life: “Lady Windermere’s Fan (1892), A Woman of No Importance (1893), An Ideal Husband (1895) and The Importance of Being Earnest (1895)” (Wu Jie, 2014).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In the play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.

The Importance of Being Earnest is Wilde’s masterpiece, written in the Victorian era. “The Importance of Being Earnest is apt to be a stumbling block both to the detractors and admires of Oscar Wilde as a man of letters” (Richard Foster, 1956). Critics have different opinions on his other works, including poems and novels, but almost unanimously regard this play as a perfect one. It made a great sensation when first put on St. James theatre on February 14, 1895. In this play, the dandy Algernon and Jack made up the characters of “Bunbury” and “Ernest” for their own purposes.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies and revealed the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)

Through some misunderstandings, the play continued to develop and the truth was revealed. It turned out that Jack was actually Algernon’s brother. The play ended with “I’ve now realized for the first time in my life the vital Importance of Being Earnest”. The play revolves around the dual identities of Algernon and Jack, describing the behavior of high-class figures. Wilde pointed out the characters’ absurd views of marriage and deep-rooted hierarchies, revealing the hypocritical ethical concepts in Victorian era.(Wilde, 2009)--Yang chenting (talk) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

As a writer, Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is widely used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)

Wilde often uses humorous language to express complex thoughts and feelings and explain some meaningful philosophy. The highlights of the play are not the plots but the dialogues. In order to reveal characters’ personalities, he employed a variety of rhetorical devices and aphorisms to produce a humorous effect. Pun is frequently used in the play, including the drama title and characters’ names.(Yu Guangzhong, 1986)--Yang chenting (talk) 11:17, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Chinese Versions of The Importance of Being Earnest

An Overview of Its Chinese Versions

The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest, but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).

The Importance of Being Earnest was premiered in London on February 14, 1895. In 1921, Kong Xiangwo (孔襄我) and Wang Jing (王靖) cooperated to translate this famous play. It was the first Chinese version but it did not get much attention of Chinese readers. “After the foundation of People’s Republic of China, the first new translation of Wilde’s play Selected Plays of Oscar Wilde (《王尔德戏剧选》) was translated by Qian Zhide (钱之德) and published by Huangcheng Press in 1983” (Wen Tong, 2010).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared with previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).

Qian Zhide translated it as “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. He just translated it out of his own interest, treating it as a play without orally practicing the translated lines. Compared to previous versions, his version was more personal, as his own reminder of the original texts. In 1986, Yu Guangzhong’s version came out, with the title “不可儿戏”. “It was published by China Friendship Press Corporation. It was popular with people and has been put on stage for many times” (Tong Fangli,2006).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).

Another version appeared in the 1980s when Zhang Nanfeng (张南峰) published A Collection of Two British Plays(《英国戏剧二种》), in which Zhang rendered the title of the play as “认真的重要”. “Three years later, in Selected Comedies of Oscar Wilde(《王尔德喜剧选》) published by Haixia Literature Press, Zhang changed his title into ‘认真为上’”(Tong Fangli,2006).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).

From “认真的重要” to “认真为上”, the author thinks that the latter is much more in line with the content.Because of political reasons, studies on Wilde stopped for some time.In 2000, in commemoration of Wilde’s contribution in the literary history, China Literature Press printed a complex six-volume Collection of Wilde’s Works (《王尔德全集》).” So far, only the versions of Yu Guangzhong, Zhang Nanfeng and Qian Zhide have been advocated by readers”(TongFangli,2006).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong and His Chinese Version

Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections, Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).

Yu Guangzhong was born in Nanjing in 1928. As a writer, Yu Guangzhong is famous for his poetry. “Poetry, prose, translation and critical essay constitute the four dimensions of his writing life” (Li Xin, 2010). He has published 21 poetry collections, 11 prose collections, 5 comment collections and 13 translation collections. Actually, he is also one of the most dedicated translators in the field of translation. “For translators engaged in translation, Yu Guangzhong’s translation thoughts are of great value” (Tong Fangli, 2005). “He thinks that translation is a kind of composition, at least a kind of limited composition” (Wang Chao, 2016).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

He thinks translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.

He holds that translation is closely related to creation, but it is a limited creation and a flexible art. “Yu Guangzhong has translated four comedies in his whole life, which are The Importance of Being Earnest (《不可儿戏》, 1983), Lady Windermere’s Fan (《温夫人的扇子》, 1992), An Ideal Husband (《理想丈夫》, 1995) and A woman of No Importance (《不要紧的女人》, 2008)” (Chen Feifei, 2011). All of these are the works of Wilde.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was early published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers, but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, my translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).

Yu Guangzhong’s version of The Importance of Being Earnest was first published in 1983. In the postscript, he elaborated his principle of translating. “The dialogue of the novel is for reader to read. If you don’t understand, you can read it again. The dramatic dialogue is for audience to listen to, and if they do not understand, the dialogues passed. There is no second chance. I translated this book not only for Chinese readers but also for Chinese audiences and actors. Therefore, his translation principle is to make the reader pleased to read, the audience satisfied to watch, and the actor pleasant to perform” (Yu Guangzhong, 2004).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:24, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The Application of Functional Equivalence to Yu Guangzhong’s Version

Translation Strategies of Yu Guangzhong’s Version

Translation of the Drama Title

So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest. Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).

So far, there are three famous versions of The Importance of Being Earnest—Yu Guangzhong’s “不可儿戏”, Zhang Nanfeng’s “认真为上” and Qian Zhide’s “名叫埃纳斯特的重要性”. “Among these three versions, Yu Guangzhong’s is the most popular one, which is also consistent with functional equivalence” (Wen Tong, 2012).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

“Functional equivalence emphasizes that translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.

“Functional equivalence emphasizes translation is to reproduce the information of the source language from semantics to styles in the most appropriate, natural and equivalent language” (Eugene A. Nida,1969). Wilde created a character named “Ernest” in the play. As we all know, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, so the drama title is a pun. It not only expresses “the importance of being earnest”, but also “the importance of naming “Ernest”. After all, “Ernest” is a name favored by two girls in the play.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).

Qian Zhide’s version expressed the literal meaning, which achieved equivalence in meaning. However, Zhang Nanfeng’s version represented the implied meaning. In Yu’s version, he translated the implied meaning and revealed the theme of the play that one should be serious about everything in life. The function of the title is to reveal the theme of the novel. “In Yu’s version, the information was reproduced and it echoed lady Bracknell’s words at the end of the play. So, it was more in line with Chinese readers’ preference” (Wen Tong, 2012).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:26, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Translation of Characters’ Names

“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but different in meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.

“Pun was widely used in this play, especially in characters’ names” (Yang Wenqian, 2014), and Yu Guangzhong translated it almost perfectly. In essence, pun is a deliberate word play. It usually appears when two words are similar or identical in their sound, but in different meaning. The effect of pun can be humorous, rhetorical and even bitter at times. Regardless of the brilliant effect of a pun, it is merely a tool for the author to get him across, not just a decoration.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Ernest” created by Jack into “任真”. In English, “Ernest” and “earnest” are homonyms, and “earnest” means to be serious about something. “In Chinese, “任真” and “认真” are homonyms，like the English homonyms” (Yin Lijing, 2012). Yu employed the domestication method to translate it into “任真”, and Zhang Nanfeng employed the foreignization method to translate it into ‘埃纳斯特’. It was translated into “任真” and gave him the Chinese surname “华”, which was from his family name “Worthing” in English.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

It not only facilitated the needs of the audience, but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience will be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)

It not only facilitated the needs of the audience but also considered the feelings of readers. If “Ernest” was translated into “埃纳斯特”, the audience would be confused and do not understand the humor and irony of the language. In the other hand, “认真” is too direct to let readers experience the beauty of pun by thinking it over themselves. “华任真” retains the ironic effect to the greatest extent, and it does not make the audience feel confused when they hear “埃纳斯特”. (Wang Chao, 2016)--Yang chenting (talk) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.

In this way, the form of original works was preserved, from a pun in English to a pun in Chinese. “From the perspective of linguistics, one of the ideal translation methods is pun into pun” (Yin Lijing, 2012). And the irony effect in Wilde’s original works can be kept to the greatest extent, as if it had just been transmigrated from English to Chinese.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong translated the character “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.

Yu Guangzhong translated “Bunbury” created by Algernon into “梁勉仁”. The original meaning of “Bunbury” is “sightseeing tour”, which implies an excuse to evade responsibility as well. That’s exactly why Algernon intended to make up the character. “When he didn’t want to show up in some situation, he lied that his intimate named “Bunbury” was ill and he couldn’t keep the appointment because he needs to take care of him” (Yu Guangzhong, 1986). With the guidance of traditional transliteration method, we should consequently translate it into “邦伯里”. But Yu Guangzhong’s version adds beauty to the original text.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language are the same.

In Chinese, “梁勉仁” and “两面人” are homonyms, referring to double-faced people. In Wilde’s original text, “Bunbury” is not a pun. But in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he added a pun in the process of translation. Both of the Chinese name “梁勉仁” and English name “Bunbury” are names which are correct in lexical aspect. Moreover, “they expressed the same meaning that the person who named like that was double-faced” (Wang Chao, 2016), so the function of the original and the target language remain the same.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.

Yu Guangzhong’s version of the tutor Miss Prism is “劳小姐”. The name “Prism” and the word “prim” form a homophonic pun. Wilde aims to allude to his rigid character through this name. In Chinese, “劳” “老” and “牢” are homonyms, aiming at showing Miss Prism’s strict control over her student, Miss Cecily. It seems that her name not only adds the meaning “old lady” and “prison”, but also highlights the original work’s depiction of her rigid personality.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.

In China, people’s surnames stand behind their last name, and their names are short. “European and American names are different and most of them are long and awkward for Chinese readers” (Wang Chao,2016). This kind of cultural difference often weakens the interest of many readers and audiences in the translated works, especially dramas. But Yu Guangzhong’s version not only translates the meaning of Wilde’s original work, but also has Chinese characteristics. He did not translate the name according to its pronunciation, but created Chinese names which can not only be in accordance of Chinese names, but also express the ironic meaning.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:32, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Translation of Characters’ Dialogues

“There are a lot of allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, especially for the audience, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.

“There are many allusions and idioms both in Chinese and English. Cultural differences make English allusions and idioms become key points in translation, especially in drama translation which focuses on watching rather than reading” (Liang Wei, 2009). In order not to affect Chinese readers’ understanding of the plots, Yu Guangzhong boldly adopted the substitution technique in the translation of dialogues, which can better convey the unique charm of Wilde’s language. Following, we will analyze Yu Guangzhong’s version from the perspective of rhetorical sentences, including alliteration, paradox and antithesis.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Alliteration

"Many English allusions and idioms are used in Wilde’s plays" (Yang Wenqian, 2014). The author chose two examples of alliteration sentences. Alliteration is the earliest phonetic rhetoric technique with rhythm and beauty in English. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he not only remained the rhetorical form but also preserved the flavor of the original work.

(1)ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)
   亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)

In this example, Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.

(1) ALGERNON. I hear her hair turned quite gold from grief. (Wilde, 2009)

  亚吉能 听说她的头发因为伤心变色像黄金。(余光中, 1998)

Algernon is talking about Lady Bracknell’s friend Lady Harbury, who becomes twenty years younger after her husband’s death. “It is commonly believed that a woman should feel grief after her husband’s death. We guess that her hair may turn grey out of sorrow. While it turned out that she changed it gold just to be younger” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde did well in employing paradox and irony to satirize the upper class. He is also keen on word game. “Gold from grieve” actually comes from “grey from grief”. Wilde’s alteration not only preserves the alliteration, but also achieves an ironic effect.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.

In order to reproduce the formal beauty of the source language, Yu Guangzhong changed the alliteration into assonance and rendered it into “伤心变色像黄金”. In Chinese, “金(jin)” and “心(xin)” have the same sound “in”. “He employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).. It not only expressed the same meaning as the source language, but also added the beauty of language in form, with Chinese characteristics. In the meaning level, Yu’s version preserved the original connotation, and in the form level, he employed rhetorical devices in Chinese to replace alliteration, which coincided with “functional equivalence”.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

(2)CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)
   蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)

In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack.Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.

(2) CHASUBLE. I would merely beg you not to be much bowed down by grief. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. (Wilde, 2009)

  蔡牧师 只劝你不要过分哀伤。有些事看来像大祸临头，往往焉知非福。(余光中, 1986)

In example 2, Jack pretended that he had a wicked brother whose name is Ernest. And Ernest often needed his assistance so that he had an excuse to disappear for several days. Discovering that his ward Cecily was too interested in Ernest, he decided to “kill” his brother by saying that he caught a severe chill. Then Jack told Chasuble that his brother Ernest died in Paris. Chasuble intended to console Jack by saying “What seem to us biter trials are often blessings in disguise”. (Wu Shanshan, 2012) Therefore, from Chasuble’s point of view, his death may be a shake off for Jack. Here, “bitter” and “blessings” employed alliteration devices.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can benefit from them in the future. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.

Yu Guangzhong translated it as “塞翁失马，焉知非福”, a Chinese saying. It means that although we have suffered losses for a while, we can still benefit from them. “It also tells us that bad things can become good things under certain conditions, and vice versa” (Wu Shanshan, 2012). He translated alliteration in English into a Chinese saying. The meaning the Chinese saying expressed in the Yu Guangzhong’ s version was the same as the original, and the ironic effect was achieved by using a more acceptable way for Chinese readers.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).

An old saying is more persuasive in this situation. We learnt from Yu’s version that if there is a saying in the source language, we can find a saying which expresses the same meaning in the target language, making it achieve “functional equivalence” (Yang Wenqian, 2014).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:38, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Paradox

(3)LADY BRACKNELL. I'm sorry if we are a little late, Algernon, but I was obliged to call on dear Lady Harbury. I hadn't been there since her poor 
   husband's death. 1 never saw a woman so altered; she looks quite twenty years younger. (Wilde, 2009)

巴夫人真抱歉我们来晚了一点，阿吉，可是我不能不去探望哈夫人。自从她死了可怜的丈夫，我一直还没有去过她家呢。从没见过一个女人变得这么厉害:看起来她足足年轻了二十岁。(余光中, 1986) Paradox is a device much favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers or audience would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed.Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).

Paradox is a device favored by satirists. The benefit lies in the fact that even though it seems to be contradictory on the surface, it contains a certain grain of truth. With the use of paradoxes, Wilde showed us a clear picture of characters’ thoughts and the bourgeois society of Victorian era. Lady Harbury lost her husband. As common sense, the readers would think she may become old, while she says “she looks quite twenty years younger”. In this sentence, paradox was employed. Upon hearing that, the readers and audience will feel they are deceived by the speaker and become amused by the paradox (Wu Shanshan, 2012).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

After thinking it over, they will realize the beauty of the language. “Yu Guangzhong described the shocking facts in a flat tone to deepen the ironic effect” (Yang Wenqian, 2014). He successfully transferred the paradoxical meaning from the source text to the target language. Actually, he not only translated the original meaning, but also expressed the original meaning with an extremely same tone, an ironic tone.

(4)ALGERNON. Do you really keep a diary? I'd give anything to look at it. May I?
   CECILY. Oh no. [Puts her hand over it] You see, it is simply a very young girl’s record of her own thoughts and impressions and consequently meant for 
publication. (Wilde, 2009)

亚吉能 你真的记日记吗?我真恨不得能看一看，可以吗? 西西丽 哦不可以。(手按日记)你知道，里面记录的不过是一个很年轻的女孩子私下的感想和印象，所以呢，是准备出版的。(余光中, 1986) In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect.In example 4, what amused the audience was that the conclusion was contrary to the reasons.

In this example, since the diary is a record of Cecily’s own thoughts and impressions, she does not allow Algernon to read. "The readers or the audience may think Cecily will keep it as a personal privacy and prevent others from reading. However, Cecily says the diary is meant for publication" (Wu Shanshan, 2012). This contradictory statement is illogical and unreasonable, thus produces a humorous effect. In example 4, what amused the audience was the conclusion contrary to the reasons.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With this conjunction, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the reader or audience will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)

Yu Guangzhong added a Chinese conjunction “所以”. With it, the ironic effect deepened. If the translator transforms the illogical content into a coherent form that sounds reasonable, the paradoxical meaning in the original drama text will disappear, and the readers will not be attracted by this line. This version remained the ironic effect of the source text. (Wu Shanshan, 2012)--Yang chenting (talk) 11:44, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Antithesis

(5)ALGERNON. You don’t seem to realize, that in married life three is company and two is none. (Wilde, 2009)
   亚吉能 阁下似乎不明白， 婚后的日子，三个人才热闹，两个人太单调。(余光中, 1986)

"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators.Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty.Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.

"Antithesis is a figure of speech in which sharply contrasting ideas are juxtaposed in a paralleled phrase or grammatical structure"(Wu Shanshan, 2012). Wilde employed quite a few antitheses in The Importance of Being Earnest, making it a great challenge for translators. Algernon introduced Bunbury to Jack so that he could still pursue pleasure after marriage. He compared two kinds of states of marriage and expressed his own thoughts. In the sentence “three is company and two is none”, antithesis was employed with rhythmic beauty. Yu Guangzhong noticed this musical beauty of the source language, and rendered it into corresponding paralleled structure.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).

As a matter of fact, the target language seemed to be better than the source language. In Wilde’s language, only antithesis was used. While in Yu Guangzhong’s version, he reserved antithesis and added rhythmic words. “热闹” and “单调” are totally two different kinds of states, forming sharp contrast. Furthermore, “闹(nao)” and “调(diao)” have the same sound “ao”. Yu Guangzhong fully exploited the advantage of the target language and successfully transferred the beauty of the source language. He not only surpassed source language in form, but also preserved the soul (Shen Zhengrong, 2007).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

(6)MISS PRISM. You are too much alone, dear Dr. Chasuble. You should get married. A misanthrope I can understand—a womanthrope, never! (Wilde, 2009)
   劳 你太孤单了，蔡牧师。你应该结婚。一个人恨人类而要独善其身，我可以了解。一个人恨女人而要独抱其身，就完全莫名其妙。(余光中, 1986)

This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.

This is the conversation between Miss Prism and Dr. Chasuble. She suggested that he should get married, and she compared the two reasons of not getting married. (Wen Tong, 2012). Wilde employed the rhetorical device of antithesis, and Yu Guangzhong remained it in the target language. “Womanthrope” comes from the word “misanthrope”, referring to people who hate women. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, he translated two words into two sentences, “恨人类而要独善其身” and “恨女人而要独抱其身”. He explained two kinds of situations to the audience in detail with the same form as original works, making it almost perfect in form and content.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:46, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Suggestions on Translation from Yu Guangzhong’s Version

Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is most popular among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.

Through the analyses of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we may have a deeper understanding of “functional equivalence”. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Even Yu Guangzhong’s version, which is the most popular one among the audience and readers, has many imperfections. Through the research, we can get some suggestions to help the later translators to create more excellent works.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is that a variety of rhetorical devices are used. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point well. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).

The first translation strategy of is to keep the form of the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The reason why it becomes the most successful play of Wilde is the variety of rhetorical devices. In the process of translation, Yu Guangzhong grasped this point. In translation of the drama title or characters’ names, he preserved the irony of the original work, turning puns in English into puns in Chinese, and long foreign names into meaningful short Chinese names. It not only preserves the satire of the original, but also inherits the language flavor of the original (Wen Tong, 2012).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning of the proverb. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, as well. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).

The second translation strategy is that the form can be changed properly but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. Due to the differences between Chinese and Western cultures, there are many Western proverbs which are inexplicable to Chinese readers. If they are translated literally, the reader will fail to understand the exact meaning. The beauty of the original will be destroyed, too. But if the proverbs are explained carefully, it will inevitably take up a lot of sentences to explain the literal and metaphorical meaning of the proverbs (Wang Chao, 2016).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and it added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).

For drama translation, it is not advisable to do so. Yu Guangzhong chose Chinese proverbs that can express the same meaning to replace the English ones, without changing the author’s original meaning, and added a sense of amiability to Chinese readers. In this part, the author analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s translation strategies from the prospective of functional equivalence. In Yu Guangzhong’s version, both the form and the content of original work have been preserved. We also gained some enlightenments from his translation, which benefits our further translation practice (Wang Chao, 2016).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:50, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

Conclusion

The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we had a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments in translation. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”.In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).

The thesis, under the guidance of “functional equivalence”, analyzes Yu Guangzhong’s Chinese version of The Importance of Being Earnest from three aspects, translation of drama title, characters’ names and dialogues. Through this study, we can have a clear understanding of functional equivalence. By appreciating the vividness of Yu Guangzhong’s version, we get some enlightenments. From the above discussion, we think that translators can learn from Yu Guangzhong in order to achieve “functional equivalence”. In translation, we should take readers’ thought into consideration first. To make the translated version like the original work, Yu Guangzhong provided us with some strategies (Chen Yaoyao, 2019).--Yang chenting (talk) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed, but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce more fantastic translation.Even though we gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.

One is to keep the target language in line with the original to the greatest extent. The other is that form can be changed but the meaning and satirical effect cannot be reduced. With these strategies, we can produce better translation. Even though we can gain experience from this study, it has limitations. “Drama is a type of literature written to be performed” (Shi Tiantian, 2014). So, there are many details to be considered. Although Yu’s version is popular, it has unavoidable shortcomings. This thesis only focused on excellent examples of translation. To sum up, Yu’s version provided us with some successful suggestions to achieve functional equivalence, but only part of it did it.--Yang chenting (talk) 11:53, 17 December 2020 (UTC)Yang Chenting

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Applicaton of Translation Theories

Study of Application of Interpretive Theory in Interpretation 韩宛真 Han Wanzhen 202020080603

Abstract

With the development of economic globalization, exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand. The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice.Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.

With the development of economic globalization,exchanges between countries have become more and more frequent and areas of cooperation have been continued to expand.The increasing demand for interpretation is the quality of interpretation which is particularly important. Interpretive theory plays an important role in translation, especially in interpreting, and also in guiding interpreting practice. Through the reading and analysis of some English-Chinese interpreting materials, this report summarizes some translation strategies and techniques frequently used in interpretation work under the guidance of interpretive theory, and combines translation examples to analyze and summarize.--Han Haiyang (talk) 12:58, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Key words

interpretive theory; interpretation,; translation strategies

题目

释意理论指导下的口译

摘要

随着经济全球化，各国之间的交往越来越频繁，贸易往来日益频繁，合作领域也不断地拓宽，口译地需求不断增加是口译质量显得尤为重要。释意理论在翻译中，尤其是口译中扮演者重要的作用，对指导口译实践有着极其重要的作用。本报告通过对一些英汉口译翻译材料地阅读和解析，在释意理论地指导之下总结了一些口译工作中经常使用的一些翻译策略和方法技巧，并且结合了翻译实例进行分析和概括。

关键词

释意理论；口译；翻译策略

1.Introduction

In this part, it mainly talks about some information about the interpretive theory and some knowledge about the Interpretation. Both of them are important for the development of translation.

1.1 Introduction of Interpretive Theory

The interpretive theory is also called the expressive theory, which was created by the interpretive school. This school explores the principles and teaching of French interpretation and translation of non-literary texts. The main representatives of this school, Danica Seleskovitch and Marianne Lederer, founded this school and made important contributions to the generation and development of interpretive theory. The interpretive school believes that translation is paraphrasing, that is, the translator interprets the source text through language symbols and his own cognitive supplementation during the translation process. This school believes that translators cannot copy the form of the source language to translate the text in the process of translation. What they pursue is not language equivalence but meaning equivalence.

The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has a unique inspiration for the study of translation.General translation theories believe that there are three different levels of translation: vocabulary translation, sentence translation and text translation. The interpretive school has its own unique insights in this regard. The interpretive school refers to word-by-word translation and sentence-by-sentence translation as language translation (Linguistic Translation, and text-level translation is called text translation or translation. This school believes that successful translation is carried out at the level of the text and interpretives the text. Because the school believes that the sentence is a grammatical unit, and the text is a semantic unit, the interpretive theory studies meaning not grammar, so the school is particularly faithful to the textual interpretive. The equivalence of the original text and the target text is expressed in the overall communicative meaning, at is, the readers of the target text can have the same reaction as the readers of the original text, thus achieving the equivalence considered by the interpretive school.(Kong Shaohui 2019, 127)

The theory of this school is directly derived from the practice of interpretation and has an unique inspiration for the study of translation.--Han Haiyang (talk) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The core of interpretive theory is to distinguish linguistic meaning from non-verbal sense. What the translator wants to convey is not the meaning of linguistic signs, but the non-verbal meaning expressed by the speaker in his speech. In other words, the essence of meaning is the "meaning" conveyed by communicators through language symbols, not the meaning of language symbols themselves. The meaning is mainly composed of two components. The first is the implied meaning (implicite), which means that the speaker actually wants to express the meaning: the second is the explicite, which the speaker actually says content.(Kong Shaohui 2009, 127)

The first is the implied meaning(implictit), which means that the speaker actually wants to experess the meaning: the second is explicit, which the speaker actually says content.--Han Haiyang (talk) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Although translation and interpreting have different forms, they are essentially a communicative act, but in translation, the relationship between the translated material and the real world is not as close as in interpreting (for example, an ancient text, the author’s writing Intent-that is, "implied meaning"may become unknowable due to age). Interpretation is different: it is regarded by the interpretive school as the most ideal communication situation, because when interpreting is used, all the interlocutors are present, they share the same time and space environment, and under normal circumstances, they also have a common communication topic. Based on the above understanding, the purpose of translation should be to convey meaning, that is, communicative meaning; what the translator translates should be the content of the information conveyed by the text, which is speech (that is, the use of language), not the language itself.

Interpretation is not based on the memory of the original speaker's language, but based on the translator's grasp of the communicative meaning conveyed by the original speaker and subsequent reorganization of the communicative meaning (that is, the speaker's meaning) in the target language. At this point, we can see that the interpretive theory first separates grammar from semantics and points out that translation is interpretive; then it separates linguistic meaning from non-verbal meaning, and points out that the translator translates meaning. And the meaning is the communicative meaning.

The interpretive school's theory pays much attention to the study of translation process. In a sense, it can even be considered that the focus of the school's attention is the translation process. The interpretive theory believes that in interpreting, the interpreter actually goes through three stages before turning the speaker's words into words that the audience in another language can understand:The first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and thought content to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. The part of discourse elaboration is extremely important, because after the discourse has been uttered by the speaker, its oral expression will immediately disappear, but after this part of discourse is elaborated, it will become the translator’s thought. In his mind, what the speaker has already said returns to the original state, that is, the state of pure thought that has not been expressed in language. This "thought that has not been expressed in words"(Seleskovic 1979, 113) can be re-expressed at a normal speed through the interpreter’s language, so the discourse elaboration connects the speaker and the translator, just like a bridge for the people.

understanding: the first stage is the understanding of meaning, through understanding and analyzing language signs to clarify the linguistic phenomenon and though contend to be expressed, this stage is called interpretation of discourse. --Han Haiyang (talk) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second stage is cognitive supplementation, away from the shell of the source language. At this stage, we need to forget the deconstruction of language signs, and only need to remember the thought content it expresses, that is, the cognitive and emotional meanings produced by language signs. This stage is called "de-verbalization". Adding the process of breaking away from the language shell between understanding and expression is the result of the study of interpretive language and a contribution to the science.

The third stage is the reformulation stage of the original information content. That is to use another language symbol to create new sentences, and these sentences need to express the full content of the original utterance and easy to understand the two requirements.

In general, interpretive theory does not regard translation as a one-way decoding process of transforming a source language into a target language. It is a dynamic process of understanding ideas and then re-expressing them.(Zhang Si 2019, 275-277)

1.2 Introduction of Interpretation

Interpretation, also known as interpreting, is a kind of translation activity. As the name implies, it is a way for the translator to convert the input language into the output language in a spoken way. Oral translation is the simultaneous interpretation while the speaker is still speaking, which means the staff will simultaneously translate. Translation work is the bridge and link of our country's foreign exchanges and international exchanges. The development of translation business is also an inevitable requirement of our country's foreign reforms. It can improve the quality of translators and strengthen the construction of translators. Translation talents play a very important role in our country's economic development and social progress, especially in attracting foreign advanced technical knowledge and strengthening international exchanges and cooperation. The improvement of the political and professional quality of translators plays a key role in strengthening international cooperation in all aspects of our country's politics, economy, science and technology.

There are very strict requirements regarding the selection of simultaneous interpreters. During simultaneous interpretation, the interpreter should continuously interpret the content to the audience without disturbing the speaker. Simultaneous interpretation, as a translation method, is characterized by high efficiency. The average translation interval between the original text and the target text is three to four seconds, with a maximum of ten seconds, so the speaker can speak coherently without affecting or interrupting the speech. The reader’s thinking is conducive to the audience’s understanding of the full text of the speech. Simultaneous interpretation is an extremely difficult inter-language conversion activity that is strictly limited by time. It requires the hospital to quickly complete the prediction of the source language in a very short time with the help of the existing subject knowledge while listening to the source language speech. Comprehension, memorization and conversion, and at the same time monitor, organize, modify and express the target language, and speak the target language translation. At international conferences, simultaneous interpreters need to use "lightning thinking" and superb language skills to successfully overcome the interweaving and interference of multiple tasks, which can easily cause energy shortages or difficulty in distributing attention to the brain. According to the regulations of AIIC (International Conference Interpreters Association), simultaneous interpreters only need to translate 80% of the speaker's speech content as a pass rate (90%-100% "simultaneous interpretation" is almost impossible). (Ouyang Changyi 2010)

Many people usually speak very fast. When giving speeches, they often only take into account their own speech content, even with accents and even dialects from various places. The simultaneous interpreters have to mobilize all their knowledge reserves and experience to go all out. In addition to solid language skills and mature conference experience, entering the simultaneous interpretation industry also requires a strong desire for knowledge. Due to professional needs, translators often have to deal with knowledge in many fields while doing translation, so some people say "simultaneous interpretation is a half-expert in any field.". Mastering the knowledge of broadcasting is the prerequisite for good simultaneous interpretation.(Lou Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180)

2. Literary Review

No matter the interpretive theory and the interpretation,many people around the world have done some researches about them.And these researches about them can do great help for us to do further researches about them.

2.1 The Research on Interpretive Theory

Regarding the study of interpretive theory, there have been many scholars both at home and abroad who have conducted special research on it, and they have made important contributions to the continuous development of interpretive theory.

The first thing I mentioned is the study of interpretation by domestic scholars. In the early days, Chinese scholars began to study interpretive theory. Xu Jun, a well-known translation expert in our country, conducted research on interpretive theory in 1998. He mentioned in his article that he reviewed and studied the "interpretive" theory created by Professor Celeskovich; In 1997, the well-known translation expert Yuan Xiaoyi published an article on the concept of faithfulness called the interpretive theory, in which she discussed a problem of faithfulness that had been debated for thousands of years, and combining interpretive theory to explore this issue. With the development of the times, Chinese scholars’ enthusiasm for the study of interpretive theory has not diminished. For example, some scholars published an interpretive strategy study called Xi Jinping’s opening speech from the perspective of interpretive theory this year. The author here connects the interpretation theory with the times and integrates with practical activities. Based on the oral translation of President Xi Jinping’s speech, and guided by the theory of interpretation, the five translation strategies that translators commonly use literal translation, free translation, information simplification, antagonism and information supplementation are analyzed and summarized.

At the same time, some scholars are still interested in the rise and development of interpretive theory and continue to study the development process of interpretive theory. In 2020, Su Yuanyuan introduced the concept of interpretive and the rise and development of interpretive theory in her published articles, and discussed the significance and challenges of interpretive theory for the implementation of curriculum policy in our country. Looking at the articles published by domestic scholars on the research of interpretive theory, most of them are studying the role and embodiment of interpretive theory in practice, especially the application in interpretation practice, which has played an important role in the development of my country's translation industry.

Regarding foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory, many scholars have also emerged. Moreover, foreign scholars' research on interpretive theory will be earlier than domestic research. For example, in 1953, foreign scholar Surindar Suri explained the role of interpretive theory in the communication process in his published article, and carried out research and analysis based on practical examples. In 1969, Jackendoff Ray S. published an article called An Interpretive Theory of Negation, which explained the shortcomings of the interpretive theory. In 1969, Dougherty Ray C. conducted an investigation and research on the lexical level of interpretive theory, combined with specific text examples for analysis. Recently, many scholars have conducted research and analysis on interpretive theory. For example, in 2020, Harari and Michael investigated the relationship between interpretive theory and our thinking.

It is precisely because of the investigation and research of these scholars at home and abroad that it provides us with a lot of useful information for understanding and studying interpretive theory. Of course, the interpretive theory itself has also been developed in the process of their research and investigation. The development of theory will of course also promote the development of practice, continue to promote the development of interpretation and translation practice, and make a significant contribution to my country's translation industry.

