20220630 Culture 11
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- 20220630_Culture_1 papers 1-10: 1: 英语笔译 卞王倩 Bian Wangqian 202170081563 Europeanized Chinese and Cultural Factors Behind it, 2: 英语笔译 曹姣 Cao Jiao 202170081564 Research on court culture in the Tang Dynasty from the perspective of poem -- take Changhenge for example, 3 英语笔译 陈路瑶 Chen Luyao 202170081565, 4 英语笔译 崔晓凡 Cui Xiaofan 202170081566, 5 英语笔译 邓阳林 Deng Yanglin 202170081567, 6 英语笔译 高智慧 Gao Zhihui 202170081568, 7 英语笔译 何丽娜 He Lina 202170081569, 8 英语笔译 胡良明 Hu Liangming 202170081570, 9 英语笔译 黄琼 Huang Qiong 202170081571, 10 英语笔译 邝雨琪 Kuang Yuqi 202170081572
- 20220630_Culture_2 papers 11-20: 11 英语笔译 黎溢佳 Li Yijia 202170081573, 12 英语笔译 李思敏 Li Simin 202170081574, 13 英语笔译 李思源 Li Siyuan 202170081575, 14 英语笔译 李婷 Li Ting 202170081576, 15 英语笔译 李欣 Li Xin 202170081577, 16 英语笔译 李颖 Li Ying 202170081578, 17 英语笔译 李媛 Li Yuan 202170081579, 18 英语笔译 李梓婕 Li Zijie 202170081580, 19 英语笔译 梁思婷 Liang Siting 202170081581, 20 英语笔译 廖诗韵 Liao Shiyun 202170081582
- 20220630_Culture_3 papers 21-30: 21 英语笔译 刘唱 Liu Chang 202170081583, 22 英语笔译 刘乐乐 Liu Lele 202170081584, 23 英语笔译 刘双英 Liu Shuangying 202170081585, 24 英语笔译 刘婷 Liu Ting 202170081586, 25 英语笔译 刘瑶 Liu Yao 202170081587, 26 英语笔译 刘珍 Liu Zhen 202170081588, 27 英语笔译 龙翰良 Long Hanliang 202170081589, 28 英语笔译 罗姚林 Luo Yaolin 202170081590, 29 英语笔译 马艳焕 Ma Yanhuan 202170081591, 30 英语笔译 聂薇 Nie Wei 202170081592
- 20220630_Culture_4 papers 31-40: 31 英语笔译 孙丽君 Sun Lijun 202170081593, 32 英语笔译 仝雨梦 Tong Yumeng 202170081594, 33 英语笔译 童略雅 Tong Lueya 202170081595, 34 英语笔译 庹树梅 Tuo Shumei 202170081596, 35 英语笔译 王思琪 Wang Siqi 202170081597, 36 英语笔译 王亚娟 Wang Yajuan 202170081598, 37 英语笔译 肖冬晴 Xiao Dongqing 202170081599, 38 英语笔译 肖佳莉 Xiao Jiali 202170081600, 39 英语笔译 谢晓莹 Xie Xiaoying 202170081601, 40 英语笔译 熊嘉玲 Xiong Jialing 202170081602
- 20220630_Culture_5 papers 41-50: 41 英语笔译 颜媛 Yan Yuan 202170081603, 42 英语笔译 杨心怡 Yang Xinyi 202170081604, 43 英语笔译 杨紫微 Yang Ziwei 202170081605, 44 英语笔译 张国浩 Zhang Guohao 202170081606, 45 英语笔译 张姣玲 Zhang Jiaoling 202170081607, 46 英语笔译 张瑞 Zhang Rui 202170081608, 47 英语笔译 赵宇翔 Zhao Yuxiang 202170081609, 48 英语笔译 郑冬琴 Zheng Dongqin 202170081610, 49 英语笔译 钟青 Zhong Qing 202170081611, 50 英语笔译 周皓熙 Zhou Haoxi 202170081612
- 20220630_Culture_6 papers 51-60: 51 英语笔译 周哲 Zhou Zhe 202170081613, 52 英语笔译 朱丽娟 Zhu Lijuan 202170081614, 53 英语口译 段小蝶 Duan Xiaodie 202170081615, 54 英语口译 方楚晗 Fang Chuhan 202170081616, 55 英语口译 胡雯雯 Hu Wenwen 202170081617, 56 英语口译 黄天琪 Huang Tianqi 202170081618, 57 英语口译 兰绮 Lan Qi 202170081619, 58 英语口译 李丹 Li Dan 202170081620, 59 英语口译 李立飞 Li Lifei 202170081621, 60 英语口译 莫雨婷 Mo Yuting 202170081622
- 20220630_Culture_7 papers 61-70: 61 英语口译 彭慧璇 Peng Huixuan 202170081623, 62 英语口译 时友洁 Shi Youjie 202170081624, 63 英语口译 伍佳惠 Wu Jiahui 202170081625, 64 英语口译 夏晶 Xia Jing 202170081626, 65 英语口译 向师琦 Xiang Shiqi 202170081627, 66 英语口译 向望 Xiang Wang 202170081628, 67 英语口译 徐舞 Xu Wu 202170081629, 68 英语口译 张静芝 Zhang Jingzhi 202170081630, 69 英语口译 张旻丰 Zhang Minfeng 202170081631, 70 日语笔译 曹梦然 Cao Mengran 202170081632
- 20220630_Culture_8 papers 71-80: 71 日语笔译 胡梦琪 Hu Mengqi 202170081633, 72 日语笔译 张白鹭 Zhang Bailu 202170081634, 73 朝鲜语笔译 刘安莉 Liu Anli 202170081635, 74 朝鲜语笔译 王思佳 Wang Sijia 202170081636, 75 朝朝鲜语笔译 徐盖 Xu Gai 202170081638, 76 朝鲜语笔译 徐文慧 Xu Wenhui 202170081639, 77 外国语言文学 Akira Jantarat 202121080009, 78 比较文学与跨文化研究 Mahzad 202021080004, 79 英语语言文学 Mimi 2020GBJ002301
英语笔译 周哲 Zhou Zhe 202170081613
Abstract
The rise of the philosophic schools began with the practice of private teaching. So far as modern scholarship can determine, Confucius was the first person in Chinese history thus to teach large numbers of students in a private capacity, by whom he was accompanied during his travels in different states. According to tradition, he had several thousand students, of whom several tens became famous thinkers and scholars. The former number is undoubtedly a gross exaggeration, but there is no question that he was a very influential teacher, and what is more important and unique, China’s first private teacher. His ideas are best known through the Lun Yü or Confucian Analects, a collection of his scattered sayings which was compiled by some of his disciples.
Key words
Confucian teaching thoughts; kindness; The Analects of Confucius
Introduction
Ancient Chinese education is part of the brilliant and diverse ancient Chinese culture, the foundation on which it has been sustained and developed, and the driving force behind its constant innovation. It was passed down from generation to generation through ancient Chinese education. The school education, social education, family education and education in all kinds of craftsmanship were the guarantee of the continuity and development of all kinds of ancient Chinese culture, without which it would have been difficult to create, perpetuate and develop ancient Chinese material and spiritual civilization.
During the Western Zhou dynasty, there was not only a national school but also a country school, which gradually formed a systematic education based on ritual, music, archery, royalty, calligraphy and mathematics. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, private schools began to develop as a new form of educational organization, and a number of masters emerged, such as Confucius, Mo Zi, Mencius and Xun Zi, who shone with their wisdom. Ancient Chinese education is a humanistic one. It takes the cultivation of a gentleman as the sole purpose and focuses on teaching people virtue and wisdom rather than mere knowledge. It attaches particular importance to moral education and virtue cultivation, emphasizing moral integrity, ethics and lofty spirituality, advocating the development of ambition, and highlighting a sense of moral responsibility. It also promotes the spirit and broad-mindedness. China has gradually formed a long-term and profound educational tradition, starting from Confucius and Mencius, Lao Zi and Chuang-Tzu, and down to Song and Ming philosophy, all paying special attention to self-cultivation by attaching great importance to inspiring students’ self-awareness and initiative, to be persistent in their determination, to refrain from excessive indulgence and to do self-examination and good deeds, and to be subtle and prevent the gradual corruption. In this way, a series of principles and methodologies of moral education and cultivation with unique Chinese characteristics have been gradually developed.
Characteristics of Confucian Teaching Thoughts
In general, ancient Chinese educational thought, broadly speaking, has the following distinctive features.
First, there is the comprehensive view, that is, the big view of education. Ancient Chinese educators recognized early on that education is a subsystem of the larger system of society as a whole, and that many educational problems are essentially social problems that must be examined and solved in the context of the entire social system. In turn, the solution of educational problems would inevitably promote the development and progress of society as a whole. For example, Confucius attached great importance to education and regarded population, wealth and education as the three major elements of "statehood". From the idea of "The root of a state is in the family. Mencius", he attached importance to the education of family ethics and social morality "filial piety, brotherhood, loyalty and faith". He saw the important role of education in governing the state and stabilizing the social order. This idea of placing education at the forefront of governing the state and the people, and seeing the moral cultivation of the individual and the improvement of social morality as the basis for governing the state and stabilizing it, is very profound. The Book of Rites and Learning summarizes the role of education in sixteen words: "To build a state and rule the people, teaching is the first thing to do" and "To transform the people into customs, it must be learned". The role of education encompasses two interrelated aspects: one is to cultivate the various talents needed by the state, and the other is to form a good social moral style. This is a summary of the function of education as outlined and summarized by Chinese philosophers, which is still relevant today.
The second is the dialectical view, that is, the unity of opposites. Ancient Chinese educators emphasized the need to give priority to moral education, while not neglecting the role of intellectual education. For example, Confucius said: "A wise man devotes his attention to what is essential in the foundation of life. When the foundation is laid, wisdom will come. ", "If he (a young man) has time and opportunity to spare, after the performance of those duties, he should then employ them in literary pursuits. " (Analects Xue Er); and at the same time he says: "First there is the mere love of morality: that alone, without culture, degenerates into fatuity."(Analects Yangguo), ""I cannot say," replied Confucius, "if he could be called a moral character."" Dong Zhongshu also said, "If one is benevolent but not wise, one loves but does not distinguish; if one is wise but not benevolent, one is wise but does not do." This is the ancient Chinese view of the unity of morality and wisdom: moral education and its practice come first, followed by intellectual education; moral education is carried out through intellectual education, and intellectual education mainly serves moral education; there is an interdependence and interpenetration between moral education and intellectual education, between "practicing oneself with shame" and "learning from literature" There is a relationship of interdependence and interpenetration between moral education and intellectual education, and between "acting with shame" and "learning from literature". The same is true of moral education. There is also a relationship of unity and opposition between the understanding of moral concepts, the establishment of moral beliefs and the practice of moral behavior. The relationship between teaching and learning, and between teacher and student, is both contradictory and unified, as revealed in everything from the Book of Learning to Han Yu's Teacher's Discourse.
The third is the inner view, which emphasizes the inner moral function and self-awareness of the subject of inspiration. Ancient Chinese education inspires the inner self-consciousness of each person and puts forward a set of principles, requirements and methods of "being human", so that people can get the pleasure of "being human" from it. "It is a set of principles, requirements and methods of being human, from which one can derive the pleasure of being human and express the noble spiritual pursuit of human beings. Unlike Western Christianity and Indian Buddhism, ancient Chinese education is not "sinful education" but "joyful education"; it does not rely on religious beliefs and prayers, and does not advocate leaving society and the family, but emphasizes accumulating moral and good deeds in school, family and daily life, and strengthening self-cultivation. Instead of relying on religious beliefs and prayers, it does not advocate leaving society and family, but emphasizes accumulating moral and good deeds in school, family and daily life, strengthening self-cultivation, i.e., this shore is the other shore, "the highest and the middle way". Ancient Chinese educational thought emphasizes the ability to be self-aware of values in one's heart, to introspect, to reflect on oneself, to be prudent, to cultivate oneself, to perfect oneself, and to seek harmony between the human order and the cosmic order. Its quest for the source of value is inward rather than outward, not listening to the call of God or waiting for the revelation of Buddha. The emphasis on inspiring inner enlightenment and trusting in the inner power of the subject is a very important feature.
Ancient Chinese Confucianism in Teaching and Learning
Ancient Chinese educators have accumulated and summarized a wealth of teaching experience and have put forward many valuable ideas and insights into teaching theory, teaching principles and methods, and the requirements for teachers. These ideas not only arose in ancient times thousands of years ago is rare and valuable, but also today still shine with wisdom and are rich in enlightening educational significance. It is the essence of our traditional educational thinking and a major contribution to the world's treasure house of educational thought.
1. Teaching according to the material, inspiration and guidance
One of the best recognized traditional teaching ideas is "teaching to the students according to their abilities". Confucius remarked, "You look at how a man acts; consider his motives; find out his tastes. What the student does, what the student experiences, and what the student's interests are. For students not only "But now, when I want to judge of a man, I have to look at what he does in his life as well as listen to what he says.", but also "But when he has retired, on examining into his life and conversation I find he has been able to profit by what I have said to him." (Analects For the Government), i.e. examining the student's words and actions in private after class to get a full picture of the student's characteristics and reality. He knows the character traits of his students well, sometimes analyzing them in terms of their strengths, sometimes in terms of their weaknesses, and sometimes making comparative analyses of different students. He is able to target the different character traits of the students and follow their advice, instead of preaching in a uniform manner. Sometimes the students asked the same question, but he gave different answers. A disciple, the intrepid Chung Yu, asked if he might at once carry out into practice any truth which he had learnt. "No." answered Confucius. "You have the wishes of your parents and of your old people at home to consult. How can you take upon yourself to carry at once into practice what you have learnt?" Another disciple on another occasion asked the same question. Afterwards another disciple ventured to enquire of Confucius why he gave two totally different answers to the same question.
"That is because," answered Confucius, "the one man is too diffident, I therefore said that to encourage him; the other man, however, is too forward; Therefore I said that to pull him back. Confucius also advocated different teaching according to the level of intelligence of the student: "Confucius remarked, "You may speak of high things to those who in natural qualities of mind are above average men. You may not speak to those who in natural qualities of mind are below average men."" (Analects Yongye)
Mencius inherited and exerted Confucius' idea of teaching according to students' abilities and emphasized the variation of teaching methods. In conclusion, ancient Chinese educators believed that there were differences in students' personalities and that each student's natural endowments were different, so teaching methods should also vary from person to person. They opposed the use of a model to bind students, but advocated the development of each student's personality through education. In terms of teaching methods, ancient Chinese educators paid special attention to inspiration and guidance to develop the intellectual potential of each student. Confucius then went on to say: "In my method of teaching, I always wait for my student to make an effort himself to find his way I also make him find his own illustrations before I give him one of my own. bearing of a subject in one direction and found that my student cannot himself see its bearings into other directions, I do not then repeat my lesson." " (Analects Shu Zi)
2. Learn from the past, learn and think
The first words of the Analects are those of Confucius: "Confucius remarked, "It is indeed a pleasure to acquire knowledge and, as you go on acquiring, to put into practice what It is indeed a pleasure to acquire knowledge and, as you go on acquiring, to put into practice what you have acquired."" (Analects Xue Er) He also said, "Confucius remarked, "If a man will constantly go over what he has acquired and keep continually adding to it new acquirements, he may become a teacher of men.""(论语-为政) Zhu Xi explained in his Four Books Collected Commentaries, "The old one, what he has heard of the old; the new one, what he has The new one, the present one. The words learn to be able to practice the old heard at times, and every time there are new gains."