2.2 The Research on Interpretation under the Guide of Interpretive Theory

Investigation and research on the application of interpretive theory in practice, the main direction is interpreting. In the aspect of interpretation, interpretive theory has made important contributions to its development. That is to say, the practical significance of interpretive theory is very large, which can guide people's life practice and assist translators in their work.

With the globalization of the world economy, the exchanges between countries continue to deepen and exchanges become more frequent. Therefore, the industry of translation has become more important, and interpretation plays an important role in the process of communication between countries. Therefore, both domestic and foreign translators have conducted research and investigation on it.

First of all, I have made a summary of some research investigations by domestic scholars. The research of Chinese scholars on interpretive theory in accompanying translation mainly combines various interpretation practices to analyze and research. In 2016, Zhang Yu accompanied the Canadian delegation to the practice report and analyzed the interpretive theory in this interpretation practice. Based on the author’s practice of accompanying interpretation and the understanding of interpretation theory, the scholar discussed and analyzed the problems encountered by the interpreter during the task. Through this translation practice, the translator also summed up the guiding role of the interpretive theory that interpretation should pay attention to the transmission of meaning for interpreters. In 2018, Yang Lijun discussed the application of interpretive theory in escort interpreting from the interpretation practice of the 2017 Asia Media Summit. During the summit, the scholar served as a liaison and accompanying interpreter and successfully completed the task of accompanying interpreter. This year is 2020, Liu Guifang takes China's "One Belt One Road" as the background, the rapid development of the world economy, the increasingly close relations between China and Russia, and the increasingly frequent trade exchanges. Therefore, the increasing demand for escort interpreting makes the quality of interpreting particularly important. Scholars served as an escort translator at the 12th "Black Technology" Exhibition in Dalian. Their personal experience in the process of practice, guided by interpretive theory, summarized some translation strategies and methods in interpreting work.

On the practical research on the theory of interpretation abroad. In 1992, JD Ward and FJ Rink conducted research and investigation on interpretive theory in the formulation of public policy. In 2011, SE Porter and JC Robinson introduced interpretive theory in their monograph. Foreign researchers started their research on interpretive theory earlier, with a wide range of research and in-depth research. The research on interpretive theory by domestic and foreign scholars has greatly promoted the development of translation, especially the development of interpretation.

3.Translation Strategies based on Interpretive Theory

Interpretive theory mainly includes three stages in the application process, namely, meaning understanding, cognitive supplementation, and separation from the source language. These three stages are called the triangle model of interpretation by the famous translator Celeskovich. We can understand from the picture below. There are three line segments in the figure. The realization from the top of the triangle to language A means that the translator captures the meaning and digests and understands it. The line segment from the top to language B represents the translator to express it in another language. These two lines reflect the process of translation: one is from linguistic signs to thinking, and the other is linguistic signs from thinking to target language. Then, the dashed line from language A to language B indicates that direct conversion of language symbols from the original language to the target language is impossible, which may violate the meaning of the original language.

Based on interpretive theory, a variety of translation skills have appeared in translation. Here we mainly discuss some translation skills of interpreting. The concept of interpreting is the object, and various examples are combined for analysis.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

3.1 Free Translation

The interpretive school believes that the pursuit of translation is not the equivalence of language forms, but the equivalence of meaning between the original text and the translated text, which enables it to achieve the purpose of communication in this way. Free translation refers to getting rid of the shackles of the source language form in the translation process and reorganizing the structure of the language to achieve the purpose of conveying meaning. Free translation does not mean changing the connotation of the source text, but after understanding the basic meaning of the source text in the translation process, it is expressed in the language used to the target language to make the language clearer and easier to understand. In leaders’ speeches, some culturally loaded words are often involved, such as idioms, colloquialisms, poems, etc., which are difficult for the target language audience to understand. Therefore, in this case, we adopt the translation strategy of free translation.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) 例1：明年是中国和东盟建立对话关系30周年，双方友好合作即将步入“而立之年”，双方各自的发展也处于承前启后的关键时期。 Translation: Next year will mark the 30th anniversary of China-ASEAN dialogue relations. Our friendship and cooperation, which is fully established, will move toward greater maturity as we both enter an important period of development. "而立之年" is a Chinese idiom, which means that a person can stand on his own at the age of thirty. The source of this idiom is the Spring and Autumn Period. After Confucius was excluded from the political arena, when talking to his disciples about his own experience, he said that he had been determined since he was 30, and he has not been able to launch a benevolent government until he is almost 70. Here, the translator directly expresses the thirty in the first year, which is beneficial for the listener of the target language to understand. 例2：论坛是中非共同的宝贵财富，我们要与时俱进，擦亮这块“金子招牌”。 Translation: FOCAC is a valuable asset for China and Africa. "金字招牌" is a Chinese idiom, which means a signboard in which stores used gold foil to show that they had strong funds. And now it is a name or title that can be shown off as a metaphor for being superior. It is also a good analogy of reputation. Here it mainly refers to a precious name, and the translation of asset is very appropriate and easy to understand.

3.2 Addition of Message

Information supplementation refers to the method of adding words to make the meaning clearer and more in line with the expression habits of the target language listener. Information supplements can be divided into adding words needed for grammatical structure, supplementing and omitted components, and components contained in the original text. Due to the differences in different cultures, some expressions will also be different in different languages, so the translator adopts appropriate supplementary methods to achieve the goal of meaning equivalence.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) 例1：在涉及彼此的核心利益和重大关切问题上相互坚定支持，始终高举多边主义和公平正义的旗帜，提高发展中国家的国际地位和影响力，维护了发展中国家的整体利益。 Translation: We have firmly supported each other on issues concerning core interests and major concerns. We have stood together in upholding the banner of multilateralism, fairness and justice. Together, we have elevated the international standing and influence of developing countries and safeguarded the overall interests of the developing world. In this translation, we can clearly see the difference in sentence expression between Chinese and English. Chinese pays more attention to the language of meaning, so it will omit some forms of expression; while English emphasizes the form of language expression, so there has relatively more use of function words in English expression. Through the above translation sentences, we will find that we have added some function words to the sentence structure in the English sentence, and also turned out the personal pronouns omitted from the source text. Through this addition, the logical relationship is clearer and the meaning is easier to understand. 例2：自今年4月举行东盟与中日韩（10+3）抗击新冠肺炎疫情领导人特别会议以来，各方积极落实会议各项成果，有利促进地区疫情防控和经济复苏，彰显了10+3作为东亚合作主渠道的重要作用。 Translation; In April, we had a Special ASEAN Plus Three(APT) Summit on COVIS-19. Since then, all parties have been actively implementing its outcome, which has bolstered both our response against the virus and economic recovery in the region. Such progress has highlighted APT’s important role as the main channel of East Asian cooperation. From the translation of the above example, we can find that when the source text is translated into the target language, the number of words in the target language is almost half that of the source text. There are a lot of words in the target language that have not appeared in the source text, such as relative pronouns and personal pronouns. But through such additions, the logic of the text is more fluent, and the meaning of the text is clearer.

3.3 Positive and Negative Translation

As we mentioned before, different countries have different cultural characteristics, and of course there are huge differences in language expression. Here we take the English-Chinese translation as an example to illustrate this translation feature. English and Chinese are both positive and negative. However, because Chinese speakers and English speakers have different ways of thinking and expression habits, the two languages have their own characteristics of expression. In the practice of translation, it involves the conversion of pros and cons, which means that during translation, the sentence that is being said in the original text must be processed into a negative, and vice versa. Therefore, on the basis of understanding the content of the original text and under the guidance of interpretive theory, adopting such a translation strategy can make the semantics clearer to a certain extent, which is more in line with the language expression habits of the target language readers.(Liu Yue, Lan Jie 2020, 179-180) The following are some typical examples: 例1 如果不加强各方的合作来合力战胜疫情，我们就不能够加强公共卫生，不能增强地区对公共卫生突发事件的处理能力。 Tranlation: We could enhance public health cooperation and strengthen our region’s preparedness for public emergencies through working together on COVID-19. The sentences in the source text are all expressed by the negative "cannot" in Chinese, and after being translated into English, the translator converts the negation into affirmation, which makes multiple repeated negative words in the source text omitted, so it appears clearer and is easy to understand. 例2 而不是搞知识封锁，制造甚至扩大科技鸿沟。 Translation: The least desirable is for us to stifle the flow of knowledge, or to create or even widen the technology divide among us. The source text is a negative sentence containing the negative “cannot" when translated into English. The translator is telling the truth, the translation is "at least", the form is affirmative, the meaning is negative. This kind of English expression is more authentic, and it also makes the expression diversified, and the English listeners can also be understood.

Conclusion

In order to systematically summarize the achievements in the field of international interpreting research, and to provide useful references and references for future interpreting research, so I chose interpretive theory as the research topic of this thesis, trying to make an attempt to the core composition of its theoretical system. Part of the paper has been systematically investigated and researched, and the whole article has been modified to analyze the interpretive theory and its practice in interpretation. It not only introduces the meaning of interpretation theory, but also analyzes its application in interpretation practice. Based on the creation and development of interpretive theory by the predecessors, the development of interpretive theory provided good translation strategies for later translation, especially interpretation, and made important contributions to the development of translation.

The core of interpretive theory emphasizes the separation of the shell of the source language and the communicative function of the language. From this we can see that in the process of interpreting, the translator cannot be attached to the form of the language, but should pay more attention to the language it carries. Only in this way can the translator deliver the information to the listener in the target language as much as possible in the practice of interpretation. Translators should fully understand the meaning of the text in the language and outside the language, quickly get rid of the shackles of language signs, and try to convey the source language accurately and faithfully. In the process of interpreting, especially when the leader speaks, the language of his speech is plain, multi-purpose and interlocked, good at repetition and use of discourse with Chinese characteristics.

Translators should use translation strategies flexibly.The interpretive school believes that interpreting is a kind of communicative activity whose purpose is to convey meaning, and in order to fully convey the meaning, the translator must analyze, understand and interpret the discourse of the source text during the translation process. In the process of interpretive, the translator needs to supplement the cognition. The supplement of cognition is a process of combining the translator's language knowledge, subject-related knowledge, encyclopedia knowledge and context knowledge.(Xiong Wen 2014, 154-155)

The interpretive theory is the hypothesis of "beyond the shell of the source language". This hypothesis is the core concept of interpretive theory and has a significant impact on the formation and development of interpretive theory. In fact, the interpretive theory was originally proposed based on the assumption that meaning can be separated from the outer shell of language. But in fact, there were certain problems when the theory was put forward by the initiators. The explanation of the relationship between language shell and meaning of this hypothesis was too simple, and in this hypothesis, both meaning and language form were absolutized. Generally speaking, the meaning may not be 100% out of the language shell in the process of interpreting, and the phenomenon of "out of" is unlikely to occur from beginning to end; the natural language may still be a natural language in the process of processing the source language text by the interpreter.(Zhang Yang, Li Lingzhe 2018, 334-336)

The triangular model of interpretation theory explains the psychological process of interpretation to a certain extent, shows bold and innovative spirit, and lays the foundation for the cognitive psychological transformation of interpretation research, which has contributed to the formation of the international interpretation research pattern and future development It has a huge and far-reaching impact, and it also brings profound enlightenment to human machine translation research. However, the interpretive school has always rejected the linguistic approach of interpretation in its research work, which is the marginalization of the object of interpretation; in addition, it only focuses on successful interpretation practice, and does not make a systematic and serious analysis of the reasons for the failure of interpretation, so it will Weaken the practical value of the theory and affected its further dissemination and development.(Lederer 2001, 45-50)

In this era of international interpreting research talents, thehe brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past. "As the leader of the past, today we don’t have to expect the interpretation theory of the interpretive school to continue its former glory." But the interpretive theory has not been outdated. Its high attention to meaning is important to today’s interpretation practice Interpretation teaching still has an important guiding role; the psychological process (information processing) model of interpreting it puts forward has been inherited through the efforts of a new generation of scientific research school! It is enriched and developed. With the progress of cognitive science, its "departure from the source language" The connotation of the “language shell” hypothesis may also become more and more clear and clear. The interpretation scope of the interpretation theory of the interpretive school may continue to expand, and the research methods of the interpretive school will continue to build the interpretation theory for a long time in the future. Make your own unique contribution."(Lederer 2001, 45-50)

In this era of international interpreting research talents, the brilliance of the interpretive theory has become the past.--Han Haiyang (talk) 12:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

References

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Theory and Practise

The Development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures 陈佳欣 Chen Jiaxin 202020080593

Abstract

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has lasted for more than a thousand years in China, which is taken as the first Chinese translation climax. The translation of Buddhist scriptures in China can be divided into three historical stages: the first historical period, from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty, the pioneering stage; the second historical period, from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, the stage of development; the third historical periods, the Tang Dynasty which reached its peak. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation. The article will review the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scripture and analyze literal translation and free translation of each stages through analyzing the famous translators, translation theories and translation characteristics of the three stages. In addition, this article will study the influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese language and literature.

Keywords

Buddhist scriptures, Translation, Literal translation, Free translation

摘要

佛经翻译在中国持续了一千多年, 我国的第一个翻译高潮就是佛经翻译。中国的佛经翻译大致分为三个历史阶段：第一个历史时期，从东汉末到西晋，为草创阶段； 第二个历史时期，从东晋时期到隋朝，是发展阶段；第三个历史时期，唐代达到全盛阶段。意译和直译的问题贯穿佛经翻译的始终, 大致发展过程为:初期的大略主直译——发展时期的直译意译相争——全盛时期的直译意译达到和谐。文章将通过研究这三个阶段的著名译者，翻译理论和翻译特点来梳理佛经翻译的发展，并分析每个时期佛经翻译中直译意译的发展。

关键词

佛经，翻译，直译，意译

Introduction

Chinese translation has a long history of three thousand years, and the earliest translation can be traced back to the Shang and Zhou dynasties. But scholars generally take the translation of Buddhist scriptures in the Eastern Han Dynasty as the beginning of the translation history of China. Buddhism, religion and philosophy founded in India by Siddhartha Gautama, was unknown to other countries for a long time. About the first century AD Buddhism entered China along trade routes from Central Asia. Thus, the translation of Buddhist scriptures came into being. Buddhism was widely developed in China and became one of the most important religions in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese culture and civilization. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is mainly supported by two groups of people: the foreign monks who came to China to preach; the Chinese monks who go west to seek sutras. “The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty, further developing from the Eastern Jin to Sui Dynasty, and peaking in Tang Dynasty, which stretches for more than one thousand years”(Meng Yue 2017, 305). And it has great influence on Chnese society, culture, language, arts etc. The translation of Buddhist scriptures is the first Chinese translation climax. With it developing, many translators and translation works come to the fore, and lots of translation theories have been put forward and perfected, which lays the foundation for later ones.

During the whole history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, literal translation and free translation have always been one of the hottest topic. Literal translation of Buddhist scriptures refers to the rendering of text from Sanskrit into Chinese at a time or without conveying the sense of the original Buddhist scriptures. It emphasizes the form similarity and requires the accordance between the Sanskrit and Chinese in the choices of word, syntax and styles. Free translation of Buddhist means to mainly convey the meaning and spirit of the original Buddhist scriptures, which does not adhere strictly to the form or word order of the original. The problems of free translation and literal translation run through the whole development of the translation of Buddhist scriptures. “The general process is: literal translation is mainly employed at the beginning; literal translation and free translation are competed at the development stage; the two reached harmony at the peak of Buddhist translation” (Sun Shanshan 2014, 174).

In the present paper, I shall discuss the development of translation in Chinese Buddhist scriptures from three period. The first period is from the late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. Among them An Shigao and Zhi Chen advocate literal translation, while Zhi Qian supports free translation. The second period from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally and raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering and argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers. The third period is the Tang Dynasty, and the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang held that translation “must be truthful and intelligible to the populace”.

The late Eastern Han to the Western Jin Dynasty ——Mainly Literal Translation

The development of Chinese Translation of Buddhist Scriptures starts from the end of Eastern Han Dynasty. With the success of the Silk Road, Buddhism was introduced to China. At the beginning, it was not widely accepted by Chinese society due to language barrier. Therefore, it is of great necessity to translate Buddhist scriptures into Chinese, so that it can be read, comprehended and accepted by Chinese people. The representative translators during this period are An Shigao, Zhi Chen and Zhi Qian. The first two were the masters of the literal translation school.

An Shigao

An Shigao lived from 148-180 CE. According to legend, he was a prince of Parthia (modern Iran). He gave up being a prince to become a Buddhist missionary monk in China. Soon after he arrived China, he quickly possessed a good knowledge of Chinese and started to translate Buddhist Scriptures into Chinese. He totally translated 35 Buddhist Scriptures, of which main content was the basic doctrines and method of cultivation of Theravada Buddhism. Compared to other contemporaneous translators, “An Shigao’s translation can more accurately convey the original meaning of the text. His translation is clear and appropriate. Generally speaking, he was the earliest representative of literal translator in China. His translation is mainly literal and respects the structure of the original text” ( Fang Yang 2013, 6). However, as An Shigao was the earliest group of Buddhist scripture translators, “there is no precedents to follow, some terms in the translation are not easy to understand, and the structure of some original sentence are different from that of Chinese, therefore there are some repetitions and inversions in his translation” (Yang Chaobiao 2012, 78).

Zhi Chen

Zhi Chen, entering China at about 167 CE, was the first monk who introduced Mahāyāna Buddhism to China. He was proficient in Chinese and translated a large number of Buddhist scriptures. Most of them are about Mahayana Buddhism. With the translation of An Shigao as reference, Zhi Chen accumulated a certain amount of experience in wording and phrasing, so his translation can be relatively fluent and preserve the original meaning as much as possible. Besides, “transliteration are often employed in his translation”(Zhang Yuwei 2019, 115). Therefore he was also regarded as one of the representatives of literal translators. However, due to the limitation of the time, Zhi Chen, just as same as An Shigao and other comtemporay translators, his translation about some terms are obscure and unclear.

Zhi Qian

Zhi Qian, also known as Zhi Yue, is a Buddhist scripture translator during the Three Kingdoms period. He is the author of The Dhammapada Sequence, which is said to be the first essay on translation in China. He opposed to the previous translation which focuses on the literal meaning of the text while ignore the elegance of translation. He argued that translation should be easy to understand and the language should be smooth. Zhiqian was the first person in ancient China to systematize and theorize translation. “Zhi Qian’s preface is the first work whose purpose is express an opinion about translation practice”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He broke the routine of literal translation, pursued the elegance of words, and advocated both free translation and Literal translation, which played a very important role in the improvement of the later translation of the Buddhist scriptures.

The Characteristics of This Period

(1) The translation of Buddhist scriptures were mostly completed by foreign monks. During this period, Buddhism has just been introduced to China, for this reason there are very few native monks who really know Buddhist scriptures. In the other hand, in order to propagate Buddhism, these foreign monks had to take on translating Buddhist scriptures in the early days.

(2)The mainstream translation principle was faithfulness at that time. On the one hand, the translators are almost devout religious believers. “Religious scriptures seem to be the sacred “ will of God ”, which is unalterable. Any amplification, deletion or modification in the translation process of religious scriptures can be seen as a blasphemy against God” (Xiong Hui 2013, 67). Therefore, translators mainly adopted the translation method of literal translation, which demonstrates the sincere religious beliefs of translators and preserves the sanctity of religious scriptures. On the other hand, in the early days of Buddhism, foreign monks were not proficient in Chinese, and Chinese monks were not proficient in Sanskrit. Early translators lack bilingual ability and translation experience, therefore then can only translate word for word. Besides, since there is no previous translation to refer to, some Buddhist terms do not have an authoritative and fixed explanation, and some expressions cannot be found its counterpart in Chinese, therefore they can only be translated literally. Literal translation was highly proposed by An Shigao and Zhi Chen. Until the Three Kingdoms period, Zhi Qian pursued the elegance of words, which broke the routine of literal translation.

(3)Taoist language is often used in translation. “When Buddhism was firstly introduced to China, Taoism, as the native religion of China, was in its prevalence. As a foreign religion, Buddhism have to be attached to Taoism to facilitate the spread the new doctrine in China” (Meng Yue 2017, 306). Therefore, a large number of Buddhist concepts were interpreted by analogy with indigenous ideas, such as Taoist.

the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty—Transition from literal translation to free translation

The second historical period,from the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, is the stage of development. At this period, Buddhism was gradually accepted by Chinese people. Buddhism believer is not limited to the royal family and nobleman, but also includes common people. The representative translators during this period are Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva.

Shi Daoan

Shi Daoan (314-385), who was an eminent monk. In addition to his efforts for developing a disciplinary code for Chinese monastic communities, he is also known for his translation and commentaries on the scriptures. Shi Daoan proposed that translation should be carried out literally without any amplification or omission, advocating “translation according to the original features”. However, Shi didn’t stick to the literal translation that strictly. He raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”.

“‘Five Losses of Source Texts’ discusses the problems of word order, work or essence, detail or simplification.As for the word order of the First Loss of Source Texts, Daoan clearly advocates the inversion.As for the Second Loss of Source Texts, Daoan proposes to choose work or essence translation according to readers' level and different styles and advocates taking advantages of two schools in order to translate Chinese Buddhist Scriptures better. As for the simplication or detail of the Third, Fourth and Fifth Loss of Source Texts, Daoan thinks the trivial, repeated eulogy, ode and conclusion words should be deleted generally except for the translation of Buddhist discipline."Three Difficulties in Translation" discusses the factors of times, readers and translators that Buddhist Scripture translation faces.It is these three factors that result in the difficulties of translating Chinese Buddhist Scriptures”(Fang Ruifen 2012, 385). “Five losses” means to allow the translation to be different from the original in grammar, rhetoric and structure, so as to conform to the language habits of Chinese people. “Three difficulties” requires that translators should be able to strike a balance betwen styles, intelligence, and time.

The main contribution of Dao’an to the translation of Buddhist scriptures is the creation and organization of translation workshop. Before Dao’an, the translation were usually finished by private. He set up a translation workshop, ushering in the period of translation on a large scale. And a State Translation School was founded for this purpose. Besides, he invites some translators from India as well. From then on, translation has become an organized activity.

Kumarajiva

Another representative translator Kumarajiva, who has enjoyed a high reputation in the long history of the Buddhist sutras translation，was well - renowned and was called as " the first class master of translation" by Liang Qichao. He advocated free translation and getting rid of the shortcomings of transliteration. He is one of the four great translators of ancient China, one of the three great translators of Buddhist scriptures, who translates 39 volumes. He is proficient in both Chinese and Sanskrit languages, and advocates that as long as the translation does not violate the original meaning, there is no need to follow the original form. “Kumarajiva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism, in clarity and overcoming the previous "geyi" (concept-matching) system of translation through use of Daoist and Confucian terms”(Nattier 1992, 186). He argued that “geyi” is the culprit of the deformation of India Buddhism after it was introduced into China. “He completely abandoned interpreting Buddhist concept by using Daoist and Confucian terms, and has worked hard to create Buddhist terms, so that the translation is more faithful to the original” (Ma Zhuyi 1982, 25).

Kumarajiva opposed to precise literal rendering, because he held that Sanskrit and Chinese are two quite different language. “In the original there is attention to aesthetics, but the sense of beauty and the literary form (dependent on the particularities of Sanskrit) are lost in translation. It is like chewing up rice and feeding it to people”(Ma Zhuyi 1988). He argued that the translation of Buddhist scriptures should be concise and elegant and meet the language habits of Chinese readers, so that Buddhists can better understand and accept the translated scriptures. He tried to use concise text that conformed to Chinese expression habits, while retaining the exotic taste so that readers could understand and accept easily. Kumarajiva did not stick to the form of the original, and often delete the repetitive content. Therefore, his translation style was distinctive, possessing a flowing smoothness. Another remarkable achievement is his contribution to the translation workshop. After he arrived Chang'an, he began to organize translation workshops. Under his efforts, the number of translators increased greatly, and the division of labor was detailed.The entire translation process includes interpretation, recording, correcting and proofreading. After group discussion, the quality of translation has been greatly improved. In addition, in order to be responsible for the Buddhist scriptures translated, Kumarajiva was the first translator to propose that the translator should signature over his translation in the Chinese history.

The Characteristics of This Period

(1)From folk and personal translation to official and collective translation. At the beginning, the translation of Buddhist scriptures was a private activity. Generally a foreign monk recited the Buddhist scriptures and brought it to China. Then the translator interpreted the scriptures into Chinese, and another person recorded it. That’s the whole process of the translation of Buddhist scriptures at the early days. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty period to the Sui Dynasty, translation workshop was organized. Famous translators such as Shi Daoan and Kumarajiva both had presided over translation workshop. From then on, individual translation behavior gradually developed into a collective translation activity. During this period, with the support of the government, the number of translators has greatly increased, and the division of labor has become more detailed. Therefore, the quality of translation has also been greatly improved. “In addition, the function of translation workshop is not limited to translate Buddhist scriptures, but also give lectures and hold debates. Many translators who preside over the translation field not only translate, but also give lectures about Buddhism” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14).

(2)From adopting the source text version of the Northern barbarian tribes in ancient China to that of Sanskrit. Before the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the version of Hun (Chinese northern nomads）are usually taken as the original text by translators. Afterwards, the Sanskrit texts were introduced to the China，translators can take them as the original text. The accuracy of the translation was improved greatly. On the other hand, since there are more Sanskrit texts, they have more options of the type of scripture to be translated. Also the systemic nature of the translation has also increased.

(3)Breakthroughs in translation theories and skills. During this period, many famous translators have put forward their opinions on translation theory. Based on his translation practice, Shi Daoan raised the theory of “five losses and three difficulties”. Kumarajiva advocated free translation. He is the first one to raise the question of how to express the stylistic and linguistic interest of the original text, which had a great influence on translation history. From the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the end of the Sui Dynasty, there were many famous translators who put forward different translation theories and opinions, which had a greater impact on the practice of translation.

(4)A tool for class oppression. The rulers from the Eastern Jin Dynasty to the Sui Dynasty took Buddhism as a tool of class oppression. In the South of China, the society is stable, so the noble class of South China was arrogant and lavish, metaphysics was prevailed among them. Therefore Buddhism and metaphysics were combined, and rulers interpret Buddhist theories from the perspective of metaphysics. The translation of Buddhist scriptures was also influenced by this prevailing ethos. However, the Northern Dynasty advocated Confucianism. Due to frequent wars and limited economic development, the rulers of Northern China turned to Buddhism and took Zen as their guide. Therefore Buddhism naturally combined with Confucianism, and Zen became the mainstream of Buddhism in the Northern Dynasty. The translation of Zen classics meets the needs of the ruling class and Buddhists in the Northern Dynasty. “Buddhism, as a tool for the government to consolidate their reign, has been stained with a strong political color”(Wang Yan 2012, 158).

Tang Dynasty

The third historical period is the Tang Dynasty. During this period, Buddhism developed vigorously. In order to consolidate their regime, the emperor of Tang Dynasty also valued Buddhism very much, to domesticate his people together with the help of Chinese traditional ritual. Therefore the ruling class attached great importance to the translation of Buddhist scriptures. The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. And the representative translator in this age is Xuan Zang. Xuan Zang tried many translation methods and developed his epoch-marking criterion that “translation ‘must be truthful and intelligible to the populace’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18). In a sense, Xuan Zang, with such a formula, was trying to have the best of two worlds—literal translation and free translation.

Xuang Zang

Xuanzang (600-664), a famous monk in the Tang Dynasty, is commonly known as the " Sanzang Rabbi." On the third year of Zhenguan of Tang Emperor Taizong, he left for Dunhuang from Chang'an, and then arrived in India. He returned to Chang'an in the nineteenth year, and traveled for seventeen years. Through hard work, he brought back more than 650 Sanskrit verses, the number and variety are both unprecedented. He presided over the translation work of seventy-five parts, 1,335 volumes, accounting for more than half of the total number of new Buddhist scriptures in the Tang Dynasty. “Therefore, he was called by the Indian scholar Bai Letian as ‘No.1 translator in the history of translation’”（Ma Zhuyi 1980, 18).

In the process of translating the scriptures, Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”: First, with secret. The words with mystery are not translated, as there are many spells in the Buddhist scriptures. For example, if the "Doroni" is translated, it will lose its special meaning, so it will lose its magic. Second, with multiple meaning. The ambiguous Sanskrit will not be translated. For example, the word "bhaga" has six meanings( comfortable, flourishing, dignity, name, lucky, esteemed), so the original text is reserved for transliteration. Third, with no counterpart in China. the concept of things which are not found in the original culture of translation will not be translated. For example, the "jumbu tree" in Buddhism is a tree unique to India, which does not grow in China, therefore using transliteration. Fourth, with the ancients. the customary words should follow the habit of transliteration. If the ancients have translated some Buddhist special words, such as "Aunt Bodhi", although they can be translated, cause confusion. It is best to use the ancient translation rather than a new translation. Fifth, with Good fortune. “The word in the original Sanskrit language can also be found in Chinese with a similar meaning, but they are not strictly same as having many differences in connotation. Such word can not be translated”( He Zizhang 2008, 66). Such as "prajna" respect, "wisdom" is light and shallow. “The word "Untranslatable" here does not mean not translating, but rather "not intended to translate", using transliteration”( Jian Xue 2018, 28).

The Characteristics of This Period

(1) The translators are mainly domestic monks. With the strong support of the rulers of Tang Dynasty, the Chinese translators had the opportunity to go to India and other countries to learn Sanskrit and Buddhism. Through long-term study, these translators were not only proficient in Sanskrit but also has a deep understanding of Buddhism. “Besides, in order to meet the needs of translation, Yijing wrote the Sanskrit textbook which means that translators have been able to learn Sanskrit in China” ( Fang Yang 2013, 14). The number of Chinese monks who are proficient in Sanskrit has gradually increased, and the translation work does not need to turn to foreign monks.

(2) Fewer excerpts translation yet more complete translations. Due to the attention and support of the rulers, the translators have the access to the pilgrimage to India to find out more about Buddhist scripture. Besides, the improvement of the quality of translators and the perfection of the system of translation workshop also make such large translation programs possible.

(3) Further improvement of the translation workshop system. Compared with the translation workshop of the previous stage, that of Tang Dynasty is more all-sided in organization. “According to records, The translation workshop of the Tang Dynasty has as many as 11 departments”( Xiu Wenqiao 2008, 32). Each part was under the charge of different people. The monks worked in the translation workshop are all knowledgeable and skilled in translation, and many of them are rabbis appointed by the court.

(4) The peak of Buddhist scripture translation in Chinese history. Many outstanding translators emerged during this period, such as Xuanzang, Yijing and Bukong etc. The four major translators in the Chinese translation history of Buddhist scripture are Kumarajiva, Zhenti, Xuanzang, and Bukong. Two of them are from the Tang Dynasty.

(5) The translation scripts are more faithful to original texts. Because Xuanzang and other translators traveled long distances to search for the Buddhist scriptures, they brought back many Sanskrit classics, which created better conditions for the monks to learn Sanskrit and the original Buddhist scriptures. Therefore they trained a large number of excellent translators, and greatly improved the quality of the translation. Xuan Zang advocated that that translation should be faithful to the original style. He believes that if the original language is elegant and the translation should also be elegant , but if the original style is simple, the translation should be the same.

The Influence of the Translation of Buddhist Scriptures

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been developed in China for more than two thousands of years with great impacts on Chinese language and civilization. At the aspect of language, it has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

The influence of Buddhist scripture translation on Chinese is mainly manifested in phonology. The “Buddhist scriptures were originally written in Sanskrit and Central Asian languages, both of which belong to phonetic alphabet , while Chinese characters developed from hieroglyphs, and there was no such thing as alphabet at first”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). After Buddhism was introduced to China, some people began to use Sanskrit to assist in learning Chinese pronunciation. The principles and methods of Sanskrit phoneticization promote the development of Chinese phonology. Therefore, Buddhism can be said to have laid the foundation for the formation of Chinese pinyin.

“In the process of translating Buddhist scriptures, the original Chinese vocabulary could not meet the needs of translation, therefore new Chinese words were created through transliteration and free translation”( Hou Lixiang 2016, 14). In the history of the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Zhi Chen advocated transliteration, and Xuanzang proposed the principle of “Five Untranslatable Situations”, which state five cases to use transliteration. Therefore the loanwords from Buddhism came into China, which greatly enriched Chinese vocabulary. “Through careful analysis, linguists have made a conclusion that about 35,000 words in Chinese come from Buddhist scripture”(Du Aixian 2000, 49). Some are directly related to Buddhism, such as “Buddha”, “monk”, “ Dharma", "Sutra” etc; some are words that we don’t realize, such as "memory", "world", "now", "causality", "attachment", "emptiness", "reality" and so on. In addition, many four-character idioms remaining in modern Chinese have the color of Buddhism, and a large number of four-character idioms appeared after the Wei and Jin Dynasty. Such as “drop one's cleaver and become a Buddha”(放下屠刀, 立地成佛), “While the priest climbs a post, the devil climbs ten” (道高一尺, 魔高一丈 ).

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been considered the main element which led to the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words, and also made the patterns of word-formation more perfect. “According to the research, words in ancient times are mainly monosyllable, and the process of disyllabic Chinese was very slow before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, but since the translation of Buddhist scriptures became popular at that time, the double-syllable tendency of Chinese words greatly accelerated”(Sun Yan 2015, 120). Therefore, the translation of Buddhist scriptures are supposed to be the main motive.

In order to convey the thoughts of Buddhist scriptures more clearly, many terms need to be translated into colloquial language, which is difficult to express by the original Chinese monosyllabic words. The oralized trends of the translation of the Buddhist scriptures have imposed great impacts on various kinds of colloquial literature styles, and also highly related to the terasyllabic words in the colloquial novels.

Conclusion

The Chinese translation of Buddhist scriptures has gone through three different historical periods. And different social conditions have also resulted in different strategies of sutra translation. At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, when Buddhism was first introduced to China, Taoism was dominant in the Chinese society and the translator was not proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese. Therefore, literal translation, and transliteration were mainly employed during this period. During Wei and Jin Dynasties, Buddhism developed to a certain extent. Most translators were proficient in Sanskrit and Chinese, which made free translation possible. And in order to spread Buddhism, Buddhists adopt free translation strategies to make Buddhist scriptures more acceptable. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, in order to consolidate their own regime, government strongly supported the translation of Buddhist scriptures. Literal translation and free translation were in harmony during this period, thus the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak.

The translation of Buddhist scriptures has been exerted great influences on Chinese language. It has promoted the development of Chinese phonology, expanded the Chinese vocabulary, enriched the way of Chinese word formation, accelerated the process of Chinese diphones, and promoted the colloquialization of Chinese.

By reviewing the development process of Buddhist scripture translation, and summarizing the characteristics of each stage, we can have a clear understanding of Buddhism translation from a macro perspective. Through learning the main achievements and growth experience of important translators, we can learn more translation strategies and do better in our own translation practice. The translation of Buddhist scriptures occupies an important position in the history of Chinese translation and has had a significant impact on Chinese language and culture. Therefore, it is necessary for us to go back to the source, review the development of Translation in Chinese Buddhist Scriptures, learn the main achievements of important translators, and further study the representative theory of Buddhist scripture translation

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An Analysis of the Books of Translation，History and Culture: A Sourcebook and A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Thoughts 成于思 Cheng Yusi 202020080598 比较文学与跨文化研究

Abstract

André Lefevere’s Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook and Liu Miqing’s A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles are two books concerning translation principles and translation theories from the perspective of culture. This paper consists of three parts. In part one, after a brief introduction of Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, the paper is about to give an analysis of the excerpts about John Dryden’s three types of translation and the comparison of “translator and author to slave and master” and illustrate them with several reasons. Then, the author will present other scholars' appraisals of this book. The second part will briefly introduce Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles,then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Finally, it will display some scholars' evaluation of the book. In the third part, the paper will make a comparison of these two books to deepen readers' understanding of them.

Key words

André Lefevere, Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Liu Miqing, A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles, “cultural turn”, John Dryden, translation principles

题目

《翻译，历史与文化论集》与《中西翻译思想对比研究》的比较分析

摘要

安德烈·勒菲弗尔的《翻译，历史和文化论集》和刘宓庆的《中西翻译思想对比研究》均是关于翻译思想和翻译理论研究的作品。两本书均从文化视角对翻译思想进行研究。本文第一部分将对《翻译，历史和文化论集》进行简要介绍，体现勒菲弗尔“文化转向”的观点，并节选其中摘录的英国诗人约翰·德莱登的片段进行重点论述，分析其翻译方法和”作者-译者主仆论”，并进行原因说明，以体现《翻译，历史和文化论集》一书的主旨，然后对本书进行简要的评价。第二部分将对《中西翻译思想对比研究》进行简述，针对第二章和第三章的内容，对中西方翻译传统的特点进行对比。然后收集相关学者对此书的评价。在第三部分中，笔者将对上述两本书进行内容和形式上的对比，帮助读者更好地理解这两本书。

关键词

安德烈·勒菲弗尔,《翻译，历史和文化论集》，刘宓庆，《中西翻译思想对比研究》，文化转向，约翰·德莱登，翻译原则

1.Introduction

This paper presents the author’s understanding of the two books: Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook and A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. After a brief introduction of these two books, this paper is intended to focus on the analysis of important translation principles and make a comparison of these two books in content and form. This paper will be divided into three parts.

In part one, after a brief introduction of the book Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden compares a translator to a slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.

In part one, after a brief introduction of the book Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, it will concentrate on John Dryden’s three types of translation: metaphrase, parap，hrase and imitation, and briefly appraise it. Then it will extend Dryden’s views on translator’s position. That Dryden's comparison of the translator and slave exactly reflects the dominant thought about translator in the classical period. Some scholars study the thought of comparing a translator with a slave and discover that besides the representative of literal circles like Dryden, it also prevailed among modern linguistics and the school of translation studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014) Then, the author is about to explain why “comparing a translator to a slave” predominates in the history of Western translation to support Lefevere’s “cultural turn”. Finally, the author will present other scholars' evaluation of this book.--Wang Yu (talk) 07:56, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In part two, the author will give an introduction to the book A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles in three sections due to the stout volume of this book. Then it will make a comparison between the characteristics of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation based on chapter two and chapter three. Through these chapters, we can comprehend Liu Miqing’s purpose to publish this book. Also, we can find the uniqueness of Chinese translation theories, thus appealing to Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture. Liu Miqing pointed out that the analysis of the characteristics of Chinese translation theory is by no means to boast or to do publication but to do a self-examination. He hoped that through a full analysis of the “being-in-itself” Chinese theories, we could find out the weak points that hinder them in their way to “being-for-itself”. (Liu Miqing 2005. 72) Finally, the author will show some scholars’ appraisals of this book.

In part three, it intends to give a brief comparison of these two books in contents and forms.

All in all, this paper is written in hope that the readers can understand these two books better and provoke their thought about these two books.

2. Analysis of Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook

Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, edited by American translation theorist and the foremost representative of Translation Studies---André Lefevere in 1992, is a collection of seminal statements of thinking about literary translation in Western Europe, spanning twenty centuries from 106 BC to 1931 AD. "Lefevere's later work on translation and culture in many ways represents a bridging point to the 'cultural turn'."(Munday 2016,199) As such, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook serves as good proof of the "cultural turn" of translation proposed by Translation Studies.

In general editor's preface of this book, Lefevere and Bassnett displayed their intention to edit this book---to reflect the current development of Translation Studies. They redefined translation as "a rewriting of an original text". Here, they explained that "rewritings reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and manipulate literature to function in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society." (Lefevre 2003, xi) According to these concepts, Lefevere aims to declare the central function of translation as a shaping force.

In the preface of the book, Lefevere looked back to the tradition of translation in western Europe and concluded that the previous discussion of translation was exclusive to language, failing to deal with the complexity of the translation. Therefore, he proposed that the study of translation needs a deep exploration for cultural studies. (Lefevre 2003, xiii)

Such an idea was envisaged at the backdrop of the stagnancy of linguistics in the 1970s and the emergence of Translation Studies in 1976, thus promoting the trend of the "cultural turn". The "cultural turn" was officially termed by Mary Snell-Hornby, meaning the move from translation as text to translation as culture and politics in her paper collected in the book Translation, History and Culture in 1990, whose publication was valued as the declaration of "cultural turn" of translation studies. (Lefevere and Bassnett 1990, 1-13)

If the book Translation, History and Culture is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.

If the book Translation, History and Culture is regarded as the anticipation and elaboration of Lefevere and Bassnett's thoughts of "cultural turn", Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, with abundant case studies, is proved to be a good illustration of their thoughts.--Wang Yu (talk) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, the Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the important thinking on translation, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)

The collected excerpts are arranged in eight themes, including The Role of Ideology, The Power of Patronage, Poetics, Universe of Discourse, Translation, The Development of Language and Education, The Technique of Translating, Central Texts and Central Cultures and The Longer Statements which is an extension of the former seven themes. Such an exclusive arrangement is intended to highlight the importance of translation thinking, to effectively illustrate the constraints imposed on translation, to discuss the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and to give out technique of translating concerning translation practice, thus dwarfing the traditional chronological arrangement. (Lefevre 2003, xiv)--Wang Yu (talk) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

I enjoy reading this book because it makes those aloof and remarkable scholars closer to us. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh and narrate their feelings of being translators. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.

I enjoy reading this book because it brings us and those aloof and remarkable scholars more closer. After reading their original words, they seem to appear fresh before our eyes and narrate their feelings of being translators to us themselves. Through reading the scholar's letters or their original statements, we can review their thoughts on the basis of our understanding, rather than be crammed with so-called essential yet monotonous principles summarized by others.--Wang Yu (talk) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

I read translators' inferiority in Dryden's words and admire Cicero's courage to assert free translation to defend the privilege of translators. He said that "I decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators and to translate them freely… I could not only make use of the best expressions in common usage with us, but I could also coin new expressions, analogous to those used in Greek". (Lefevere 2003, 47)

In this part, I will analyze John Dryden's three types of translation and his comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" through the excerpts collected in Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook. (Lefevere 2003, 24;102-105)

Translation deals with authority and power. A translator rewrites or manipulates the original text in service of power. (Lefevere 2003,2) The role a translator plays in translation depends on the power he is submissive to. In this part, the author analyzes Dryden’s comparison of "author and translator" to "master and slave" in hope for an exploration of the reasons of the translator’s inferiority in translation. It is believed that Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook is written to stress the function of translation as a shaping force.(Lefevere 2003, xii) Therefore, the discussion of Dryden's views on translator can reflect part of the intention of the book Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook.

Lefevere extracted two statements by Dryden and relatively placed them in Chapter Two---The Power of Patronage, and Chapter Eight---Longer Statements. In chapter eight, Lefevere extracted an excerpt from the preface to Dryden's translation of Ovid's Epistles published in 1680. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

In the preface, Dryden proposed three methods of translation. First, metaphrase, or word-by-word translation. Second, paraphrase, or translation with latitude, where the author is kept in view by the translator, so as never to be lost, but his words are not so strictly followed as his sense; and that too is admitted to be amplified, but not altered. Third, imitation, the translator assumes the liberty, not only to vary from the words and sense but to forsake them both as he sees occasion; and taking only general hints from the original, to run division on the groundwork, as he pleases. (Lefevere 2003, 102)

Dryden argues that when it comes to metaphrase, the translator is encumbered with many difficulties. Not only should he consider the thought of his author, his word, and find out counterpart to each in another language, but he could be confined by the rhyme as well. In Dryden's vivid simile, translating the poem in such a way is like "dancing on ropes with fettered legs". The dancer needs to be cautious of falling, so it is hard to expect gracefulness of motion of him. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Therefore, if a poem is translated word by word, its sense will be harmed, not to mention its elegance. He defined imitation "to be an endeavor of a later poet to write like one who has written before him, on the same subject; that is, not to translate his words, or to be confined to his sense, but only to set him as a pattern, and to write, as he supposes that author would have done, had he lived in our age and in our country".(Lefevere 2003, 103)

As such, the translator needn't care about the author's elaborative use of words or subtle spirit, but to write a poem in the author's style as if he were alive. The translator can add or diminish as he likes to express his own thoughts, however, Dryden argued that through imitation, the work is no longer to be called the author's work, but a new produced one, which does express the translator's talent but spoils the reputation of the dead. Therefore, literal translation and imitation, two extremes, should be avoided. (Lefevere 2003, 103)

Dryden proposed a mean betwixt them --- to paraphrase, or to translate with latitude. "tis time to look into ourselves, to conform our genius to his, to give his thought either the same turn, if our tongue will bear it, or if not, to vary but the dress, not to alter or destroy the substance".(Lefevere 2003, 104)

It is best to convey the thought of the poet. And the words that the translator adapt need to make confession to the thought if they are unable to bear it, except for the original words that appear literally graceful, which is believed to be kept to maintain the delicacy of the poem. Nevertheless, due to the properties of different languages, Dryden supposed that "he may stretch his chain to such a latitude".(Lefevere 2003, 105) In conclusion, a translator can be allowed liberty for the expression, but the sense of an author is to be respected against violation.

Dryden's three types of translation broke the dominance of two types of translation in the tradition of Western translation. Before that, literal translation and free translation were considered to be two methods of translation, thus promoting the history of Western translation. Besides, Dryden pioneered to propose a systematic method of the translation of poetry in the West. Thus, it is widely accepted that his translation principles are enlightening and have exerted influence on translation studies and practice. (Chou Huifang, 2019)

However, in Chapter Two, in "Dedication" to his translation of the Aeneid, Dryden argued that "We are bound to our author's sense, though with the latitudes already mentioned".(Lefevere 2003, 24). He compared a translator to a slave and drudged to express his views on the role of translators. "But slaves we are, and labor in another man's plantation; we dress the vineyard, but the wine is the owner's; if the soil be sometimes barren, then we are not thanked, for the proud reader will only say, the poor drudge had done his duty." (Lefevere 2003, 24)

Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters, including Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies. (Niu Yunping, 2014)

Dryden's words reflect the translator's inferiority and being belittled at the time of Classicism, which even exerts influence on the later Contemporary Linguistics and Translation Studies. In the history of Western translation theory, many translators and scholars such as Etienne Pasquier, Madame de La Fayette, Sir John Denham, Gaspar de Tende Daniel Huet, Charles Batteux, Mathew Arnold, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the translators of linguistics and in 20th century and some scholars of Translation Studies, were spontaneously back to regard translators as the slaves and the authors the masters.(Niu Yunping, 2014) --Wang Yu (talk) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form, Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)

A scholar concludes that under the influence of classicism the English cultural circle also showed their tribute to the "classical writers" of ancient Greek and Rome, and expressed their priority to reason, rules and balance. They believed that the classics were unsurpassable and the works with the highest form. Therefore, the translators found that the author's overriding authority was beyond questions. (Niu Yunping, 2014)--Wang Yu (talk) 02:55, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Susan Basnett explained that both the hardening of nationalistic lines and the growth of pride in a national culture conspired to the situation where the translators no longer saw translation as a prime means of enriching their own culture. The elitist began to devaluate translation and disparaged translators as an instrument. (Basnett, 2004. 72-73)

About the value of this book, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)

About the value of this book, Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook is characterized by its abundant contents, which combines translation with history and cultural turn, thus providing referential materials for translation studies. With reference to Lefevere, many texts collected in this book were published in English for the first time, which served as an important supplement to the system of thinking on literary translation. (Lefevere 2003, xiii)--Wang Yu (talk) 02:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

3. Analysis of A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles

In this part, I attempt to analyze the content and the value of the book A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles, which was published in 2005. The book consists of a FAQ passage substituting the preface and fourteen chapters. It must highlight that Liu Miqing explains that "Sixiang" ("thought" in Chinese) refers to "principle" in the West in this book. (Liu Miqing 2005, 2)

In the FAQ passage, the author explained why he wrote this book. "I believe Chinese need to treat translation from the perspective of cultural strategy as our precedents did. This is the most basic and most important Chinese characteristics."(Liu Miqing 2005, i) It is to appeal to the Chinese and the world for a deep understanding of Chinese culture.

Then, it follows the analysis of this book. This book might be divided into three parts: part one, consisting of chapter one to six, discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Part two, consisting of chapter seven to nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. In part three, Liu illustrates the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies in chapter ten and eleven. And he respectively analyses Benjamin’s view on translation, the originality of translation, and translation is the transcendence of the original text in chapter twelve, thirteen, and fourteen. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

The first part(from chapter one to six) discusses the tradition of Chinese translation studies. Liu Miqing illustrates the development of Chinese translation studies. With reference to Liu, Chinese translation has gone through three leaps. The first phase was to leap from religious translation to scientific translation. The second phase was marked by the translation activities and theories of Yan Fu and Ma Jianzhong( Liu Miqing 2005. 30) The third phase is from the 1970s to now, which means the breakthrough has yet to succeed. Then, Liu proposes that Chinese translation theory develops with culture as the principal strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, 33)

He later concludes that there are four features of the tradition of Chinese translation: The cultural strategy; regulation to perfection, translation to perfection; focus on the meaning as well as the aesthetics; increase translators' awareness of subjectivity and stress their insight. It is owing to the integration of the above features that the Chinese translation principles are formed. (Liu Miqing 2005, 43)

The gist of Chinese contemporary translation principles is concluded into four points: to inspire the traditional fighting spirit of Chinese translation, and take rejuvenation of Chinese nation and multicultural development as the cultural strategy of the translation in the new era; to emphasize the meaning determination of discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication; to emphasize the optimization of TL representation of the discourses(or texts) in interlingual communication until it reaches the regulation perfection. (Liu Miqing 2005, 38-39)

Next, Liu makes a division and a comparison of the phases of the development of Chinese and Western translation, and pointed out the characteristics of the development of Chinese translation and the reasons that Chinese translation theory has its own characteristics and system. Based on Guoxue or Chinese classics, the Mohism, Liu emphasizes that it is necessary to explore and reassess Chinese national culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 150)

Finally, the author summarizes a theoretical framework of the meaning of Chinese translation studies and suggests that we need to improve the old concept of "emphasis on meaning" and establish a new concept of "emphasis on the meaning in communication" (Liu Miqing 2005,179)

The second part is comprised of chapter seven, eight, and nine, which respectively illustrates the three origins of contemporary Western translation theories, Western contemporary translation principles and schools, and the limitations of contemporary Western translation theories. Liu argues that the contemporary Western principles are based on utilitarianism, notably the British and American culture. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the form and the effect of communication, the function of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)

However, he also recognized that the 1960s to 1970s has witnessed great progress in Western translation theory. Liu divides Western contemporary translation theory into several schools: Linguistic School, Functional School, Paraphrase School, Cultural Translation School, Postmodernism and Translation Theory, Psycho-cognitive Psychology School, New Literal Translation Theory. Liu points out that the Western translation focuses on the ends, the forms and the effects of communication, the functions of the translator, and emphasizes the translated text and the suppression of the alien culture reflected in the original work. (Liu Miqing 2005, 288)--Wang Yu (talk) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Finally, Liu points out that western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the current views and remarks on theory are superficial, assertive and rational; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)

Finally, Liu points out that Western translation theory is "technology-oriented" and he gives his reasons: first, the lack of compass of theories that can guide and support the development of the discipline; second, the ignoring of overall studies; third, the marginal position of meaning; fourth, the superficial, assertive and rational current views and remarks on theory; fifth, the lack of clarity and depth of the discourse of theory; sixth, the lack of academical criticism and self-criticism. (Liu Miqing 2005, 292-293)--Wang Yu (talk) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The third part of this book expounds on the significance of Wittgenstein's philosophy to translation studies. Based on Wittgenstein's view of "translation and language game", Liu puts forward that "translation as an interlingual language game is the basic idea of the translation functionalism”. (Liu Miqing 2005, 402)

Next, I will analyze and compare the tradition of Chinese and western translation. Regarding Liu Miqing, Chinese translation still needs to regard culture as its strategy. (Liu Miqing 2005, i) This is the first and foremost characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation. Since translation emerged in China, it has a close relation with culture, as evidenced by the translation of Buddhism. Such is the most distinctive feature between the tradition of Chinese and Western translation. (Liu Miqing 2005,44)

Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread into China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflects the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)

Chinese translation originated from religious translation, the translation of Buddhism. In 58 AD, during Emperor Ming's reign, Buddhism began to spread throughtout China and symbolized the power and ideology of the nation, which involved in politics. Compared with Confucianism, Buddhism not only contains the ethics and social norms but also consists of a set of canons that reflect the integration of religion and politics in foreign countries. (Liu Miqing 2005,44) For instance, during the period of Sectarian Buddhism, in Pinimujing, the religious disciplines compiled by Theravada Sect stipulates that the Buddhist doctrines must be submissive to the law. (Fang Litian, 1987)--Wang Yu (talk) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Also, Buddhism was integrated with Chinese politics when it spread into China, which is exemplified in three aspects. Firstly, Buddhism justified the divinity of the feudal monarchy. Secondly, some eminent monks were invited to give counsel to the sovereign directly. For example, emperor Xiaowudi in the Song dynasty designated the monk Huilin to engage in the court. And later Huilin was called Prime Minister in Black, which generally refers to the remarkable monks who also engage in the court. Thirdly, the disciples of Buddhism, including "all is vanity", "being detached from worldly affairs" and "obedience" actually numbed the people to serve the sovereign, which was conducive to the feudal monarchy. (Fang Litian, 1987)

In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still touched by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)

In the middle of the 19th century, the tradition of Chinese translation began to feature as the awareness of national hardship. Today, we are still struck by Yan Fu, Ma Jianzhong, Lin Shu, and other patriotic translators while learning their translation theories that were imprinted in their mission to save China from its plight. In the middle of the 20th century, the tradition of Chinese translation features change from the awareness of national hardship to national rejuvenation. (Liu Miqing 2005, 46)--Wang Yu (talk) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101)

As such, the flourishing of translation is by no means our Chinese's responsibility. Compared to Chinese translation's cultural strategy, the Western translation boasts of its integrated translation, from the early translation of ancient Greek into Roman to the heyday in the 11th century. This not only promoted contact among different languages in Europe but also cleared the way to economic growth as well. Meanwhile, integrated translation has paved the way for European integration. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) --Wang Yu (talk) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The second characteristic of the tradition of Chinese translation is "regulation to perfection". After the disputes between literal translation and free translation in China, the method of translation finally consolidated to regulation to perfection in Xuanzang's translation theory. The following translators have carried on the thought, such as Yan Fu's Xingdaya, Fu Lei's Shensi theory and Qian Zhongshu's Huajing theory. Their translation principles are the regulation of literal translation and free translation, the content and the form, and the end and the effect. (Liu Miqing 2005, 50-51)

The Western translation also stresses meaning, but it pays more attention to the transformation of morphologic languages due to the identity of etymology, morphology, bilingual syntactic structure, the origin of literary and culture in Western languages. (Liu Miqing 2005, 101) Moreover, Western translation principles give priority to "Communicative Translation", which is implicit in Chinese translation principles. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

The third characteristic is "the focus on meaning as well as aesthesis". Chinese translation balances meaning and aesthesis in binary opposition or tries to express the spirit and the feeling-tone of the original text on the basis of expressing meaning. Lin Yutang proposed that the spirit of the text is compacted in one word. (Liu Miqing 2005, 52)

Wang Guowei pointed out that the word "Nao" in the verse "Hong Xing Zhi Tou Chun Yi Nao" conveys the Jingjie of the whole poem. (Wang Guowei 2017,15) Therefore, if one attempts to translate the poem, he needs to have aesthetic appreciation. Liu Miqing explains that Chinese is a language of sensibility. It expresses beauty through icons and images. That is why the tradition of Chinese translation concentrates on aesthesis. As such, we can see the strong intercourse between Chinese translation and philosophy and aesthetics, however, Western translation has been connected with linguistics, linguistic philosophic study, and hermeneutic studies. (Liu Miqing 2005,104)

Some scholars expressed their views on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles. Wang Jianguo claimed that the book was an excellent masterpiece. In this book, Liu compared Chinese and Western translation thoughts from the source. Both Liu's statements and arguments were astonishing. Liu used comparative methods to explore the source of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies, thus provoking scholars of Chinese translation studies to think about the value of the tradition of Chinese and Western translation studies. Besides, the book served as an example of innovation in translation studies. (Wang Jianguo, 2006)

Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)

Lu Wei and Li Defeng shed light on the topic "translation theories with Chinese characteristics" and argued that Liu Miqing's A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles provided a methodology to explore the source of driving force for the construction of Chinese translation study. (Lu Wei, 2010)--Wang Yu (talk) 07:15, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

4.1 From the aspect of the content

Both of these two books discuss translation principles from the perspective of culture. They differ in their focus and approach. Translation History and Culture: A Sourcebook concentrates on Western translation principles before contemporary translation studies. While A Comparative study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles analyses Chinese as well as Western translation principles from their origins to this era. As to the approach, Lefevere analyzes translation principles through varied themes, while Liu Miqing makes a comparison of Chinese and Western translation principles.

Meanwhile, they boast their distinctive writing style. In Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook, Lefevere almost leaves no personal remarks or views on these excepts apart from his justification of his classification in the introduction and the beginning of each chapter, thus making this book objective. Also, Liu extracts other translators’ essays, but he illustrates them in a detailed way, and even comments on a certain word, for example, he discusses the “latitude” proposed by John Dryden and questions “in which aspect can translators be given the latitude? How much could they get the latitude?” and so on. (Liu Miqing 2005, 8)

4.2 From the aspect of the arrangement

Both of these two books are arranged in theme, rather than in a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation played in education, and the technique of translating. The longer essays are collected in the last chapter. Liu arranges his book differently.

Both of the two books are arranged in a theme way rather than a chronological way. Lefevere illustrates his classification of this book clearly and extracts abundant statements to rich his idea. He first divides the excerpts on size, and classifies the shorter into seven chapters about the constraints imposed on translation, the position of culture, the role translation plays in education, and the translating technique. Liu arranges his book differently for the longer essays are collected in the last chapter.--Wang Yu (talk) 08:07, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Due to the ample scope of A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles, including the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which helps the readers better understand translation principles.

Due to the ample scope of A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles, which includes the characteristics, origins, schools and limitations of Chinese and Western translation, Liu not only quotes other’s statement, he also applies many tables to demonstrate his thoughts, which help the readers to better understand the translation principles.--Wang Yu (talk) 07:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Conclusion

In conclusion, the paper is intended to help readers to understand these two books in depth. After a brief introduction of these two books, it analyzes John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave and figures out the reason for the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learns translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.

In conclusion, the paper intends to help readers to have a profound understanding of the two books. After a brief introduction of these two books, there follows the analysis of John Dryden’s three types of translation and his comparison of translator to slave as well as the figuring out of the reason of the prevailing statement. Therefore, it helps the readers to grasp the core of this book. Meanwhile, this paper makes a short comparison of the characteristics of Chinese and Western translation in the hope of mutual learning. Also, it concludes the values of these two books. In the end, this paper hopes to provoke readers to think about the cultural influence on translation. Therefore, if one dreams to be a qualified translator, he needs to not only master translation skills and learn translation theories, he should but also immerse himself in the culture behind the source and target languages. As such, he can convey the feeling tone or the essence of the original text.--Wang Yu (talk) 07:37, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

References

André Lefevere. (2003). Translation, History and Culture: A Sourcebook. Taylor & Francis e-library.

André Lefevere & Susan Bassnett. (1990). Translation, History and Culture. London &New York: Pinter Publishers.

Chou Huifang仇芳慧. (2019). 从德莱顿“翻译三分法”谈诗译者的素质 [On Poetry Translators’ Qualification from the Perspective of Dryden’s Three Types of Translation].北方文学 Northern Literature (24):254-255.

Fang Litian方立天.(1987).佛教与中国政治 [Buddhism and Chinese Politics].社会科学战线 Social Science Front (02):113-122.

Jeremy Munday. (2016). Introducing Translation Studies, Theories and Applications, Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

Liu Miqing 刘宓庆. (2005). 中西翻译思想对比研究. [A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. Beijing: China Translation & Publishing Corporation中国对外翻译出版公司.

Lu Wei, Li Defeng鲁伟,李德凤.(2010).中国特色的翻译学:误区还是必然?——兼评《中西翻译思想比较研究》[Translation Studies with Chinese Characteristics: A Misunderstanding or Inevitability? ——A Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles]. 中国科技翻译 Chinese Science & Technology Translators Journal 23(02):11-14+29.

Niu Yunping, Yang XiuMing牛云平,杨秀敏.(2014). 西方译论中的作者—译者主仆. [Relationship of Author and Translator as Master and Servant in Western Translation Histories].河北师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版) Journal of Hebei Normal University(Philosophy and Social Science) 37(05):92-97.

Wang Jianguo王建国.(2006). 简评《中西翻译思想比较研究》——兼谈译学学术创新 [A Short Comment on A Comparative Study of Chinese and Western Translation Principles——On the Academic Innovation of Translation Studies]. 中国翻译 Chinese Translators Journal 27(03):36-38.

Wang Guowei 王国维.(2017). 人间词话[Notes on Ci Poems in the World]. Beijing: The Chinese Overseas Publishing House 中国华侨出版社.

Suan Bassnett. (2004). Translation studies. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press上海外语教育出版社.

The development and future trend of translation Theory 张慧 Zhang Hui 202070080622 英语笔译

Abstract

This article briefly analyzes Chinese and Western translation theories, expounds the Chinese and Western translation theories in different periods and their historical origins, representatives and translation thoughts, and reveals their development characteristics and trends. Through the many phenomena presented by Chinese and Western translation theories, combined with the current specific economic and social situation and people’s needs, the translation theory is placed in a specific cultural context, looking forward to the development direction of contemporary Chinese and Western translation theories, and making reasonable prospects for it.

Key Words

Chinese and Western, translation theory, development, trend

摘要

本文对中西方翻译理论进行了简要的分析，阐述了不同时期的中西方翻译理论及其历史渊源，代表人物和译学思想，揭示了其发展特点和走向。通过中西方翻译理论呈现的诸多现象，结合当前具体经济社会形势和人们的需求，把翻译理论放到具体的文化语境中，展望当代中西方译论发展方向，对其做出合理的展望。

关键词

中西方，翻译理论，发展，趋势

Introuction

Translation theory occupies an important position in translation research, and the development of translation theory in China roughly corresponds to the history of translation. The history of translation is mainly divided into the following periods: the first is the ancient period from the translation of Buddhist scriptures to the translation of technology and religion in the Ming and Qing dynasties. The second is the translation theory in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republican period. The third is the Republican period.

Fourth is the period after the founding of the People’s Republic of China. Western translation theory has always been the focus of many scholars’ research, and the achievements and contributions made by China’s translation industry in recent decades in researching translation theory cannot be separated from the study and reference of Western translation theory. In this paper, we will introduce in detail the specific development and schools of Chinese and Western translation theories, and make a reasonable outlook on the development trend of translation theories, aiming to understand the history and look forward to the future.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.)

The Four Periods of Development of Chinese Translation Theory

Ancient Translation Period

The translation of Buddhist scriptures, which lasted for thousands of years, left valuable theories for ancient translations. The Preface to the Dharma Sutra, written by Zhiqian during the Three Kingdoms period, pointed out that: "It is not advisable to pass on the different names and objects; nowadays it is easy to know, so do not lose the ease. He first mentioned that translation was not easy, which also reflected the views of the early qualitative school of translation. During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Taoan put forward the idea of “five losses of originality and three difficulties,” pointing out that there were five situations in which translating Buddhist scriptures would lose its original features, and three situations determined the difficulty of translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Kumarajiva, a monk from the Later Qin Dynasty, was the first to raise the question of how to express the style and interest of the original text. By the Tang Dynasty, the translation of Buddhist scriptures reached its peak. A large number of famous translators, represented by Xuanzhuang, emerged. He insisted on the principles of "seeking the truth" and "using the vulgar" in the translation process. He also established the principle of "five not to turn," which means: the secret reason, the reason containing many meanings, the reason without this reason, the reason to follow the ancient reason and the reason for the birth of good.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（quotation missing）--Tan Yuanyuan (talk) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

Translation of the Late Qing Dynasty and Early Republic of China

A group of European missionaries came to China one after another to conduct translation activities, mainly for missionary purposes, but also introduced Western academics. The most important achievement of this translation climax is the translation of some natural science works such as astronomy, mathematics, and machinery. Representatives of this stage are mainly Chinese scientist Xu Guangqi and Italian Ricci. The two of them worked together to translate the first six volumes of the famous Geometry Original. In addition, it is worth mentioning “Ma Shi Wen Tong” by linguist Ma Jianzhong, which is the first Chinese grammar book in Chinese history.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Ma Jianzhong puts forward the “good translation theory”, which puts forward the essence, process and requirements of translation, emphasizing the completion of a book and repeated management. The translation must make the reader read the meaning that the translator must be proficient in the original text and the translated text, comparing the similarities and differences, The laws of the two languages are no different from viewing the original text. Besides,the representative figure of social science translation is Yan Fu, who has translated works such as Evolution and Ethics and Yuan Fu. These are the most important enlightenment translations in China in the 20th century.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Yan Fu first proposed the translation standard of “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” in “The Great Evolution · Translation Examples”. The “faith” he advocates is “the meaning is not back the text”, and “da” is not limited to the form of the original text, and does the best of the translation language to make the original meaning obvious. But Yan Fu’s interpretation of the word “ya” seems to be inadequate today.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

His so-called “elegance” can only be considered elegant if the translation itself adopts the “pre-Chinese character syntax”, in fact, the so-called superior classical Chinese. Due to different times, Yan Fu’s interpretation of the “faithfulness, expressiveness, and elegance” translation standards has certain limitations, but for many years, these three characters have not been abolished by the translation industry in my country.（Chen Fukang.2015.）（paragraph too long）--Tan Yuanyuan (talk) 14:10, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, the representative figure of literary translation is Lin Shu. He has translated more than 200 works by 98 writers from 11 countries, such as Dumas of France’s La Traviata.