Only by repeatedly learning and practicing can we firmly grasp what we have learned; only when we have become proficient in what we have learned and have integrated it, can we learn from the past and know the future, and explore the unknown from the known. This kind of thinking, which attaches importance to learning from the past without neglecting the exploration of new knowledge, is still inspiring today.
On the issue of dealing with the relationship between learning and thinking, ancient Chinese educators mostly advocated the combination of learning and thinking and the importance of learning and thinking together. Confucius remarked, "Study without thinking is labor lost. Thinking without study is perilous." (Analects of Confucius Weizheng) He advocated that study and thinking should go hand in hand, but should be based on study. But it should be based on study: "Confucius on one occasion remarked, "I have spent a whole day without taking food and a whole night without sleep, occupied with It was of no use. I have found it better to acquire knowledge from books."" (Analects Wei Ling Gong) He also emphasized the need to think on the basis of study: "Confucius remarked, "A man who does not constantly say to himself, 'What is the right thing to do?' I can do nothing for such a man." " (Analects Wei Ling Gong). Xunzi inherited this idea from Confucius. He also said, "I have tried to think all day long, but I am not as good as what I have learned in a moment." He also asked that, on the basis of learning, one should "ponder in order to pass on" (Xunzi Persuading Learning), that is, to integrate what one has learned through thinking activities.
3. Make Steady progress Incrementally
Ancient Chinese educators generally valued the principle of gradual teaching. The students of Confucius praised him for his "good enticement in a gradual manner" (Analects of Confucius Zihan). On the one hand, he believed that teaching was a process of natural development, and that it should be self-improving, not lax or interrupted; on the other hand, it should not be impatient or prostrated. He said, "The gentleman's ambition is not to attain the Way without becoming a chapter." He compares the order of advancement in learning to flowing water, "not without a surplus of subjects", and "he who advances sharply, retires quickly" (Mencius On the Exhaustion of the Mind). Mencius also used the natural growth of seedlings as a metaphor for the process of education. On the one hand, he advocated plowing with all one's might and opposed indulgence; on the other hand, he opposed weeping seedlings to help them grow and rushing to success.
The "way of learning" proposed in the Book of Learning is also against "dilly-dallying". It says: "Those who are good at asking questions are like attacking hard wood, and those who are easy first are followed by their programs, and when they have been long, they say (get off) each other to solve them. Those who are not good at asking are the opposite. He who is good at asking questions is like a bell; if he knocks on a small one, he will make a small sound; if he knocks on a large one, he will make a large sound; if he is subdued, he will make his sound. Those who do not answer questions well do the opposite. This is the way to advance in learning. "This is the principle of gradual progress in teaching.
Zhang Zai believes that the teaching process "should not be slow, but should not be hasty. Because the difficulty of the material and the development of the student's body and mind are "gradual", which requires teaching must also adhere to the principle of "gradual", not dilly-dallying and teaching. Zhu Xi even more clearly put forward the "step by step and progressive, familiar with the reading and fine thinking" teaching ideas. He said: "gentleman teach people in order, first pass to the small near, and then teach to the large far", "such as mountain climbing, people more to the high place, do not know since the low place do not pay attention to, the end of the reason to the high place". He stressed that teaching should be insisted on from near and far, from easy to difficult, from shallow to deep, from concrete to abstract, from known to unknown. Zhu Xi also said: "the sages teach people, the lower learning up to, in an orderly manner, so engaged in the middle of it, and the important, about and not alone, no delusion over the sloppy drawbacks. Today's scholars of the word are mostly opposed to this, so its high fell into the empty illusion, the low drowned in hearing and seeing, and despairingly do not know where they will return to. He thinks that if one does not first engage in lower learning but deludes oneself to reach the top, one is prostrated, and then one is reduced to empty illusion; if one engages in lower learning but does not seek to reach the top, one is drowned in hearing and seeing. In the former case, one is impatient to advance without following a sequence, and in the latter case, one is not advancing despite following a sequence, both of which will waste energy and fail to achieve the goal. He believed that only by learning in a gradual and orderly manner and according to one's ability could one make steady progress.
In conclusion, ancient Chinese educators have realized that the accumulation of knowledge and the growth of intelligence is a gradual process, and it is impossible to finish it all in one go. They emphasized that teaching should pay attention to stages and rhythm, and should follow the natural course of events, which is in line with objective laws.
4. Kindness helps save mistakes
The idea of teaching for long goodness and saving mistakes was put forward in the Book of Rites Book of Learning. The Book of Learning says: "There are four failures of the scholar, which the teacher must know. When a man learns, he may lose much, or he may lose little, or he may lose easy, or he may lose stop. These four are not the same as the heart. He who knows his heart can then save it from its failures. He who teaches is also the one who grows good and saves his failures." This is to say, in the learning process, some students are greedy for more and more, too complicated and do not seek to understand; some students are too narrow in knowledge, holding on to the residue of the queue; some students are not focused on learning, shallow taste; some students are stagnant, afraid of difficulties and retreat. These four types of problems reflect the different psychological states of students towards learning, teachers only understand these psychological states, in order to help students overcome these problems in a targeted manner. Teachers must grasp the specific situation, take advantage of the situation, and be good at both promoting students' strengths and overcoming their weaknesses.
Many and few, easy and difficult are not fixed, and gains and losses can be transformed into each other. Wang Fuzhi said in the Book of Rites, Volume 18: "Although many, few, easy, and stop have their own faults, the many are convenient for the extensive, the few are easy to specialize, the easy are brave to act, and the stop is safe in its order, and each has its own good; to save its faults, it is good at carrying on." Although many, few, easy and stop have their own faults, they also contain certain positive factors. Teachers should observe their students comprehensively, understand the dialectic of teaching, and, according to the "difficulty of learning" and the "beauty and evil" of their "qualifications", explore, cultivate, and This is to make up for the shortcomings of the students, and to save them from their mistakes. This is the idea of making up for the shortcomings, and of saving the shortcomings from the good.
The Book of Rites and Learning also explicitly puts forward the idea of teaching each other. It says: "Although there are excellent dishes, we do not know their purpose if we do not eat them. Even though there is a supreme way, we do not know its goodness without learning. It is because learning is then knowing the inadequacy, teaching is then knowing the difficulty. Knowing inadequacy, one can then reflect on oneself; knowing difficulty, one can then strengthen oneself. Therefore, it is said: teaching each other also. The "Tuijin" says: "Learn and learn half. This is what it means!" Here is a profound exposition of the contradictory relationship between "teaching" and "learning" and the interdependence and mutual promotion of each other. Teaching benefits from learning, and learning improves day by day because of teaching. Teaching can help learning, and in turn, learning can help teaching, which is called "teaching and learning". "Teaching and learning" implies not only a unified relationship between teaching and learning, but also a mutually reinforcing and complementary relationship between teachers and students on an equal footing.
5. Teach by example, respect teachers and love students
Ancient Chinese educators, based on their experience in educational practice, put forward various requirements for teachers, and leading by example and teaching by example is one of the important ones.
Confucius said, "If one's body is right, one does not follow orders; if one's body is not right, one does not obey orders." "If you can't correct yourself, how can you correct others?" (Analects of Confucius Zilu) Here he emphasized the importance of "teaching by example", correcting oneself and others. He also said, "If you do not speak to a man who can speak to him, you will lose him; if you do not speak to him, you will lose him. Those who know do not lose people and do not lose words." (The Analects of Confucius Wei Ling Gong) He advocated the use of both "teaching with words" and "teaching without words" in teaching, using "teaching with words" if it is possible to use "teaching with words", and using "teaching with words" if it is not possible to use "teaching with words", that is, influencing and educating students through hints or one's own daily behavior. There is a certain psychological basis here. Confucius said, "I want to have no words", and he believed in the power of "teaching without words".
Xunzi proposed: "There are four teacher techniques, and Bo Xi is not with it. A strict teacher who is scrupulous can be a teacher; a teacher who is a senior citizen who believes can be a teacher; a teacher who recites and does not offend can be a teacher; and a teacher who knows the subtleties and discusses can be a teacher." (Xunzi Zhi Shi) He believed that a teacher must have four conditions (not including extensive knowledge): first, the teacher must have dignity and be able to make people respect him; second, the teacher must have high prestige and rich teaching experience; third, the teacher must have the ability to teach in an organized and systematic way and not violate the teacher's instructions; fourth, he must know the subtle theories and be able to explain them clearly. The Book of Learning also sets strict requirements for teachers, considering high moral character and academic excellence as essential for teaching and education, as well as the mastery of correct teaching methods and principles.
Yuan Hong, a Jin dynasty scholar, said in "The Records of the Later Han Dynasty The Chronicle of Emperor Ling": "A teacher of scripture is easy to meet, but a teacher of men is difficult to meet." It can be seen that the standard of "human teacher" is not only to impart knowledge, but also to be a teacher of others. This is the excellent traditional educational thinking of ancient China.
Ancient Chinese educators also advocated that students respect their teachers and teachers love their students, establishing a good teacher-student relationship. Confucius loved his students and cared about their moral and academic improvement, as well as their lives and health. He was happy to see the progress of his students; he often helped them when they were poor; he visited them when they were sick; and he was very sad when they died. He established a deep friendship with his students. Confucius said; "If you love, can you not work? If you are loyal, can you not teach?" (Analects of Confucius Xianwen) He also said: "Two or three sons think that I am hidden? I have nothing to hide from you. I have no line and I do not share with the two or three sons. (Analects of Confucius Shu-i) Confucius had "no selfishness and no concealment" for his students, and he had unlimited expectations: "The future generation can be feared, how can we know that the future generation will not be the present?" (Analects of Confucius Zihan). He also believed that when a righteous cause needed to be taken up, the younger generation should be bold enough to go forward and take responsibility, even in front of their own teachers, without having to be humble, "when benevolence does not let the teacher go" (Analects Wei Ling Gong). The students of Confucius admired Confucius for his high morality, profound knowledge, and good teaching. Yan Yuan said, "If you look up to a person who is high, you will learn from him. If you look ahead, you will not be able to follow. The master was good at enticing people, and he taught me with literature and rituals, and I could not stop. Since I have exhausted my talent, as if there is a stand-alone Zhuoer. Although I want to follow him, the last thing I want to do is to do so." (Analects of Confucius Zihan) After the death of Confucius, the students built a house next to his tomb and kept mourning for three years, weeping bitterly when they parted. Tzu Kung could not bear to leave, so he stayed alone for another three years. He said, "The inaccessibility of Confucius is like the inaccessibility of heaven. (The Analects of Confucius Zihan) The student expressed his infinite nostalgia and admiration for Confucius.
Mozi also emphasized respect for teachers and love for students in his educational practice, and Mozi's teachers and students were able to live and die together and share the hardships. Mozi and his students "took fur and brown as their clothes, took crawling as their clothing, and never rested day and night, taking self-hardship as their ultimate goal" (Zhuangzi The World). The students followed Mozi "to the fire and to the edge of the sword, not to be deterred from dying", and this teacher-student relationship was gradually built up through life and death and common suffering.
Xunzi to whether the "valued teacher heavy Fu" to the height of the rise and fall of the country to understand, and advocate students over teachers. He said: "When a country will rise, the teacher will be valued but not the teacher; ...... when a country will fall, the teacher will be despised but not the teacher." (Xunzi Ontario) He believed that students not only have the relationship of inheritance of knowledge and learning to their teachers, but also bear the responsibility of surpassing the wisdom of their predecessors and advancing the academic level. He said in figurative language: "Learning cannot be done. Green, taken from the blue and green in the blue; ice, water for which and cold in the water." This shows that there is no end to learning, and that it is the law of academic development that "the blue is better than the blue".
Some educators of the Song Dynasty were also models of respect for teachers and love for students. Hu Aigong, on the one hand, advocated "strict teacher-disciple manners"; on the other hand, he also advocated deep affection and cordial relationship between teachers and students. He treated all students as his sons and brothers, and they respected him as their father and brother. Roy Cheng was so kind and friendly that students often felt "like sitting in the spring breeze and harmony" when they got along with him. Cheng Yi, on the other hand, is stern and rigid, some students see him sitting in meditation and dare not be alarmed, waiting in the door until the snow is more than a foot deep, leaving a "Cheng door standing snow" of the good story. Zhu Xi once criticized the shortcomings of the indifferent relationship between teachers and students in government schools, "teachers and students see each other, indifferent as people walking on the road". He carried forward the spirit of Confucius "teach people tirelessly", follow the good advice, tireless, have deep feelings for students. His pupil Huang You said in his "Acts of Zhu Zi": "Zhu Zi's lectures on the classics, through the ancient and modern world, were often given until midnight. Although the disease is detached, to the students asked to discern, it is removed from the body of the disease, a day without lectures, is tense often thought worried." Reflects the sentiments of a great teacher. Zhu Xi's requirements for students is strict, but not passive precautions, but positive guidance, do not focus on the form of the provisions of the provisions, but rather to inspire students to consciously comply. Enthusiastic teaching, the method proper, in order to deepen the teacher-student friendship, close teacher-student relationship. These experiences of Zhu Xi, which contain universal laws, reflect the fine tradition of respecting teachers and loving students in the history of ancient Chinese education, and are often praised and drawn upon by later generations.
Conclusion
Compared with foreign education, ancient Chinese education has these characteristics: it is not mechanical and dull, but flexible and varies from person to person and from time to time; it is not subdivided and detailed, but comprehensive and integrated; it is not merely teaching knowledge and technology, but the unity of morality and wisdom; it is not detached from teachers and students and disconnected from education and life practice, but teaching and learning together and integrating education into life practice; it is not pivoted on the system of knowledge, but on It is not a pivot on the system of knowledge, but on life, and aims at the building and cultivation of the human style from generation to generation.
References
- Mao Lirui(1985-1988), Shen Gouqun, eds. General History of Chinese Education. Shandong; Shandong Education Press
- Sun Peiqing(1992), ed. History of Chinese Education, Shanghai: East China Normal University Press
- Wang Bingzhao, Guo Qijia, Liu Huahua, He Xiaoxia, Gao Qi(1994). A Concise History of Education in China (Revised). Beijing; Beijing Normal University Press
- Guo Qijia(1998). Ancient Chinese Schools. Beijing: The Commercial Press
英语笔译 朱丽娟 Zhu Lijuan 202170081614
Abstract
The traditional culture of the Chinese nation is brilliant,which contains many profound ideas of ecological civilization and ecological development. These thoughts not only provided the moral foundation for the continuous development of Chinese civilization for five thousand years, but also provided the theoretical premise for the sustainable development of modern ecology and ecological civilization construction. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism occupy a very prominent position in Chinese traditional culture and have the greatest influence on later generations. This paper mainly discusses the ecological thoughts of Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, so as to provide value guidance for properly handling the relationship between man and nature.