Through comparison, we can see that the translation of Buddhist scriptures is different from the translation of Ming and Qing Dynasties in the following five aspects:

(1) Translator. The former translators are mainly monks, and the latter are students and missionaries. (2) The identity of the translator. The former is the poor and the latter is the upper class. (3) Type of translation. The former is mainly Buddhist scriptures, and the latter is mostly social sciences. (4) Translation method. The former is a literal translation. The latter is a hero translation and a modified translation. (5) The cultural status of translation. The former is based on Chinese culture, and translation makes the mainstream culture stronger. The latter reflects the greater cultural impact of Western culture on Chinese culture.

Translation Theory in the Republic of China

Most of the translators in the Republic of China were writers, and they contributed to the maturity of translation thinking in just a few decades. Zheng Zhenduo introduced and commented on “On the Principles of Translation” by the British translator Tytler for the first time, and discussed issues such as retranslation. Contradiction proposed "shenyun translation", Zhu Ziqing comprehensively summarized the methods of name translation, namely, phonetic and meaning translation, simultaneous phonetic and meaning translation, translation, transliteration, and free translation.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Mao Dun creatively put forward “Charming Translation”, emphasizing that the charm of the original text cannot be lost from the perspective of translation aesthetics. Lu Xun’s contribution to translation studies is related to his “hard translation” idea of enriching the native language with unsatisfactory language. Zhu Shenghao’s translation of “The Complete Works of Shakespeare” is good at maintaining the charm of the original work, conveying the style of Shakespeare, and beautifying the Chinese art gallery with many images and dramatic melodies of Shakespeare.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

After the Founding of the People’s Republic of China

The two translators who had the greatest influence on the translation industry during this period were Fu Lei and Qian Zhongshu. Fu Lei put forward the idea of translation spirit and aesthetics. He believed that translation should not be literally translated, but should preserve the spiritual outlook and aesthetic characteristics of the original work, and proposed a translation view that emphasizes the spirit and the aesthetics.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Qian Zhongshu used temptation, corruption, and transformation to express his views on translation. Enticement refers to the role that translation plays in the exchange of different cultures, enticing readers to love different literature. Corruption refers to the distance between the original text and the translated text. The translation is inevitably distorted and does not fit the original text. Transformation refers to the highest ideal state of literary translation, which can not show the traces of blunt and far-fetched translation, and can completely preserve the style of the original.（Chen Fukang.2015.）

Prospects for the Development of Contemporary Chinese Translation Theory

Emphasis on the study of basic translation theory

Contemporary Chinese scholars have further studied the basic theory of translation based on the research of ancient and modern scholars. From the aspect of translation standards, Gu Zhengkun proposes the concept of multiple and complementary, that is, translation standards are a standard system composed of absolute standards, supreme standards and specific standards, breaking the single standard view. In his Treatise on Translation, Xu Jun gives an all-round explanation of the basic problems of translation in terms of the essence, process, meaning, factors, contradiction, subject, value and criticism of translation.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Contemporary translation theorists have gradually realized that translation research should transcend its own closed research system and draw nourishment from Eastern, Western and Latin American translation theories. The development line of Chinese translation theory requires the mutual appreciation of the East and the West, the ancient and the modern, and the diversified fusion, so as to refine the most characteristic and valuable theories among Chinese traditional translation theories, combine them with modern translation theories, highlight the characteristics of clarity and the spirit of the times, and let the traditional translation theories to flourish with new vitality in the modern context. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

“Only by listening to the voice of the times, responding to the call of the times, and seriously studying and solving important and urgent issues can we truly grasp the historical context, find the law of development, and promote theoretical innovation”. Therefore, the development of Chinese translation theory needs to expand various resources such as foreign translation theory, traditional Chinese translation theory, and translation history. Chinese scholars such as Chen Fukang, Wang Hongyin, and Zhang Peiyao have absorbed traditional translation theories, reinterpreted the original theories with modern theoretical discourse, and tried to find a point of convergence to combine tradition and modernity to explain new translation phenomena (Lan Hongjun, 2018).

In addition, in the basic research of translation history, there is still a need for clear and detailed research on the existence of translation, translation forms, translation subjects, and the laws of change of translation thought over time, as well as the essential problems reflected by these laws. Therefore, the study of Chinese translation theory should continue to learn from the ideas of Western translation theory and make full use of Chinese traditional translation theory as a resource.(Lan Hongjun, 2018).

Innovation of ontology

Translation studies is an open and comprehensive discipline that needs to be developed and improved by the academic nutrients of related disciplines, and the rapid development of language, thinking, and other literary disciplines has brought many new ideas, concepts, and terminology to translation studies. The combination of translation studies and other disciplines has injected fresh vitality into translation theory, for example. Xie Tianzhen’s translation studies is the intersection and fusion of translation studies and comparative literature, and is an important result of interdisciplinary translation studies. Translation studies is not concerned with the problem of language level, but with the problems of information loss, deformation, addition, and extension in the process of transformation of two languages.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

Hu Genshen conducts a comprehensive and holistic study on translation from the perspective of ecology. Ecological Translation believes that in the process of translation, translators try to adapt to the ecological environment of translation in order to make the best adaptation and optimization for the peace and balance between the original text and the translation, the translator and the author, the translator and the reader, the translation and the translation culture, and the translator himself, so that the translator’s body and mind are integrated in the ecological environment of translation. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

According to Fang Mengzhi, the development of translation studies has formed the pattern and characteristics of “one body and three rings”. The body is the ontology of translation, which is the unshakable foundation for the development of translation science over the centuries. The first ring is the inner ring, which is built up by linguistics and its subdisciplines, and the second ring is the middle ring, which is outside the inner ring. The second ring is the middle ring outside the inner ring, which is developed by philosophy, thinking science, psychology, information theory, and semiotics, and makes the transition of translation studies to a comprehensive discipline. (Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

The third ring refers to the cultural study of translation, which integrates translation with politics, economy, society, ideology and so on, and makes translation study a multidisciplinary, multi-level and all-round comprehensive study. We can sort out the relevant problems of traditional Chinese translation theories, for example, we can take “the five lost books, the three not easy” as the theoretical sources or ontological problems, “faithfulness and elegance” as translation standards, and refer to the framework of modern Western translation studies for propositional transformation and theory. It respects the pluralistic development of the discipline as well as the ontological development of the discipline, so that the theory of translation can be extended in many dimensions and developed in many ways.(Wang Dongfeng. 2014（4）:7-8. )

The Historical Development of Western Translation Theory and Its Classification

Western translation, like Chinese translation, has an early and long history of more than 2000 years. The first well-documented translation is the Septuagint Greek Bible from Hebrew into Greek in the third century B.C. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own view of translation. Cicero, the father of Western translation theory, was the first to comment on the translation process and formed his own concept of translation. Horace further argued that “paraphrase” opposes “literal translation,” can create new words or introduce foreign words to enrich the national language, and distinguishes between interpretation and translation.

The second major model is Jerome’s “dualistic” view of translation, which divides translation into two cases, literal and paraphrase, depending on the text. The third one is Schleiermacher, who believes that language determines thinking, and advocates discussing translation from the perspective of linguistics and literature. The first one is the translation of the Chinese text into Chinese, and the second one is the translation of the English text into Chinese. Jacobson, Newmark, and Naida also hold different opinions on the division of Western translation activities, which is difficult to unify, and these different opinions also reflect the different perspectives, emphasis, and direct and indirect influences of other disciplines on the scholars’ study of translation.(Nida, E. A.1964)

The School of Thought and the Main Characteristics of Western Translation Theory

Most Chinese and Western scholars nowadays adopt Genzler’s classification method, dividing Western translation theory into three stages: classical translation theory, modern translation theory, and modern translation theory period. Three of the four masterpieces in the history of Western translation appeared in the classical translation period, and translation mostly revolves around religion. Cicero, the father of Western translation, believed that translation cannot be word-for-word, but must be done according to the linguistic habits of the readers of the translated language, and that it must convey the meaning and spirit of the original text, not the linguistic form of the original text.

Cicero, Horace, and Jerome provided new insights for later translation studies by breaking through the constraints. Historians see the seventeenth century as the beginning of modern history. In France, the principles and methods of translation were hotly debated. As the first Western translation theorist, Drayton divided translation into three categories: verbatim translation, paraphrase translation and paraphrase translation; the second one was Tertullian. The three principles of faithfulness of thought and consistency of style proposed by Tertullian had a positive influence on the later translation theories. 

The controversy between Arnold and Newman over the principles of translation stimulated a lively academic atmosphere and a great debate on translation theory. Goethe further added that poetry is untranslatable, continuing the academic debate between Arnold and Neumann. Schleiermacher and Humboldt argued that translation theory explores linguistic and literary perspectives, and that understanding a text should be a positive act. Historians usually divide contemporary translation theory into two phases: before the Second World War and from the post-World War period to the present.

These two phases are distinguished not only by the watershed of the war, but also by the fact that the war was not over until after the Second World War. These two stages of translation theory development present different scenarios. The American School of Translation Training has brought translation to the forefront, with some advances and breakthroughs in translation theory, but it is still limited to discussions of aesthetic experience and certain prescriptive rules. The scientific school of translation has found a scientific basis for translation.

Based on linguistics, Naida started a new research on translation theory. After that, Germany started to study Naida’s translation theory and formed German Functionalism. In the early stage, the translation research school advocated to keep the literary character through the research of the co-temporal and historical perspectives of words in order to achieve the goal of faithfulness to the original text, and the translator should adopt the culture and language familiar to the readers and introduce extra-literary elements, and deconstructionism is a kind of subversion of structuralism.

Deconstruction is a reversal of structuralism. It gives translators more initiative and provides opportunities for translation creation. During the period of classical translation theory, translation was concentrated in the field of religion, and there were also interdisciplinary studies, and most translations were in the form of rewriting. Most of the translation theories were based on the intuitive experience of the translators, with no theoretical guidance. It was only at the level of literal translation and paraphrase translation, and the research on translation theory was not thorough enough.

The modern translation theory period has made great progress in translation theory compared to the classical translation theory period, and the first translation theorist and the first translation theory work appeared in Western history, progressing from the “dichotomy” of the classical translation theory period to the “trichotomy” of the classical translation theory period. It raises the issue of translatability and non-translatability, and improves the accuracy of translation studies.(Bassnett. 1980.)

The Response of Western Translation Theory in China’s Translation Industry

As for the study of Western translation, there are two opposing viewpoints in China. The first view is that China’s western translation theory research is less theoretical and critical, focusing on intuitive thinking; while western translation theory focuses on reasoning and argumentation, pursuing the integrity of the system, therefore, it is always called Nadda, advocating copying and transplanting the western translation theory to direct application.

Another viewpoint is that foreign theorists not only do not have a deeper understanding of translation than Chinese translators, but also have not formed a theoretical system, and they believe that there is no single theoretical work or doctrine in the foreign translation industry that is recognized by most theorists as authoritative and stable, so there is no way to start from the West. Regardless of the viewpoint, as Mr. Cong Zhihang said, the importance of translation theory has become more and more prominent, and it plays an irreplaceable role in translation teaching together with translation practice, and will eventually play a cornerstone for the establishment of translation discipline.(Cao Ruiming. 2006（1）：45-47.)

Analysis of Theoretical Research Status

Descriptive Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the distribution of disciplines. This is mainly in the uneven distribution of disciplines. Looking at the current published translation theoretical research works, the proportion of foreign language and literature research is the largest, followed by the research on Chinese language and literature, literary theory, Chinese literature and other disciplines, which fully shows that domestic scholars pay more attention to foreign language discipline research, and also shows the influence of language discipline on translation research, but also shows that the depth and breadth of most scholars’ research still need to be improved. Further increase.(Nida, E. A. 1964.)

Second, the research hierarchy. From the existing research results, we can see that the research level is not high. Basic research (social science) has the largest proportion (mainly the application of Western translation theories in various translation practices), followed by industry guidance, basic and secondary vocational education, higher education, engineering technology, etc. However, research results in the fields of economic information research and popular science are not yet abundant. Third, researchers and institutions.

The current problem is a single researcher and a small number of research institutions. Researchers of translation theory mainly come from universities or research departments engaged in foreign language work, which shows that universities and research institutes have outstanding advantages in talents and resources and have become the main force of translation research, which also reflects that the main body of translation research is too single and other social institutions lack professional foreign language staff, thus the results of translation research are few.(Gentzler, Edwin.1993.) Systematic Analysis of Translation Theory Research

First, the nature of the research. The current researches are mostly basic researches, mostly analyzing the ontological elements of translation, such as the nature, function, process, and quality evaluation of translation. The number of such researches has been increasing in recent years, but the nature of the researches has not changed much. On the other hand, the research on applied practice mainly focuses on the study of translation operation specifications and practice, such as translation teaching, translation practice and strategies. These researches are mainly the summaries of the experiences of university teachers in the teaching process, while there are not many researches on the academic aspects of other professions.

Second, the research level. From the structural level of the current translation research object, it mainly concentrates on two levels: micro research and macro research. Micro research is basic research, that is, when studying general things, the whole is decomposed into parts or the higher level is decomposed into lower level, mainly focusing on key words such as ontological features of translated language and operation norms, which is the main body of current translation research. Macro research, on the other hand, focuses on the whole and the law, grasps the relationship between a certain thing and the environment, and mainly focuses on the cultural significance of translation in terms of social and cultural attributes, ideology, and social development, which does not take up a large proportion.

Third, overall distribution.From the academic education of translation, to the practical teaching of translation, to the theory of translation, through practical research as well as modern research on translation teaching method and translation teaching materials, all of them reflect the down-to-earth research spirit of researchers, and many of them have excellent achievements with both theoretical and practical reference value. With the development of domestic foreign exchanges, especially the “One Belt, One Road” initiative, the frequency and opportunities of China's foreign exchanges have greatly increased. The development of China’s translation education and the cultural strategy of going abroad have made the study of translation strategies a hotspot in China, but due to the lack of objective depiction of translation constraints and conditions for strategy use, ontology research and theoretical discussion need to be strengthened.

Fourth, the distribution of hot words. Based on the frequency of occurrence of theme words in periodicals, it is found that the distribution of “hot words” in translation theory research has the following characteristics: First, “functional translation theory” has the highest frequency of occurrence. The “functional translation theory” appeared in the 1960s and 1970s, marked by the publication of Rice’s book The Possibilities and Limitations of Translation Criticism.

Its representative figure is Christine Nord, who takes the theory of purpose as the core of research, that is, translators should regard translation as some activities carried out to achieve a specific purpose or to satisfy the requirements of the target language readers, mainly emphasizing the translation process, the translator’s thoughts and the specific context in which the translation takes place, and the translator should be responsible for all the parties in the translation process (the principle of fidelity) and adopt different approaches for different translation purposes.

This has inspired many western scholars to express their own views on the translation method, thus also inspiring domestic scholars to look at the translation problem from multiple perspectives, to learn from the strengths and make up for the weaknesses, and to advance with the times.

Secondly, the term “feminism” has attracted much attention. Since the 1970s, the West has combined feminism with translation theory and translation practice. When the gender of the work, the author, the reader, and the translator are considered from the perspective of feminism, it also brings new insights to the study of translation. Feminism (feminism) has attracted much attention from Chinese scholars in the post-modern and diversified translation context, especially in the 21st century, which also provides room for translators to reconstruct works.Thirdly, the “subjectivity of the translator” begins to occupy a place(Wang Dongfeng,2014).

The translator is the executor of translation work and a subjective individual, whose essence is manifested in such characteristics as subjective initiative, passivity, and egoism, and therefore constitutes the subjectivity of the translator based on these characteristics. Translators are also important participants in the construction and composition of the culture of a region or country. Some domestic translators do not highlight their cultural construction role in the multi-language system of the Chinese language, thus the phenomenon of marginalization of the translator’s cultural status and confusion for traditional translation research has arisen.

The primitive self-discipline of translators can no longer adapt to the new situation of today’s technological development, and the temporal and spatial changes of translation practice have highlighted the influence on the ethical behavior of translators. The standardization of language, politics, technology, and business makes the ethical behavior of translation more complicated and diversified.

Trends in Translation Theory Research

Interdisciplinary cooperation and integration

Today’s world is moving in the direction of diversity. Cultural exchange and integration is the current direction of development. The study of translation theory is no longer an independent discipline, but must be related to other disciplines or even multiple disciplines, transcending and transforming through interaction and cooperation. The term “interdisciplinarity” was first coined in the United States in the 1920s. It was not until the mid-1980s that it became known to scholars in China. It was not until the 1990s that scholars began to use the term “interdisciplinary” instead of “cross-cutting science”.

In order to achieve greater research progress and research results, it is necessary to break through disciplinary limitations and concentrate on interdisciplinary research on a larger scale. No matter what kind of research is carried out, as long as it is related to translation theory and draws on the theories of other disciplines, it can be considered as interdisciplinary research. This is not only reflected in the translation theory, but also in the translation research methods and the disciplinary background of the researchers, which will greatly promote the development of translation theory research and make it more systematic, rigorous and rich.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

Return to culture development

The study of translation language and translation culture contributes to the practice and development of translation theory. Since translation language and translation culture are both objective existences, the standard of faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance is a matter of degree, and the over or under expression of cultural meaning must be viewed dialectically. Translation research cannot be separated from language as a carrier, and translation should come from language, then go to language, arise from culture, and finally return to culture.

Seeking Common Ground while Surviving Differences in Cultural Translation

Any translation that involves cultural factors can be called cultural translation, which, like foreign affairs, is based on the same principle of seeking common ground while reserving differences. However, under the influence of traditional culture, if the translated language and culture are not taken into account, the effect will be affected and may even convey the wrong message, so it is necessary to seek common ground while preserving differences. What scholars who study translation seek is to keep the “difference” of the source language and culture to the greatest extent possible on the basis of the readers’ understanding, which is the best integration of Chinese and Western translation.（Su Yue. 2009（6）:121-122.）

Conclusion

From the theory and practice of ancient translation theory to the update and development of contemporary translation theory, scholars have continued and developed China's unique translation theory according to the requirements of the times and the basis of practice. The development of the country in the new era puts forward higher demands on translation,the cultivation of translation talents and discipline construction. In short, the development of translation discipline in the new era should emphasize disciplinary functions, expand theoretical resources, innovate ontological concepts, and strengthen school consciousness, so as to make new contributions to the knowledge innovation of translation discipline.

References

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[2] Gentzler, Edwin. Contemporary Translation Theories［M］. London: Routledge, 1993.

[3] Newmark, Peter. Approaches to Translation [ M]. Oxford and London: Pergamon Press, 1981.Reprint in 1998, New York: Prentice Hall International.

[4] Nida, E. A.. Toward a Science of Translating［M］. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964.

[5] 曹瑞明. 跨文化交际翻译中的差异与融合［J］.西安外国语学院学报, 2006（1）：45-47.

[6] 陈福康. 中国译学史［M］.上海:上海外语教育出版社，2015.

[7] 蓝红军. 从学科自觉到理论建构:中国译学理论研究 (1987-2017）［J］.中国翻译，2018（01）:14.

[8] 苏粤. 国内关联翻译理论研究发展的回顾与思考［J］.湖北经济学院学报: 人文社会科学版, 2009（6）:121-122.

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A Cultural Critique of Foreignization and Domestication 吴子佳 Wu Zijia 202070080645

                                               吴子佳	Wu Zijia  202070080645

Abstract

Domestication and foreignization ，as two important translation methods, play an important role in many areas, the language is the carrier of culture, the differences between different cultures is the important obstacle of cross-cultural communication.And each of the two translation strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages. During translation, an interpreter is required not only to have good command of translation, but also need to grasp a foreign cultural psychological and ideological values, cultural knowledge reserve purpose countries and consider the national psychological acceptance, while standing in the source language, on the basis of national culture, realize the cultural exchanges between the two countries. This paper intends to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of domestication and foreignization in the translation of different cultures (such as tourism culture, food culture, literary works, etc.), and to select the essence and discard the dross in order to find better translation methods and achieve better cultural promotion and cross-cultural communication.

Key words

Domestication foreignization cultural-overloaded words cross-cultural communication.

摘要

归化和异化作为两个重要的翻译方法，在许多方面发挥着重要作用，语言是文化的载体，不同文化之间的差异是跨文化交流的重要阻碍，归化异化各有优势，又各有缺点，在翻译时,要求译员不仅要有良好的翻译功底,更需要把握外国文化心理和思想价值观，储备目的国家的文化知识并考虑民族心理接受程度,同时站在保留源语国家文化特色的基础上,实现两国文化的交流。本论文拟讨论归化和异化在不同文化（如旅游文化，美食文化，外交文化、文学作品等）中的应用，在应用中探究分析文化差异，取其精华，去其糟粕，找到更好的翻译方法，实现更好的文化传播与跨文化交流。

关键词

归化，异化，文化负载词，跨文化交流

Introduction of Domestication and Foreignization

Domestication and foreignization are two terms coined by Lawrence Venuti based on his investigation of western translation history and theories.They are strategies in translation, regarding the degree to which translators make a text conform to the target culture. Domestication is the strategy of making text closely conform to the culture of the language being translated to, which may involve the loss of information from the source text. Foreignization is the strategy of retaining information from the source text, and involves deliberately breaking the conventions of the target language to preserve its meaning. These strategies have been debated for hundreds of years, but the first person to formulate them in their modern sense was Lawrence Venuti, who introduced them to the field of translation studies in 1995 with his book The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation. Venuti's innovation to the field was his view that the dichotomy between domestication and foreignization was an ideological one; he views foreignization as the ethical choice for translators to make. （Venuti，1995）

On the basis of Venuti's theory:A term used by Venuti(1995)to describe the translation strategy in which a transparent,fluent style is adopted in order to minimize the strangeness of the foreign text for TLreaders...it is identified with a policy common in dominant cultures which are aggressively monolingual,unreceptive to the foreign,and which he describes as being accustomed to fluent translations that invisibly inscribe foreign text with[target language] values and provide readers with narcissistic experience of recognizing their own culture in a cultural other. Foreignizing translation in which a TT is produced which deliberately breaks target conventions by retaining something of the foreignness of the original. Domestication takes the local culture as the starting point, takes the information receiver as the core, and emphasizes the authenticity and vividness of the translated text. Therefore, the foreign cultural color and language style characteristics in the original text are often modified to confine them within the framework of the local culture.（Venuti，1995）

For example:Lead a dog’s life ( 过着牛马一样的生活);Cry up wine and sell vinegar(挂羊头，卖狗肉);Put back the clock (开倒车)Talk house (吹牛Kill the goose that lays the golden eggs(杀鸡取卵); High buildings and large mansions are springing up like mushrooms in Beijing.(在北京，高楼大厦犹如雨后春笋般地涌现。)（Wenku） Venuti(1995: 20) considers the foreignizing method to be ‘an ethnodeviant pressure on target language cultural values to register the linguistic and cultural difference of the foreign text, sending the reader abroad’. It is ‘highly desirable’, he says, in an effort ‘to restrain the ethnocentric violence of translation’. In other words, the foreignizing method can restrain the ‘violently’ domesticating cultural values of the English-language world.Examples of foreignization:A.used at the phonetic level:ballet—芭蕾舞” cigar—雪茄,laser—镭射,jacket—夹克.B. being used at the word level: crocodile tears-鳄鱼的眼泪，an olive branch—橄榄枝，sour grapes—酸葡萄，the cold war—冷战.C.being used at sentence level: Hamlet《哈姆雷特》“You speak like a green girl．Unsifted in such perilous circumstance．（你讲的话完全像是一个不曾经历过这种危险的不懂事的女孩子。）（Wenku）

Analysis on Culture Differences in Translation

Before we talk about the cultural critique of foreignization and domestication,we should find out the reason why we need the two methods to help with our translation,so the differences between different countries should be mentioned. I think the most difficult part in translation is to give a correct explantion of the sourse culture to the target one in a way that your target reader can accept.But as we all know,sometimes there is not an excat equivalence in sense of both the languages,and I must mention cultural-loaded words when it comes to cultural differences,as words are the most direct form to show a culture,and whether your translation make sense or not depends on how you deal with the cultural-loaded words.

Take Chinese and English for example,the word “落汤鸡”can not be translated as “soup chicken”,in literal,as Chinese people live on farming ,”落汤鸡”describes a kind of awkward position of chicken being drenched in the rain,but in England ,a country with developed industry,people no longer raise animals ,so it may be hard for them to understand as they have not seen it before,instead ,the familiar thing they can image is the drowned mouse,as the country has lots of drainers ,which provides perfect conditions for mouse to live ,but those drains can easily get blocked when it rains heavily,after the rain,many drowned mice can be found on the street .Is it the same akward as the”落汤鸡” ？（Zhang le 2017，37）

So differen society can give birth to different cultures.What’s more ,the geographic situation can also reflect the cultural differences.For example,England is located in a island,and is sourrded by lots of water,so the words “sea”,”fish”are always used in English idioms,such as“all at sea”,“miss the boat”,“take the helm”,“between the devil and sea” ,while China boasts many mountains and land ,so the Chinese people may wonder why the English people describe the idiom” 挥土如金”as” spend money like water”if they do not learn about the cultural differences before.In addition ,the use of metaphor can also reflect cultural differences,and metaphor is frequently used in for example,in Chinese culture the image of "dog" is mostly unpleasant, so the metaphor of "dog" has a negative meaning, such as”狗胆包天、狼心狗肺、狐朋狗友、狗仗人势、狗急跳墙、狗头军师、狗血喷头、狗改不了吃屎、狗嘴里吐不出象牙、走狗、哈巴狗等“.（Zhang le 2017，37）

On the contrary, the British and American peoples regard dogs as loyal companions and even as family members. Therefore, the English word "dog" as a metaphor has a positive meaning, such as top dog (胜利者) 、lucky dog (幸运儿) 、gay dog (快乐的人) 、old dog (老手) 、Every dog has his day. (凡人皆有得意日),(Qin Zhen 2001,19)and due to regional, climatic, religious and other factors, different work and life styles have gradually formed in different living groups, which also leads to different social customs and living habits.（Zhang le 2017，38）

Different living habits can therefore lead to different metaphor,for example, In China, rice is the main source of nutrition supply, and there are about 68 characters with "rice" as the side of the character. However, in English words, the expression of rice is not so precise and varied. In English, by contrast, people live on bread and potatoes. There are many expressions related to bread and potatoes in English, such as "bread and butter," "big potato",”hot potato” and "couch potato." so while doing our translation,we should learn about the cultural difference under the surface of metaphors and taboos of different nations ,otherwise people may feel that they are offended.（Zhang le 2017，38）

Comparisons of Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Different Perspectives of Culture

1. Practice of foreignization and domestication in tourism culture

The difference of cultural background is an important factor for tourism , and experiencing foreign culture is the focus of foreign tourists. Therefore, in the process of translation, the cultural information of the original text should be retained to the greatest extent within the range of readers' acceptance. Much of China's tourism brochures depict imagery, stimulates the imagination of visitors, and fill them with longing, so the words are abstract. Therefore, it is important that the translation of tourism materials should take Chinese culture as the orientation, with an emphasis on translation, foreignization is in the dominant position,while domestication acts like a supplementary in this case, and usually we will redesign appropriate increase or decrease in cultural points to make the readers to understand the content, choosing to delete, or increase the explanatory translation, or rewrite, highlight the guiding and practical.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,65)

Example 1:

路左有一巨石, 石上原有苏东坡手书“云外流春”四个大字 To its left is another rock formerly engraved with four big Chinese characters Yun Wai Liu Chun (Beyond clouds and flows spring) written by Su Dongpo (1037—1101) , the most versatile poet of the Northern Song Dynasty (960—1127) . (Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua2011(02)) Here we add some introduction of Su Dongpo and explanation of the Chinese words”云外流春”（Yun Wai Liu Chun）to help foreigner better understand the cultural value of the artwork of the poet. Proper addition of background knowledge is necessary for understanding the content of the original text, such as: the time of historical events, the age of celebrities' birth and death, their identities and contributions , the specific location of scenic spots and so on, all of which will help foreign tourists better understand the profound connotation of Chinese traditional culture.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 2

云冈石窟——位于大同西北武周山 (又名云冈) 。创建于公元453 年 (北魏文成帝兴安二年) 。以后献文、孝文诸帝都在这里续建, 历百余年而成。这里有大小洞窟五十多个, 各窟佛像共约五万一千余尊。大者高十七米, 小者短到数寸。雕饰奇伟, 冠于一世。在中国历史、宗教上, 以及东方艺术上, 都具有巨大价值。 Located in Datong , Shanxi Province , the Yungang Grottos are a complex of over 50 Buddhist grottos enshrining over 51 , 000 Buddhist statues as large as 17 meters tall or as short as a few inches. Built for over a hundred years, they are of great historic and artistic value. Here we delete some details about the architecter and the exact location of the grotto,as they are not the main idea that we want to introduce,instead,we leave the data that can show the artistic value of the grotto,in doing so ,we can make our readers more comfortable to real our materials and make our translation more readable.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,66)

Example 3

花港观鱼:Hua Gang Guan Yu (Viewing Fish at Flower Harbor) 孤山: Gushan (Solitary Hill) 湖南省(位于长江中下游南部, 东经108度至114度, 北纬24至30度。因地处洞庭湖之南, 所以叫做湖南)。 Hunan Province lies just south of the middle reaches of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River between108’ and 114’ E longitude and 24’ and 30’ N latitude. As it is also situated south of Lake Dongting, the Province has the name Huan, which means “south of the lake” Here we add some explanation to the name of the scenic spots on our literal translation,as sometimes let the reader know why the the spot is called in this way can help them better know about our culture,and in the end enhance mutural understanding of each other.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)

Example 4

Analogy is a method used in tourism translation ,when we are making an analogy,we are actually making a combination of foreignization and domestication,for we are just finding something equivalent in another culture,for example:Suzhou(a beautiful city in Zhejiang province ,China),when it comes to how to describe how beautiful it is,we usually make an analogy to Venice，Italy,then the reader may soon understand; Yinchuan(a city in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region)can be compared by Mekka,and I think it is a kind of exoticism.By using an expression that the target readers are familiar with,we can become more close so that we can promote mutual understanding of both sides.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,67)

Example 5

她 (黄河) 奔腾不息, 勇往直前, 忽而惊涛裂岸, 势不可挡, 使群山动容;忽而安如处子, 风平浪静, 波光潋滟, 气象万千。 It tears and boils along turbulently through the mountains and at some places, flows on quietly with a sedate appearance and glistening ripples. The use of antithesis rhetoric and the arrangement of four-character word groups in Chinese shows the magnificent momentum of the Yellow River. The English translation has rewritten the original text, removing those words with subjective emotions, so that it can be intuitive and concise, vivid, and has the same effect as the original text .(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

Example 6

四合院——中国传统的院落式住宅之一种。其布局特点是围绕院子, 四边布置堂屋、住房和厨房等。以北京四合院为典型, 通常分前内两院, 两段之间设“垂花门”。 Quadrangle, one type of Chinese traditional residential housing, has been common: mostly in northernChina. A typical quadrangle features a divided com-pound with square yards surrounded by halls. By summarizing, deleting and adding, the translator introduces the siheyuan, a building with the characteristics of northern folk dwellings, which not only achieves the purpose of advertising, but also conforms to the language characteristics of the readers. It should be said that the cultural information of the original text has been appropriately adjusted.(Xiao Luan,Feng Xuehua 2011,68)

2. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Food Culture

With the development of globalization,Chinese food is gaining huge popularity among foreign people,in order to better promote Chinese food ,we have to make good expression to the origin and the connotation of the food ,so ,both foreignization and domestication are needed.We have to mention food culture if we want to introduce those food with Chinese characteristics.According to the characteristics of the dishes, Chinese cuisine is divided into eight major cuisines, and they are: Cantonese cuisine, Hunan cuisine, Shandong cuisine, Fujian cuisine, Zhejiang cuisine, Sichuan cuisine, Anhui cuisine and Jiangsu cuisine. Each cuisine has its own unique flavor .Since China covers a wide range of land,different regions have different eating habbits and cooking methods according to the diversity of geographic locations. There are 36 kinds of cooking methods include frying, frying, cooking, frying, braising and so on.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

For example,people living in Sichuan province like to eat spicy food and to add some condiment such as pepper,gordic because they live in a basin and in doing so ,they can clear damp and stay dry.People live in Guangzhou,however,prefer seafood and they usually cook their meals by stewing ,which can retain the nutrition of food as much as possible. Suzhou cuisine is fresh, strong but not greasy; Zhejiang cuisine is delicious, tender and smooth, crisp , soft and refreshing.Based on the food culture above,domestication and foreignization have been use in different ways.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，99）

Example 7

番茄牛腩(tomato and beef brisket) This translation consists of main ingredient and ingredient. 砂锅面(casserole noodles) This translation consists of utensils and ingredients. 淮南牛肉汤, 东坡肉(Huainan beef soup, Dongpo pork) This translation consists of the name of people and place as well as the main ingredient,and sometimes we need to give a more detailed introduction of the people or place to make our translation more readable. 炒酸菜, 手抓饼(sauerkraut, shredded cake) This translation consists of the cooking method or eating method and ingredients. Above are basic translations as they do not involve much culture ,so we always use literal translation with some explanations .（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Example 8

蚂蚁上树 (肉末粉条): Ants on a tree (minced pork) This translation shows the characteristics of the food as minced pork just the ant on the tree,and it gives a vivid introduction of Chinese food and can leave a deep impression to foreigner. 霸王别姬 (甲鱼炖鸡) :Farewell my Concubine (turtle stewed chicken) This translation is named after historical allusions. 驴打滚 (打糕) :Donkey roll (beating cake) This translation is named according to the production process metaphor. 佛跳墙 (福寿全) : Buddha jumps over the wall (Fu, Shou, Quan(get both luck and longevity)). This translation is named after the meaning of good.if we do not give a explanation to the name ,people may wonder what dose the Buddha mean here and if that really means a man jump over the wall,so in order not cause the misunderstanding ,we need to make right expression of the name of the dish.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，100）

Above are some translations that contain many cultural elements,and when doing the translation ,we should use a combination of foreignization and domestication,that requires us know what is the food really made of,and the meaning of the food behind the name.

Example 9

“叫花鸡jiaohuaji” or“jiaohua chicken”is a famous dish in Jiangsu province of China. If translated as' chicken cooked by a beggar ', westerners must not understand its meaning. That's why the naturalized translation of jiaohua Chicken is called "Baked Chicken", which makes it plain. The following ways of translating The names of Chinese dishes make good use of the naturalized translation method. The dishes that begin with the raw materials used in cooking are divided into one category. In English translation, prepositions or conjunctions should be added between the dishes. For example,蛋黄凉瓜 is translated as "Bitter Melon with Egg yolk”.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

If we translate the dish “红烧狮子头”译为“Fried Lion’s Head” (炸狮子的头) , the foreigners may feel scared when they see the menu!so here we use foreignization to translate it as “Braise Pork Ball in Brown Sauce”.Translation of the Chinese dish name into English adjectives indicating the taste and flavor of the food, such as crispy, tender, spiced, food that begins with an adjective indicating the shape or state of the food is divided into one category. The most prominent feature of these dishes is often the taste or the shape of the food, for example,“珊瑚笋尖”is translated as“Sweet and Sour Bamboo Shoots”;“爽口西芹”is translated as “Crispy Celery” at the same time “土豆泥”is translated as “Mashed Potato”. These are some examples of domestication.(Liu Xiaocen 2018，105)

Example 10

Some foods are usually translated in the form of "Hanyu Pinyin + English notes" in order to retain certain characteristics. For example:“油条”in this way can be translated into “Youtiao, Deep-Fried Dough Sticks”;“豆汁儿”can be translated as“Douzhir, Fermented Bean Drink”. 饺子:Dumpling、汤圆:Dumpling in Soup、烧卖:Steamed Dumpling with the Though Gathered at the Top;小圆面包:Bun、馒头:Steamed Bun、包子:Steamed Stuffed BunThere are also some food translations with pure Chinese characteristics that have been collected in major foreign English dictionaries.Most of these dishes are transliterated into English based on cantonese pronunciation, with strong regional characteristics. （Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

For example, "豆腐" translates as "Toufu"; "馄饨" translates as "Wonton". The translation of四一丸子:"Four Happy Meatballs" aims to make foreign friends feel the happy and festive atmosphere expressed in the dish name，so we can take the method of literal translation with explanation and the result will be like “Four—Joy Meat Balls, Meat balls braised with brown sauce”,which is more accecptable for the foreigner.These are some examples of foreignization.（Liu Xiaocen 2018，105）

3. Practice of Foreignization and Domestication in Diplomacy

Since the 18th national people’s congress,the global situation has changed a lot ,in order to improve the influence and right of speak,the diplomatic skills and contains should change accordingly,the new philosophy and ideas put up by our secretary-general Xi provide strong support for our diplomatic speaking,which shows the attitude of Chinese characteristic(Fan Wuqiu 2020),and when the spokesmen are talking about some issues about China and other countries,they usually use some Chinese classics which can not only show our complaint politely but also promote the Chinese culture.So we should pay more attention to the translation of these words,especially in diplomacy,as the spokesman represents the whole country,any mistake may raise as a direct cause of diplomatic accident,and foreignization and domestication are quite important in this case.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 11

我们反对的是个别国家政客出于国内政治原因对中国进行有罪推定式的“调查”，反对利用疫情搞政治操弄。 What we oppose is the so-called investigation chanted by politicians in a few countries out of domestic political calculations based on the presumption of guilt.What we oppse if political maneuvers of the pandemic,which run counter the original mission of scientific research and disrupt international response. In this translation ,we use two sentences with same form to show our standpoint,and the word “so-called”,”enchanted”are like a kind of foreignization,which illustrate what we want to say precisely.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 12

“投我以木桃，报之以琼瑶”，这是中华民族传统美德。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020） To quote a line from the Book of Songs,”You throw a peach to me,and I give you a white jade for friendship.It is china’traditional virtue to repay goodwill with greater kindness. This is a line from the Chinese classic the Book of Songs,and it is used by our spokesman to show our gratitude for countries that help us to fight against covid-19,as “琼瑶 qiongyao”is a word with Chinese characteristic, and it means white jade,so when we are translating,instead of “qiongyao”we should explain its real material,otherwise people may misunderstand it as the famous novelist in china who has the same name.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 13

耿爽表示：“当前中加关系遭遇了严重困难，责任完全在加方。加方很清楚当前中加关系的症结。有理不在声高，公道自在人心。（Geng Shuang's speech 2020） "Lately China-Canada relations have encountered serious difficulties. The responsibility lies completely with the Canadian side. Canada knows the root cause clearly. Loudness is not necessarily persuasive and people can tell right from wrong. This is a kind of free translation,and if we just translate it word for word,it won’t make sense.（Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 14

“滴水之恩当以涌泉相报”是中华民族的优良传统。我们将铭记这份友情和帮助，继续落实好共建“一带一路”和中非合作论坛北京峰会成果，向那些卫生系统较弱国家提供力所能及的支持，帮助他们增强疫情防控能力，维护地区和全球的公共卫生安全。 （Zhao Lijian's speech 2020）

"Receiving drips of water when in need, and I shall return the kindness with a spring." Reciprocating an act of kindness is our nation's fine tradition. We will remember the friendship and assistance we received, continue to implement the FOCAC Beijing Summit outcomes and act on the vision of building a community with a shared future, support those countries with weaker health systems as much we can to help them defeat the virus, and safeguard regional and global public health security. This translation we find the exact equivalence of both Chinese and English,so people in both side can understand each other so that we can have a better communication and forge a closer friendship. （Fan Wuqiu 2020）

Example 15

我也希望包括BBC在内的媒体，以后说到人权问题时，不应只把摄像头对准中国“鸡蛋里挑骨头”，而应该把视野放宽一点，对在一些西方国家发生的侵犯人权行为也加大报道力度，而不是熟视无睹、视而不见、保持沉默或有选择性地失声。（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

If the BBC is not biased, it should also condemn the brutal crimes committed by some Australian soldiers in Afghanistan. This is what a truly just, objective, conscientious and socially responsible media outlet should do. I also hope that the media, including BBC, should not only zoom in their lenses on human rights issues in China to find quarrel in a straw, but also broaden their horizons to human rights violations committed in some western countries, instead of turning a blind eye to them or keeping silent on some of the violations, if not all of them.In this speaking,“鸡蛋里挑骨头”was translated as“find quarrel in a straw”.straw,in Chinese,refers to"稻草、吸管"，and something worthless.”Find quarrel in a straw”means bothering to find something in something worthless.which is equivalent with the Chinese meaning of “鸡蛋里挑骨头”.（Hua Chunying's speech 2020）

Conclusion

Domestication and foreignization have their own advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, in translation practice, we should combine the advantages of the two strategies and avoid the disadvantages, so that there is room for the common development of the two strategies. Mastering the culture of two sides may be the precondition of right use of domestication and foreignization, and while doing translation we should choose the proper methods according to our purpose and the characteristic of the culture ,all of which can lead to better cross-cultural communication.Therefore, in the actual translation process, domestication and foreignization should complement each other and have complementary ,dialectical unity and relationship.

References

• Zhang Le. 张乐.(2017). 浅谈文化负载词的隐喻意义.[On the Metaphorical Meaning of Culture-loaded Words].” 科教导刊(中旬刊)” [Journal of Science and Education Guide (Mid-ten-day issue)] (06):37-38.
• Qin Zhen. 秦蓁.(2001). 浅谈汉英语义的文化差异.[On the Cultural Differences between Chinese and English Semantics].” 唐山师范学院学报” [Journal of Tangshan Normal University] (06):19-21.
• Xiao Luan, Feng Xuehua. 肖鸾,冯学华.(2011). 浅析归化和异化及其在旅游资料翻译中的实践.[ A Brief Analysis of Domestication and foreignization and their practice in the translation of tourism Materials ]” 郧阳师范高等专科学校学报”[Journal of Yunyang Normal College] (02):65-68.
• Liu Xiaocen. 刘晓岑.(2018). 归化和异化在中国菜名英译中的应用分析.[Application Analysis of Domestication and Foreignization in English Translation of Chinese Cuisine Names]” 海外英语” [Overseas English] (04):99-100+105.
• Fan Wuqiu. 范武邱.(2020).十八大”以来我国外交部发言人话语新风格及翻译策略探析. [An Analysis on the New Style and Translation Strategies of Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesmen's Discourse since the 18th National Congress of the CPC]. “翻译协会年会报告”Annual Report of the Translation Society.
• Geng Shuang.耿爽.(2020.2.21).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1747973.shtml.
• Zhao Lijian.赵立坚(2020.2.25).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1749280.shtml.
• Hua Chunying.华春莹(2020.11.30).外交部新闻发言稿."Foreign Ministry Press Statement" .https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/web/wjdt_674879/fyrbt_674889/t1836636.shtml.

Contemporary Translation Studies

A Study On the Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology 孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui 202020080608

孔祥慧 Kong Xianghui

Abstract

Translatology is an interdisciplinary study of translation. And as one of the disciplines most closely related to translation studies, linguistics is the main discipline that exerts a profound influence the construction of translatology.This paper mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies from three aspects, including the contributions of early linguists to translation, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies after the independence of translatology, and the referential value of the construction experience of linguistics to translation studies. It is found that linguistics has made a great contribution to the construction and theoretical development of translatology, but translation researchers should take a critical view of linguistics and correctly use linguistic theories instead of copying them completely .

Key words

Translatology;Linguistic;Discipline Construction

摘要

翻译学是一门研究翻译的科学，有着明显跨学科研究的特点。语言学作为与翻译学联系最为紧密的学科之一，是翻译理论发展历程中所依赖和借鉴的主要学科。本文主要从三个方面研究语言学对于翻译学构建的影响，包括早期语言学家对于翻译问题的贡献，翻译学独立之后语言学理论对于翻译研究的影响，以及语言学学科构建经验对于翻译学的借鉴意义。研究发现，语言学为翻译学构建和理论发展作出了巨大的贡献，但是翻译学研究者要带着批判性眼光看待语言学，进行翻译研究时要正确借鉴语言学理论而不是全盘照搬。

关键词

翻译学；语言学；学科构建

1.Introduction

Linguistic is a study of language, while translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. Therefore, there are numerous links between linguistics and translation, and the development of linguistic theory will inevitably affect the development of translation. Translatology is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization. As an interdiscipline, translatology borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation including comparative literature, computer science, history, linguistics, philology, philosophy, semiotics, and terminology. （Wikipedia）

For a long time, translatology was a branch of linguistics before it became an independent discipline, because translation is a linguistic phenomenon. But later, with the development of the theory, it began to emerge on the academic stage as an independent subject, and more and more scholars began to devote themselves to the construction of translation theory. In the course of the construction of translation studies, many linguists and linguistic theories have made indelible contributions to the development of translatology. Although translation studies cannot be replaced by general linguistic studies, there is a close relationship between them. Language science can promote the development of translation science. This paper will analyze the influence of linguistics on the construction of translatology from multiple perspectives and explore the significance of linguistic research on the construction of translatology.（O Aiping，2012）

This thesis will be carried out in five parts. The first chapter is the introduction to the background, significance, and the outline of the thesis. The second chapter presents a brief literature review of the studies on the construction of translatology in abroad and China. The third chapter elaborates the differences between translation and translatology, and demonstrates three development stages of translation studies in general. The fourth chapter is the main focus in which the author analyzes the influences of linguistic on translatology in three aspects . In chapter five, the author will make a conclusion on the research and propose some suggestions of this study.

2.Literature review

This chapter will briefly review the research of the construction of Translatology home and abroad. According to the development history, the author will briefly introduce the main theories and representative figures of Translatology.

2.1Studies on the construction of translatology aboard

In the book On Linguistic Aspects of Translation published in 1959, Norman Jacobson, from the perspective of semiotics, interpreted translation as a process of recoding two equivalent information in two different linguistic symbols and divided translation into three types: Intralingual Translation, Interlingual Translation and Intersemiotic Translation. (Norman Jacobson, 1959)

Eugene Nida（1947）advocated studying translation from the perspective of linguistics, which received positive responses from a large number of scholars. In his book Toward the Science of Translating, which was published in 1964, Nida summarized the history of Western translation and proposed the principle of translation equivalence. He supported the application of modern linguistic methods to the scientific analysis of translation and proposed that translation was a science.(Eugene Nida, 1947)

J.C. Catford in his book A Linguistic Theory of Translation (1965), defined translation as the process of replacing textual material in another language with textual material of one equivalent language, and took seeking equivalent elements in the language as the central issue of translation. He also discussed the translation principles based on the differences between the source language and the target language in terms of language structure.(J.A Catford , 1965)

Holmes published The Name and Nature of Translation Studies at The Third International Conference on Applied Linguistics in 1972, which was "widely regarded as the founding declaration of the discipline of translation studies". He proposed the name of the discipline of translation, set the research scope of translation studies, and described the structure of the discipline. Holmes advocated that translation should be divided into three branches: descriptive translation , theoretical translation and applied translation. The proposal of this framework directly promoted the construction of translation studies.( James Holmes,1975)

In 1982, Wolfram Wilss published the Science of Translation: Problems and Methods, clearly stating that translation is a science. Wilss studied translation from many aspects, focusing on the process of translation, and discussed the relationship between translation and linguistics. Wilss used the theory and method of modern linguistics to establish a relatively systematic translation system by summarizing and concluding the translation practice.(Wolfram Wilss, 1982)

Newmark is also a representative figure in the field of translation. In his book Exploration of Translation (1981), he proposed the concepts of communicative translation and semantic translation. He believed that text should be classified according to different contents and styles, and different translation methods should be adopted according to the functions of different text types.( Peter Newmark, 1981)

Hatim & Mason, whose representative work is Discourse and the Translator (1990) that is the first to study translation with pragmatics abroad. The main idea is that translation is a dynamic communication process, with translators standing in the center of the process, acting as mediators between authors and readers.(Hatim & Mason,1990 )

Christiane Nord, a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation, applied the theory of functional linguistics to translation studies (1997). Nord emphasized the need for interdisciplinary studies between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology, and computing. She believes that the interdisciplinary study of translation is the inevitable trend of translation studies.(Christiane Nord, 1997)

Mona Baker used sociolinguistic theories to study translation in her research. She believed that many social problems are caused by language, so it is necessary to use modern linguistic theories to construct an analytical model for translation studies. In 2006, she published Translation and Conflict: A Narrative Account, which focused on translation and conflict, and used narrative theory to translate and Interpret. She also emphasized the importance of corpus-based translation studies.(Mona Baker, 2006)

2.2 Studies on the construction of translatology at home

In the middle of the 20th century, the voice of constructing translation studies began to appear in China. In the following decades, the construction of translatology in China made great progress. （Tan Zaixi，1989）

In 1951, Dong Qius, a famous Chinese translator, published his article On the Construction of Translation Theory. He put forward three suggestions on the construction of translation theory that were correct scientific method, extensive investigation and in-depth study when conducting translation study. Dong also proposed the two major books will be written in later decades in China: The History of Chinese Translation and The Study of Chinese Translation. The publication of this article initiated the construction of translation studies in China and inspired a large number of later scholars. At the same time, his theoretical framework for the subject of translation is not later than that of Europe.(Dong Qiusi, 1951)

In 1987, Tan Zaixi clearly put forward the view that "translation studies are an independent subject" and stressed that we must establish translation studies and correctly understand the relationship between translation studies and other subjects, especially linguistics. (Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In the same year, Tan Zaixi and Eugene A.Nida, a famous foreign translation theorist, jointly published On Approaches to Translation Studies. In this paper, Tan mainly distinguished two concepts of "translation" and "translatology". At the same time, five basic approaches to translation studies were proposed. With the help of different research approaches, the main goal of translation studies was to establish a theoretical model with wide application scope and high efficiency. Tan's series of papers published in the 1980s had a great impact on the discipline construction of Chinese translation studies. They arouse translators' awareness of the subject of translation studies.(Tan Zaixi, 1987)

In the thesis An Overview of Western Translation Theory (1989), Liu Miqing briefly described his theoretical system of translation studies on the basis of his comments on Western translation theories. Liu believed that western translation studies could be divided into four periods. At the same time, he proposed that the framework of translation studies, as an open and comprehensive discipline, could be divided into two structural systems: internal system and external system. (Liu Miqing, 1989)

In another article, Liu put forward the basic model of Chinese translation theory (1989). Chinese translation theory must emphasize description, meaning and function. To establish a semantic-functional model of description, his idea was inspired by linguistics. His most significant contribution to the discipline of translation studies was his book Modern Translation Theories（1990）, which brought the study of translation studies in China to a peak.(Liu Miqing, 1989)

In 1995, Liu Zhongde published Views on the Establishment of Translation Studies, in which he put forward a concrete idea based on the existing translation studies. The idea is that China should publish a series of translation studies with Chinese characteristics before the year 2000. The central book is Chinese Translation Studies, including The History of Translation in China. This set of translation studies could guide the compilation of college translation textbooks and the study of translation theories and skills.(Liu Zhongde, 1995)

At the beginning of the 21st century, more and more Chinese scholars began to study the construction of translation studies from the perspective of linguistic theory. Zhang Meifang and Huang Guowen are the leading figures in this field. Zhang Meifang conducted translation studies from the perspective of language function in 2005, while Huang Guowen explored the English translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics in 2006. They affirmed the significance of discourse linguistics for translation studies and explored the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.( Zhang Meifang, 2005) (Huang Guowen, 2006)

Lv Jun first discussed the philosophical basis of translation studies from three aspects in his article. Starting from the philosophical basis of critical philology, structuralist linguistic translation and deconstruction translation, he pointed out that translation studies should be based on general pragmatics (2002). （Lv Jun，2002）

Subsequently, Lu published Constructing The Linguistic Basis of Translation Studies (2004), in which he pointed out that neither structuralist linguistics nor meta-linguistics were suitable for the linguistic basis of translation studies, and only taking speech act theory as the linguistic basis could reflect the essence of translation and show the characteristics of translation activities. This series of studies by Lv Jun have provided a new way of thinking for the study of the construction of translation studies and emphasized the transformation from structuralist linguistics to pragmatics. (Lv Jun, 2004)

Li Zhenguo (2017) made a comparison between traditional linguistic methods and discourse linguistic methods, and drew similarities and differences between them, as well as their impact on translation studies.(Li Zhenguo ,2017)

Yi Jing published his doctoral thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies (2009), which systematically and objectively sorted out the construction of translation studies. Kong Xiangli's thesis On The Construction of Translation Studies in China in 2009 gave a comprehensive overview of the construction of translation studies in China. These doctoral thesis are of great reference value for translation studies.(Yi Jing, 2009)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. In A Study on Linguistic Translation (2008), Zhang Boran affirmed the contribution of modern linguistics to the development of theoretical research on translation. Yi Jing (2012) also believed that the study of translation theories can be systematized, scientific and objectified, largely due to the development of linguistics. (Zhang Boran,2008) (Yi Jing,2012)

Zhao Wenting summarized the theoretical research on translation of Western linguistic schools in 2016. Zhang concluded that linguistic research on translation has gone through three main stages, all of which have made outstanding contributions to the development of translation studies. (Zhao Wenting,2016)

Zou Bing and Mu Lei (2020) focused on the relationship between linguistics and translation studies, analyzing the contributions of early and contemporary linguistic approaches to translation studies. And they also emphasized on the multiple paths of contemporary linguistic approaches. They believed that translators should pay close attention to the new development of linguistic research methods and try to apply them to the study of translation.(Zou Bing and Mu Lei, 2020)

In recent years, translation studies have developed rapidly. With the rise of cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics, the research of translatology also has appeared the trend of multimodal development. Wang Yin in Translation View in Cognitive Linguistics proposed that reality precedes cognition and cognition precedes language. Language is the product of reality and cognition, so is translation. Experience and cognition precede translation, and translation is also the result of experience and cognition.(Wang Yin,2017)

Later, many scholars have studied the relationship between cognitive linguistics and translation.Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao (2019) have combed through Chinese and Western studies and found that western cognitive translation studies have been constantly innovating in terms of concepts and methods. In contrast, domestic research on cognitive translation is relatively backward and still in the evaluation stage, and there is still a great space for future research on cognitive translation.(Fan Xiangtao and Lu Bixiao , 2019)

Liao Qiyi proposed in Corpus and Translation Studies (2000) that the development of corpus linguistics has exerted great influence on language studies and translation studies closely related to language studies. He discussed the positive significance of the corpus related to translation teaching and translation theory. (Liao Qiyi, 2000)

Li Yan (2020) reviewed the corpus-based translation studies in China from 1999 to 2018 and summarized the development characteristics and deficiencies. She proposed that we should not only learn from the research results of foreign corpus, but also develop corpus translation research with Chinese characteristics. (Li Yan ,2020)

From the above literature review, it can be seen that since the last century, from the emergence of the consciousness of translation studies construction to the realization of the independence of translation studies, translation studies have developed rapidly under the joint efforts of numerous linguists and translators. In recent years, translation studies have shown a trend of interdisciplinary and diversified development, and the construction of translation studies has become a focus of current research.

3.The Construction of Translatology

In this chapter, the author firstly makes a distinction between translation and translation studies, then introduces the research objects, main contents and characteristics of translation studies, and finally summarizes the three development stages of translation studies.（Yang Zijian，1993）

3.1Translation and Translatology

"Translation" and "translatology" are two distinct but often seriously confused concepts. The most familiar concept is translation, but there is no exact definition of translation.“Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text.”（Wikipedia）And Eugene A. Nida defined that “Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language, the closest nature equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.” As can be seen from the definition of translation, translation is a cross-cultural activity involving the conversion of two languages.(Tan Zaixi 1987)

In a different aspect,“Translation studies is an academic interdiscipline dealing with the systematic study of the theory, description and application of translation, interpreting, and localization.” In English, "translatology" is used to refer to translation studies." (Wikipedia) Liu Zhongde also set the definition that translatology is a comprehensive and systematic study of the law of bilingual transformation in translation, and a basic science of the law and method of translation thinking".（Liu Zhongde，1995）

Translatology is a human science that studies translation. The study of translation has its own unique object of study -- bilingual transformation. Around this center, translation studies also carry out researches on translation history, translation theory, translation criticism, translation teaching and so on.Translation Studies borrows much from the various fields of study that support translation，such as linguistic，literature，philosophy etc.( Kong Xiangli,2009)

3.2 Three Stages of Translatology

Throughout the development history of translation in China and the West, the development of translation studies has gone through three similar processes, from early translation practice to the awakening of the need to establish an independent discipline to the rapid development of translation studies. (Liu Zhongde,1989)

3.2.1 Early translation practice

Translation practice has a long history in both China and the West. Because of the needs of daily communication and cultural exchange, translation has become an important part of social life. China has a long history of translation, which can be traced back to the Han and Tang Dynasties. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, translation flourished for the second time. Then a large number of translation practitioners appeared in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China. They translated a large number of texts for the purpose of saving the country, such as Yan Fu and Lin Shu. There were more translation practices in modern China, such as Lu Xun, Lin Xianyi, Fu Lei and so on.(Yi Jing,2009)

The early Western translation went through the Latin translation stage and the Bible translation period. By the Renaissance, there were a large number of translators and translated works. From the 17th century to the 19th century, the western translation of classical works reached a climax, during which A·F·Tytler and Schleiermacher explored the early translation theory. It can be said that translation theory originates from translation practice, which has laid a good foundation for theoretical exploration for centuries. Theory and practice are combined to promote each other.（Yi Jing,2008)

3.2.2 The awareness of an academic discipline

Since translation is an activity involving language, linguistics is a science specialized in the study of language. For a long time, translatology has been included in the field of linguistic study. But in the early 20th century, with the emergence of a group of highly competent and independent-minded translation theorists, they called for "translation must become an independent discipline". People gradually realized that translation practice without the guidance of scientific theories is blind, and it is necessary to establish a discipline specializing in translation activities. James S. Holmes asked for the consolidation of a separate discipline and proposed a classification of the field. Nida and Willss also argued that translation is a science, not a mere technical activity.(Tan Zaixi, 1987 )

Such a group of people also appeared in modern China. Lin Yutang used the word "translation studies" many times in the 1930s. Dong Qiusi put forward in 1951 the idea of building a scientific and systematic translation theory system. After Dong, a group of famous translators such as Tan Zaixi and Liu Miqing also indicated that translation studies must be established.With so much effort devoted to translation theorists, the study of translation developed into an independent discipline in the 1980s.（Wang Qinghua，2017）

3.2.3 The rapid development stage of translation studies

Translation studies, as a young discipline, has developed rapidly since it established its independent status, just as linguistics did at the beginning. Translation studies show a trend of multiple approaches, and there are many schools of translation, such as the school of language and the school of literature and art. Many scholars specialized in translation studies and have published a series of articles and works trying to build a comprehensive and systematic discipline. Up to now, translatology has become an important humanities subject in language studies.(Tan Zaixi 2018)

Translatology has developed alongside the growth in translation schools and courses at university level. In 1995, a study of 60 countries revealed there were 250 bodies at university level offering courses in translation or interpreting. In 2013, the same database listed 501 translator-training institutions. Accordingly, there has been a growth in conferences on translation, translation journals and translation-related publications. The visibility acquired by translation has also led to the development of national and international associations of translation studies. It has shown a tendency to broaden its fields of inquiry, and this trend may be expected to continue.（Wikipedia）

4.The Influence of Linguistics on the Construction of Translatology

For the formation of translatology, one of the most conspicuous factors is the application of cross-disciplinary research, which not only expands the search field of translation studies, but also promotes people to study translation from different perspectives to explore its essence. From the discussion of translatology in the previous chapter, it can be seen that among the many related disciplines, linguistics is the most closely related discipline. This chapter mainly discusses the influence of linguistics on translation studies from three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists, second, the influence of linguistic theories on translation studies, and finally, the reference significance of the construction experience of linguistics for translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei, 2020 )

4.1 Contributions of early linguists to translation

As one of the important ways of constructing translation studies, linguistics has made an important contribution to the development of translation studies. With the development of modern linguistics, many linguists begin to explore translation from the perspective of linguistics. So many people who have made great contributions to translatology are linguists or those who have received systematic education in linguistics. Even early academic conferences on translation were included in the category of linguistic conferences. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

Humboldt was a German linguist and politician. He had a deep understanding of many languages and was the first to demonstrate the translatability and untranslatability. Jacobson, one of the representatives of the Prague school, first borrowed concepts of "signifier" and "signified" that proposed by Saussure to study the differences between the linguistic form and content of translated texts. He divided translation into three types: intralingual translation, interlingual translation and intersemiotic translation. He defined the research object of translation and studied translation theories from the perspective of linguistics. (Yi Jing, 2009 )

Catford is a representative of the London School of Linguistics. He adopts Halliday 's theory of systemic-functional grammar to study the nature, category, equivalence, transformation and limitation of translation. Georges Mounin, a French linguist, used the theory of structuralist linguistics to analyze the linguistic barriers in translation, expounded the relationship between translation and philology, context and syntax, and systematically studies the problem of translatability.（Yang Zijian 1987）

These early linguists' contributions to translation are reflected in two aspects. On the one hand, they studied translation from the perspective of language and further revealed the essence of translation, which made translation get rid of the early empiricism and mysticism and directly promoted the development of translation theory. On the other hand, their research inspired later scholars to continue to explore the value of translation. However, these linguists' contributions to translation still have some limitations, because they only take translation as a part of linguistics to study, so the scope and depth of their research are not enough. (Lv Jun, 2004 )

4.2 Translation studies based on linguistic theory

In the 1950s and 1960s, a relatively systematic theory of linguistic translation was formed in the West. Later, some translation scholars began to use the structural theory, transformational generation grammar theory, functional theory, and discourse analysis theory of modern linguistics to study translation. With the development of linguistics, many new achievements of linguistics have been applied to translation studies, such as sociolinguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. The development of contemporary linguistics provides a new perspective for the construction of translation studies and gives new vitality to traditional translation studies.(Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020 )

4.2.1 The influence of Structuralist linguistics

Structuralist linguistics began with Saussure 's masterpiece A Course in General Linguistics, which is regarded as the beginning of modern linguistics. Many linguists take Saussure's theory as the theoretical foundation and regard linguistic units as the research object to analyze "pure linguistic forms". After the emergence of structuralist linguistics, it developed rapidly. By the early 1930s, it occupied the dominant position in Europe and The United States and formed various schools of universities. With the promotion of structural linguistics, translators begin to conduct translation studies with the help of structural linguistics.(Lvjun，2004)

Nida put forward the translation theory under the influence of Bloomfield and Chomsky. He referred to Chomsky 's theory of transformational generative grammar, summarized a set of rules for systematic language translation and proposed the core concepts of "the science of translation" and "dynamic equivalence/Functional equivalence". Nida 's translation theory has had a great influence in the West and China. ( Yi Jing, 2009)

Wilss, a German translation theorist, further elaborated Nida 's theory and insisted that translation is a science. Using the theory of general linguistics, Russian translation theorist Barkhudalov divided the language hierarchical system into six levels: phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence and discourse. According to the language level of the translation unit, six corresponding translation equivalents can be divided accordingly, which is also known as the "six-level equivalence theory" .(Yi Jing,2012)

Structural linguistics advocates to focus on analyzing the linguistic form, syntactic structure and linguistic unit of the source language, and adopts syntactic component analysis. But this way of analysis overemphasizes the formal structure of language and neglects the social and cultural environment of language.（Zou Bin,Mu Lei,2020)

4.2.2 The influence of discourse linguistics

For a long time, the theory of structural linguistics has been the focus of translation studies, but with the deepening of translation studies, the shortcomings of structural linguistics have gradually appeared. Some scholars try to get rid out of the pure language research and study translation in a broader scope. Many translators apply discourse linguistics to the study of translation, because discourse linguistics is not confined to the study of language itself, but expands its vision to the context and communicative functions of language.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）

Hatim and Mason are the earliest foreign scholars who study translation by using pragmatics. They studied speech act from the perspective of pragmatic translation of context. Christiane Nord is a leading figure in the German school of Functional Translation. She used the theory of functional linguistics for research and analysis, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary research between translation and linguistics, philosophy, sociology and computer science. In China, Zhang Meifang studied translation from the perspective of language function, while Huang Guowen explored the translation of ancient poems from the perspective of systemic-functional linguistics. They affirm the significance of discourse linguistics in the study of translation and actively explore the translation analysis methods of discourse linguistics.(Yi Jing, 2009 )

The focus of discourse linguistics is on the whole text, meaning is reflected through linguistic structure, and translation equivalence is established at the level of text and communication. Its object of study is not only the language system, but also the interlingual factors. Discourse linguistics also studies how to achieve equivalence on the communicative level of discourse by analyzing the characteristics, genre and situational context of discourse, which has many implications for the theory and practice of translation.（Zhang Meifang，Huang Guowen，2002）

4.2.3 The influence of contemporary linguistics

As a school of contemporary linguistics, cognitive linguistics was formed from the late 1980s to the 1990s, which takes experiential philosophy as its background, anti-transformational generative grammar as its theoretical basis and is related to various disciplines such as artificial intelligence and psychology. Translation is also a psychological activity. The process of translation is a cognitive system, which includes language cognition, context cognition, discourse cognition, subject cognition of translation and sociocultural cognition. Therefore, cognitive linguistics can be used to analyze translation so as to better understand the author's intention and the unique mode of expression. Therefore, cognitive linguistics not only provides a new perspective for translation studies, but also guides the development of translation theory and practice.（Wang Yin,2017）

Corpus linguistics is a branch of linguistics that studies language on the basis of corpus. Since the 1990s, corpus linguistics has provided a large number of analytical methods and corpus for translation studies. At present, parallel corpus, multilingual corpus and comparable corpus are widely used. The parallel corpus collects original texts in one language and their corresponding translations into another. Multilingual corpus is a complex corpus composed of two or more monolingual corpus texts of different languages. The comparable corpus collects original texts in a language, such as English, as well as texts translated from other languages. The translation corpus provides a new tool for translation studies and provides great convenience and new research ideas for translation studies.(Liao Qiyi， 2000)

4.3 The experience of the construction of linguistics

In the 19th century, linguistics began to acquire discipline autonomy. The birth of Saussure 's Course In General Linguistics in 1916 became the beginning of modern linguistics, and the independent discipline of linguistics has been firmly established. At present, a relatively mature linguistic system has been formed. For translation studies, a young discipline, the development course, structure and trend of linguistics are of great inspiration and reference value.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )

4.4.1 Discipline development

Linguistics achieved independence earlier than translatology, but the development course of linguistics and translatology is similar. From the perspective of the development of linguistics, linguistics was first attached to other disciplines. After the efforts of many linguists, it has become a truly independent discipline. Second, there were branches of grammar before there was the core branch of general linguistics. Finally, many schools and different theories have emerged with the development of linguistics, and many new theories have been proposed based on the deficiencies of the original theories.（Kong Xiangli，2009）

The course of the development of linguistics can enlighten translation studies. First, in the process of its development, translation studies must insist on the independent status of the subject and grasp the autonomy of the subject. Second, translation studies need to develop their own core branches, to publish cross-generational works; Finally, the diversification of disciplines should be encouraged and different ideas and theories should be allowed to emerge.(Kong Xiangli，2009 )

4.4.2 Discipline structure

Because linguistics has been independent for a longer time, its disciplinary structure is more systematic and mature than that of translation studies. At present, many scholars are trying to build a disciplinary framework of translatology, and the disciplinary structure of linguistics is a good reference example.(Yang Zijian,1993)

From the perspective of disciplinary structure, linguistics has many branches and a huge system, which can be divided into two categories: general linguistics and applied linguistics. The former includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. The latter includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Each branch has its own field of study, and there are smaller branches.Referring to the disciplinary structure of linguistics, translation studies can also try to build a similar framework according to their own disciplinary characteristics, such as general translation studies and applied translation studies.（Yi Jing，2009）

4.4.3 Development Trend of discipline

Both linguistics and translatology are interdisciplinary subjects that can be referenced and assimilated from other related disciplines. Translation studies and linguistics can also learn from each other and develop together. In the process of development, linguistics penetrates many other disciplines, such as sociology, psychology, logic, information theory, neurophysiology, computer science, etc., forming many marginal disciplines or cross disciplines, such as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, etc. Translatology, as a new discipline, must not be confined to the study of translated texts, but should view the development of other disciplines from an open perspective, and learn and summarize experience.（Kong Xiangli，2009）

5.Conclusion

Linguistics has gone through many stages of development, and each stage has formed different schools of theory and research methods, which have also brought important theoretical and methodological enlightenment to translation studies. The influence of linguistics on the construction of translation studies is mainly reflected in three aspects: first, the exploration of translation problems by early linguists led translation studies to the approach of scientific research; Secondly, modern linguistic theories provide new perspectives for translation studies, such as structural linguistics, discourse linguistics, cognitive linguistics and corpus linguistics. Thirdly, the development of linguistics can provide experience for the construction of translation studies. ( Zou Bin, Mu Lei,2020)

Linguistics and translatology are the most closely related disciplines, and the relationship between them has always been the focus of discussion. Now, it has basically reached a consensus that linguistics is closely related to translation studies, and linguistics can provide a scientific theoretical basis for translation studies and translation activities. However, as Liu Miqing said, "Translators' attitude towards all other disciplines should only be used for reference, not grafting." Based on the development of translatology, translation studies should reasonably use the research results of linguistics for reference, instead of copying them completely.(Liu Miqing, 1989)

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Reflection on the Learning of Translation Studies in China-许晶Xu Jing,202020080658

Abstract

With the continuous advancement of reform and opening-up, foreign trade and international exchanges have become more and more frequent, there is an increasing demand for translation talents, and the team engaged in translation studies has become more and more powerful. The development of Translation Studies as a discipline is getting better and better. By reviewing the development of the Translation Studies in China, as well as reading and refining of translation literature in recent years, this article analyzes the current problems of the learning of Translation Studies and puts forward relevant suggestions from the perspective of translation education and the perspective of students.