Key words
Ecological thoughts;Confucianism;Taoism;Buddhism
Subtitle 1
1. Harmony between man and nature.
The core of ecological thought in Chinese traditional culture：Integration of nature and human. The ecological thoughts in ancient China gestate in the traditional culture. Confronted with the ecological problems which bothers the whole mankind, people surprisingly discover that the Chinese ancient philosophy has provided enormous enlightening accomplishments for the problem, or it contains the creative principles to cope with such contradictions and conflicts when we are pondering and searching for the solutions to the crisis, which is the wisdom of "Correspondence between Heaven and Human." "Correspondence between Man and Nature" is an elementary proposition of Chinese traditional philosophy. It is not only a basic spirit of China's traditional culture, but also is the optimal plane pursued by Chinese culture.On the one hand, the word "heaven" refers to "the vast nature," and it also refers to "the highest principle" and "the highest power." On the other hand, the word "unity" attaches importance to the process of a harmonious and unified status, which refers to the state of harmony between man and nature.
The ideology of "Integration between man and nature" lasted for more than 2,000 years, which was publicized, explained and developed by most ancient philosophers and became the basic style of Chinese culture and even Oriental culture. According to Ji Xianlin, a master of oriental culture, "harmony of heaven and mankind" is an elementary form of China's culture and this ideology is concentrated expression for the philosophy in oriental culture. This thought has established the foundation of ancient China philosophy, and it has exerted far-reaching influence on development of traditional culture. It is not only worth carrying forward, but also related to the future of mankind. "Harmony between man and nature" is regarded as a consistent ideological tradition in Confucianism. Confucius as "Yi Zhuan," once said,"Anciently, when the sages made the Yi, it was with the design that (its figures) should be in conformity with the principles underlying the natures (of men and things), and the ordinances (for them) appointed (by Heaven). With this view they exhibited (in them) the way of heaven, calling (the lines) yin and yang; the way of earth, calling (them) the weak (or soft) and the strong (or hard); and the way of men, under the names of benevolence and righteousness. (According to the book Yi Zhuan, there is a contribution made by Confucius: He regarded heaven, earth and man as three resources and regarded them as natural laws, which were finally used to establish an orderly world system. )
In addition, the contribution made by Mencius lies in his mode of mind and nature, completely showing your mind so that you know your nature and heaven. For Meng Zi, people do not need to know their mind or heart, but only show or appear completely in your spirit so that they can recognize human nature and the heaven. Dong Zhongshu believes that There is a natural order to things. Only by following such guidelines in order to achieve the integration between man and nature. Zhang Zai accepted the idea of the universal nature of heaven, and for the first time combined these two parts. As mentioned tree types of knowledge from Zhang Zai: the knowledge from seeing and hearing;the knowledge based on virtue;the knowledge from sincerity. Xunzi believes that Heaven has its seasons; Earth its resources; and Man his government. This, of course, is why it is said that they "can form a Triad." When man abandons what he should use to form the Triad yet longs for the benefits that result from the Triad, he suffers from delusion! The concept of "harmony between man and nature" is also expressed in Xunzi's viewpoint, which expresses the ecological concept of harmony between man and nature.
Similarly, Taoism advocates "Harmony between heaven and man." Laozi first expressed the ideology of "Correspondence between man and nature". He proposed that Man law the law of the heavens, France Road, Imitation of Nature. Zhuangzi also believes that not to receive (as evils) the inflictions of Heaven is easy; not to receive (as benefits) the favours of men is difficult. There is no beginning which was not an end. The Human and the Heavenly may be one and the same. Based on Taoist view, harmony between man and nature is the key for all things in nature to maintain its differences, but also to realize a comprehensive and coordinating relationship between humna and nature. Any destruction of nature will lead to the destruction of the relationship between man and nature, which is opposed by Taoism.
To sum up, the thought of "harmony between man and nature" is the main line of thought running through the main schools in ancient China. "Harmony between man and nature" contains different levels of content, and different philosophical schools and philosophers have different views on it. For example, Taoism pays more attention to "nature" and Confucianism pays more attention to "humanity". However, the basic meaning of this thought is the internal unity of man and nature. The concept of "harmony between man and nature" has undergone a long process of development and it complex in its content. however, it embodies the profound understanding of the relationship between man and nature in traditional China culture. Therefore, the concept of "harmony between man and nature" is the core of ecological thought in traditional Chinese culture.
Subtitle 2
2.Taoism thought of the nature law.
Taoism is one of the main schools in the history of ancient Chinese philosophy, which contains rich ecological thoughts. F. Capra, a contemporary humanistic physicist, once said, "As far as I am concerned, among the traditional schools of philosophy that contend with a hundred schools of thought, Taoism provides the deepest and most perfect ecological wisdom. It emphasizes that in the process of natural circulation, all phenomena and potential of individual and society are basically the same." With Laozi and Zhuangzi as the representatives, Taoist philosophy systematically discusses the relationship between heaven and man. The believes in nature is the quintessence of Taoism, and this concept has established the strong foundation for a rich ecological thought.
In Taoism, "Tao" is the beginning and nature for the whole world. The basic, eternal principle of the universe that transcends reality and is the source of being, non-being, and change. Laozi proposed that Tao gives birth to one, and one gives birth to two, and two gives birth to three and three gives birth to all things. What's more, he also pointed out the myriad things under the heavens are born of being, being is born of non being. That is to say, the Too of Tao-ism is the unitary "that" from which springs the production and change of all things in the universe.In other words, people and everything in the universe, everything and on everything, the reason things are unified into the same to my heart.The relationship between "one" and "ten thousand" is not only the relationship between mother and son, but also the relationship between unity and diversity. As the foundation of the existence of all things, "one" represents "nature", where "nature" represents the whole nature. In other words, all things are an integral part of nature, and man is also a thing in all things, that is, a part of nature.
It was the first time that Laozi explicitly put forward the "nature" in the history of philosophy in China, where he discussed the relationship between man and nature. "Man laws the land, the land laws the sky, the sky laws the Tao, and the Tao laws the nature. There were three means of the nature in Taoism: one was the natural in nature, the second was spontaneousness and own so, the third was nature in the life meaning.That is to say, human beings should take "Tao" as the law, because it is the basis of the existence of all things in the world. According to Lao Tzu, everything in nature, including human life, is the result of creation of nature, which is naturally generated and has no master, which is the basic meaning of "Tao follows nature. In Taoism, man is a part of nature.The movement and change of all things in nature are regular.Tao, heaven, earth and man all exist naturally. They exist and move according to the nature of nature, and are constantly changing. Laozi believes that human behavior should conform to nature and follow the operation law of all things in nature. "Knowing often means knowing, not knowing often, making mistakes and being fierce". That is to say, it is wise to act according to the laws of all natural things. If you don't act rashly according to the laws of all natural things, you will inevitably lead to danger. Taoism believes that since man was born in the process of "Tao" giving birth to all things, man should follow the example of heaven and earth, adopt an attitude of conforming to nature to all natural things, and "dare to do things to assist the nature of all things", that is, "inaction". "Natural inaction" is the direct embodiment of "Tao follows nature". Taoist "inaction" does not mean inaction, but does not deliberately act recklessly or force arbitrarily. Therefore, Laozi emphasized that we should do things in an inaction manner, so as to achieve the effects of "doing nothing" and "doing nothing" in nature and human life.
In a word, "Tao follows nature", as Taoist thought and Taoist doctrine, contains rich ecological thoughts, which has important ecological significance in today's deteriorating ecological environment.
Subtitle 3
3. Anthropocentrism.
Confucian culture represents the mainstream of Chinese traditional culture, in which the ecological thought about the relationship between man and nature is a very important aspect. Confucianism has always valued man's position in all natural things, but it does not have rich and clear ecological thoughts similar to Taoism. Confucian ecological thoughts are often combined with their theory of caring for heaven, earth and man, thus forming a unique mixture of ecological thoughts with both anthropocentrism and natural centrism. Some outstanding thinkers of ancient Chinese Confucian school put forward many precious ecological thoughts from the study of interpersonal relationship, and formed a relatively complete ecological ideological system. They advocate that man is a part of nature, and man is similar to all things in nature, so man should adopt a obedient and friendly attitude towards nature, and seek harmony between man and nature as the ultimate goal.
Man is a part of nature and a product of nature, which occupies a very special position in nature. It can be said that the most important role of man in nature is "counselor's education". The Doctrine of the Mean expounded the unity of man and nature earlier: "Only the sincerity of the world is to do its best; If you can do your best, you can do your best; If you can do your best, you can do your best; If you can do your best, you can cultivate the towering land; If you can cultivate the towering land, you can participate with heaven and earth. "(Chapter 22) That is to say, only by adhering to the principle of sincerity can we give full play to our good nature; Only by giving full play to one's good nature can one influence others and give full play to their good nature; Only by giving full play to the good nature of all people can we give full play to the good nature of all things; Give full play to the good nature of all things, and you can participate in the cultivation of all things in heaven and earth. People are in contact with everything in nature anytime and anywhere, and treat things with honesty, which is the fundamental attitude to deal with the relationship between people and things. To treat things with sincerity means to respect, sympathize with, love and understand all things, and promote the growth and development of all things by the way of cultivating heaven and earth, instead of using, controlling and destroying all things as external things unrelated to life.
Mencius expounded the relationship between man and nature with the moral category of "sincerity". He pointed out: "Honest body has a good way, don't know about good, don't be honest with its body. It is a sincere person, and the way of heaven is also; He who thinks honestly is the way of man. ". ("Mencius Li Lou") That is to say, he has taken "sincerity" as the theoretical goal of the unity of man and nature. How can people achieve sincerity to achieve the realm of sincerity? Mencius pointed out: "Those who do their best know their nature. If you know its nature, you will know the sky. Save your heart and raise your sex, so things are also ". (Mencius devotes himself to it) is a process of "devoting himself to it", "intellectuality" and "knowing heaven". Mencius' theory of devotion, understanding and knowing heaven advocates achieving the goal of sincerity and realizing the harmony and unity between man and heaven through moral cultivation. Therefore, Mencius put forward that "everything is prepared for me", that is to say, the fundamental principles of everything in the world exist in people's nature, and they only need to be brought into full play. The Doctrine of the Mean also emphasizes the importance of human cultivation, and holds that as long as human efforts are made, the highest point of human nature can be reached and the work of cultural education can be realized. Therefore, the Doctrine of the Mean points out: "Secondly, music can be sincere, sincerity is shape, shape is writing, writing is clear, Ming is moving, movement is changing, change is changing, and only sincerity in the world can be changed. "(Chapter 23) The process from" music "to" energy "is not only a process of self-improvement of human nature, but also a process of dealing with the relationship between man and all things; It is not only a process of achieving" energy ", but also a process of" counselor's education ". Xunzi also proposed: "When the day comes, the land has its wealth, people have their governance, and husbands are called able to participate. "(Xunzi's Theory of Heaven) That is to say, people in heaven and earth have their own functions. Only by understanding the differences between people in heaven and earth can we achieve the realm of" participating with heaven and earth ".
When people reach the realm of "sincerity", they will naturally be able to cultivate all things, which is called "counselor". The Doctrine of the Mean says: "So sincere interest-free. Endless is long, long is micro, micro is far away, far is thick, and thick is clever. Beat thick, so the load is also; Clever, so the cover is also; Far away, so things are also. Strive for thick land, smart sky, long and boundless. In this way, you can't see the chapter, change without moving, and do nothing. "(Chapter 26) That is to say, only when heaven and earth are thick and long-standing can they cover all things; Only when the way of heaven and earth is sincere and interest-free can everything be produced. When people reach the realm of "sincerity", they can achieve everything like heaven and earth, and help to cultivate heaven and earth, which is the greatness of human nature.
Subtitle 4
4.Buddhist:equality of all beings.
Buddhism, as one of the world famous religions, has a long history, is extensive and profound, and has abundant documents, including many valuable ecological thoughts. After Indian Buddhism was introduced into China, Chinese Buddhists combined the essence of Indian Buddhism theory with the theory of Chinese traditional philosophy and re-elucidated and innovated philosophical thoughts. Chinese Buddhism contains a large number of ideological portrayal of natural ecology and spiritual ecology, and contains rich ecological theories, which is an important link and resource between Chinese traditional culture and ecology.
Equality of all beings is a basic concept of Buddhism. As an important concept of Buddhism, "sentient beings" expresses the core idea of Buddhism about the symbiotic relationship between human beings and other living bodies, human beings and nature. Buddhism divides everything in nature into two categories: Things with emotion and life, such as people and animals, were originally called "sentient beings" and later called "sentient beings"; Things without emotion, such as vegetation, tiles, mountains and rivers, etc., are called "ruthless beings". With the advancement of history and the influence of Chinese traditional culture, the content of "sentient beings" has continuously expanded its extension, and has been promoted from the initial "sentient beings" to cover both sentient and ruthless universe. Buddhist "equality" can be divided into four levels: Equality between all beings and Buddha, equality between people, equality between people and animals, equality between affection and ruthlessness. That is to say, all things in the universe, namely Buddha, man, animals, plants and inorganic matter, are equal.
In Chinese Buddhism, Tiantai Sect, Huayan Sect and Zen Sect all believe that all sentient beings have Buddha nature. Zen believes that not only sentient beings have Buddha nature, but also low-level life such as ruthless vegetation has Buddha nature. Ji Zang pointed out in Volume 3 of Mahayana Metaphysics: "According to the right, according to the right, all living beings have Buddha nature, then vegetation has Buddha nature. Therefore, not only all living beings have Buddha nature, but also vegetation has Buddha nature...... Therefore, if all living beings become Buddhas, all vegetation will become Buddhas. "That is to say, all phenomena in nature are in the causal relationship of interdependence and mutual restriction, and all life is an organic part of nature. Without nature, life cannot exist. The so-called "green bamboo is full of Dharma body; Gloomy yellow flowers are nothing more than Prajna", that is to say, flowers, trees, birds and animals all have Buddha nature, so we must care for every grass and tree in nature and build an interdependent, harmonious and free environment.
Buddhism believes that life is very precious to human beings and all animals and plants that can't talk. Human beings become masters of nature because of their superb thinking ability, but they can't harm other things. As small as dust, as large as the universe, and all living beings are in the same life flow, and "all living beings have Buddha nature", all things may reach the highest level and comprehend Buddha nature. Buddhism's concern for life is most concentrated in the compassion of all living beings. Compassion is the foundation of Buddhism and Taoism. "Compassion is the greatest in all Buddhism" (Great Wisdom Theory). In Buddhism's view, "harmony with happiness" is called "kindness", and "pulling out bitterness" is called "sadness". It teaches people to be merciful to all life. "Great kindness is happy with all sentient beings, and great compassion pulls out all sentient beings' sufferings" (Great Wisdom Theory). The former means giving happiness to all people and creatures, while the latter means pulling out the pain of all life.
Conclusion
Therefore, we can sum up the traditional culture of the ecological thinking inherent in the characteristics possessed.
First of all, traditional Chinese philosophy is a philosophy of "life." To Confucius, Heaven is the source of all living things. He regards the"creation of life" as the "Heavenly Way" and the "Heavenly Destination." The Book of Changes (Yijing), following Confucius’viewpoint, explains. "The continuous creation of life ischange." and "The great virtue of Heaven and Earth is creating life." Mencius (c. 372-289 BC), a great Confucian scholar who lived just over 100 years after Confucius, said, "(One should) love one's family, love the people, and love allliving things in the world." Confucian thinkers of later generations carried onthe idea of "Heaven and Earth giving birth to all life," and thus emphasized love for and kindness toward all living things. For example, many prominent Confucian scholars of the Song Dynasty (960-1279) echoed their master's view on life. Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073) said, "Heaven creates life through yang and nurtures life through yin." ChengYi ( 1033-1107) said, "The nature oflife is love." Zhang Zai (1020-1077)said, "All people in the world are my brothers and all beings in the world are my companions." Cheng Hao (1032-1085) said, "Those with love regard themselves as the same as other living things in the world." We can see from their thoughts that Confucian love starts from loving one's family and other people, to loving all living things in the world. Humans and other living things are of the same kind and are equal with each other.