Key words

Translation Studies, translation education, translation talents

题目

对中国翻译学学习的反思

摘要

随着我国改革与开放政策的不断推进，对外贸易和国际之间的交往变得越来越频繁，对于翻译人才的需求越来越多，从事翻译研究的队伍也越来越壮阔，翻译学的学科发展也越来越好。本文通过回顾翻译学科在中国的发展历程，以及对近年翻译学文献的阅读和提炼，从翻译教育视角和学生视角出发，分析学习翻译学科目前存在的问题，并提出相关的建议。

关键词

翻译学，翻译教育，翻译人才

1. Introduction

1.1. The Connotation of Translation Studies

Translation Studies used to refer to the researches of translation. It was not until the 20th century that translation studies became a formal academic discipline. The landmark paper published by James S Holmes in 1972, titled "The Name and Nature of Translation Studies", is a basic statement of translation studies: it calls for the establishment of a unique discipline with its own classification system.(James S Holmes 1972)

Basically, at present, Translation Studies is a research field that studies the theory, description and application of translation. Because it treats translation not only as a transfer between languages, but also as an exchange between cultures, it can also be described as an interdisciplinary involving other fields of knowledge, including comparative literature, cultural studies, gender studies, computer science, history, linguistics, philosophy, rhetoric and semiotics.(wikipedia)

Now Translation Studies as an academic discipline, it requires a systematic study of translation, which is not only an applied practice, but also a means to understand the movement and transfer between multiple languages and cultures. Translation Studies involves the translator's practical experience; it also explores the history and philosophy of translation and current trends in the field from the perspective of theory and methodology. Translation Studies can examine the practice and background of translating professional texts (law, business, medicine, etc.); it may also explore the art of translation as a creative act in literary translation and international marketing. Translation studies can also explore how issues such as culture, power, gender, and moral media affect translation behavior.

Learning these contents enables students to apply their theoretical understanding to the methods, techniques and choices used in daily translation practice. In addition, Translation Studies usually include the analysis of key texts to enable students to develop an awareness of understanding and interpretation issues. It also involves the development of analysis, practice, evaluation, aesthetics and descriptive skills needed to solve translation problems. Finally, it includes the development of research skills, practical translation skills, and the ability to develop strategies for managing complex language and cultural transactions.

1.2. The Significance of Translation Study

With the introduction of university schools and courses, related conferences, translation journals and other translation-related publications, the discipline of translation studies has also been developed. At the same time, as today's multicultural and multilingual society requires effective, efficient and understanding communication between languages and cultures, translation skills have become more and more important and desirable.

As a science, Translation Studies has always had its own laws that cannot be ignored, and its systematic theories are different from other disciplines. The so-called translation theory is a thorough and systematic description of these laws, which make the skills and techniques that can only be understood in mind in translation into a knowable object and a theoretical system.

Translation theory can provide translators with a series of macro descriptions of the objective laws of translation, as well as in-depth analysis of the internal relations and mechanisms of these laws. By learning translation theory, translators can understand the essence of translation behaviors and the fundamental standards of translation better. At the same time, knowing the laws of translation science and translation art, translators who are with the guidance of translation theory and scientific argumentation and methodology will selectively implement the reference means provided by translation theory in practice, and work effectively; When dealing with the difficulties of translation, translator can use a variety of methods. In this way, the translation process can be both scientific and flexible, and the translator can consciously exert their initiative, so that the translation practice becomes a high-level language communication. This is also the necessity for translators to learn Translation Studies.(Chu Xizhi 2009)

2. The Development Process of Translation Studies in China

Translation activities has appeared in China very early, but translation as a discipline appeared relatively late. With the advancement of the People's Republic of China and the promotion of foreign exchanges, China's translation industry has flourished since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. After reading a large number of documents and reviewing the ups and downs of the translation discipline and the translation major in the past 71 years, the author has made a comprehensive analysis and believes that the development process of Translation Studies in China can be divided into the following three stages: the exploration period of Translation Studies, the development period of Translation Studies, the flourishing period of Translation Studies.

2.1. The Exploration Period of Translation Studies

In the initial stage of the Translation Studies, the famous translator Dong Qiusi in 1950 pointed out that “although there are thousands of hundreds of years of translation experience, there are also 10,000 people engaged in translation, but those who study translation theory, Almost no. What we have are some translation regulations and fragments of experience for temporary reference." He clearly called for the establishment of "a complete translation theory system" (Dong Qiusi 1950 ). It is a pity that Dong Qiusi's appeal did not attract much attention.

The translation industry in China is still satisfied with the translator’s experiences, and even mistakes their experiences as theory. In the early days of New China, due to the needs of national construction and foreign exchanges, translation activities were initially highly valued and supported by the party and governments at all levels. Translations of various translation groups, journals, papers, conferences and political documents appeared in history.

However, affected by political factors at home and abroad, the development of translation disciplines has almost stagnated, the number of translations has been greatly reduced, and the types of works have become increasingly single. During this period, the people engaged in translation discipline construction were front-line foreign affairs translators and literary translators. They were mainly responsible for political and literary translation practice, and of course translation criticism, translation publishing, translation management, etc.

At that time, because a large number of people who understand foreign languages were needed for national construction, language learning was the main task of academic industry, and translation teaching was regarded as a means to strengthen foreign language ability. Later, with the advancement of reform and opening up, a group of teachers and students who were concerned about translation teaching in the foreign language community joined the group of developing Translation Studies. The number of publications on scientific translation, teaching studies, textbook research, and introduction to Western translation theories has gradually increased. But Translation Studies at this stage is still attached to the third level research direction under foreign language and literature, but the distinction between translation teaching and language teaching has gradually become clear.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

2.2. The Development Period of Translation Studies

At the beginning of this period, it was explored whether the Translation Studies can become an independent discipline, whether there is a difference between the training of translation professionals and the training of traditional foreign language talents, and what are the differences.

At this stage, some masters and doctors in translation studies joined the construction team translation discipline. Researchers' disciplinary awareness and interdisciplinary awareness have increased, methodological awareness has sprouted, and the number of micro-level translation teaching research has increased. In the teaching of translation majors, more attention has been paid to theoretical explanations, textual comparisons between English and Chinese, and extra-linguistic factors in translation activities. In 2003 and 2005, Shanghai International Studies University and Guangdong University of Foreign Studies established Graduate Institute of Interpretation and Translation desperately. The first degree in Translation Studies was established by the Ministry of Education in Shanghai in 2004, which can be regarded as a sign that Translation Studies have been recognized by the system as a secondary discipline. To this end, a group of special articles in the third issue of "China Translator" in 2004 come to congratulate.(Luo Feng 2011)

Since the establishment of Translation Studies, its disciplinary connotation has been explored, the system has been gradually improved, the framework has become increasingly substantial, and its social contribution has been unique and huge.Translation research ideas, methods, space and resources are further expanded, translation teaching methods, tools and resources are enriched, the number of applied texts in translation teaching increases, and the professional orientation is much clear.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

2.3. The Flourishing Period of Translation Studies

In 2011, the Ministry of Education adjusted the discipline catalog and listed "Translation Studies" as a second-level subject under the first-level discipline of "Foreign Languages and Literature" officially. As a result, the status of Translation Studies was formally established, facing the world, serving demand, and standardizing construction.(Huang Zhongqian, Zhang Xiao 2020)

In the flourishing period, the construction of translation disciplines and the development of translation majors in China have shown a new look. Many levels have jumped to new levels, which is reflected in the new breakthroughs in the main construction force. A large number of language service industry practitioners, technical experts and translation scholars have collaborated to provide suggestions for the construction of translation disciplines and talent training.

There are many publications on translation teaching research, translation technology research, translation market and language service industry research, and the construction of the discourse system of translation theory with Chinese characteristics. New changes have taken place in the focus and form of translation teaching. Translation teachers train students to acquire the industry knowledge, technology, skills and accomplishments required by the language service market by inviting industry instructors into classrooms to share their ideas, and through other methods such as project cooperation, field learning, and simulation.

3. Challenges of Learning Translation Studies in China

The development of Translation Studies as a discipline in China did not happen overnight. It also experienced ups and downs along the way. China's translation discipline has now entered a new stage, and the team of Translation Studies has become larger and larger. More and more colleges and universities set up MTI and MA in Translation. More students and scholars began to engage in Translation Studies. However, due to various reasons, in the process of learning Translation Studies, we also face many problems and challenges. This chapter will introduce the problems of learning Translation Studies in China from the perspectives of translation education and students' personal factors.

3.1. Translation Education

With the establishment of the status of China’s Translation Studies, translation education grows up. And with the historical process of reform and opening for more than 40 years, translation education has made brilliant achievement and has promoted the training of translation professionals, and also will further make important contributions to national economic and social development. It is obvious that translation education plays an important role in the learning process of Translation Studies. A good translation education plays a positive role in the development of translation disciplines, and can also help students learn Translation Studies better.（Huang Youyi 2018）

However, China's translation education started and developed after the reform and opening up, is relatively late. Under the background of the new era, it still faces many challenges and urgently needs to be addressed. In addition, the construction of Translation Studies is not long, and the construction of a complete translation teaching system is still on the way of continuous development, and systematic researches on translation teaching still needs efforts. The author mainly analyzes this problem from four aspects: the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents, the faculty resources, the teaching mode and translation teaching research.

3.1.1. Orientation of the Cultivation of Translation Talents

At present, the orientation of the cultivation of translation talents is not particularly clear. In the actual teaching practice, some colleges and universities do not separate translation major students and English major students clearly due to the unclear concept of the cultivation of translation talents. There are few differences in teaching model between translation major and the traditional English major. In addition, different colleges and universities still have not unified the concepts, principles, methods and other macro ideas of translation professional teaching, and they are independent in the specific classroom teaching operations, and the curriculum settings are out of touch with the market.(Zhong Weihe; Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

In addition,due to the inconsistency between the talent cultivation model in some universities and the development of translation industry, a considerable number of translation graduates do not have good professional ethics, wide encyclopedia knowledge, and professional skills and learning ability. In addition, most of them lack of organizational management ability, innovation ability as well as collaborate ability. Those reasons have seriously affected the quality and quantity of cultivating translation professionals.(Zhong Weihe 2019)

3.1.2. Faculty Resources

The quality of teachers is closely related to the effect of English translation teaching. English translation has higher requirements for teachers' teaching guidance ability, response ability and language organization ability.

The problem of translation teachers has always been a bottleneck problem that needs to be broken through. The teachers here include both full-time teachers and part-time teachers. Recent evaluation data show that although the number of the teacher in translation major is sufficient and the structure is reasonable, the number of professional translators is lacking, and the teachers' scientific research and practical ability are seriously lacking. Statistics for part-time teachers show that the number of part-time teachers can be guaranteed, but only 27% are from the language service industry, and the rest are from the government and universities, which is inconsistent with the requirements of the "National Standard of Part-time Teacher in MTI Education ". (Zhong Weihe 2019)

In addition, many English teachers in colleges and universities have been in a professional teaching environment for a long time and rarely have the opportunity to participate in practice. This has caused translation teaching to derail from the actual situation to some extent, resulting in poor training of professional translators and affecting the overall development of students.(Chen Cheng 2020)

3.1.3. Teaching method

Relatively speaking, the teaching mode of translation teaching in China is still based on traditional English major teaching, and the teaching mode is relatively single. The most commonly used form is to explain the theory and skills, then explain and appreciate the analysis through the example sentences and example texts on the professional textbooks, and finally arrange homework based on the content of this class. (Wang Baigula 2018)

This kind of teaching method that ignores student autonomy is entirely a teacher-centered teaching model, which will place too much emphasis on teachers and teaching materials to a large extent, restricting teachers’ ability to innovate and explore. In addition, this kind of translation mode will restrain students' interpreting practice ability to a certain extent and ignore life culture and skills. This will cause translation majors to limit their learning content to test papers instead of translation researches and the process of translation practice.

3.1.4 Translation Teaching Research

The current achievements of translation teaching research in China are mainly expressed in impressionistic and scattered personal experiences, lacking systematic research and strong theoretical support. In other words, it lacks systematic theoretical guidance, clear methodology guidance and effective research method. And the research methods are still based on reflection and experience, and importantly, the empirical research is rare.（Ou Yonghua 2019）

Besides, the number of interdisciplinary researches is relatively small, and there is also a lack of sufficient number of experiments and opportunities in actual application fields. Translation discipline has a big difference comparing to other disciplines, mainly because of its high interactivity, which requires the participation of many disciplines. Only in this way can the value of the translation discipline be brought into play. However, combining actual translation learning and translation education in colleges and universities, it can be seen that China has not paid enough attention to this aspect, so that many interdisciplinary content is only on the surface, but not deep into the actual situation.(Bo Zhenjie, Li Heqing 2011)

3.2. Students

The above mentioned the impact of translation education on translation studies, and the following part will analyze the difficulties faced by students when learning translation studies. In China, English courses are offered from the elementary school, it is a long journey to learn English. It stands to reason that after a long period of study, students can master English proficiently, and be proficient in oral and writing. But this is not true. The reasons for this situation are as follows.

3.2.1. Low level of commitment to translation learning

Although Chinese students begin to learn English very early and study for a long time, the effective efforts for English learning is not enough.

Translation is not only a simple language conversion, its process is complex and tortuous, especially when the process of translation encountered strange and difficult to understand the content, it requires the translator to be patient, as far as possible to invest their time and energy to search and verify the related knowledge. Most of the time, the unqualified translation results from the fact that the translator does not invest enough time and energy, and only has a superficial understanding of background knowledge, professional terms or corpus search. At the same time, it is difficult for students to have the amount of extra-curricular English reading and accumulate a rich vocabulary. (Wang Na 2020)

As a result, students' basic English translation skills are not solid. If students do not know more than half of the words and phrases in an article, it is impossible for them to translation the whole passage. At the same time, there are many differences between the word order of English and Chinese. Due to the insufficient amount of English reading, it is difficult for students to get familiar with the English reading mode and grasp the main points of English translation, so it may lead the final translation to fail to convey the true meaning.

3.2.2. Insufficient background knowledge

Under the influence of exam-oriented education, many Chinese students hope to get a good grade in exam and ignore that learning English is also for communication. They are only satisfied with finishing the English translation exercises assigned by teachers and seldom use English for daily communication or reading English works. And in this way, students do not grasp sufficient background information.

With the advent of the era of network, traditional translation objects, such as religious texts and the classics of social sciences, are out of the core status of translation activities and are gradually marginalized. Especially from the quantity of the objects, there are more and more literature references, business documents, documents of national governments and international organizations, which have increasingly become the mainstream of contemporary translation object. Various types of translation objects become big challenges for students’ knowledge. On the other hand, students pay much attention to language transfer and translation skills, but neglect the supplement of professional background knowledge.(Xie Zhentian, 2015)

3.2.3. Neglect of theoretical knowledge

At present, when MA students are learning theoretical knowledge, most of them do not have a correct understanding of Translation Studies. They think that translation theory is useless or that previous translation theories is very perfect, so they cannot make any innovations in Translation Studies. However, learning Translation Studies is not to create a translation theory. The purpose is to improve students' theoretical awareness so as to establish their translation literacy. The academic master of Translation should focus more on verifying the validity of theories through the practice of translation.(Jiang Feifei 2019）

4. Suggestions for the Learning of Translation Studies

In order to promote the development of Translation Studies, the training of translation talents is extremely important. Translation Studies as a discipline needs to be improved according to the development of times. The following will show the efforts we need to make from the perspectives of translation education and the students themselves, in order to better learn Translation Studies and promote the development of Translation Studies in China.

4.1. Translation Education

4.1.1. Improve Teaching Mode

The teaching model is an important basic guarantee for cultivating interdisciplinary English translators. At present, colleges and universities should focus on the current social needs. Teachers should effectively integrate the curriculum with social reality in the teaching process, which can be based on the current social situation or current affairs. (Wang Baigula 2018)

Similarly, the translation model has a very important impact on teaching arrangement. The rapid enrichment of theoretical horizons has put forward many new requirements for translation teaching. Therefore, translation teaching should also combine these needs to make something new. For example, many translation learning in China have begun to shift to the perspective of students' autonomous learning, rather than relying solely on teachers’ guidance or leading. This is a very good practice, and it also meets the new requirements of the times. (Ou Yonghua 2019)

The objective teaching method is a teaching mode that can be introduced in translation teaching. This type of mode attaches great importance to the construction of learning environment and the value of teachers' guidance to students. This is very important for translation learning. While diffusing students' interest in learning, it will also increase students' creative ability and thought diffusion. And through the current teaching equipment and teaching software to enrich the teaching content in the teaching process so as to improve the students’ learning efficiency.(Ou Yonghua 2019)

4.1.2. Strengthen Faculty Force

Teachers occupies a very important position in the training of talents, and at the same time, improving the quality and ability of the teaching team is also the most important thing when training talents.

Therefore, in view of the current low professional quality and ability of teachers in ordinary colleges and universities in China, first of all, colleges and first-line translation teachers need to clarify the requirements for professional ability development, and strive to improve the professional quality of teachers (professional ethics and norms, lifelong learning), professional knowledge (linguistic culture and discipline knowledge, education theory) and professional ability (teaching design and implementation, teaching strategy, modern technology application, teaching reflection, scientific research, practice, testing and evaluation, digital scientific research and learning, data analysis);（Zhong Hewei 2019）

Secondly, at the beginning of the training of talents, it is possible to engage outstanding professional teams outside the school to communicate, so as to enhance the echelon construction of the school's teaching team, improve the teacher structure in the school, and devote to the comprehensive training of professional translators suitable for social development and needs. The cultivation of talents and the construction of teachers. (Wang Baigula 2018)

4.1.3. Broaden the academic vision of translation

Translation research is a booster for the development of the education of translation majors in the new era. In the future, Chinese translation research can still make breakthroughs in the following aspects. The first is to strengthen the research of translation theory, focusing not only on the grand theory of structural analysis and classification, but also on the micro-theories of specific phenomena and answering practical questions, and reserve the prerequisite theoretical knowledge that needs to be solved for the establishment and development of the discipline, which carry out the provision of roadmap for a comprehensive academic research of the discipline. (Lan Hongjun, 2018)

The second is to innovate research methods and carry out disciplinary cooperation. At present, in the research of translation education, humanistic research is dominant, and empirical research is gradually increasing. Translation education involves many subjects such as pedagogy, psychology, and testing. With the continuous emergence of new research technologies and methods, and the increasingly obvious interdisciplinary and integration, translation education research should be able to learn from interdisciplinary research methods, carry out interdisciplinary cooperation, and be good at using new technology and innovative research methods.(Mu Lei, Li Xixi 2019)

4.2. Students

The quality of translation talents plays a very important role in the development of translation studies. Those who will be engaged in the field of translation should also work hard to improve themselves, expand their knowledge, earnestly study theoretical knowledge, and practice more.

4.2.1. Expanding knowledge

Translation Studies is originally an interdisciplinary subject. Whether you are engaged in translation research or translation practice in the future, you need to expand your knowledge. For students studying translation studies, when they are learning translation theory, they also need to master the knowledge of linguistics, psychology, pedagogy, philosophy, etc., so as to integrate them with translation studies. For students who are going to be engaged in translation practice in the future, in addition to having a solid foundation in language ability, they should also take the initiative to continuously learn new knowledge with a broad perspective. They should not only focus on their major field, but also should grasp the knowledge of politics, economics, science and technology, history, geography, customs, etc. to strengthen their comprehensive language skills.(Xu Jun;Mu Lei 2009)

A very good way to expand their knowledge is to improve their search ability. Search ability, specifically, refers to how translators use dictionaries, encyclopedias, search engines, corpora, grammar books, etc. to solve practical problems in translation. With economic globalization and various changes in the language service industry, the demand for non-literary translation has skyrocketed. Translators need to be exposed to translations in various forms (audio, video, website, etc.) and fields (mechanical, chemical, electrical, etc.), MTI students is urgent to learn certain professional background knowledge and increase the depth and scope of search to deal with more complex and difficult translation tasks. (Wang Na 2020)

4.2.2. Emphasize theory and practice more

Knowledge comes from practice. Current translation theories provide many conveniences for this activity. In the process of translation practice, students can also verify the validity of these theories. However, students should not only understand the knowledge of linguistics, not only the translation skills and theories，but also practice more. Theories that are out of practice cannot keep up with the development of the times.

Students must spend enough time in practicing. They can go to the front line of production or go deep into all aspects of social life, and keep close contact with the masses in order to continuously broaden their horizons and know the society better. And then it is possible for them to analyze practical experience and conclude it into theory.(Lin lin 2016)

5.Conclusion

This chapter analyzes the current situation of Translation Studies as a discipline by reviewing the development process of Translation Studies in China. There are many factors that affect the learning of Translation Studies. Among them, from the perspective of translation teaching, in China, the concept of talent training is unclear, the faculty resource is insufficient, and the teaching structure is relatively simple. Those engaged in translation education need to clarify the orientation of cultivating translation talents. At the same time, teachers should also improve their personal qualities, including their teaching ability and so on. In addition, research on translation education should also be emphasized, and exchanges and cooperation between the disciplines should be strengthened to conduct more effective translation learning and translation research.

From the students’ point of view, those who major in translation must learn translation studies hard to contribute to the development of Translation Studies. However, many students did not work hard to learn their major, their basic skills are not wonderful, and their knowledge scope is relatively narrow. Some students do not have a correct understanding of translation studies. To become an excellent translator, students also need to spend time and energy to expand their knowledge range. At the same time, students also need to take translation theories seriously and learn it carefully, and then apply those theories to practice. In this way, they can also gain a lot of practical experience.

President Xi Jinping, asked” the majority of philosophy and social science workers to bravely stand on the forefront of the times, communicate the changes of the past and the present, and give the first signs of thought” (Xi Jinpin 2016). Looking back on the past decades, the achievements and independent status of Translation Studies were not achieved overnight. They have condensed the unremitting exploration and hard work of many scholars, showing a development axis of independence, self-consciousness, self-reliance and self-confidence. Looking forward to the future, we hope that the successors of Translation Studies and translation majors can inherit the spirit of their predecessors in the grand vision of the development of Chinese language service industry in the new era, and keep the discipline mission in mind. (Zhong Weihe, Zhao Tianyuan 2020)

Based on China's social development practice and serving the national strategy, we can have dialogue with the international translation community, draw on the latest foreign translation theories, combine the history and current situation of Chinese translation to further improve the translation discipline system, academic system and discourse system construction. And it also can promote the cultivation of translation talents. The author sincerely hopes that the Chinese characteristics and Chinese style of Translation Studies can make contributions to the development of international translation studies.

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The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation 周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan

周玉娟 Zhou Yujuan 202020080674 亚非语言文学波斯语方向 . The influence of translator's cultural identity on translation.

Abstract

Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both outstanding representatives of Shakespeare's plays translated in 20th century Chinese literature. Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil , and lived a hard and poor life , so his translations were both imbued with deep patriotism, and his translations were based on naturalization strategies. As a scholar who returned from overseas studies, Liang Shiqiu believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the translation process with the purpose of spreading the culture of foreign countries.

Keywords

translation; translator; cultural identity; Shakespeare's plays

题目

译者文化身份对翻译的影响

摘要

梁实秋和朱生豪都是20世纪中国文学界翻译莎士比亚戏剧的杰出代表人物。朱生豪生活在战火纷飞，动荡不安的年代，生活过得很艰苦和贫困，所以他的翻译中都蕴含了深深的爱国主义情怀，翻译以归化策略为主。梁实秋作为海外学成归来的学者，认为文学是天才创作的。所以他以传播异国的文化为目的，在翻译过程中采取了异化策略。

关键词

翻译；译者；文化身份；莎士比亚剧

Introduction

Translating a work is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important active role in both translating the content and interpreting it, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.

Translating a work that is a re-recognition and re-expression of what the translator knows and transmits. On the one hand, the translator transmits the content of the original author, and on the other hand, the translator also incorporates his or her own interpretation and understanding into it. In traditional translation studies, whether the translation is faithful to the original work is the key criterion to measure the goodness of a translated work, and it is also an important criterion to judge a translator's qualification or otherwise. (Many. 2018: 85) Therefore, the translator plays an important role in both translating and interpreting, and the translator is the first person who is in direct contact with the original text.--Su Lin (talk) 14:49, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Benjamin, the famous German literary critic, once said : "In any discussion of translation, the traditional concept always revolves around fidelity and freedom: that is, the freedom to reproduce the original faithfully and the fidelity to the original in the reproduction." (Benjamin. 1968/2004: 20) However, in the process of translation, besides being faithful to the direct expression of the original, translators also have their own translation characteristics and strategies. The issue of "cultural identity" has also received more and more attention. (Fu, Wenhui. 2011: 16)

There have been many Chinese translations of Shakespeare's plays in China, among which Zhu Shenghao and Liang Shiqiu are both classic representatives of Shakespeare's plays in translation. However, they differ in many aspects such as the purpose of their respective translations, translation styles, and translation contents. The reason for this is that the influence of their cultural identities on their translations cannot be ignored. This paper will try to explore the influence of their respective cultural identities on the translation purposes and translation contents by comparing their cultural identities and the social and cultural backgrounds in which they lived, so as to provide guiding inspirations and suggestions for translation practice activities.

Introduction to the identity of the translator

Translators are also readers, however, they act as readers in a special sense; the ultimate goal of a translator is not to read and understand the original text, but to convey the original text he reads by interpreting it in another linguistic symbol (Wu Delu. 2016:211). Both Liang Shiqiu (1903-1987) and Zhu Shenghao (1912-1944) were famous translators of Shakespeare in China in the twentieth century, and their translations have stood the test of time. The contributions that Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao made to the Chinese literary world are well known.

Cultural identity, or cultural identity, (Wang Ning. 1999:45) mainly includes a nation, group or individual's sense of identity with its own culture and perception of self-image,( Wang Zhenping. 2017:68) which is characterized by the fact that cultural identity carries the self-identified and recognized cultural characteristics of a certain group, and the manifestation of these characteristics in group members varies in strength and weakness depending on the objective environment. Cultural identity is expressed through the way people communicate, interpersonal relationships, and behavioral norms (Liu Shuang. 2000:90), and it is stable and fluid.

(While your first quote here may be intended to explain to the reader where the concept of cultural identity came from, I suggest you explain the meaning of the concept proposed by the cited author.)--Su Lin (talk) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

"Although Liang Shiqiu and Zhu Shenghao are both known in contemporary times, they are different in terms of translation purpose, style, technique, and even phrasing, forming two different schools of Shakespeare translation in China." (Xi Yongji. 2007:245)

Zhu Shenghao's Cultural Identity

Zhu Shenghao is a famous translator. He was born on February 2, 1912, in Jiaxing, Zhejiang Province, to a family of small, declining merchants. Zhu Shenghao began to translate Shakespeare in 1935, but the translation process was difficult and the conditions were tough (the Japanese attacked Shanghai in 1937 and the city was in flames. Zhu Shenghao's house was burned down by the Japanese, and he escaped with the Oxford edition of the complete works of Shakespeare and some of his translations. (Most of his translations were burned by the Japanese.) However, he persisted in his translation career and devoted himself to it, eventually leaving us forever in 1944 due to lung disease from overwork.

In less than ten years, he translated a total of thirty-one and a half Shakespeare plays with amazing perseverance and talent. Later, his wife, Song Qingyu, compiled all his translations and passed them on to the World Book Bureau in Shanghai, which published The Complete Works of Shakespeare in the fall of 1947. Many Shakespeare researchers could not believe that the Chinese could write such a high quality translation. It is easy to see that his remarkable talent was recognized both at home and abroad.

Throughout the above, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and turmoil, experienced the May Fourth Movement and other tides, and his translations were imbued with a deep sense of patriotism, so his translation of Shakespeare's plays was based on naturalization strategies. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) As a patriotic young man, he longed for China to be understood and to transmit and promote Chinese culture. The so-called naturalization means that the language and culture are the main focus, which ensures the fluency of the translation, reduces the strangeness of the original text, and allows the target language readers to better understand the original text.

（Be clear about what exactly domestication or foreignization in your text means and who defines it. Use word “domestication” instead of “naturalization”in general.）--Su Lin (talk) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Liang Shiqiu's Cultural Identity

Liang Shiqiu, whose original name was Zhihua, was born in Beijing. He was a famous Chinese modern and contemporary essayist, scholar, literary critic, translator, and the first authority on Shakespeare in China. He studied at the English Department of the University of Colorado, Harvard University and Columbia University Graduate School.

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believes that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades."

However, it is worth mentioning that Liang believed that literature is a creation of genius. Liang repeatedly said, "All civilization is the original creation of a very few geniuses", "literature and art are the original creation of a few geniuses", "there is no literature and art for the majority, and literature and art are not for the majority ". (Liang Shiqiu: R.O.C. 23) "The highest art can only be understood by a few ...... Art has its own many grades, so the appreciation of art also has many grades." --Su Lin (talk) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

As for the satisfaction of the literary and artistic requirements of the general public, Liang Shiqiu arranged for them the arts such as story-telling and popular literary works, because their knowledge could only understand such works and they were only interested in such arts, as for the great works of art, like Shakespeare's plays, that naturally only the great artists could appreciate and appreciate them. Liang Shiqiu's mistake was to exaggerate the role of heroic figures such as geniuses and completely ignore the role of the general public in the creation and reception of art. (Wang Qili. 2004: 12)

We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese literary world. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.

We can see that Liang Shiqiu was a scholar who returned from overseas, but he advocated "genius literature" and ignored the role of the people in art and culture. Liang Shiqiu began his translation of Shakespeare in 1930, and it took him nearly 40 long years to complete the translation of this masterpiece, which had a profound impact on the Chinese translation. (Zhou Li. 2016:30) At the same time, his literary thought was largely influenced by Western classicism and neo-humanism, so when translating, he mostly adopted the strategy of alienation.--Su Lin (talk) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Foreignization and domestication Strategies

According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). (Venuti, 1995:20)

According to Venuti, domestication is "bringing the original author into the desired language and culture of the translation", while dissimilation is "accepting the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign work and bringing the reader into the foreign situation" (Venuti, 1995:20). --Su Lin (talk) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

Domestication means to localize the original language, to take the target language or the readers of the translation as the home, and to adopt the expressions that the target language readers are accustomed to in order to convey the content of the original. The translator is required to get closer to the readers of the target language, and the translation must become an authentic national language. This method helps readers understand the translation better and enhances the readability and appreciation of the translation.

The method of Foreignization is: "the translator does not disturb the author as much as possible, so that the reader moves closer to the author". In translation, it means absorbing the expressions of foreign languages, requiring the translator to draw closer to the author and adopt the expressions corresponding to the source language used by the author to convey the content of the original text, that is, to take the language and culture of the original text as the home. Centering on the language and culture of the original language, the cultural characteristics and exoticism of the original language are preserved as much as possible; (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010: 95) Using the strategy of Foreignization helps readers better appreciate the differences in national culture, national characteristics and exotic elements such as language style features. (Here you used foreignization ,but above the paper,you use alienation,The specific concepts of context should be unified.)--Su Lin (talk) 15:10, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

The cultural identity of translators in translation

First, the translator is the second pair of eyes of the reader. "For most readers who do not understand the original work, (the translator's interpretation) is the only way to enter the world of the original work" (Xu Jun 2014: 220). Therefore, the translator's performance in translation is directly related to the reader's acceptance. Moreover, under the translator's subjective role, "the flower of life of the original work gains a continuous, up-to-date and most flourishing opening in the translation" (Ben-jamin 1968/2004: 20). The translator is, in turn, the bearer and transmitter of the author's work. A translator's contribution is unquestionable if his or her translation is recognized by the public or the academic community.

Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's translations have their own strengths, Liang's for scholars to study, Zhu's for the popularization of Shakespeare's works, and both translations interpret classic literary works from different perspectives. (Yan Xiaojiang. 2010:98) But both have made great contributions to world literature. (Here world literature is not very accurate, maybe you can say world translation)--Su Lin (talk) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of the original intention of translation

The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao himself said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much and so only that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's love for Shakespeare is so strong that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading Shakespeare, not eating it.

The reasons for Zhu Shenghao's translation of Shakespeare have also been explored, and all of them agree that personal interest, patriotic thought, dedication and financial embarrassment were the main motivations for his translation of Shakespeare. Here, we prefer to consider "interest" as the primary motivation. (Qiu Yunchen. 2010:591) Zhu Shenghao said, "I love Shakespeare's plays so much so that I have tried to read the whole text at least ten times from the beginning to the end. ......" Zhu's preference for Shakespeare is so obvious that "He was so passionate about Shakespeare that he would not stop reading and studying Shakespeare assiduously.--Su Lin (talk) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In addition, because Zhu Shenghao was born in an ordinary family and his parents died at an early age, his life was difficult, and he mentioned in his translations that he had to pay for translating Shakespeare's plays. Economic reasons also drove his perseverance in translating, and furthermore, Zhu Shenghao lived in a time of war and experienced the May Fourth Movement and other fashions, and his translations contained deep patriotism, a desire for China to be understood and to transmit Chinese culture. This patriotic sentiment also inspired his determination to translate Shakespeare's plays.

Liang Shiqiu believes that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius is to appreciate literature, the general public to read are popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "the highest art only a few people can understand ......, literature and art is not the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".

Liang Shiqiu believed that there is a distinction between elegant and vulgar literature, genius always appreciate literature, the general public usually read popular literature. In Liang Shiqiu's view, not only the subject of creation can only be a very small number of geniuses, that is, the appreciation of literature is also the patent of a very small number of talented people, "only a few people can understand the highest art ......, literature and art is not for the majority." (Liang Shiqiu. 1988:117). According to Liang Shiqiu, "literature is created by genius".--Su Lin (talk) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

When he studied at Harvard University, he took the course "Literary Criticism after the Sixteenth Century" by the American neoclassicist Byrd Byrd, and was greatly influenced by Western humanist thought in literary thought and the Western cultural environment, so he set out to translate Shakespeare's plays with the aim of spreading the idea of foreign culture. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare aimed to "preserve the most authentic things" and to convey the author's meaning visually. Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare was very faithful to the original text, and his opposition to "hard translations" and "bent translations" shows that he advocated faithfulness and fluency in translation. (Xiao Li. Li Xiaoying. 2012:95) (Here maybe you want to say Irving Babbitt not Byrd, plz check it again)--Su Lin (talk) 15:26, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

In terms of the content of the translation (taking the translation of Shakespeare as an example)

Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "My aim in translating this book is, first, to maintain the charm of the original work to the greatest extent possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey faithfully the meaning and feelings of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha plays more attention to the performance function of drama.

Zhu Shenghao stated at the beginning of his translation: "In translating this book, my aim is to maintain the charm of the original work as much as possible, and then to consider the second point if it is not feasible, that is, to convey the meaning and feelings faithfully of the original text in simple and easy-to-understand sentences; but I dare not agree with the rigid translation of word-by-word comparison.... I would like to be a reader and check the translation for any ambiguities. I must also pretend to be an actor on the stage, and examine whether the tone of speech is smooth and whether the syllables are in tune. It often takes days to think hard about a word or phrase that is not agreeable." (Zhu Shenghao. (2010:36) This shows that Zhu Shenghao paid more attention to the performance function of drama in translation of Shakespeare’s plays.--Su Lin (talk) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC)

For example: ( the translation of Zhu Shenghao)

EGEUS: Stand forth，Demetrius． My noble lord， 伊吉斯:走上前来，狄米特律斯。殿下，这个人，

This man hath my consent to marry her． 是我答应把我女儿嫁给他的

Stand forth，Lysander． 走上前来，拉山德。

And，my gracious Duke， This man hath bewitched the bosom of my child．（莎士比亚.2011：22） 殿下，这个人引诱坏了我的孩子 （朱生豪. 2013：9）

In addition, influenced by traditional Chinese moral and ethical thinking, when obscene words and indecent phrases appeared in the original text, Zhu Shenghao basically "purified" or arbitrarily rewrote them, or simply deleted them without translation. Perhaps it is also the fact that his translations conform to the requirements of Chinese moral culture that makes his works so well-received. The advertisement published by World Bookstore clearly states two sentences: "The original text is brilliant, a treasure of world literature ornaments; the translation is beautiful and fluent, keeping the charm of the original work. For example, his translation. LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent． (Ⅲ．ⅱ) (莎士比亚.2011:110)

拉山德:放开手，你这猫! 你这牛蒡子! 贱东西，放开手! 否则我要像摔掉身上一条蛇那样摔掉你了(莎士比亚．2013:117 )。

Liang Shiqiu believed that translation should be faithful to the original text, so his translation content can be summarized as "faithfulness and fidelity". The style of "faith" and "faithfulness" has been developed. (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Because of this faithfulness, Liang Shiqiu believed that any arbitrary rewriting or deletion of the original work would be unfaithful to the work, and that the vulgar language in Shakespeare's plays has its specific role in portraying characters and increasing the stage effect. Therefore, he kept the obscene words in the original text intact in the translation process.

First: Stay true to the original text and try not to delete or subtract from it.For example:

LYSANDEＲ: Hang off，thou cat，thou burr! Vile thing，let loose，Or I will shake thee from me like a serpent.(Ⅲ.ⅱ)(莎士比亚.2001:110)

Translation of Liang Shiqiu:

赖,走开，你这个猫，你这个缠人的东西! 下流的东西，松手，

否则我要把你像是毒蛇一般的甩开(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:110)。

HELENA She was a vixen when she went toschool:

And though she be but little，she is fierce．(Ⅲ． ⅱ) (莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001:116)

海 上学时她就是个狐狸精。

她虽然身材小，她很凶(莎士比亚.梁实秋译2001: 117) 。

Second, Liang Shiqiu's translations retain the punctuation of the original texts (Li Jiawei/Hui Lijun. 2017:75) Liang believes that retaining punctuation makes the translations more "Shakespearean". "The punctuation used by Shakespeare may seem less formal, but in fact it is a self-contained system, designed to point out the effect of intonation when the actors recite their lines. Based on this clarification, I then decided to preserve as much of Shakespeare's original punctuation as possible in a text, with the result that where there is an original sentence, there is a translation". (Liang Shiqiu. 1966) Therefore, Liang Shiqiu's translation of Shakespeare pays more attention to the literary function of drama and more attention to the stage function of literature.

For example, a fragment of Liang Shiqiu's translation of Hamlet.

Queen. There is a willow grows aslant a brook, That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream; There with fantastic garlands did she come, Of crow-flowers, nettles, daisies, and long purples, That liberal shepherds give a grosser name. But our cold maids do dead man’s fingers call them: There, on the pendent boughs her coronet weeds Clambering to hang ,an envious sliver broke, When down her weedy trophies and herself Fell in the weeping brook. Her clothes spread wide; And, mermaid-like, awhile they bore her up; Which time she chanted snatches of old tunes; As one incapable of her own distress, Or like a creature native and indu’d Unto that element: but long it could not be Till that her garments ,heavy with her drink, Pull’d the poor wretch from her melodious lay To muddy death. （shakespeare, hamlet, act Ⅳ, scenceⅦ）

The translation of Liang Shiqiu： (You can say Liang’s version :)--Su Lin (talk) 15:36, 18 December 2020 (UTC) 河边有一株斜长着的杨柳，白叶倒映在玻璃似的流水里；他就来到那个地方，拿着些奇异的花圈，扎的是毛莨、荨麻、延命菊，以及粗野牧人呼之不雅之名而纯洁女郎都呼为“死人指”的紫兰。 就在那里，她爬上树枝想去挂她的花圈，无情的枝子断了；她的花圈和她自身于是坠入呜咽的河流。 她的衣服展开，像是鲛人似的，把她浮上来一会儿，这时节她唱了几句古歌，好像不知自身痛苦似的，又好像是水下生长的动物似的；但是这情形没有多久，她的衣服湿透就变重了，于是把这可怜的人儿于曼声高唱中扯到污泥的死所去了。

Conclusion

The translator's cultural identity is impressed by various factors such as the different backgrounds of the translator's life and the different cultural ideas he or she has received, and this identity is present in the translator's translation works almost all his or her life. In other words, the translator's cultural identity has a great and lasting influence on the choice of his or her translation strategy, and it can also be said that readers can learn the translator's cultural identity through his or her translation works.

For example, Zhu Shenghao, who lived in the era of constant war, had a deep patriotic feeling. So he wanted China to be understood by the world or more countries, to be able to transmit and carry forward Chinese culture. In addition, he was influenced by the deep-rooted moral and ethical thoughts of traditional Chinese culture, so he adopted a naturalization strategy in the translation process. However, looking at the translator Liang Shiqiu again, as a scholar who returned from studying in the West, he received the idea of Western humanism, and in addition, he believed that literature was created by genius. Therefore, he adopted the strategy of alienation in the process of translation with the aim of spreading foreign culture, and translated the original text word by word, sentence by sentence, and presented it to the readers without evasion.

By briefly exploring the cultural identities and translation ideas of the two translators, we can see that both of them have their own merits, but also their own disadvantages. Throughout the contemporary era, the phenomenon of cultural globalization is also increasing, and most of the excellent works have been translated into multiple languages and spread, but for the translators, we should learn from the advantages of the previous translators, but that is, we should combine the East and the West, and master the translation skills to maintain the content of the original text to the greatest extent and ensure the accuracy of the text.

References

Fu Wenhui付文慧．多重文化身份下之戴乃迭英译阐释［The Interpretation of Dai Naidian's English Translation under Multiple Cultural Identities］中国翻译[ Chinese Translation]，2011，32(6):16—20．

Yan Xiaojiang严晓江． 梁实秋与朱生豪莎剧译文特点之比较[A Comparison of the Characteristics of Liang Shiqiu's and Zhu Shenghao's Translations of Shakespeare]南通大学学报(社会科学版)[Journal of Nantong University (Social Science Edition)，2010，26(4)

Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋. 翻译莎士比亚[M]//梁实秋. 莎士比亚诞辰四百周年纪念集. [Translation of Shakespeare by Liang Shiqiu. Shakespeare's 400th anniversary]. 台湾: 中华书局[Taiwan:Zhong-Hua Book Bureau].1966.

Qiu Yuchen.邱蕴琛. 小议朱生豪译莎动因[A small discussion on the motivation of Zhu Shenghao's translation of Sha].科技信息[Science and Technology Information].2010,(07):448-591.

Zhou Wen周文. 朱生豪翻译观探微 [An exploration of Zhu Shenghao's concept of translation].科技信息(科学教研) [Science and Technology Information (Science Education and Research)].,2007,(22):127-128..

Xi Yongji奚永吉 . 莎士比亚翻译比较美学 [Comparative aesthetics of Shakespeare translation ] 上海：上海外语教育出版社[Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press].2007.

Wu Delu.吴得禄.译者文化身份对翻译的影响[The influence of translators' cultural identity on translation].读书文摘[Reading Digest].2016(08):211.

Wang Ning王宁．文学研究中的文化身份问题[Cultural Identity in Literary Studies] 外国文学[Foreign Literature].1999(4):48—51．

Liu Shuang刘双．文化身份与跨文化传播[Cultural identity and cross-cultural communication]外语学刊[Journal of Foreign Languages]，2000(1):87—91．

Wang Qili王岐立．梁实秋文学思想浅析：[An analysis of Liang Shiqiu's literary thought]:中山大学研究生学刊 [Graduate Journal of Sun Yat-sen University].2004

Zhu Shenghao 朱生豪.译者自序[Translator's Preface].文学界(专辑版)[Literature (album edition)].2010(09):36.

Shakespeare.莎士比亚 四大喜剧 梁实秋译[The Four Great Comedies translated by Liang Shiqiu].北京:中国广播电视出版社.[Beijing: China Radio and Television Press].2001

Shakespeare.莎士比亚． 仲夏夜之梦 朱生豪译．[A Midsummer Night's Dream translated by Zhu Shenghao].上海:上海世界图书出版公司 [Shanghai: Shanghai World Book Publishing Company],2013．

Liang Shiqiu.梁实秋 文学与革命.偏见集[Literature and Revolution. The collection of prejudices].南京:正中书局[Nanjing: Zhengzhong Shuji].中华民国二十三年七月.

Descriptive translation studies 曹润鑫 Cao Runxin

Abstract

The study of descriptive translation has greatly enriched the concept of translation, broadened the horizon of translation research, raised the status of translation research, and promoted the discipline of translation research, and as an important supplement to theoretical translation, descriptive translation has received more and more attention. In this paper, I will take Tuli's Descriptive Translation and Hermanns's Translation in Systems as two examples to briefly introduce the descriptive translation.

Key words

Descriptive translation studies; Translation studies

摘要

描述翻译研究将翻译置于译入语社会文化背景下进行考察, 极大地丰富了翻译的概念, 开阔了翻译研究的视野, 提高了翻译研究的地位, 促进了翻译研究的学科化, 作为理论翻译学的重要补充, 描述翻译学受到了越来越多的重视。本文将以以图里的《描述翻译学》和赫曼斯的《系统中的翻译》两本著作为例, 对描述翻译学进行简单的介绍

关键字

描述翻译学；翻译研究

Introduction

Traditional translation theory research focuses on the original work and the translator. The translator adopts the standards of "faithfulness" and "equivalence" as the criteria for translation, adopts the appropriate translation method, and finds the equivalence of the original language in the target language through linguistic analysis and comparison. This theory of translation is only confined to the micro-linguistic level, with the ultimate goal of faithfully conveying the meaning of the original work and without the constraints of macro-factors such as politics, history and culture outside the language. Guided by this theory, translation critics often take the faithfulness of the translation to the original text as the only criterion for evaluating the quality of the translation based on their own knowledge and experience, which is subjective and biased, and not conducive to the healthy development of translation criticism.

Since the 1960s, there has been a surge of cultural studies, and translation studies have also drawn nourishment from cultural studies and applied it to translation, injecting new vitality into translation studies. In particular, the "cultural shift" since the 1970s has a more trans-generational significance. Free from the constraints of the traditional "faithful" and "reciprocal" translation concepts, cultural translation research adopts a descriptive approach to analyze the history and cultural background of translations and their cultural influence on the translator's language objectively from the macro cultural context, This reveals the distortion, deformation and fusion of different cultures in the process of communication and collision. "Translation researchers no longer dwell on prescriptive instructions, but focus their research on a descriptive method. Translation is no longer regarded as a transformation between texts, but a unique political, cultural and literary behavior in the target language society. Describing the translation research method broadens the horizon of translation research, facilitates the objective and clear understanding of translation phenomenon, and has a great role in promoting the construction of the translation discipline as a whole.

In the 1970s, the introduction of the system concept accelerated the revolution of translation research. As a kind of descriptive translation studies, it broke away from the discussion of "how translation should be" that governed translation studies, and encouraged researchers to explore the role of translation in specific cultural contexts.

Tuli and Descriptive translation

The concept of "descriptive translation" was originally proposed by the Dutch scholar James Holmes, who published the paper "The Name and Reality of Translation Studies" in the Third International Symposium on Applied Linguistics held in Copenhagen in 1972. In the paper, he made a scientific division of translation studies, "He advocated that translation studies should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation', and 'pure translation' and 'applied translation' should be divided into two branches, 'pure translation' and 'applied translation'. It can be divided into 'descriptive translation study' and 'theoretical translation study'". [1] Descriptive translation research also includes: first, product-oriented research; second, process-oriented research; and third, function-oriented research. [2] These three studies are interdependent and inseparable. The expected position or function of the translator in the receiving culture should be regarded as the deciding factor governing the translation, while the standard translation mode in the target system dictates the translation strategy adopted by the translator to maintain the relationship between the source text and the translated text and achieve a balance between them. In addition, Tuli also suggests that theoretical translation and descriptive translation are also interdependent and mutually transformed. Theoretical translation can guide the research of descriptive translation, and the research results of descriptive translation include a series of coherent laws that can clarify their interconnections, which can be summarized and distilled into a theory guiding translation research.

Based on Evan Zohar's multisystem theory and guided by the translations, Tuli proposes a translation study that constructs a framework adapted to the linguistic system of translation, and places translation within the social and literary system of the culture in which it is translated. Descriptive translation studies shifts the focus of translation research from translations to the translators' translation process, focusing on the reasons for the translators' choices in a specific historical and cultural context, which can avoid the one-sided and unreasonable evaluation of the translated text by traditional translation studies and explain the translation phenomenon more reasonably.

In Descriptive Translation and Beyond, Tuli describes the method of conducting research on descriptive translation, arguing that the initial stage of research is the stage of comparison. He says, "Since many parallel translations have been produced in different historical periods, comparisons between them have become more common, and comparisons between them are of course possible, but it is a much more complicated task than one might have imagined". [3]

According to Tuli, the act of translation is an activity governed by norms, which refer to sociocultural constraints on translation behavior. At one end of the spectrum in terms of binding, sociocultural constraints are what might be called universally binding, more absolute rules, and at the other end are purely idiosyncratic preferences. Norms are distributed in a gradient between rules and idiosyncrasies, with binding force in between. From the normative point of view, rules and idiosyncrasies are "(more) objective" norms, while the latter are "(more) subjective" i.e. "less objective". The concept of the This concept is very important in its theoretical system.

He also identifies three types of translation norms embodied in the process: initial norms, preliminary norms, and optional norms. Initial norms refer to the basic choice a translator must first make between the norms of the source language text and the cultural norms of the translated language. The preparatory norms, which come into play before the translation process even begins, involve two aspects: translation policy, which takes into account the choice of the work to be translated, and translation immediacy, which refers to the tolerance for translation from the source language into other languages. Operational norms govern the decisions made in the translation process and can be divided into structural norms and linguistic norms. Among the three norms, the initial norm has an overarching role over the other two norms; the operational norm has a metaphysical character, which is the clarification of the initial norm in the translation process. [3]

According to Tuli, "a translation is any passage of text which, in a system of purposes, is represented as a translation or is considered as a translation, regardless of the grounds on which it is based". [4] Tuli's definition of translation broadens the scope of translation research, and many adaptations, retranslations, rewritings, imitations, translations, pseudo-translations, etc., which are excluded from traditional translation, are included in the scope of describing translation research. Generally speaking, pseudo-translations are marginalized objects in translation studies, because the so-called "translations" may not have corresponding source texts, but are only a means for some writers to make their works more prominent. "Exoticism" to attract the public's attention. But we should also be clear that its position in the cultural system makes pseudo-translations closely related to real translations. Admittedly, everything exists for a reason, and pseudo-translations are no exception. In my opinion, pseudo-translations can be divided into three kinds, one is real pseudo-translation, that is, translations fabricated by writers in the target culture under the guise of translation to gain the status of the translated works in the literary system; the other is possible pseudo-translation, that is, the translated text is handed down in the world but the corresponding source text is unverifiable, where unverifiability does not mean that the source text does not exist, but it may be lost or The other one is that the source text exists objectively, but due to socio-cultural differences with the translated language, the translator has to take naturalization measures, replacing some cultural characteristics of the source culture with the cultural specific items belonging to the culture of the translated language, so that the translation is no longer a complete translation of the source text. One of the major characteristics of pseudo-translation is the "translation tone" in the text. Due to the real existence of "translation cavity" in many translated texts, pseudo-translations are able to deceive many readers through this mask. Of course, since the "translation cavity" is the inevitable effect of the translator's alienation strategy in the translation process, we do not intend to criticize it here.

Figure 3 provides a model for descriptive studies of conjoint phrases as a means of translation. A conjoint phrase consists of two or more synonyms in the same language, which together form a single functional unit that expresses the same meaning or performs the same function. Near-synonyms are often found in Hebrew literature or in Hebrew translations. Many of these phrases, especially those that appeared in classicized texts, gradually evolved into fixed expressions. By the late 18th century, under the influence of the Renaissance, Hebrew culture struggled to adapt to the new modes of literary writing promoted by the surrounding European cultures. It was during this period that the Hebrew lexicon was reborn, and another spring was ushered in. The Hebrew writer or translator had to create a new type of text or a new mode of writing (the mode of the new European literature) using the old forms of the language (in this case, the use of synonyms) in order to produce a "credible" Hebrew text. This is equivalent to writing exotic forms of literature in the language of one's own people. However, the synonymy was suppressed for a long time before it was really reborn, and was of secondary importance in the whole Hebrew literature system. This is evidenced by their common use in children's literature and in translations. In translations, the near-synonyms of the source text are often transferred to the target language, and the differences between the two cultures and traditions make such transfers difficult. In Hebrew translations, synonyms are often used instead of the corresponding individual words in the source text to capture the characteristics of the native literature. There are also rare translations in which the near-synonyms appear as mere additions due to the complete absence of a corresponding item in the source text. As Figure mentions, very often the use of synonyms is not only for the function of their counterparts in the source text, but is an attempt to bring back the tradition of Hebrew translation in one's own research and that of others. [3]112

According to Tuli, the original intent of translation is to meet the needs of one culture. Translation uses a different language to introduce a text that already exists in one culture into another culture. In the process, there is both preservation of the source text and adaptation to the requirements of the target system. After a series of studies, Tully concludes that literary translations are affected by system ambiguity, pointing to two different kinds of translated texts: one in which the source text is already considered as a literary work in the source culture, and the other in which the translation of the source text is accepted as a literary work in the target culture. An example of a Bible translation is shown to illustrate the difference. The translation of the Hebrew Bible has become a classic religious text, but obviously there are differences between Jewish religious texts and non-Jewish religious texts. Of course, literary translations in both senses of the word are also consistent under certain conditions: when the two cultures share similar literary traditions in the act of translation, or when the literary system of the imported language is at a disadvantage compared to the literary system of the source language and tries to enrich the system with the advantages of the latter. Or when the translator occupies such a significant position in the culture that he or she can change the position of the translated text from the periphery to the center. Turi believes that literature is first and foremost a manifestation of culture, so he proposes three types of translation: language-oriented translation, text-oriented translation, and literary translation. In the process of translation, submission to the target literary models and norms will inevitably lead to the loss of the characteristics of the source text, but Tuli is concerned with what actually happens in the process of translation and the purpose of translation itself, not the acceptance of translation but the acceptability of the translated text. The real manipulation of literary translation is not the fact whether the product is accepted by the target culture, but the probability that the structure or composition of a text will be accepted following a definite pattern. In fact, Tuli has put forward his own viewpoint on translation research, that is, translation research oriented to the target language.

Translation-Specific lexical items, which are words translated from the source language, originate in the target language but do not belong to it. Of course, such terms are also subject to certain social and temporal backgrounds. The existence of translation-specific terms saves translators a lot of trouble in translation, and has become an effective method to be adopted in the translation process.

In his study of descriptive translation, Tuli emphasized the objective neutrality of the researcher and avoided value judgments too much. He clearly believes that it is possible to be neutral in the study of culture and history. He tries to appear objective by using a lot of scientific jargon. This claim has been challenged by many scholars, including some close to descriptive translation studies. Hans J. Vermeer, for example, argues that Tuli's early approach was in some sense "meta-prescriptive" in the sense that it set preconditions for the analysis of translation. [5]49 Venuti, on the other hand, argues that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He points out that the mere fact of taking translation as a subject of cultural history or cultural criticism is a rebellion against the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and that the choice of a subject in a particular historical period is always related to the current cultural needs. [6] 312 Snell-Hornby has also politely criticized Tuli's insistence on neutrality and objectivity, arguing that value judgment is inevitable in translation studies. [7]25 The criticisms of these scholars are undoubtedly extremely insightful. Since the advocates of translation studies firmly believe that translation is the process and product of multiple factors, and that translators are manipulated by various forces and cannot be independent of their social and cultural environment, why should they think that researchers can be independent of all influences and be completely objective and neutral? In the end, this position is an ideal that is not feasible in actual research.

Hermanns and Translation in Systems

The study of descriptive translation was formed in the late 1970s, developed in the 1980s, consolidated, expanded and revised in the 1990s, and is still flourishing today. Summarizing the development history of descriptive translation in the past 30 years, and pointing out the future development direction, it is undoubtedly helpful to the further development and improvement of this research method. However, it is not easy to make an objective and impartial summary and evaluation of the development of translation studies in these 30-odd years.

Although there is a relatively stable group of research scholars and their own basic theories in descriptive translation, in general, their theories are not mature and stable enough, even the representatives of descriptive translation, such as Zuoha's theories are still in the stage of continuous verification and revision. In addition, although scholars belonging to the same field of descriptive translation share the same general direction of research, it does not mean that their views are identical. There is a big difference between "norm" and Chesterman's "norm". This requires the summarizer to have a clear understanding of the history, development history and the latest development of each school of theory of descriptive translation. Secondly, in addition to a deep and detailed grasp of descriptive translation, the summarizer should also have the ability to grasp the macro and prospect. In other words, he should stand at a high position in the research of descriptive translation, draw the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward. In other words, he has to take a higher position in the research of descriptive translation, map out the future development prospect of descriptive translation on the basis of summary, and point out the way forward.

The book can be summarized into four parts. The first part mainly consists of the first four chapters, from analyzing the conditions and process of the formation of a new theory, to introducing the early germ of description and system theory and its eventual formation into a new theory in the 1970s, and describing the origin of descriptive translation and its guiding principles. The contents of this part make a good preparation for the following parts, because from the gradual maturation of various relevant factors before the formation of the description and system theory to the final establishment of a complete theory of its own, it reveals the inevitability of its emergence and its broad prospect of development. Chapter 4 introduces Tuli's theory, analyzes the concept of "reciprocity" from different aspects, and then questions the definition of translation, which arouses the reader's sympathy. The second part, chapters five to seven, begins with descriptive translation and introduces different scholars' researches on how to describe the relationship between the original text and the translated text from different angles. The author then introduces the concept of "norm" and introduces the "norm" proposed by Tully and the "norm" proposed by Chesterman respectively. It is a proposal for the study of translation norms. The author then goes on to describe how translation studies began to develop in two different directions after the introduction of the concept of norms, namely, trying to find possible universal rules for translation and going into history, exploring the identity of translation and culture, why we have defined translation accordingly, and how to trace the origins of these ideas. Part III consists of chapters 8-10, which mainly introduce systems theory. Chapter 8 introduces multivariate systems theory, which is the most important and widely-attended theory in systems theory. This chapter introduces the sources, functions and limitations of multivariate systems theory, and points out the deficiencies of this theory, providing a new perspective for future researchers. The following chapters introduce more systems theories. Some of these theories attempt to develop a better systems theory from the limitations of the multiple systems theory, while others use concepts and ideas from other branches of the humanities to develop a completely different theoretical perspective. In particular, Pierre Bourdieu and Niklas Luhmann's theories are described in detail. In the fourth and last two chapters, the author makes a comprehensive criticism of the description and system theory, points out that it needs to be further improved, and then envisages the possible directions of its development: one is to study the history of translation, the other is to provide suitable tools for the study of translation in the current environment, and the third is to deepen the study of translation theory. Compared to the analysis of the previous sections, the last two chapters are somewhat simpler. Of course, it is not easy for any scholar to analyze translation studies so thoroughly.

Scholars who study descriptive translation have proposed that literature should be regarded as "a complex and dynamic system", and that literary translation studies should "adopt a descriptive, target-language-based, functional and systematic research approach". [8]10-11 This viewpoint breaks the traditional research method of many scholars for a long time, that is, from source text to translation, and emphasizes the influence of the ideology, literary concepts and other factors on the translation from the socio-cultural background of the target language, and then describes and studies the translation on the basis of this, in order to find out the various norms that restrict the formation and acceptance of the translation. This is undoubtedly a major reversal of tradition, and also covers a broader scope of research, as more factors in translation will directly affect the formation of the translation, and at the same time, placing the translation in a larger system is also a more severe test for the translator.

Conclusion

Descriptive translation studies focuses on the description of translated works, which makes up for the deficiency of traditional translation research, opens up a new perspective in translation research, and contributes to the healthy development of translation discipline. The results of description should help to reveal the essence of translation and deepen the understanding of the translation discipline. Otherwise, it is obviously not very meaningful to do translation research just for the sake of description and be satisfied with a few sentences which are subjective to the described phenomenon without systematic research explanation. We should not only look at translation from a micro perspective, but also establish a macro awareness and grasp the cultural background factors of translation research as a whole. The traditional normative translation research method and descriptive translation research are not mutually exclusive but complementary, and we should take the advantages of each other and combine the two, so that this kind of translation research is a comprehensive translation research.

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An overview of descriptive translation studies and its relationship with normative translation studies 肖伊宁 Xiao Yining

肖伊宁 Xiao Yining 202020080655

Abstract:

This paper introduces the influence and contribution of James Holmes, Gideon Toury and others on the development of descriptive translation studies. It also discusses the positive significance of descriptive translation research paradigm in the field of translation studies and its limitations. The purpose of this paper is to make readers understand the necessity of descriptive translation study by summarizing its development process and advantages. Meanwhile, by analyzing the relationship between descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies, this paper refutes the views that descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are mutually exclusive, and deeply understand the status of descriptive translation studies.

摘要：

本文介绍了詹姆斯·霍姆斯（James Holmes）、图里（Gideon Toury）等人对于描写性翻译研究产生与发展的影响和贡献.同时论述了描写性翻译研究范式对于翻译学研究领域的积极意义和它的局限性。意在通过概述其发展历程和优点让读者了解描写性翻译研究的必要性，同时又通过剖析描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究的关系，反驳那些把描写性翻译研究和规范性翻译研究互斥的观点，深刻理解描写性翻译研究的地位。

Key words:

descriptive translation studies; normative translation studies; limitation; necessity; relationship.

===关键词：===描写性翻译研究；规范性翻译研究；局限性；必要性；关系.