In a letter to his family, Zheng Banqiao( 1693-1765), a great painter of the Qing Dynasty ( 1616-1911 ), wrote that he loved all living things in the world, be it an ant or an insect. This, he said, was the "will of Heaven," and that human beings should understand Heaven's will. He was strongly opposed to "keeping birds in a cage, saying, "It is unreasonable to keep them in a cage just to please myself, to oppress their nature to suit my nature!" Even ferocious animals like wolves and tigers should only be driven away so they cannot harm people. People have no right to kill them at will. He went on to say that, if people really love birds, they should plant more trees as their home. When people rise in the morning and hear the birds singing, both would be happy. He described such a happy scene as, "(All living things) each live by their respective nature." Only in this way could human beings share real happiness with their fellow beings.
Secondly,related to eco-ethics and eco-philosophy is the eco-aesthetics of traditional Chinese culture. Ancient Chinese thinkers regarded nature, with human beings included in it, as the world of life. All living things in the world have their own life and state of being. "Life and its state of being is most worthy of appreciation," said Cheng Hao. From such appreciation, people could draw the greatest spiritual delight, according to such philosophers. Confucian scholars in the Song and Ming dynasties all enjoyed observing "the state of being of living things." ZhouDunyi, for example, allowed the grass to grow in front of his window without cutting it. When asked why, he explained that the natural growth of grass was in line with his idea of living things. He "observed the creation of life and the state of being of living things in the world" through the grass. The state of being of the grass was similar to the state of being of people, and the experience of this resemblance gave him great pleasure. Cheng Hao "felt great joy from observing living things." He would often appreciate the fish he kept, and enjoyed watching newly hatched chicks. To him, the lively and lovely chicks best represented the "state of being."
Finally, Love for all living things in the world and appreciation for their state of beingcan often be found in ancient works of art and literature. Dong Qichang (1555-1636), a famous painter of the late Ming Dynasty, explained that, most artists enjoyed a long life because everything they observed was full of life. Dong You (birth and death dates unknown), collector and connoisseur of the Song Dynasty, emphasized that artists should depict the state of life, which exists in nature. Therefore, artists should observe and learn from nature. Wang Gai (1654-1710) of the Qing Dynasty summarized the secret of painting fish as: depicting their liveliness as they swim in water. He compared the happiness of fish in their natural world to the happiness of humans in their natural world. Chinese artists never paint dead animals. The birds, fish, insects, and flowers are all full of vitality under their brush.
The same is true China ancient Chinese literature.The poems of Tang and Song Dynasties show the beauty of flowers, birds, trees and people.Such as "swallows fly in the mud, mandarin ducks sleep in the warm sand.""I'm a friend of the mountain birds and flowers. "(Du Fu)"Men and birds are not in disorder, and animals are mutually close."(Wang Wei)"A pine and a bamboo are true friends, and a mountain bird and a mountain flower are good brothers."(xin qiji) some poems filled with gratitude to the nature, such as du fu "peach":"Gao Qiu always gives the poor people real life, and his eyes are still full of flowers when he is old."That is to say, the nature (here is the peach tree) not only for people to life necessary food items, and give a person with aesthetic enjoyment.This is a very profound thought.In the qing dynasty great writer pu songling's novel "liao zhai zhi yi" also runs through the consciousness of the people and the universe.The beauty of "liao zhai zhi yi," is the beauty of man and all things.The poetry of "liao zhai zhi yi," is one of the people and all things of poetry.In this literary work, flowers and trees, birds and animals insect fish can translate into a beautiful girl, and love with people.For example, the two girls in "Xiangyu" are the peony and winter resistance of the Qing Palace at the foot of Laoshan Mountain, one is Xiangyu and the other is crimson snow."The winter is two feet long, the peony is more than ten feet tall, and the flowers are bright like brocade."The breeze and the qing dynasty palace reading Huang Sheng love each other, crimson snow and Huang Sheng for friends.Only to infamy, there is a tourist saw white peony, love, just dig it move home.White peony so dead.Huang Sheng is very sad, as "crying flower poem" 50, every day to the peony growth chanting.Then Jiang Xue almost died. The Taoist priest of Xiagong Palace wanted to cut down the tree to build a new house. Fortunately, Huang Sheng stopped him. Later, the peony grew again. Huang Sheng dreamed of Xiangyu. Xiangyu asked Huang Sheng to water her with a glass of water every day. From then on, Huang Sheng added more and more irrigation. The flower bud grew fatter and fatter. The next year, a flower bloomed. The flower was as big as a plate. There was a little beauty sitting in the pistil. "In a flash, it floated down, and the Xiangyu also." From then on, the three of them lived a happy life. Later, Huang Sheng became seriously ill. He said to the old monk: "In the future, there will be red buds growing under the peony, and I will be the one who puts out five leaves." In the second year after Huang's death, there will be fat buds protruding from the fruit. The old Taoist priest irrigated it diligently. For three years, it was several feet tall, but it did not bloom. After the old Taoist priest died, his disciples did not care for it and cut it off when they saw it did not bloom. As a result, the white peony soon withered and died. Then, Nai Dong also died. These image worlds created by Pu Songling are full of love for the life between heaven and earth. It shows that man and all things belong to a big life world, that man and all things-one, life and death together, solidarity. This is what people now call "ecological beauty,""ecological beauty" is "man and all things one" beauty.
This kind of ecological consciousness in China traditional culture embodies the universal values of all mankind today, which is full of modern implication. To sum up, Chinese traditional culture contains rich and profound ecological thoughts. These thoughts have always been respected by scholars at all times and in all countries, so it is of great practical significance to explore and carry forward Chinese traditional ecological thoughts for the construction of ecological civilization in China.
References
- Wang Jianhua (2021). The Reception of Liu Cixin's Three Body Problem in Europe. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 450 pp.
英语口译 段小蝶 Duan Xiaodie 202170081615
Abstract
Dietetic culture refers to the selection and utilization of raw materials before making food, the skills and science used in the process of food production and food consumption, as well as the respective traditional customs and philosophies formed on the basis of diet.It is the sum of all human food activities.China food culture is described as a wonderful flower, because it can combine color, fragrance, taste, shape and utensil together, which can make people enjoy food to get infinite satisfaction of taste, vision and feeling, thus forming the Chinese food culture characteristic with delicious food as the core and spiritual pleasure as the purpose.This paper first discusses the uniqueness of China food culture from taste, vision and feeling, and then shows the profound and profound Chinese food culture by combining the inextricable links between A Bite of China and food culture. This paper aims to reveal the important influence of food culture on people's lives, thoughts and ideas by analyzing the carrier, special media and characteristics of the content of A Bite of China.The documentary regards food as the "medium" of communication, and finds something related to this "medium" through such a universal and common "medium" and can make the audience focus on discussing. The ordinary and simple home-cooked ingredients described in A Bite of China not only stir up the taste buds of the tongue, but also stir up the emotional identity of the Chinese people. The peace, warmth, diligence and simplicity it conveys make people feel deeply grateful to their mothers, Deep longing and attachment to the hometown. This documentary first captured people's stomachs with delicious food, and then moved the hearts of thousands of viewers with strong feelings and cultural identity. It applied aesthetics to cultural communication, allowing the broad audience to re-understand China food culture, conveying the Chinese people's ideology about food, home, nature and society, and spreading Chinese traditional culture through "soft channels." It is of great practical significance to the shaping of China's national image.
Key words
Dietetic Culture; A Bite of China; Transmission
The Definition of Chinese Dietetic Culture
China is one of the four ancient civilizations, with the accolade of being an ancient civilization of 5,000 years, and its food culture is profound and profound, with a long history. In the long history of thousands of years, Chinese food culture has complemented and harmonized with the development of the whole Chinese history, it is both a culture and an art, and it has become an important part of China's valuable traditional culture. Food occupies a very important place in people's material life, because it can satisfy the most basic needs of human survival, and it is under the condition that this need is satisfied that all human activities are carried out. It is the basis for human activity. Diet is also the prerequisite and foundation on which spiritual civilization is based, and it is an important part of what constitutes the unique Chinese food culture. The basic nature and importance of food and drink determines the importance of food culture in the entire material culture of mankind. Food culture refers to the selection, utilization and processing of raw materials in the process of making food, the skills and sciences used in the process of consumption, and the respective traditional customs, thoughts and philosophies formed on the basis of food. It is the sum of all human food activities. In a broad sense, Chinese food culture refers to the sum of all the material and spiritual behaviors produced by the Chinese people in the process of food production and consumption. In layman's terms, what people eat, how to eat, the purpose (meaning) of eating, concepts, interests, etiquette, etc., are all included in the scope of food culture. Social development has progressed to today, food for people is no longer simply to fill their stomachs and meet the needs of survival activities, but has become an important aspect of people to enjoy life and seek pleasure. People have evolved from the primitive filling of the stomach to the pursuit of taste and visual enjoyment of life, putting forward higher requirements for food. Under such a driving force, food production has developed continuously, resulting in a wide variety of dishes and unique cooking techniques; at the same time, corresponding food habits, food concepts and ritual systems have also been formed. These have become a vivid portrayal of the richness of Chinese food culture.
Three salient features of Chinese food culture
As the saying goes, "People are food-oriented." Food sources, food customs and food rituals have made the taste of food and created the classics of Chinese food culture. There is a proverb in the United States that goes like this, "Heaven is: American wages, Russian wives, British houses, Chinese food." And in the writing of the New York Times, Chinese food culture is described as a wonder because it can integrate color, aroma, taste, shape and utensils well, so that people can get the comprehensive enjoyment of taste, sight and feeling, which constitutes the characteristics of Chinese food culture with deliciousness as the core and spiritual pleasure as the purpose. Chinese food culture has blossomed in the world's food history because of its own unique charm. 1.Taste Satisfaction
At the beginning of its development, the Chinese culinary culture has particularly promoted the "original taste", from the selection of materials to the production of food, focusing on the natural taste, the pursuit of food is the taste of beauty. However, on the other hand, Chinese people are constantly researching and innovating in food preparation methods, which is very flexible, and this is not contradictory to the pursuit of "original flavor". In this collision of original taste and flexibility, sour, sweet, bitter, spicy and salty are blended to create more different flavors. The key to the charm of Chinese food lies in the exquisite taste of this harmony. This is also the reason why there are This is the key to the charm of Chinese food, which is the exquisite taste of this harmony. This This has brought great satisfaction to the palate of the Chinese people, who believe that "food is the essence of the people". This harmonious This harmonious taste satisfaction is mainly due to the wide range of food ingredients and the diversity of preparation methods.
(1) Wide range of food selections
China's unique latitude and longitude have created a unique geographical landscape, with plains, plateaus and basins, as well as mountains, hills and wetlands, and a coastline that stretches for tens of thousands of miles. Few countries in the world are as vast as China, spanning tropical, subtropical, warm temperate, mid-temperate and cold temperate zones. The natural geography of multiple terrains and climates provides innately superior conditions for the growth of plants and animals. As early as the Ming Dynasty, the famous Italian missionary Matteo Ricci once described China in this way: Because this country has a vast territory from south to north and from east to west, no other country or place in the world can find such a rich variety of plants and animals in the domain of one country alone. And our ancestors cultivated more food resources after a long life practice, making the sources of food even more extensive, which provided a solid material basis for our dietary activities. In China, the five grains have always been a concept in flux. About 2,000 years ago, the five grains were ranked as rice, millet, cereals, wheat and beans. Today, the top three grains produced in China are rice, wheat and corn. In China, people in different regions enjoy a rich variety of staple foods because of the diverse natural geographical variations. Here is an example of our daily staple food. In addition to wheat and rice as staple foods, many parts of the country are accompanied by sorghum, corn, buckwheat, millet, sweet potatoes, and potatoes. Corresponding to this noodle dishes, such as noodles, steamed buns, dough sticks and a variety of ingredients boiled porridge, cakes, etc. is also colorful and varied, the world is only China has such a wealth of food.
(2) Variety of preparation methods For the Chinese, who are rich in species and ingredients, food preparation methods can be described as flexible and varied, with traditional cooking methods alone including steaming, boiling, stewing, stir-frying, frying, braising, exploding, as well as stewing, stir-frying, marinating, etc. There are more than ten kinds of cooking methods. Due to the differences in production and customs, as well as differences in tastes and eating habits, colorful and varied local cuisines have been formed, such as the eight major cuisines represented by Sichuan, Cantonese, Hunan, Zhejiang, Lu, Min, Hui and Su. The various cuisines also have their own characteristics in terms of production methods: Sichuan cuisine is known for its varied flavors, spicy, thick and wide flavors, and is known for its "hundred dishes and hundred flavors"; Cantonese cuisine attaches importance to "five nourishing" and "six flavors ", and the dishes are made according to seasonal changes, with summer The dishes are light in autumn and rich in winter. Because of its origin in China's fish and rice country, the ingredients are mostly fish, shrimp and vegetables, with fresh and tender ingredients and delicate dishes. The ingredients are tender and exquisite, often using a unique method of burning and boiling, preserving the original flavor of the food; Lu cuisine, on the other hand, focuses on set fire Quick stir-fry, commonly used cooking methods are explosion, stir-fry, simmering, burning, steak, etc., most of the food made by these methods Min cuisine is mainly composed of local dishes from Fujian, Quanzhou and Xiamen, so the ingredients are mostly seafood. Fujian cuisine is mainly composed of local dishes from Fujian, Quanzhou and Xiamen, so the ingredients are mostly seafood, and it is characterized by dishes with more soup, and the most prominent production methods are simmering and drenched; Hui cuisine is famous for cooking mountain and wild Hui cuisine is famous for cooking mountain and wild food, mostly using the method of roasting, stewing and smoking, of which smoked dishes are the most characteristic; Su cuisine is a collection of the longest, including Huaiyang cuisine, Nanjing cuisine, Su Xi cuisine and Xuzhou cuisine, only products also pay attention to freshness, with stewing, stewing, braising as the main The main feature is stewing, stewing and braising, and the original flavor is emphasized. In addition, there are many other famous Chinese cuisines, such as Beijing cuisine and Henan cuisine, which are not on the list of the eight major cuisines, and they are also flexible in their preparation methods and have outstanding flavors. Together with the eight major cuisines and their various preparation methods, they have become another highlight of Chinese food culture. In terms of the difference between Chinese and Western food, Western Western food culture is mostly about eating for eating, and the preparation methods are naturally simple and convenient; while Chinese food is more Chinese food is more "taste" in eating, so dishes are finely prepared and need to be savored to appreciate the taste. With their hard work and wisdom, the Chinese have made the best use of various ingredients and created their own cuisine to meet the needs of different regions and cultures. and cultures, creating their own flavors. 2.Visual Enjoyment China's food is evolving with the progress of history and society, not only is the cooking technology exquisite, but also pays special attention to the aesthetics of the dishes. This beauty is not only the pursuit of food color, aroma and taste, but also the harmony of shape, utensils and dishes. This visual satisfaction is a perfect unity of form and content in the unique Chinese culinary activity, which brings people taste satisfaction, aesthetic pleasure and spiritual enjoyment. (1)Beauty in color Color, in food production, refers to both the natural color of ingredients and the harmony presented by various ingredients in combination with each other and in combination. In Chinese cuisine, it is important to match the ingredients with color, that is, to use the natural color of meat, vegetables, aquatic products and even some fruits to mix colors. Vegetables are particularly colorful, for example, green leeks, spinach, celery; red peppers, carrots, tomatoes; yellow cauliflower, asparagus, ginger; black fungus; white radish, wild rice, silver fungus and so on. Color matching is very important, the presence or absence of this procedure, although it does not directly affect the taste and texture of dishes, but to some extent may affect people's appetite, eating psychology and aesthetic feelings, especially in the banquet side dishes, there must be red, yellow, green, white the four colors of the dish, so as to show the rich and colorful. From the color of the dishes, we can not only see the beauty of the ingredients, but also see the chefs who process and produce these ingredients with the right control of the fire and excellent cooking skills, and finally see the beauty of the color harmony presented in front of people The beauty of the color palette that is presented to people. (2)Beauty in form Form is a requirement for the food shape to reflect the effect of food based on the beauty of raw materials, color and taste. Chinese people in the evaluation of food, in addition to color, aroma, taste, there is a very important indicator, that is, "shape", chic food can not only meet the taste enjoyment, but also can bring visual beauty. The beauty of the shape of the dish is often expressed in the fine knife work, the chef will be based on the needs of food production, the ingredients will be cut into shreds, blocks, slices, segments, dice, mushrooms, etc., they are the same thickness, similar size, uniform thickness, equal length, not dragging each other, clean and crisp. The technical mastery of knife-working has contributed to the unique aesthetic shape of Chinese dishes, along with the original intention of taste and beauty, making Chinese cuisine a veritable "kung fu cuisine". (3)Beauty in food ware Ware, mainly refers to food utensils, especially dishes container-based tableware. The ancients used to say that food is better than beautiful utensils, the Chinese people are very careful about the selection and use of dishes tableware. Since ancient times, the Chinese have been using the fine production, beautiful, with reasonable tableware as a kind of beauty. If the container of the dish is ornamental, it will increase the aesthetics of the dish in shape. The taste of the tableware has a great role in setting off the taste of the dish. A graceful, exquisite ingredients of the dish with beautiful and elegant containers, will look more noble, exquisite; conversely, the same ingredients, the same shape of the dish, placed in the production of rough, or plastic, white iron material containers, naturally, taste is not as good as before. Chinese food in the choice of tableware pay special attention to the ornamental container, according to the ingredients, the shape of the choice of appropriate containers. The utensils of Chinese cuisine are not only common round plates and long plates, but also other utensils of different shapes and forms. Chinese dishes in the selection and use of tableware, mainly follow the following principles: First, the size of tableware and the amount of dishes to adapt, a Generally, the plate is not more than the loading line, the bowl is not more than seven minutes full; Second, the shape of tableware and the shape of the ingredients to adapt to, soup dishes, fish and meat should be plate. bowl, fish and meat should be plate, especially the fish more oval long plate; Third, the tableware color and color of the dishes to adapt to the Generally the simplest tableware color with follow the "shallow with shallow" standard, but also some light-colored ingredients need dark color tableware supplement, dark ingredients need light-colored tableware set off, shades of matching make light-colored dishes color not As for too thin, dark dishes are not too dull tone. For example, the jade shrimp, people usually choose a glossy clean white porcelain plate to set off the bright colors of jade green and shrimp red; chicken oil winter melon, people will tend to choose the color For example, for the jade shrimp, people usually choose a polished white porcelain plate to offset the bright color of jade green and shrimp red; for the chicken oil and winter melon, people tend to choose a dark colored ceramic pot to consider the brightness of the chicken soup and make up for the light white of the winter melon. Tableware and dishes, the two The harmony of the two makes Chinese food glow in a fascinating way. 3.Emotional Attachment As early as the Western Zhou Dynasty, the idea of "eating old virtues" emerged in China, meaning that future generations could inherit the ideas of their predecessors and enjoy the virtues left by them. Later, during the Warring States period, the idea of "so or not to say and drink people to and" emerged, arguing that diet should not only meet people's physiological needs, but also play a psychological coordination role, to be able to "drink and" is to achieve the highest level of diet. In modern times, Sun Yat-sen, the forerunner of the Chinese nation, praised Xuanwei ham with the phrase "drink and eat virtues" when he gave it an inscription. Later generations interpreted "drinking and eating virtue" to mean that after giving a person something to eat (or drink), the person should feel comfortable, enjoyable, and happy, enjoying the The latter interpreted "drinking and eating virtue " to mean that after giving food to people, the eater should feel comfortable, enjoyable, and happy, and enjoy the virtue of the ancestors. In short, it means that drinking should be harmonious and eating should be moral. This is the ancient interpretation of eating This is the ancient interpretation of eating. In modern society, people often say, "The seven things that open the door, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce, vinegar and tea, which This shows the importance of "food" in people's daily life. The Chinese people have always attached importance to emotional communication, especially through food. Especially the custom of achieving emotional communication through food has been inherited for thousands of years, which has made Chinese food This has led to an important function of Chinese food - the transmission of emotions. For example, during traditional festivals such as New Year, Mid-Autumn Festival, Chongyang, and other major festivals such as marriage, people will eat and drink food. On the other hand, the death of a loved one is also celebrated at the dinner table. On the other hand, after the funeral of a loved one, there will be "relief wine" and a banquet for friends and relatives to express their gratitude. It is through "eating" that the Chinese to regulate interpersonal relationships, to achieve joy and harmony, and to continue the purpose of morality and ethics. In this regard In this respect, the social function of Chinese food activities is unparalleled by other countries and nations. Of course, in this process Of course, what is indispensable in this process is the complete Chinese food etiquette. As the ancient saying goes, "Where rituals are concerned, they begin with food and drink. Since ancient times, there have been rituals of eating, feasting, and hospitality in China. Those positive, sensual, programmed formalized and detailed rituals have been used throughout Chinese food activities and are constantly improving themselves, and are an integral part of Chinese They are also an integral part of Chinese food culture. Nowadays, the act of "eating" has become more than just a way to satisfy daily physical needs; in fact, it has has become a special way for people to express and communicate their emotions, a daily social activity. People Through eating activities, people express their emotions, exchange information with each other, and regulate their psychology. The function of emotional satisfaction is given. The three different perspectives of taste, vision and sensation form the organic whole of Chinese food culture and make it vivid. Chinese food culture has become vivid and full. Taste is the basis of food, vision is the complement of food, and sensation is the basis of taste and vision. The senses are the synthesis of taste and vision. They do not exist in isolation, but complement and depend on each other. They are not isolated, but complementary and interdependent. The satisfaction of taste and vision leads to emotional attachment and satisfaction, and the Chinese food culture is Chinese food culture has been inherited and developed through the satisfaction of taste, vision and emotion.
Differences between Chinese and Western Food Cultures
Chinese and western countries have different geographical environment, national character, combined with the different philosophy of people's belief, the different degree of historical development has created their own unique cultural background and cultural content, thus further produced in the diet culture distinct difference.
(1)Differences in food preparation For most people, no matter where they come from, the most basic purpose of diet is to sustain life, but the way to achieve this goal is different.Chinese and western food culture in the production of the differences are mainly reflected in: Randomness and standardization, delicious and nutritional, respectively and integration. Chinese people emphasize randomness in cooking techniques and cooking processes. They don't mechanically pursue the accuracy of weight of ingredients, addition of seasonings and proportion collocation, but rely on the experience of producers to grasp the results.This kind of randomness can be seen everywhere. The same dish in the same cuisine will appear different with the change of place, time and people, which is why we will order the same dish in different restaurants and restaurants to taste different reasons.In addition, the same dish from the same chef will also have different matching of side dishes and seasonings due to different seasons, environments and diners 'identities.This randomness in the preparation of China food makes cooking interesting, and at the same time, it also creates a variety of styles and tastes in Chinese dishes.And westerners due to scientific rigorous character influence, in the process of food production, excessive pursuit of standardization.They strictly follow the requirements of the amount of ingredients, the amount of seasoning added, and the cooking time during the operation. The result is that the same dish has a surprisingly similar effect from the inside out every time it is formed.Even in many western homes, are ready to have a kitchen dedicated timer, scales, scale cup, etc.These make western countries relatively conservative and stable in terms of dish varieties, tastes and tastes.Although Chinese people pay attention to visual art and emotional sustenance in the process of eating, people regard the pursuit of "delicious" as the highest essence of diet.This pursuit can be seen from the daily life of people.For example, when people entertain guests at home, often say a word is: I don't know if it's good for you The taste. So far little or no heard someone say something like this: Today's food nutritional value is not high, the heat supply is not enough. The Westerners will be nutrition and energy in an important position, they respect the food nutrition science. Their food requirements first nutrition, nutrition and energy supply, is the taste of food, and most of the time, because to achieve food nutrition retention and take the so-called scientific cooking method has made the food taste greatly reduced.
One of the most remarkable characteristics of Chinese cooking is the harmony of five flavors. From ingredients to seasonings, all of them reach the highest state of "harmony." I am afraid that only Chinese people have such a eating style and habit as the big pot stewed dishes commonly seen by people. All kinds of ingredients are matched with each other, all kinds of nutrients complement each other, and the auxiliary effect of seasonings. Westerners, on the other hand, focus on the natural properties and nutritional value of the ingredients and pursue the original taste of the food, which can be seen from the naming of Western dishes. For example, the beef with potatoes, which means literally, is a completely different thing from the China beef with potatoes.
(2)Differences in Eating Habits
The differences in eating habits between Chinese and Western food cultures cannot be ignored, that is, the obvious difference between "cooked food" and "raw food."Chinese people enjoy food and pursue delicacy, which to a certain extent determines that Chinese cuisine is mainly "cooked food."There are dozens of cooking techniques in China, and these rich and varied cooking techniques make the "cooked food" of Chinese food culture give full play and continue.In the West, due to the influence of standardization and nutrition, the "raw food" is advocated to avoid the loss of nutrition and calories in the food.They believe that cooking will destroy the nutritional structure of food to a certain extent, while natural and original food can preserve the nutrition and calories of ingredients.Westerners first look at nutrition, then look at calories, and finally consider the taste and shape of food.
(3)Differences in Eating Styles Differences in food preparation methods and eating habits will inevitably lead to differences in eating patterns.In this regard, the most obvious food culture in China and the West is the "shared meal system" and "separate meal system."The most popular way of eating in China is to sit around a table and share food.This kind of "group sharing" is a common way in China, whether at banquets or at home. People exchange feelings, communicate family ties and coordinate interpersonal relationships through this kind of "meal sharing system" of sharing food. Even today, the buffet spread from western countries to China has gradually evolved into another form of "dinner gathering" by Chinese people. The eating style of westerners is the "separate meal system" known as "exclusive" style, which is different from the living habits of westerners. Cultural heritage is inseparable. Buffet is the way of eating born of such food culture. This way of eating is to meet the relaxed, free and independent dining style of Westerners. People do not need to fix a certain dining position or a certain dining object, and can choose according to their own preferences. This is a world of difference from the "shared dining system" of group enjoyment China.
Philosophical Thoughts Contained in China Food Culture
(1)The Nature View of the Unity of Heaven and Man Confucius, the founder of the pre-Qin Confucian school, once said: "Gentlemen are harmonious but different." "Harmony" is unity and concord. It is abstract and intrinsic. The "difference" is concrete, external. Only by allowing "difference" can we achieve the realm of "harmony". The ultimate goal of harmony and difference is to live in harmony. Dialectical materialism believes that harmony is the dialectical unity of opposing things under certain conditions, and it is the relationship between different things that complement each other and develop together. In the vast expanse of China, nature has given people different choices, creating different eating habits and lifestyles. Simple Chinese are grateful for the gifts of nature and pass on this gratitude in their own ways. The gifts of nature and people's gratitude have created a situation in which people and nature coexist in harmony. (2)Advocating the Concept of Family Reunion China literary creation from ancient times to the present, whether tragedy or comedy, mostly ends with a happy ending. Even if it is not realized when he is alive, the author will convey this beautiful wish in other ways.In the China traditional folk culture, the most characteristic and charming characterization is advocating reunion.Reunion is people's best wishes for ordinary life. To some extent, it has become the spiritual pillar of the Chinese people.In ancient China, many poets expressed their hope for family reunion through poems and songs, saying,"There is no wine in the wine bottle for the New Year, and the tears of homesickness are full of towels.""I know that it is hard to be a guest, but it is not as good as being poor at home,""The sound of firecrackers makes the spring breeze send warmth to Tu Su,""I wish people will last long, and we will share the cicada's joy for thousands of miles,""I am a stranger in a foreign land alone, and I miss my relatives every time during the festival," etc. These verses have been passed down to this day along with the festival emotion, and they constantly show the Chinese people's admiration and desire for their hometown and family reunion.This kind of psychology of looking forward to reunion, not only reflected in the literary works, but also reflected in people's real life.Chinese people always cannot do without food when dealing with the issue of family reunion, so the word "reunion dinner" appears in the festival of family reunion.No matter what the purpose of the Chinese dining activities, no matter how many people eat, basically there is only one form, that is to sit at the table.This form of gathering dinner directly conveys a kind of national psychology of the Chinese nation, that is,"happy reunion." Reunion dinner is not just a regular eating form, but exists as a secular ceremony full of deeper emotional connotation. For most traditional and conservative Chinese people, this collective activity of sitting around the table for dinner is a harmonious way for family members to enhance their feelings and talk to each other.
Nowadays, China is marching on the road of globalization, informatization and marketization, and the fragmented family existence mode is popular. The family unit is getting smaller and smaller, and the special family (dink, divorce, single, etc.) are also increasing. The traditional Chinese image of several generations living under the same roof and sharing a family relationship has become an emotional luxury. People are becoming more and more free and independent. One of the few emotional expectations is that there will be a few days of family reunion in a year. Reunion is the eternal theme of the Spring Festival. People experience the warmth brought by family reunion during such a festival. It is also this spiritual emotion that maintains the unique emotional genes of the nation. From generation to generation, this is also one of the reasons why the Chinese nation is endless.
(3)A Harmonious Outlook on Life China food culture, while blending into the aesthetic taste and artistic ideal of Chinese people, also places a lot of philosophical thoughts.The concept of "food is the most important thing for the people, taste is the first, five flavors are harmonious, and taste is the king" is very consistent with the traditional China philosophy.In addition to the taste of the tongue and the smell of the nose, in China culture, the perception and definition of "taste" both originate from diet and transcend diet.That is to say, it is not only our tongue and nose but also the Chinese heart that can truly feel the "taste."Chinese people talk about five flavors, which are not only related to diet, but also to life and life. The "five flavors harmony" of sour, sweet, bitter, spicy and salty is not only about the beauty of harmony in diet, but also about the life conditions of ordinary people in their ordinary lives. In Chinese words, there are many idioms that use five flavors to describe life, such as: Bitter to do sweet, share the joys and sorrows; painstaking, attack Ruacid, alone, hardships; People use "sweet" to express their happiness and joy. Use "sour,""bitter" to describe the frustrations and hardships of life;"Hot" to convey their enthusiasm and vitality, and so on.