Chapter 1 Introduction

Translation has a history of more than 2000 years. In the long-term and varied translation activities of translation, People have more and more ideas about translation and produced many specific translation theories. For the sustainable development of theories, scholars of different schools in different periods have conducted their own studies on translation from different perspectives. The accumulated research experience from different research perspectives has led to the formation of diverse translation research methods.（Liao Qiyi 2002，5）

Before the appearance of descriptive translation studies, translation theories tended to be normative both in China and abroad. At the beginning, most of them are inductive summaries of the experience in translation practice. Taking early Translation theories in China as examples, they sumer up the practical experience of translation into famous sayings, which can be used to guide the translation activities of later generations. Such as Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", Lu Xun's "rahter to be faithful than smooth" and Lin Yutang's "faithfulness smoothness elegance". （Liao Qiyi 2002，6）

In the second half of the 20th century, with the development of linguistics and applied linguistics, the study of translation has become more systematic. Some researchers regard translation as a branch of linguistics. For example, Catford defined translation as replacing textual materials in another language with equivalent materials in one language. Therefore, translation researchers began to use some basic principles of linguistics to describe the translation process and evaluate the translated works. For example, Newmark summarized seven methods of translating metaphors from some specific language structures and phenomena in the source language. (Catford 1965，20)

However, these translation studies are actually "normative". They all stipulated some norms that all translators should follow in their translation practice regardless of the era, the working objects and the cognitive environment of translators and readers. If you do not follow these norms, you will be considered "misleading readers" or "unfaithful to the original work". Before the 1950s, normative translation theories were highly praised, which were basically unshakable guidelines in the field of translation. However, with the increasing frequency of cross-cultural international communication and the increasing number of translation activities, the requirements for translation theories are becoming more and more diverse. Translation practice needs new theories. People gradually realized that normative translation theories can not solve the various problems encountered in translation. Therefore, translation researchers began to pursue the study of translation in the era, and descriptive translation studies came into being.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

Chapter 2 The emergence and development of descriptive translation studies

In the 1990s, descriptive translation studies began to rise in foreign countries, but this research method was not formed suddenly. Before that, many scholars pointed out the necessity of descriptive translation studies and the specific assumptions of descriptive translation studies. These assumptions are the solid foundation for the establishment of descriptive translation research method and also the reason for the rapid development of descriptive translation studies.

2.1 John MacFarlane

In 1953, John MacFarlane published his paper Mode of Translation in the Durhram University Journal. In the thesis, MacFarlan believes that it is a wrong criticism and comment to deny the role of translation and deprive some translation methods of the right to call themselves translation just because the translation does not realize the equivalence with the original in all aspects. Macfarlane also cites I.A. Richards' view in The Principles of Literary Criticism that even reading the same work at the same time often has different reading methods.From this we can infer that we must not believe that there is a unique translation. Since the original text has different meanings, it is inevitable that different translations will emerge from it . All translated works can be called translation, but none of them is "ideal" or "real" translation.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

Macfarlane believes that since translation is so complex and elusive, it is impossible for us to draw an absolute standard for accurate translation. But he also called on translation researchers to find a new way to study translation. This new approach should accept the existing translation rather than the one we idealize. It should draw inspiration from the study of the nature of translation, rather than let translation do something it can't do. This is obviously a call for another kind of translation study. Although it does not clearly point out the new way of translation study, it points out that the existing translation research is incomplete and idealistic.Unfortunately, MacFarlane's views did not attract the attention of the field of translation at that time.(Lin Kenan 2001, 44)

2.2 Firth

Since the 1970s, the traditional research on the semantic relationship between the original text and the target text began to decline. For a long time, it has been widely believed that translation should first be the transformation of meaning, and the traditional distinction between literal translation and free translation is the product of this concept. Researchers have begun to challenge this concept and propose to study translation from the perspective of context. Firth is one of the early researchers who pointed out that the structure and system of language should be combined with the structure and system in context.Baker believes that the change from meaning to usage or from concept to environment has promoted the development of descriptive translation studies in general, especially the corpus studies of descriptive translation studies.(Baker 1995, 236-240)

2.3 James Holmes

With regard to research methods, scholars have been dissatisfied with the traditional introspective approach to translation studies since the 1970s. James Holmes points out that the weakness and naivety of most contemporary translation theories are caused by introspective research methods. Researchers should investigate functional authentic texts. As the founder of the school of Translation Studies, Holmes pointed out the scope and structural mode involved in the new field of translation studies in his book The Name and Nature of Translation Studies(1972). He believed that the research object of translation studies was the translation that appeared in a certain culture, and the research method was practicing on the basis of experience.(Holmes 1988, 101）

"He divides translation studies into three categories: (1) Description: to describe the special phenomenon of translation in real life; (2) Theory: establishing the principle of explaining translation phenomena; (3) Application: the information obtained from the former two is used in translation practice and translator training."（Liao Qiyi 2002，54）

He discusses the dialectical relationship between descriptive translation studies, theoretical translation studies and applied translation studies, and believes that the theoretical branch is subordinate to the descriptive branch, and that only when the description of the translation process reaches a certain level and the collection of practical data reaches a certain amount can the theory have a practical development. Therefore, under the circumstances of frequent translation activities at that time, various translation theories based on experience emerged in an endless stream, but they were mutually exclusive.

For the sustainable development of translation theory, Holmes proposed the next goal of translation research, that is, to establish a description system of translation, to describe the corresponding symbol system, rules and classification between the original text and the translated text Based on this, a more extensive comparative study was carried out.After the formation of this description system, the goal of translation studies is to establish a comprehensive theory. But this development process is not one-way, but dialectical, each of the three branches must serve the other two branches. "Translation description provides basic data on which translation theories are built. One branch provides materials for the other two branches, and then uses the findings provided by the other two. For example, it is impossible to establish a translation theory without describing the detailed and specific data provided by descriptive research and applied research; however, on the other hand, You have to have at least one intuitive theoretical hypothesis to start studying the other two fields."（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

Holmes further subdivided each branch. For example, the description branch includes three different descriptions based on translation, function and process. Taking translation work as the starting point requires the description of the actual translation centered on the work. taking the function as the starting point, it is necessary to show the influence of cultural factors on the reader's receptivity of the target text. taking the process as the starting point, it pays attention to the translator's thinking process in the translation.（Liao Qiyi 2002，55）

Compared with traditional translation theories, Holmes' method of describing the translation process shows another change. That is, he tries to better translate a certain symbol type by describing various translation methods in different periods and their usage in history. Holmes’s article is highly influential in that descriptive translation studies has given rise to " a considerable widening of the horizon, since any and all phenomena relating to translation, in the broadest sense, become objects of study." (Hermans 1985, 14).

However, it is a pity that descriptive translation studies received little attention in the academic circle at that time, until the Israeli scholar Gideon Toury has made a systematic and comprehensive study of descriptive translation studies on the basis of Holmes. However, the framework of descriptive translation proposed by Holmes still provides a correct direction for the development of translation studies and makes translation studies pay more attention to descriptive translation studies.

2.4 Polysystem Theory

In the early 1970s, Zohar first put forward the polysystem theory, shaking the traditional translation view that the original text is Paramount and the translation can only be derived text. "The polysystem（多元体系派） is not satisfied with the achievements made by the translation studies（翻译研究派）. It uses the theoretical system and research methods of Russian formalism for reference, and introduces the concept of "polysystem", which breaks through the boundaries between traditional linguistics and literature. Combined with the theory of translation studies, it makes a thorough study of the factors influencing the translation process and the multiple criteria of translation Research ."（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

According to Polysystem, literature, politics, religion, economy and other systems are all part of a larger, multi-level and dynamically changing polysystem. In this polysystem, each system is interdependent and interacts with each other. Most of the traditional translation studies are based on the original text to judge the quality of the target text. In fact, the original text is not the only factor determining the target text, and the quality of the target text is not the only problem worth discussing in translation studies. From the choice of translation materials and strategies to the status and function of the target culture, they are influenced by a series of social factors inside and outside the target culture.（Liao Qiyi 2002, 59）

Polysystem theory expands the scope of research, opens up new research approaches, promotes the cultural turn of translation studies, makes us have a more comprehensive understanding of translation phenomena, makes translation studies get rid of the application orientation, and improves the theoretical and academic nature of translation studies.（Zhang Nanfeng 2002, 19）

====2.5 Gideon Toury

Toury's translation theory and translation research theory are deeply influenced by Zohar and Holmes. Since 1975, in order to verify Zohar's translation theory, Toury has carried out field research in Tel Aviv University. He wants to find out the systematic rules that restrict translation by collecting the actual choices made in the process of translation. According to his research results, He found that the choice of most translation works is subject to ideology rather than linguistics or aesthetics, and the translations that are inconsistent with the existing translation theories can also be recognized by readers. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 68）

This makes him realize that existing source system centered translation theories are not comprehensive, that makes him start to seek a new translation theory, that is, a comprehensive translation theory based on field research Tuli published his book exploration of translation theory. After the publication of this work, the focus of translation studies shifted from theory to description.From 1980 to 1995, Toury supplemented and revised the descriptive translation theory on the basis of Holmes. His book Descriptive Translation Studies–and beyond is the practice and application of Holmes' descriptive translation theory. The book has also become the most comprehensive and systematic work on translation studies. He proposed that the descriptive nature of translation and the status and function of the target language are determined by the culture of the target language. (Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

Translation is restricted by a series of norms, which are culturally relevant within the cultural framework of the target language on which the translator relies. According to Toury, descriptive translation studies are based on norms and guided by rules. The purpose of descriptive translation studies is to analyze the general rules of translation by comparing the source text with the target text. He proposes that the production of translation involves the literary background in the target culture. The concept of "one to one correspondence" in translation and the translation requirements of literary and linguistic equivalence are abandoned. It shakes the idea that the original information is invariable. It also puts forward the idea that the original text and the translation should be integrated in the cultural system.(Liao Qiyi 2002, 69）

In 1989, JoséLambert and Toury founded an international journal target, which is subtitled "International Journal of translation studies" and covers academic works on descriptive translation studies. This is another impetus to expand descriptive translation studies internationally.

Gideon Toury also analyzes the reasons for the stagnant development of descriptive translation studies in his works："One of the main reasons for the prevailing underdevelopment of a descriptive branch within Translation Studies has no doubt been an overriding orientation towards practical applications,which has marked-and marred-scholarly work at least since the nineteen sixties.Thus, whereas for most empirical sciences, including even Linguistics, such applications-important as they may be-are presented merely as extensions into the world, the immediate needs of particular applications of Translation Studies have often been taken as a major constraint on the formation of the theory itself, or even as the very reason for its existence. Small wonder that a scholarly framework geared almost exclusively towards applicability in practice should show preference for prescriptivism at the expense of description, explanation and prediction. " (Toury 2012. xii)

He criticizes this phenomenon and thinks that most descriptive research is conducted in other disciplines other than translation studies, such as contrastive linguistics, contrastive textualism, comparative literature and stylistic comparison, which is a kind of behavior that the translation circle is avoiding the research within its own scope of competence.

====2.6 Snell-Hornby

In the 1990s, more linguists began to question the traditional concept of equivalence and the status of the original text. Snell - Homb said :“Equivalence is unsuitable as a basic concept in translation theory : the term equivalence, apart from being imprecise and ill-defined..presents an illusion of symmetry between languages which hardly exists beyond the level of vague approximations and which distorts the basic problems of translation." (Mary Snell-Hornby 1988，22) She is critical of the traditional literary translation theory and the translation theory of the linguistic school in the 1960s (especially the manipulation school). She agrees with the opinion of the translation studies that translation study should not be subordinate to comparative literature, linguistics or other disciplines, but should be an independent discipline, and should adopt a holistic and integrated approach to the study of translation.

Other scholars tried to further develop the concept of equivalence and classify it. They pointed out that in addition to exploring the source text, it is also very important to study the target language and its specific text types.Therefore, translation studies should investigate the real texts in the original and target languages. This research demand has made the descriptive translation studies develop rapidly and gradually take the place of normative translation studies and occupy the central position in translation studies. "Description" has become a new trend in translation studies. And Mary Snell Hornby's Translation Studies:An Integrated Approach is regarded as a major force in translation studies. (Wang Peng 2008, 96)

Chapter 3 The relationship between normative translation studies and descriptive translation studies

3.1 The value of descriptive translation studies and the limitations of normative translation studies

In fact, the traditional western translation research paradigm is normative translation research, that is, normative translation research approach, or a kind of translation research that sets standards to specify how to translate well in a specific culture. Traditional normative translation studies focus on the comparison of texts, trying to explore the law of language conversion, judge the quality of the translation, and then provide specific guidance for translation practice.

Generally speaking, normative translation studies have the following characteristics：the establishment of eternal principles or standards for translation is usually based on the translator's personal experience in solving specific translation problems for others to follow, regardless of the number of readers and socio-cultural background changes. It is often taken for granted that any betrayal of these rules at the linguistic level should be labeled as disloyal, structurally heavy or misleading, regardless of the historical background and context of translation. The academic interest in seeking code conversion mechanism and setting translation principles or standards can be understood as efforts to make up for the lack of understanding and expression ability at the language level. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

Maria Tymoczko believes that："As a language art, translation has often been considered from the viewpoint of timeless linguistic rules(which has led to a normative tendency in the theory.)" (Maria Tymoczko 1999, 25) Because in the early days, people only regarded translation as a kind of language art, and didn't pay much attention to the cultural environment. Even when it came to culture, they finally focused on the specific translation skills. Because they paid too much attention to the study of translation skills, normative translation research was always inseparable from the debate between literal translation and free translation.

Is there an absolute norm to follow in translation? Translation is a social and cultural activity involving two cultures, so it is bound to be restricted by two different cultural norms. Translation is by no means merely a language transformation in the sense, and the recognition and acceptance of a certain translation strategy cannot be determined by the translator's personal ability. It is restricted by many factors such as history, society, culture, politics, aesthetic taste and readers' expectation. In this sense, there is no absolute norm. （Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，97)

Normative translation theories pay too much attention to the transcendental statement of translation and set standards or principles to ensure the quality of translation. This undoubtedly limits translation studies and makes translation scholars feel suffocated. Because of these limitations in normative translation studies, the further development of translation studies has been hindered, so the necessity of descriptive studies have been reversed. In order to have a more comprehensive understanding of translation, descriptive translation studies have gradually developed and given full play to their value：

(1) First of all, descriptive translation studies have made great contributions to the development of translation studies. Translation phenomenon, which has always been on the edge, has entered the field of vision of translation researchers. Before the advent of descriptive translation studies, it was generally believed that only the translated works which are fully equivalent to the original text can be regarded as translation. Therefore, at that time, people criticized the translation works that did not achieve complete equivalence, and even did not include them in translation studies. Translation studies have always been limited to the study of equivalence between texts.

However, descriptive translation researchers believe that as long as they appear in the target culture in the face of translation or the target language readers think that they are translations, all texts can be called "translation" In this way, the scope of translation studies has been expanded. Some extreme but factual translation phenomena, such as conversion(translating through an intermediary language) and pseudo-translation (translating without the original text), have been brought into the scope of translation studies.(Toury 2012, 32)

(2)Secondly, descriptive translation studies no longer focus on the static text system as the previous normative translation studies, but pay more attention to the dynamic relationship between translation practice and the ever-changing social and cultural environment of the target language. This chagemakes people realize that in order to study translation more systematically and comprehensively,the method of contextlization should be adopted. Only by putting the translated works back into the historical environment and socio-cultural context of their creation can the translation phenomenon be described more accurately. For example, Piao (gone with the wind) translated by Fu Donghua is the object of criticism by many scholars who advocate foreignization translation. Some scholars claim that domestication is "the wrong way of translation". (Liu Yingkai 1987, 22)

The example they cited is Fu's Piao(Gone with the Wind)However, in the analysis, they have not made in-depth discussion on the reasons for Fu's choice of domestication, and have not noticed that there are many examples of extreme Foreignization in his early translation works. Therefore, it seems unfair to criticize Fu. It is only in early 21st century that this problem has gradually attracted the attention of scholars. Some scholars compare Fu's Piao(Gone with the Wind)with Li Yeguang and others’ translations ,and compare several macro cultural factors influencing Fu Donghua's Piao(Gone with the Wind). They came to the conclusion that "the gain and loss of a work should be measured from the perspective of history"(冯庆华、王昱1998 :56)This example illustrates the value of descriptive translation studies, that is, to make a diachronic study of translation phenomena, rather than merely confined to synchronic studies.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，98)

3.2 The limitations of descriptive translation studies and the value of normative translation studies

First of all, descriptive translation studies are not perfect at present. Toury believes that the fundamental purpose of descriptive translation studies is to establish these potential norms and their influence on translators' choice of translation strategies. However, he seems to go to another extreme, regarding the target language and its culture as everything, completely ignoring the role of the source language and the translator in the process of translation. Moreover, he has not discussed in detail how these factors restrict the translator, how the translator makes the choice and why he makes such a choice. Therefore, although his theory has certain progressive significance and reference, it is not perfect.(Liu Zongyan 2008, 201)

Moreover, descriptive translation studies emphasize the objectivity and neutrality of the researchers and avoid value judgment too much. Descriptive translation studies advocate that researchers should be objective, neutral and detached from the research objects. Toury clearly believes that the study of culture and history can be neutral. In his works, he tried to show an objective appearance by using a lot of scientific terms. Dirk Delabastita and Lieven D'hulst, in their collection European Shakespeares, repeatedly stressed that translation researchers should maintain a "detached and purely descriptive attitude." ( Hermans 1999 , 36)

This requirement has been questioned by many scholars, including some closely related to descriptive translation studies. For example, Hans J. Vermeer thinks that Toury's early research methods are in fact "meta - prescriptive" in a sense, because he sets the preconditions for the analysis of translation.(Vermeer 1996 :49) Lawrence Venuti proposed that "translation studies can never be merely descriptive". He pointed out that merely taking translation as a research topic of cultural history or cultural criticism is already a resistance to the marginal position of translation in the current cultural hierarchy, and the choice of topics in a specific historical period is always related to the current cultural needs.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005，99)

On the other hand, descriptive translation studies are not helpful to people's understanding of the merits and demerits of specific translation works. Excessive promotion of descriptive translation studies will not be conducive to the improvement of translation quality, and even have a negative impact on translation practice.

   Normative translation studies have been overemphasized and become rigid dogma. It is only an incomplete research method, and it is not wrong. Moreover, for some texts, descriptive translation theory can not meet their requirements. For example, legal texts and dictionary texts are very formal texts. The use of words and syntactic structure have strict requirements, and the translation of such texts has a high requirement for faithfulness. At this time, the value of normative translation research is reflected.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 99)

3.3 The relationship between prescriptive translation studies and descriptive translation studies

In linguistics, norms and descriptions are a pair of relative theoretical principles and two relative methodological categories. The traditional translation principles only focus on principles, standards, methods and techniques, which are normative studies. Nowadays, translation studies focus on description, which is composed of linguistics, literary criticism theory, psychology, philosophy, sociology, culture, etc. According to the above analysis, the two are complementary. The value of descriptive translation studies lies in its ability to make up for the limitations of normative translation studies. Normative translation studies also play an irreplaceable role in the translation of some special texts. Therefore, we can't think about the relationship between the two from the perspective of binary opposition. Although they are two opposite concepts, they are not incompatible.（Han Ziman，Liu Fang 2005, 100. )

The view of binary opposition can not deal with complex translation studies. The application of the two research methods should be flexible. We should choose the appropriate method according to different research objects. We need to have multiple coexistence Thinking. As for the debate about which is better or worse, in the author's opinion, it is unnecessary. Nida has also stressed that "translation theory should be inclusive, and various means should be used to solve various problems in translation."(Liao Qiyi 2002, 6)In fact, the development of descriptive translation studies is not to overthrow the traditional normative translation theories, but to criticize the lack of normative translation theories and supplement the normative research.

Chapter 4 Conclusion

Translation was officially recognized as an independent discipline more than 30 years, is a very young discipline, but in fact, the history of translation activities is not short，There are a lot of translation theories in both China and the West. However, due to the lag of descriptive translation studies, there is still a lot of space for research. Both Chinese and Western scholars believe that the ultimate goal of translation studies is to establish translation norms and principles, which are not the summary of previous personal experience, but the basis of a large number of descriptive translation studies On the basis of the standard.

Descriptive and normative are the dual attributes of any discipline. Descriptiveness is the basis, premise and condition of normalization. Normalization is the development, result and purpose of descriptive. Translation studies are both descriptive and normative. It is the unity of opposites between descriptive and normative. In other words, descriptive translation studies and normative translation studies are like the positive and negative sides of a coin, It cannot be separated . It is one-sided and wrong to emphasize only the standardization of translation or the description of translation.

Descriptive translation studies are intended to explain the process and phenomenon of translation. Compared with the micro analysis of normative translation studies, it studies translation from a macro perspective. Although there are still some deficiencies in descriptive translation theory, descriptive translatology provides a new perspective and analysis approach for translation studies, which deserves our attention and development.

Chapter 5 Reference

Baker. (1995). Corpora Linguistics and Translation Studies: an Overview and Some Suggestions for Future Reseearch. Target.

J.C.Catford. (1965). A Linguistic Theory Of Translation. Oxford:Oxford University Press, 20.

Hermans,Theo. (1985). The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary Translation. Beckenham: Croom Helm.

Hermans,Theo. (1999) . Translation in Systems . Manchester: St Jerome Publishing.

Holmes,J.S. (1988). Translated Papers on Literary Translation and Translation Studies. Amsterdam: Rodopi.

Meria Tymoczko. (1999). Translation in a Postcolonial Context - Early Irish Literature in English Translation. St.Jerome Publishing.

Snell-Hornby.(1988). Translation Studies: An Integrated Approach. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

Han Ziman 韩子满，Liu Fang 刘芳（2005）. 描述翻译研究的成就与不足[Achievements and Shortcomings of Descriptive Translation Studies]. 外语学刊[Foreign Language Research](03).

Liao Qiyi 廖七一. (2002). 当代西方翻译理论探索[Exploration of contemporary Western translation theories]

Lin Kenan 林克难. (2001).翻译研究：从规范走向描写[Translation Studies: From the Prescriptive to the Descriptive Approach].中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](06).

Liu Zongya 刘宗衍. 浅谈翻译理论的“规范”性[On the "Normative" Nature of Translation Theory]. 科技资讯[Science & Technology Information]

Wang Peng 王鹏. (2008). 描写翻译研究及其方法[Descriptive Translation Studies and its methodology]. 四川外语学院学报[Journal of Sichuan International Studies University](04).

Zhang Nanfeng 张南峰.(2002).多元体系理论[Polysystem Theory]. 中国翻译[Chinese Translation Journal](02).

Translation Strategies Sagara Seydou, Student No :201911080004, Major:Translation Studies

Translation Strategies

Abstract

Much work has been done in recent years on translation strategies. However, the definition offered by each author or theorist represents his/her own point of view and their views differ from each other. Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation does not work. Therefore, different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their own perspectives. Some best-known theories of this field are described and compared to each other in this paper. The purpose of this study is to show the different theories in the field of translation strategies and to offer a general literature review to facilitate the study of translation strategies in future studies.

Key words: translation strategies and translational problems.

This study includes four main sections: 1. Introduction; 2. Content; 3. Conclusions; 4. References;

Introduction

The term “strategy” in “translation strategies” is often used synonymously with such terms as “procedure,” “technique,” “method,” “tactic,” “approach,” and so forth. Their meanings overlap, and translation researchers define them in various ways. Despite the terminological confusion, discussions of translation strategies can be traced back to Cicero’s advocacy of sense-for-sense translation in 46 BC, and are widely covered in translation textbooks for their pedagogical significance. This topic also relates to broad theoretical issues in translation studies. (Wikipedia n.d)

Content

Researchers have attempted to distinguish translation strategy from its synonyms, and to develop their own classifications from different perspectives. For example, Lörscher’s (1991) classification is based on a cognitive approach, while Chesterman’s (1997) differentiation uses a textual approach. Yet, the conceptual confusion has not been dispelled. This entry tries to distinguish translation strategies, techniques, and procedures, and to consolidate existing classifications. It seems that clear-cut definitions of these terms might not work as well as prototype definitions. Most researchers would agree that the two prototype translation strategies are literal translation and free translation. Chesterman’s (1997) The former focuses on the level of words, while the latter goes beyond the word level and emphasizes the creation of a target text that sounds natural in the target language. These two strategies are described in a variety of oppositions: word-for-word translation versus sense-for-sense translation; source-oriented translation versus target-oriented translation; direct translation versus oblique translation (by Vinay and Darbelnet); adequacy versus acceptability; formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence (by Eugene Nida); semantic translation versus communicative translation (by Peter Newmark);overt translation versus covert translation (by Juliane House); documentary versus instrumental translation (by Christiane Nord); foreignization versus domestication (by LawrenceVenuti), and so on. While these binary oppositions have much in common, they reflect different perspectives and emphasize different translation aims and effects. For instance, word-for-word translation and sense-for-sense translation are text-level or segment-level strategies. Nida’s (1964) formal equivalence versus dynamic equivalence is mainly from a linguistic perspective and involves reader response. The domesticating translation versus foreignizing translation pair, proposed by Venuti (1995), reflects a cultural interventionist perspective. The two strategies affect the choice of text for translation as well as the translation process. Venuti advocates the foreignizing strategy in order to “register the linguistic and cultural differences of the foreign text” (1995, p. 81)

The “literal versus free” debate has been one of the central issues in translation theory and criticism throughout the ages. However, it is now generally believed that this dichotomous debate is relatively sterile, as the two strategies are part of a continuum, and the selection of a strategy is a function of the theoretical assumption of “what is a translation” text type (e.g., serious literature, children’s literature, technical texts, print advertisements), domain (e.g., IT, legal), function (e.g., for publication, information, or light entertainment), prestige of the source text (e.g., the Bible, pulp fiction), motivation(e.g., payment), and other factors (or constraints). (Hatim & Munday,2004, p. 230)

Having discussed the two prototype strategies, let us turn to the definitional question: what is a translation strategy? Lörscher (1991), Chesterman (1997), and other researchers agree on a few defining characteristics of a translation strategy: (a) it is goal-oriented,(b) it is problem-centered, (c) it requires making coordinated decisions, (d) it is potentially conscious, and (e) it involves text manipulation. The aforementioned two prototype translation strategies have these characteristics. Since a translation strategy involves problem solving, a categorization of translation problems would correspond to a categorization of translation strategies. The difficulty with this, however, is that there are a number of ways in which problems can be categorized. For instance, the categorization criterion can be the prior knowledge required to solve them, the nature of the goal involved, and the complexity of the problems involved (Robertson, 2001, p. 6). Problems, according to their scale, can be divided into global (or general) problems and local (or specific) problems. Jääskeläinen (1993, p. 116) makes a corresponding distinction between global strategies (i.e., “the translator’s general principles and preferred modes of action”) and local strategies (i.e., “specific activities in relation to the translator’s problem-solving and decision-making”). Global strategies might be dictated by or with the commissioner while local strategies are up to the translator. In addition, local strategies are designed to handle specific problems and need to be consistent with the chosen global strategy. Jääskeläinen found that global strategies are much more frequently and consistently used by professional translators than by nonprofessionals. From Jääskeläinen’s perspective, literal and free translation strategies are global strategies since the translator has to think about the goal of the translation and how the target text should affect the readers. The global strategy chosen will affect the translation process. Since local strategies are immediately followed by specific techniques, which affect the translation result and the micro-units of the text, and are classified by comparison with the source text (Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

As translators grow in competence, some former translation problems will no longer present an obstacle to them; some of their local strategies become semiconscious or unconscious, and the use of certain techniques to cope with certain problems is automatized. Vinay and Darbelnet’s (2000) taxonomy of translation techniques (which they call “procedures”) has a wide impact. They did a comparative stylistic analysis of French and English, and divided the seven procedures they discovered into two general strategies: direct/literal translation and oblique translation. The former includes: (a) borrowing (i.e., borrowing a word or expression from the source language, such as the Chinese word“kung Fu” in modern English); (b) calque (which is a kind of borrowing whereby the structure of the original word or phrase is maintained but its morphemes are replaced by those of the target language; for example, the Chinese word “motian dalou,” literally “sky-scraping big building,” is a calque of skyscraper); (c) Literal translation. Oblique translation includes: (d)transposition (i.e., changing the word class or grammatical structure without changing the meaning of the message, as in rendering a noun in the source text into a verb in the target text); (e)modulation (i.e., changing the point of view or cognitive category in relation to the source text, as in rendering a negative construction into a positive one: “not complicated” becomes “easy”); (f)equivalence (e.g., translating “to kill two birds with one stone” into Chinese as “to kill two eagles with one arrow”); (g) adaptation (i.e., a shift in cultural reference when the type of situation being referred to by the source text is unknown in the target culture, such as using the word “seal” for sheep when translating the Bible into Inuktitut).Among local translation strategies, Chesterman (1997) distinguishes between comprehension strategies (for understanding and analyzing the source text) and production strategies(for the production of the target text). From a linguistic perspective, he divides productions strategies into mainly syntactic/grammatical, mainly semantic, and mainly pragmatic, with each category containing 10 techniques. Syntactic strategies involve purely syntactic changes, manipulate form, and include such techniques as calque, transposition, and sentence structure change. Semantic strategies mainly pertain to changes concerning lexical semantics. They manipulate meaning and contain techniques such as synonymy, emphasis change, and paraphrase. Pragmatic strategies have to do with the selection of information in the target text, and often involve syntactic or semantic changes as well. Pragmatic strategies include cultural filtering, explicitness change, information change, trans editing, and so forth. Some of these techniques are obligatory during translation in a given language pair, while most are optional .Many researchers (e.g., Lörscher, 1991) believe that a translation strategy is a procedure or a sequence of actions.(Molina & Hurtado Albir, 2002, p. 509).

However, this is not consonant with the dictionary definitions of strategy. According to the Oxford English dictionary, strategy refers to “a plan for successful action based on the rationality and interdependence of the moves of the opposing participants,” while procedure is defined as “[t]he fact or manner of proceeding with any action, or in any circumstance or situation; a system of proceeding; proceeding, in reference to its mode or method; conduct, behavior.” Krings (1986, p. 268) defines translation strategies as “potentially conscious plans for solving a translation problem.” Strategies involve adopting procedures to solve problems, and the chosen procedure will influence the result .Now let us turn our attention to translation procedures (referred to as “translation strategies” by some researchers) and procedural steps. Gerloff (1986) identified the following text processing strategies: (a) problem identification, (b) linguistic analysis, (c) storage and retrieval, (d) general search and selection, (e) in ferencing and reasoning strategies,(f) text contextualization, (g) editing, and (h) task monitoring. In his empirical studies, Lörscher (1991) recognized 22 elements constituting translation strategies (or procedural steps), including nine original ones and 13 potential ones, such as realizing a translational problem, preliminary solution to a translational problem, and the mental organization of source-language text segments. During the translation process, these elements are combined by translators into basic structures. He found that professional and nonprofessional translators differ in the distribution and frequency of the strategies employed, but do not differ qualitatively; that is, their mental processes do not reveal significant differences. He concluded that it is impossible to ascertain “[w]hen faced with problem X, [translators] employ strategy Y,” but we can find out “[w]hen several [translators] are faced with a problem X, many or most of them employ similar or the same types of strategy” (p. 280) == Darwish (2008) identifies four distinct translation procedures employed in translating: recursive strategy (i.e., a circular and revisional process), waterfall strategy (i.e., a sequential unit-by-unit process), stop-and-go strategy (i.e., a block-by-block process), and mixed strategies (i.e., a combination of the previous three strategies).In some translation textbooks (e.g., Thinking German Translation: A Course in Translation Method by Hervey, Loughridge, & Higgins, 2006), “translation method” is often used as a cover term for “translation strategy,” “translation technique,” and even “translation procedure.” For instance, there are literal and free translation methods. Compared with translation strategies, which are highly individualistic, translation methods are supra-individual and well tested (Lörscher, 1991, p. 70 == However, “translation method” in English is often associated with such modes as machine translation and computer-aided translation. The term “translation approach” is often used in a vague sense, while “translation tactic” is rarely used. Discussions of translation strategies before the 1980s were primarily prescriptive, and researchers tended to argue for one translation strategy against another. Since the 1980s, empirical research into translation strategies, techniques, and procedures has become increasingly common. There are two major empirical approaches in this regard: product oriented and process-oriented. The former approach mainly refers to corpus-based contrastive analysis: a parallel corpus consisting of source texts and translations is built for analyzing the frequency of shifts (i.e., textual differences between source text and target text) and the various translation strategies and techniques employed. The factors to be considered can include text type, domain, synchronic and diachronic variation in language features and translation norms, idiosyncrasy, certain language features (e.g., metaphors, allusions), among others. In a process-oriented approach, translators are usually asked to translate a passage while thinking aloud, and the process will be recorded and then analyzed. The factors that might influence the frequency and distribution of translation strategies and procedures may include translation competence (e.g., novice translators versus professional translators), language direction (i.e., from or into the mother tongue), text type domain, translation brief, translation difficulty level of the test passage, time pressure, and so forth. These factors need to be manipulated or kept constant in an experiment in order to make meaningful comparisons.(Lörscher, 1991, p. 70).

Conclusion

In this study, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theories of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each.

References

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