Conclusion
China food culture contains elements such as family feelings and cultural confidence, and the exchange of food culture is also an inevitable and important activity in the process of cross-cultural communication. Therefore, we should stick to, develop and inherit the traditional China food culture, and carry out cross-cultural communication. In order to achieve effective cross-cultural communication, to achieve cultural exchange blend, the Chinese people have the responsibility and obligation to actively spread China food culture, enhance the national cultural soft power, build a socialist country's new image.
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英语口译 方楚晗 Fang Chuhan 202170081616
Abstract
“Bullet screen”, or “Danmu” in Chinese, is an emerging new feature on online video sites in China and Japan, which allows real-time comments from viewers to fly across the screen like bullets. Mostly used for virtual nods and zingers, this “social viewing” feature is phenomenally popular with the younger crowd. As a new form of video commentary in the new media era, Danmu has set off a trend in China and Japan. The process of Danmu culture from birth to popularity is very rapid, and now it has become one of the most popular online comment media. Danmu obtains popularity among young audiences, in that it establishes social media co-viewing, creates a sense of belonging, allows self-expression and facilitates social connectedness. Additionally, Danmu gives creators a way to show a sense of existence, particularly through helpful, cautionary, and spoiler remarks. The widespread and clear use of literacy is credited with Danmu's appeal in China. It is more significantly attributed to linguistic and cultural preconditions: the written Chinese language is characterized by a high information density and robust parafoveal preview effects; the Chinese culture is characterized by a high level of polychronicity and collectivism, as well as obvious social and peer pressure.
Key words
Bullet screen, Chinese online videos, information density, parafoveal preview effects, polychronicity, collectivism
Introduction
In China, Bilibili (https://www.bilibili.com), known as ‘B Zhan,’ (‘B site’) was established in 2009 and is one of the most prestigious and rapidly expanding online video-sharing entertainment platforms(Li, 2019). Generation Z (abbreviated as ‘Gen Z’ or iGen), the second generation of Millennials who were born in the 1990s and 2000s, have become attracted by Bilibili on the domestic market (Walker, 2020). Data reveals that Gen Z users make up over 80% of Bilibili's user base (Parklu 2019), and their indulgence in Bilibili can be summed up by their daily average time spent there of 81 minutes (China Internet Watch 2019), which vastly outpaces that of TikTok and other rivals. On the latter, the typical user only spends about 45 minutes per day (Holmes 2019). Their preoccupation with the Japanese ACG (anime, comics, and games) subculture is a notable characteristic of the Gen Z (Wang, 2014). ACG-based website Bilibili, which is run by self-described anime lover and serial entrepreneur Chen Rui, 42, has carved out a competitive niche to take on Internet behemoths like Baidu, Alibaba, and Tencent, which control China's massive online video industry (Perez, 2020; Zhang, 2020). Even though it is ACG-based, Bilibili bills itself as ‘a full-spectrum online entertainment world,’ offering everything from mobile games to video clips and live broadcasting. It has also gone beyond its well-known user-generated short-format content to include professionally produced content as well as full-length movies and documentaries (Bilibili, 2021). The most popular feature of Bilibili is its ability to allow users to post scrolling Danmu superimposed directly onto footage. These can be either timed to playback times or left by previous viewers and tagged with specific time points of video clips (Cao, 2019). There are options to filter or disable Danmu, which is essential in situations when viewers find Danmu swooping across the screen irritating or when they are inundated with numerous Danmu. Both senders and viewers can customize the text size, color, transparency, and movement speed of Danmu.
History of Danmu
Even if Bilibili is generally credited with popularizing Danmu, the leading Japanese video-sharing website, Niconico (nicovideo.jp), is the innovator of such text-over-screen technology. ACG fan communities, traditions, and culture are integrally related to Niconico through media mix initiatives (Qin 2014). Niconico users can create subcultural and local networks that support cutting-edge media mix formats by altering and generating material. Furthermore, Niconico promotes ‘N-level invention’ by integrating secondary materials, also known as dynamic creativity and collaborative innovations (Li 2017). In order to enable ‘polyphonic representation’ and multitasking user engagement, Niconico launched a feature called danmaku in 2006. It projected dynamic, contextualized, and quasi-bullet-curtain comments scrolling across the screen (Li, 2017).
Since its introduction to China in 2008, danmaku has been used to refer to both the system and specific comments and is known in Chinese as Danmu (Cao, 2019). Acfun, often known as the ‘A site,’ is a popular Chinese website that is based on Niconico and features the Danmu function. It is the founder of the "B site's" inspiration (Ye, 2018). Danmu quickly became popular after entering the Chinese video market; according to Bilibili alone, there were 1 billion and 1.4 billion pieces of Danmu in 2018 and 2019, respectively (Zu, 2018; Bilibili, 2019). Due to the fact that the traditional, Danmu-free visualization has been losing its ability to draw in and keep users, a variety of popular online video services, including Tudou and Youku, have also incorporated this collaborative video annotation system. As a result, by 2014, almost all video-streaming platforms in China integrated the Danmu function to engage users, marking the significant evolution of Danmu from a specific subcultural entity into a predominate standard design for the online video culture in modern China (Li, 2017). These globalized platforms start to accept user-produced transnational and cross-linguistic media products in addition to user-produced Danmu, rather than website owners (Zhang & Cassany, 2019b).
Gen Z in China has made watching movies enriched with Danmu into a well-established habit and subculture. Danmu is occasionally more well-liked than the videos themselves due to its association with amusement, information, and sociability. It even acts as a persuasive tool for viewers to watch particular works (Zhang, 2016).
Social Functions of Danmu
Danmu is considered as user-generated content because it was created by people and is made available to the public via web platforms. The uses and gratifications theory states that the gratifications from user-generated media include: 1) consumption of the content for information seeking and entertainment; 2) participation for social interaction and community development; and 3) creation of new content for self-expression and self-actualization (Shao, 2009). The social functions of Danmu and the motivations of its producers and consumers are in following three aspects, focusing on the latter two. First, Danmu meets the interests and informational needs of its viewers. To be more precise, Danmu meets a hedonic need for entertainment, relaxation, stimulation, and escaping from reality as well as a utilitarian demand for information (Han & Lee, 2014). Information-seeking is a common subgenre of interactive Danmu, and as this activity is constrained by time and location, Chinese Danmu users have developed a list of well-established fixed phrases that are both succinct and polite for this purpose. It is noteworthy that answers to these kinds of bullet questions are frequently given, and some viewers even provide information on their own initiative and without being asked, demonstrating their intelligence, thoroughness, and deductive reasoning, as well as their sense of humor if their texts are light-hearted. Furthermore, Danmu has created and fostered a dynamic, diversified participatory culture in China (Chen 2018), creating a social platform for free expression and potential democratic engagement.
Second, in order to promote community development, Danmu also promotes social engagement and communication between producers and consumers. By developing social media co-viewing, Danmu satisfies users' social needs and fosters a sense of community.
Through a well-known phenomenon called "pseudo-synchronicity," which satisfies users' need for companionship and helps them deal with loneliness, Danmu creates social media co-viewing. Following the playing of videos, messages sent out throughout several viewings aggregate all audiences from all viewings into a single cohort. Despite different times and locations, the movement and synchronization of Danmu allows viewers to experience the exhilaration brought on by the synchronicity of words and screens as well as co-viewing with peers (Chen et al., 2015). Accordingly, as long as the broadcast is not live, the text-over-screen effect can maintain crowd dynamics in terms of opinions and/or sentiments without the actual presence of crowds (Johnson, 2013; Chen et al., 2015; Li, 2017; Cao, 2019). This is because online communities, as ideological figures, exist more in a mental space than in actual reality (Zwick & Bradshaw, 2016). Additionally, Danmu's synchronic feature provides unique satisfactions in terms of empathy and social connection among peers that differ from those attained from conventional post-viewing commentary videos (Chen et al., 2015, 2017). Young people's sense of community is fostered in this way via Danmu, which may be a result of peer pressure (Cheng et al., 2014). As a consequence, Danmu encourages communication between producers and consumers. Danmu posters and viewers engage in spontaneous interactions with the goals of engagement being to communicate meaning, spread communication, and build networks. The Danmu system, in particular, allows users to communicate more directly and experience real-time sharing. There is no doubting that a Danmu text should not be viewed as a message, according to Cao (2019), because it does not explicitly target a particular addressee and does not demand a response, even though it may elicit responses and resonances. A Danmu text has the characteristics of a "idiolect," or a person's unique way of expressing ideas without intending to engage in conversation with the recipient (Jakobson 1987: 104). So bullet screen involves semiotic idiolects that aren't always discursive.
However, a sizeable amount of Danmu texts are actually written with the intention of communicating, as shown by the three types of Danmu: information-seeking, gratitude-expressing, and discussion-provoking. First, as was previously indicated, viewers who are looking for information about videos and relevant history may turn to fellow viewers for assistance, which does not address any particular person but expects a response. Second, Danmu can be used to convey gratitude to specific people, particularly uploaders and unpaid, volunteer subtitlers. Third, viewers may leave comments with the intention of igniting debates about the stories, scenes, props, and acting abilities. They may also do this by asking questions like "Am I the only one who finds the costume an eyesore?" and "Am I the only one who finds my IQ has been insulted?" in an effort to find commonalities. Most of the time, posters get answers along the lines of "The person in front of me, you're not alone."
Third, Danmu facilitates self-expression and constructs a sense of existence. Spoilers are the most enduring paradigm for the self-expression function of Danmu. Spoilers can ruin the suspense and ruin viewers' enjoyment from the perspective of how this paratext is received and consumed, although they typically have a small and positive influence. There are two types of spoilers: non-toxic ones that are unintentional, formedative, socially acceptable, or politically correct, and toxic ones that are intentional, motivated by pleasure or retaliation. The act of spoiling, which entails both the creation and distribution of spoilers, serves as a kind of interpersonal communication based on the sharing of knowledge as well as a means of sociability and empowerment, yet it has the potential to lead to social and cultural conflicts. In contrast to standard comment sections that might limit spoiler exposure through spoiler notifications for those who desire to avoid discovering plots or endings beforehand, Danmu spoilers are embedded and superimposed on videos, making them ineluctable. Therefore, if Danmu producers are completely aware of the unfavorable nature of spoilers yet nevertheless purposefully divulge crucial story points, they may be acting out of joy or out of retaliation. Furthermore, spoiler posters are unafraid of retaliation because all Danmu comments are sent anonymously, even without the display of pseudonyms. The degree of toxicity of Danmu spoilers may not always be severe, though, because spoiler writers may be seen as needing attention and a sense of identity due to their social inadequacy in real-world settings.
Qianfang gaoneng, which means ‘strong energy warning ahead,’ is another Danmu that is used frequently for self-expression. It was included as one of the top 10 Danmu buzzwords on Bilibili in 2018 (Zu, 2018). The purpose of qianfang gaoneng is to create a sense of companionship by warning co-viewers of impending "surprising, terrifying, or disturbing" content. I hypothesize that in addition to serving this goal, those who write alert remarks also hope to demonstrate their knowledge from prior viewings and perhaps even their sense of accomplishment as veterans. Alert Danmu serves as a kind of relieved spoiler in several ways.
Expression-focused Danmu comments can be used to express viewers' opinions on videos and to make jokes on the substance of videos or other relevant subjects like casting, subtitle translation, image quality, other Danmu texts, etc. Additionally, fan bases of celebrities use the Danmu as a platform or even a battleground to promote or extol their idols, and they frequently use fandom neologisms that show an upward transmission direction and the possibility to reach the common vocabulary by being used in traditional media. It is important to note that, as a subculture of cyberspace, Danmu comments frequently contain Internet buzzwords that, in addition to constructing communicative activity and subjectivity in China, also proliferate in English dictionaries as a symbol of the internationalization of the Chinese language (He, 2015). Danmu users can support the growth of online communities by using neologisms that are only used by particular fandoms and on the Internet.
When it comes to Danmu's ability to increase a person's sense of existence, it gives people who feel restricted by societal roles in daily life the opportunity to contribute, which fosters a sense of personal efficacy (Shao, 2009). The spectacle of Danmu, assimilates the wealth discrepancies and the differences in capacity to engage on the flattened surface of the screen, deflecting attention from true social gaps. In this way, social inequity is aestheticized and how individuals relate to it is anesthetized by Danmu's text-screen synchronization.
It is noteworthy that in addition to posting free bullet points on outstanding Chinese interactive streaming platforms that offer live streaming entertainment, users can also pay for and send virtual gifts to recognize excellent performances and/or foster rapport with hosts because their preferred hosts can turn the virtual gifts into actual money (Cao, 2019). Costly gifts create a power imbalance between hosts and givers that enhances their engagement. Additionally, motivated by the gift-giving model and/or financial incentives, hosts personalize their performances and establish rapport with crowds, providing contributors a sense of power that they typically lack in real-life settings (Fan & Zhang, 2018). Especially noticeable among young, low-income urban netizens, who lack a sense of superiority in social life, is this audience psychology.
Regarding Danmu, even though it's not money, it gives creators a way to show that they have a sense of being. Given that 75% of Bilibili's users are under 24 (Liu, 2015), it is nearly impossible for this user base to feel strongly in control of or solve social inequity at this time. As a result, many turn to Danmu for online prominence and self-expression. In conclusion, Danmu's social functions—aside from providing information and entertainment—lie in its ability to allow young Chinese netizens to communicate with peers within the same social groupings, helping to develop group identification and promote social connectivity. By developing avenues for self-expression and conversation, Danmu has produced a sense of existence and visibility in a virtual environment, creating a sense of belonging for the Gen Z through social media co-viewing.
Prerequisites for the Popularity of Danmu
Chinese internet users create and incorporate a wide variety of writing scripts and semiotic resources into their nonstandard, multilingual literacy practices and discourses due to character limits that are appropriate for the screen, including standard Mandarin and various dialects, traditional characters and Romanized Chinese, foreign languages and their transliterations, emoticons and Arabic numbers, etc (Zhang, 2017). The adoption of kaomoji writing, a Japanese emoticon style that represents facial expressions and/or activities by integrating Latin letters, punctuation, and Japanese characters, is another way that Danmu users' multilingual repertoire is displayed.
Both language and cultural preconditions are said to have contributed to Danmu's success in modern-day China. The Chinese written language is distinguished by a high information density and parafoveal preview effects, to be more precise. Chinese culture is distinguished by its polychronicity, as well as by the overt social pressure and peer pressure brought on by a collectivistic attitude.
First, Chinese language is distinguished by a high information density, making it easier to read. One or two characters/syllables make about 90% of Chinese words, while single-character (mono-syllabic) words are especially common in everyday speech, making up 2/3 of the total number of words. Chinese characters are the primary semantic units since the Chinese language's core structural unit is character-based rather than word-based (Xu 2001). A wide perceptual spread of one character to the left and three to four characters to the right of fixation is also demonstrated by Chinese readers, which is consistent with the fact that Chinese characters have a high information density. As a result, Chinese is more information densely packed than its equivalents in alphabetic writing systems, making Danmu conceivable and widespread in China but not in other nations that have adopted alphabetic writing systems.
Second, in contrast to their peers reading alphabetic scripts, Chinese readers exhibit strong parafoveal preview effects. When readers move their eyes, the visual information provided to their brains is obtained not only from the currently fixated word in the fovea but also from nonfixated words in the parafovea. This effect is known as the preview benefit (Drieghe et al., 2017). Reading Chinese has a tangible benefit from parafoveal semantic information, and parafoveal processing predominates more in Chinese than in alphabetic scripts (Bai et al., 2009; 2011). Despite the fact that parafoveal processing efficiency is worse when reading aloud than when reading silently (Ashby et al., 2012), it is believed that since Danmu comments often have audio, the preview benefit is less likely to be compromised. In other words, Chinese Danmu has a unique success in China because it can be processed more quickly than alphabetic scripts.
The acceptance of Danmu is influenced by the fact that it is commonly regarded to be a typical polychronic time system in Chinese culture. Previous studies have shown that Chinese individuals have a lax attention to deadlines, punctuality, and schedules, as well as a tendency to combine activities, which is classified as polychronic time orientation. Chinese people tend to be preoccupied with other people and social experience since they are endowed with polychromic-oriented ideals. Chinese people place a greater priority on relationships and leisure activities than their monochromatic counterparts, even at the expense of disruption or distraction. The synchronicity of text and video forces viewers to "multitask," and prior research has shown that viewers who prefer Danmu-enriched videos tend to seek out more information and exhibit a higher level of polychronicity, or the preference for simultaneous involvement in two or multiple events. As a result, China's high polychronicity may be what motivates Danmu watching (Chen et al., 2015; Cao, 2019), as Danmu necessitates multitasking, facilitates interpersonal connection, and improves social rapport. The lack of popularity of Danmu with audiences from monochromatic cultures supports this theory.
Social and peer pressure are more pronounced features of China's collectivistic culture, which hastens the spread of Danmu. Due to their collectivistic orientation, Asians are typically more prone to social influence than their individualistic counterparts, as groups are seen as having the power to bind and obligate individuals and interpersonal communication is more common in collectivistic cultures (Du et al., 2015). Since people in cultures that emphasize a collectivistic self-concept view themselves from the perspective of relationships with others rather than from the perspective of personal characteristics or self-achievement, persons in collective societies are more entwined with groups. Significantly, collectivists rely on social media more than individualists do in relationship-focused collectivistic settings. Danmu satisfies Chinese people's desire for social contact through co-viewing on social media. The Confucian ethos of social harmony and relationship-focused collectivism also have an impact on Chinese culture, which is why Chinese people place a higher importance on appearance than those from individualistic cultural backgrounds (Fang, 1999). Chinese conceptions of the face have several facets, including layers that represent individuals, relationships, and groups (Li, 2017). Failure to employ Danmu could be seen as a loss of face and rapport with peers within the same social communities since it is viewed as an embodiment of group face or identity.
Furthermore, young Chinese people are particularly susceptible to peer pressure, even when compared to their counterparts from other Asian nations with comparable collectivistic orientation, as the one-child policy determines that having no siblings increases the correlation between young Chinese and their peers and, consequently, their vulnerability to peer influence. In terms of Danmu use, the vast majority of Bilibili users (78%) are between the ages of 18 and 35, which corresponds to the 35-year one-child policy that was abolished in January 2016 (Bilibili, 2021). These people strive to develop both a collective identity, which is the self in relation to others, and a social identity formed from participation in a social group combined with the values and emotional meaning associated to the membership. This group of young people ensures that they can perceive themselves as members of specific groups and distinguish themselves from members of out-groups in this way. Young Chinese people are therefore more susceptible to peer influence, which explains why they are eager to adopt Danmu that has infiltrated their social circles.
Conclusion
Danmu was initially regarded as a niche subculture in China, but because to its quick change, it is now unnecessary for internet video platforms, particularly those that target the Gen Z.
Young Chinese audiences' preference for Danmu is attributed to a number of factors, including: 1) co-viewing, which reduces loneliness through the illusion of synchronicity; 2) a sense of belonging, which may be related to peer pressure; and 3) self-expression, which may foster a sense of personal efficacy. Additionally, viewers can convey a sense of existence, typically through comments that include news, warnings, or spoilers. Another reason for Danmu's appeal is that it helps people connect with one another and communicate more easily while also defining their sense of group identity. Danmu has achieved extraordinary popularity in China's internet video culture, yet without the necessary linguistic and cultural conditions, its success would not be feasible.
Chinese is an efficient and succinct language, which is perfect for the brief Danmu text that appears on screens. To be more precise, Chinese is distinguished by a high information density since characters pack information more densely than alphabetic expressions do. Chinese readers also have a broad perceptual span and noticeable parafoveal preview effects, which differs from their counterparts reading alphabetic scripts and allows them to read characters more quickly.
The spread of Danmu among young internet users is also accelerated by Chinese culture, which is a typical collectivistic culture. Chinese people exhibit a high degree of polychronicity, which indicates that they have a propensity for multitasking, obsession with people, and social experiences. The polychronic time orientation of the Chinese culture is a necessary prerequisite for Danmu's embracement since Danmu's synchronization of text and video necessitates multitasking and improves interpersonal connection and social rapport. Chinese culture also stands out for its overt use of peer pressure and social pressure. Chinese individuals emphasize face more than their colleagues from individualistic backgrounds, and they are more affected by their peers from the same social networks. This tendency is made worse by the one-child policy, which makes children more open to peer pressure because they don't have siblings. Danmu establishes accepted norms among Gen Z video viewers, driven by social and peer pressure.
Of course, Chinese internet users' creation of an unique multilingual literacy practice that uses a variety of writing scripts and semiotic resources also contributes to Danmu's appeal.
Terms
Bullet screen / Danmu 弹幕
Bilibili 哔哩哔哩，B站，中国年轻世代高度聚集的文化社区和视频平台
TikTok 抖音，字节跳动公司旗下短视频社交平台
Niconico NIWANGO公司2006年所提供的线上影片分享网站，常被简称为Niconico、N站或Nico等
Generation Z/Gen Z/iGen Z一代（20世纪九十年代或21世纪出生的人类）
information density 信息密集度
polychronicity 多元性时间观
collectivism 集体主义
parafoveal preview effects 副中央凹预视效应
peer pressure 同伴压力
Questions
1.Who is the creator of text-over-screen technology? (C)
A.Bilibili
B.Tik Tok
C.Niconico
D.ACG fan communities
2.What are the social functions of Danmu? (A,B,C)
A.It accommodates audiences’ need for information and entertainment.
B.It enables social interaction and communication between producers and consumers, so as to facilitate community development.
C.It facilitates self-expression and constructs a sense of existence.
D.It boost the turnover of Chinese online video sites.
3.What are the prerequisites for the popularity of Danmu? (A, C, D)
A.Chinese language is distinguished by a high information density.
B.Danmu in Chinese online video sites has a long history.
C.Chinese readers exhibit strong parafoveal preview effects.
D.China’s collectivistic culture is more conspicuously featured by social and peer pressure.
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英语口译 胡雯雯 Hu Wenwen 202170081617
Abstract
Chinese Baijiu can be compared with wine in France, but it is made of rice. We have a long history of Chinese Baijiu, which develops with our own culture. And more importantly, we have cultivated a kind of special culture about Baijiu at the table.
Key words
Baijiu；Baijiu Culture
Introduction
Baijiu is one of the main beverages in Chinese people's life. China has a long history of baijiu making, with a wide variety of famous bajiu spreading with a good reputation at home and abroad. Yellow rice wine is one of the earliest baijiu in the world. About 3000 years ago, in the Shang and Zhou dynasties, the Chinese people created the liquor koji double fermentation method and began to brew a large amount of rice wine. Chinese Baijiu has permeated the entire 5000 year history of Chinese civilization. It plays an important role of literary and artistic creation, cultural entertainment, food and cooking, health care and other aspects in Chinese people's life. Chinese Baijiu culture is an important part of Chinese food culture. Wine is one of the most ancient foods of mankind. Its history almost began with the history of human culture. Since the emergence of baijiu, as a material culture, baijiu has a variety of forms. Its development process is synchronized with the history of economic development. Baijiu is not only a kind of food, but also has spiritual and cultural value. As a kind of spiritual culture, it is embodied in many aspects, such as social and political life, literature and art, and even people's attitude towards life, aesthetic taste and so on. In this sense, drinking is not just drinking but also drinking culture. As to drinking etiquette, Chinese people pay attention to people with whom they drink . It depends on who they drink with and what they want, to be more specific, the atmosphere of drinking; drinking etiquette reflects the respect for drinkers. Who is the host ? Who is the guest? What about the fixed seats and toast sequence for them respectively. When toasting, you should start from the host. If the host doesn't finish, others are not qualified to propose a toast. If you mess up the order, you will be punished. The toast must start from the most distinguished guest. Your container must be full when toasting, which also shows respect for the person you drink with. The younger generation should take the initiative to toast the elders, which is the same for the juniors and superiors, and we also regard‘ bottom-up’ as a sign of respect. When we talk about purpose of drinking，Chinese baijiu is often used as a tool. People drink for pursuing something they hope for other than alcohol itself. Green plum baijiu is used to prove who is a hero; Beimoting is used to eliminate all the worries within you; The Seven Sages singing wildly in the bamboo forest and drink to seek refuge in spirit. In the eyes of Chinese people, baijiu is more used as a tool for communication. Therefore, there is a lack of scientific and systematic theoretical analysis and evaluation of baijiu itself in Chinese baijiu culture, and more attention is paid to the wonderful effect brought by drinking baijiu.
Connotation of Chinese Baijiu culture
China is one of the earliest Baijiu making countries in the world, and also one of the birthplaces of the three major Baijiu families in the world. Drinking in China has got rid of the simple edible value, but condensed human material production and spiritual creation, and already became important part of food culture. With its long history and profound implication, Chinese Baijiu culture takes the lead among world Baijiu culture. Chinese Baijiu culture is rich and self-contained with great spiritual and cultural value. Chinese Baijiu culture is not only a social culture, but also a political culture, and even an artistic culture. Baijiu culture exerts important influence and profound significance on social life, and occupies its unique position in traditional Chinese culture. Baijiu is one of the oldest foods of mankind, and its history almost began with the history of human culture. Since the emergence of Baijiu, as a material culture, Baijiu has a variety of forms, and its development process is synchronized with the history of economic development. Baijiu is not only a kind of food, but also boasts spiritual and cultural value. As a kind of spiritual culture, it is embodied in social and political life, literature and art, as well as people's attitude towards life, aesthetic taste and many other aspects. In this sense, drinking is not just drinking, it is also part of culture. Baijiu, in the long history of human culture, is not only an objective material existence, but also a cultural symbol, that is, the symbol of 'Dionysus spirit'. In China, the 'Dionysian spirit' takes Taoist philosophy as its source. Zhuang Zi would rather be a free turtle swaying its head and tail in the rotten mud than a swaggering horse bound by others. Pursuing absolute freedom, forgetting the benefits of life or death, honor or disgrace is the essence of Chinese 'Dionysian spirit'. There are striking similarities in world cultural phenomena. The Western 'Dionysian spirit' is symbolized by Dionysus, the God of grape planting and wine making. In the tragedy of ancient Greece, the Western 'Dionysian spirit' even rose to a theoretical height. The philosophy of German philosopher Nietzsche sublimated this Dionysian spirit. Nietzsche believed that the 'Dionysian spirit' symbolized the release of emotions and the survival experience of abandoning traditional constraints and returning to the original state. In the kingdom of literature and art, 'Dionysus spirit' goes everywhere, which has a great and far-reaching impact on literary artists and their masterpiece. Because freedom, art and beauty are three in one. Art comes from freedom and beauty comes from art. Getting drunk and getting artistic freedom is an important way for ancient Chinese artists to get rid of shackles and obtain artistic creativity.
The origin and development of Chinese Baijiu culture
Chinese Baijiu culture originated from the brewing of Baijiu, and there are many folk sayings about the origin of Baijiu, such as Yidi brewing. It is said that Yidi invented brewing in the Xia Yu period, which is recorded in the Warring States policy; Dukang Baijiu making is widely popular among the people; Baijiu making began in the period of the Yellow Emperor. Ancient books record that the Yellow Emperor and Qi Bo discussed Baijiu making, and Shennong materia medica contains the nature and taste of Baijiu. However, no matter what kind of statement is true, it can be said that the history of Baijiu making in China can be dated back to at least 4000 years ago, and many archaeological discoveries today have also proved this. However, the modern view is that Baijiu is the product of natural fermentation of grains, fruit Baijiu and milk Baijiu are the first generation of beverage Baijiu, and people in the Paleolithic age lived by collecting and hunting. Fruit contains more sugar, which is easy to be naturally fermented to produce fruit Baijiu; Animal milk contains protein and lactose, and it is also easy to ferment into Baijiu. In the Shang Dynasty, there appeared the brewing technology of saccharification and re-alcoholization of grains; In the pre Qin period, the direct brewing method of active microorganisms or their enzymes appeared; In the Han Dynasty, koji making technology was developed and Baijiu production was introduced from the western regions; Tang and Song Dynasties began to brew fruit Baijiu and medicinal Baijiu; In the Yuan Dynasty, the technology of brewing liquor by distillation appeared; During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, with the further development of liquor making industry, distilled Baijiu with high alcohol content was rapidly popularized. After thousands of years of accumulation, a Baijiu culture with Chinese characteristics has been formed. Chinese Baijiu culture is broad and profound. Baijiu culture is the crystallization of Chinese traditional culture and material culture.
Chinese Baijiu culture and etiquette
Baijiu etiquette is the etiquette of Baijiu behavior, which is used to reflect the dignity, dignity, status of Baijiu behavior and even the etiquette norms of various occasions. Sometimes this etiquette is very cumbersome. But if it is not observed on some important occasions, there could be suspicion of making trouble. And because of excessive drinking, they can't control themselves and are prone to chaos. It is very important to formulate drinking etiquette. The etiquette of drinking in ancient times had four steps: worship, sacrifice, spit and bottom-up. That is, first make the act of worship to show respect, and then pour a little Baijiu on the ground to sacrifice the virtue of the earth; Then taste the Baijiu and praise it to make the host happy; Finally, bottom up. At the banquet, the host should propose a toast to the guest, and the guest should return the toast to the host, and say a few words of toast when toasting. Guests can also toast each other. Sometimes I have to toast people in turn. When toasting, both of them should stand up. Ordinary toasts take three cups as appropriate. Among the 56 ethnic groups in the big family of the Chinese nation, all other ethnic groups drink alcohol except the Hui nationality who believe in Islam. Drinking customs are very different among all ethnic groups which have their own unique styles. For example, the custom of Zhuang nationality to toast guests is to drink cross glasses of Baijiu; The Wa Nationality in Yunnan province has the custom of treating guests with Baijiu; The interesting "welcoming Baijiu" of Buyi people all reflects the colorful Baijiu culture characteristics of different ethnic minorities in China. There are still some other basic rituals about drinking that demand further understanding: 1. How to pour Baijiu? If you are drink Baijiu, fill the Baijiu glass and drink it all at once when you raise your glass. If you are drinking red wine, you should first pour the wine into the soberer to sober up, and then pour it for everyone. Pour red wine to the height of one third of the glass. You can't finish drinking red wine at one time. Just take a sip. 2. When do you propose a toast? The first person to toast must be the host or the guest of honor. Generally, it is the guest of honor, the leader and the person with the highest seniority first, and then it is OK to toast next to each other in turn. After the host or the guest has finished toasting everyone, it's time for others to toast. 3.Toasting etiquette If you are toasting leaders, elders or unfamiliar people, your glass must be lower than that of leaders, elders or unfamiliar people, and you should hold the glass with both hands instead of holding the glass with one hand. If leaders, elders or unfamiliar people come to toast you, you should do the same. If others stand up, you should also stand up. How much to drink when toasting depends on how much others drink. If leaders and elders drink with you, you must drink more than leaders and elders. In addition, never say to the leaders or elders: I will finish all of it, you are free. You will make the leaders and elders feel embarrassed. 4. What you can say during the toast? As the host or the guest, We can say thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule, and for taking care of the places that are not well taken care of, etc. If you are going to toast the host or the guest, you can say thank you for your hospitality, trouble and so on. When others toast each other, they can say something auspicious, such as wishing each other good health and getting better, or they can say a toast to friendship. 5. Appropriate Toast Don't toast endlessly. If others make it clear that he or she cannot drink too much, then don't let others drink more. In addition, if people or girls who can't drink want to drink tea instead of Baijiu, don't say: if you don't drink, you are humiliating me. People who can't drink or drink too much should be understood, so that others will have a good impression of you.
Chinese Baijiu culture and Literature
There are countless stories about Baijiu in Chinese history. We are familiar with the "green plum Baijiu on heroes", "warm Baijiu to kill Huaxiong", when Cao Cao lost power in the battle of Chibi, he wrote a short song that has been passed down for thousands of years, "Toast song by Baijiu, how is life! like morning dew, It's long gone. Be generous, don't worry . How to relieve your worries? The answer is Du Kang/Baijiu." Compared with these, the history of Chinese literature can be said to exude a strong aroma of Baijiu page by page. If you want to write an article about Baijiu and Chinese culture, it is definitely a masterpiece. If you want to choose a poet whose works are most closely and perfectly combined with Baijiu, there is no doubt that the one is Li Bai, the "fairy of poetry". He left many masterpieces through the ages. Ancient China is the hometown of Baijiu and the country of poetry. Poetry has an indissoluble bond with Baijiu since it came into being. In Chinese classical literary works, Baijiu has become the theme that scholars often chant. For thousands of years, poetry and Baijiu have formed an indissoluble bond. Ancient emperors sacrificed mountains and rivers, ancestors and held court ceremonies, all offering wine and reciting odes; From the court to the folk, Baijiu and poetry are not only the needs of people's material life, but also the needs of people's spiritual life. Baijiu is the enzyme for the development of literature and art with a long history in China. More than 40 of the 305 poems in the Book of Songs, the earliest collection of poetry in China, are related to Baijiu. About 1000 poems have been handed down from the poet Li Bai, and 170 of them were created after drunk. Du Fu, the poet saint, has 1400 existing poems, about 300 poems is related to wine. Turning to the history of Chinese literature, the description of Baijiu can be found everywhere in the poems. Throughout the days, in the process of the formation of Chinese poetry and Baijiu culture, many stories have emerged that have been passed down to this day. Many literati and coquettes have something to do with Baijiu. In the Tang Dynasty, poetry was flourishing, and many poets became addicted to alcohol. Coincidentally, Sudongpo, a poet in the Northern Song Dynasty, drank alcohol during the Mid Autumn Festival in Mizhou, Shandong Province. When he was slightly drunk, he was very poetic and wrote the heroic and sad eternal masterpiece "Prelude To Water Melody". Baijiu can make people get rid of spiritual troubles and write poems with true feelings. Chinese poetry and Baijiu culture has gradually developed into an independent cultural system. Throughout the history of the development of poetry and Baijiu culture, poetry and Baijiu complement each other, forming a gorgeous civilized landscape.
Chinese Baijiu culture and table culture
The Baijiu table culture is as old as Chinese Baijiu culture. According to the documentary records, at least in the Zhou Dynasty, the catering etiquette has formed a fairly perfect system. This traditional banquet etiquette is intact in most parts of China, such as Shandong, Hong Kong and Taiwan, and is reflected in many film and television works. Nowadays, with the development of society, the Baijiu table culture has changed from the way of hospitality at the beginning to the "Baijiu Bureau" with various special meanings. In ancient China, catering assumed a very important social function, so it was inherited for a long time. Banquets in the Tang Dynasty generally began in the morning and lasted until dusk, accounting for no less than seven or eight hours. During the Qing Dynasty, many public paid banquets even lasted three to five days, which were both social and political activities. The early drinking atmosphere in China originated from various banquets that lasted for a long time. After eating a meal for such a long time, the topic is bound to dry up and dry drinking is also boring, so he invented all kinds of alcohol persuasion skills. Strictly speaking, drinking comes from toasting, which is an old custom left over from patriarchal society. There are social hierarchies in toasting, i.e. courtiers toast monarchs, sons toast fathers, brothers toast brothers, subordinates toast superiors, and younger generations toast elders. However, the interaction among them has great coercion. The earliest toasts were mostly from top to bottom toasts. Especially in the transition from home to country, this kind of ethics has gradually become a political force. There have been countless cases of forced alcohol persuasion in the political context in Chinese history, some of which are interesting, but there are also many cases that are extremely cruel and creepy. The Chinese Baijiu table culture that modern people talk about is more the Baijiu culture in the food culture. In fact, in ancient times, for a long time, Chinese Baijiu table culture had nothing to do with food culture. Early Chinese Baijiu table culture is a part of political culture, which is closely combined with rituals such as sacrifice and celebration, and belongs to the upper culture of the royal family and those in power. The scarcity and mystery of Baijiu embellish various ceremonies, and interpret the legitimacy of political rule with solemn and ambitious scenes. Under the centralized monarchy, power is highly centralized, and the party who gets power is extremely afraid of losing power, so he compiles various rituals and holds various activities in order to maintain the orthodoxy and sanctity of his status. Generally speaking, table culture has the following characteristics: First, persuade people to drink. There are always people at the table who are particularly keen on persuading others to drink. Seeing each other's embarrassment of being forced to drink is the best enjoyment for some people at the table. In order to achieve this goal, alcohol persuaders can be said to have done their best. Some alcohol persuaders like to package inducements as threats, "you can't be a friend if you don't drink", which means that drinking is the permit for friendship; Some alcohol persuaders like to package threats as inducements. "As long as this cup is dry, this contract is yours." the implication is that you will be out if you don't drink. Second, be proud of drink too much. There are often "east wind blows, drums beat, who is afraid of drinking today", "if you can drink Baijiu, you can call me your friends" and other jingles at the table. After drinking one cup after another, it's time to run on you if you drink less, "you can't do it. It's interesting to see who can drink more.". The implication is that it is not enough for you not to drink more. People will not consider your body and your health. He made you drink to finish the task (he may not be very happy). Whether you feel sick or not is not within his consideration. Third, snobbery. Toast the leaders at the table. You are supposed to look for chances to toast the leaders, and so on. Drink with the leaders as an opportunity to win their favor. Are you really thinking about the leaders?If you are a leader, I'm afraid it's time to wait for someone to toast you and get a sense of superiority from the flattering blessings of your subordinates. All these are the embodiment of the concept of hierarchy, which has not disappeared with the progress of the times, but is greatly strengthened by the Baijiu table culture. Fourth, top-down test. Baijiu table culture is different from Baijiu culture. Baijiu culture not only has its own material characteristics, but also has the spiritual connotation formed by Baijiu tasting. It is formed in the process of Baijiu making and drinking activities. In the final analysis, Baijiu table culture is just a top-down temptation and conquest. It judges the degree of obedience to it by drinking. It knows that drinking will be uncomfortable, and the next day people will have a headache, but it just needs this kind of pain to measure the degree of "obedience". Fifth, waste resources. Many people drink for "honor" . They often serve a table full of dishes regardless of the actual situation. I'm afraid they can't move a few chopsticks in the end. The restaurant doesn't care. Anyway, there's still a lot of swill left after paying the money. But this is actually a great waste of social resources. I'm afraid it's better to put these resources into more meaningful uses. Sixth, the motivation is complex. Some liquor stores are set up for illegal transactions. There are a lot of things with different motives mixed in the liquor stores. The power, money and sex transactions on the table are endless, and the last chopsticks may not move. Maybe someone will say that drinking can really make things happen? If the other party loves drinking, how do you drink? It can also save you money. If you think people are easy to relax after drinking too much, and want to take the opportunity to win, a lot of facts tell you, it's useless! The other party is not stupid. He knows your intention very well, so he will be prepared. If you really succeed when he is drunk, he will regret when he wakes up, so he will bear a grudge against you, and your future relationship will be difficult. It's better to talk when you're awake and let the other party make a rational choice.
Cultural differences between Chinese Baijiu and Western Wine
Baijiu type Baijiu is the most representative liquor in China. From a certain point of view, Chinese liquor culture is Chinese Baijiu culture. In the west, it is mainly about wine.
Baijiu cup Ancient Chinese Baijiu vessels are famous for porcelain, bronze and lacquer. Chinese Baijiu vessels are famous for their beautiful images and numerous decorations. Westerners pay attention to different types of wines, and their drinking utensils are also different.
Drinking etiquette Chinese drinking etiquette reflects the respect for drinkers. The host and the guests have fixed seats, and a fixed toast order. When toasting, you should start from the host. If the host doesn't finish, others are not allowed to toast. If you mess up the order, you will be punished. The etiquette of Westerners drinking Baijiu reflects their respect for wine.
Purpose of drinking In China, Baijiu is often used as a tool. In the eyes of Chinese people, Baijiu is more a tool of communication, so there is a lack of scientific and systematic theoretical analysis and evaluation of Baijiu itself in Chinese Baijiu culture, and more attention is paid to the wonderful effect after drinking. In the west, the purpose of drinking is often very simple, drinking in order to enjoy wine.
Chinese Baijiu culture and medicinal Baijiu
The combination of alcohol and medicine is an important innovation in the history of Chinese medicine. Medicinal Baijiu, which is used to prevent and treat diseases, has played an important role in the history of medicine in China, has become one of the traditional dosage forms with a long history. So far, it has enjoyed a high reputation in the medical and health care industry at home and abroad. As a wonderful flower in the treasure house of Chinese medicine, the emergence of medicinal Baijiu first benefits from the discovery of Baijiu by human beings, and its development depends on the continuous progress and improvement of brewing technology. Modern medicine has proved that proper drinking can dredge collaterals and expel coldness, relax tendons and activate blood circulation, eliminate accumulation, strengthen the spleen, calm nerves and also has certain curative and health care effects.
Practical significance of Chinese Baijiu culture
Throughout the ages, Baijiu culture has played a positive role in politics, economy and social life. However, while giving full play to its powerful effects, Baijiu has also brought many hazards, including social problems such as trouble making after drinking, traffic accidents caused by drunk driving, and medical problems such as alcohol dependence, alcoholic liver, pancreatitis, fetal alcohol syndrome, among which alcohol dependence is the most serious one. Therefore, our attitude towards Baijiu culture should be objective. The reason why Baijiu culture can be inherited for so long in China and even the world also proves that it has become an indispensable thing in people's life; But when we face Baijiu, we should also keep a clear head. It can become a good assistant in our life, but if you can't control it appropriately, its role may also backfire. Everything should be measured in moderation, which is the attitude we should have in accepting and inheriting the Baijiu culture. Baijiu, in the long history of human culture, is not only an objective material existence, but also a cultural symbol. Zhuang Zhou advocated the unity of things and people, the unity of heaven and man, and the unity of life and death. The term "Baijiu culture" was put forward by Professor Yu Guangyuan, a famous economist in China. Baijiu culture is a unique cultural form with Baijiu as its characteristic carrier and Baijiu behavior as its center. Chinese Baijiu culture is constantly developing. The progress of material civilization, the change of mentality and concept, and the change of social system have become the internal motivation of its change and operation; The impact of modern culture and the entry of foreign culture have become the external environment for its change and operation. Under the joint action of internal and external stress, the material connotation, spiritual concept, carrier structure and functional value of Chinese Baijiu are constantly adjusted and changed. Some common understandings are also shared by most Chinese people, which can be concluded as follows:
Nothing happens without Baijiu In the country with fragrant Baijiu, Baijiu enjoys both refined and popular tastes. Since ancient times, there has been a saying that "nothing is impossible without Baijiu, no ceremony is successful without Baijiu, no banquet can be held without Baijiu, and no respect can be shown without Baijiu". Whether in China's traditional folk customs or modern festivals that keep pace with the times, people will raise their glasses to celebrate, sing and dance. The old and young get together to drink and praise each other, which is called age division; Everyone stayed up all night, waiting for dawn, known as "ShouSui". The etiquette of celebrating and keeping the new year with Baijiu has been popular since the Han Dynasty, and it continues to be the same today. Marriage Baijiu custom is also one of the popular, warm and happy drinking customs in society. In order to make the wedding grand and warm and express people's joy, people usually celebrate with Baijiu and cheer with Baijiu. The whole wedding process is full of Baijiu. In China's traditional folk customs, Baijiu can be seen everywhere. In addition to drinking for fun, during festivals and weddings, other drinking occasions are more diverse : There is a birthday toast on your birthday; Family reunion has reunion Baijiu; We should also drink funeral Baijiu when handling funeral affairs; Hospitality is naturally inseparable from welcoming Baijiu; When seeing off guests, there will be farewell Baijiu; Traditional farming terms are known to most people, which include spring Baijiu, threshing Baijiu, harvest Baijiu, etc. When people are happy or sad, they can't help drinking to meet friends, send Baijiu to congratulate, and use Baijiu to express their feelings. Chinese people's life is full of Baijiu, and Chinese hospitality is shown incisively and vividly at the banquet. Big things and small things, everything is inseparable from Baijiu.
Inspire with Baijiu "Since ancient times, literati have loved Baijiu, and poetry is always accompanied by Baijiu, which has been passed down for thousands of years" - the literary wonder of "blending poetry and Baijiu" in Chinese literature has long existed. The main reason for this phenomenon is that Chinese scholars believe that Baijiu is the source of creative inspiration. The unique charm of Baijiu is to make people excited, enthusiastic, intoxicated, and even addicted. From its own chemical composition, the main reason why Baijiu is Baijiu is that it contains alcohol. After drinking, alcohol constantly stimulates the central nervous system of the brain, making people emotionally excited. Drinking too much and getting drunk means that the central nervous system is invaded and as a result in a state of drunkenness, which is an unprecedented sense of release and abnormal emotional excitement. Generally speaking, it is the loss of human rational thinking, and all behaviors are almost an emotional catharsis. As Freud described, this is a state in which the "self" supervision is temporarily relaxed and the "soul" is released. China is a agricultural nation, which pays attention to patriarchal rites, emphasizes group consciousness and ethical norms, and requires using reason to control personal emotions. But these excessive suppression of human nature can only be temporary and external, while those irrational factors will be deeply hidden in the heart and cannot be eliminated. Although on weekdays, traditional writers are very quiet, gentle and polite. Once something touches the emotional part of the soul, emotions will pour out, faster and more violent than those of people of less repressed nations. In addition, most poets are sentimental in nature. They are always sensitive about the joys and sorrows of life than ordinary people , and their understanding of life is easy to grasp with intuition. Therefore, their experience of life and their pursuit of freedom are usually higher than those of ordinary people. Under the stimulation of alcohol, the poet's rational thinking bound by ethics and patriarchy in his daily life retreated temporarily, and those emotions and ideals that were excessively suppressed in his heart were released. Creative inspiration, intuitive grasp of poetry emotion, rich imagination and other emotional thinking have reached unprecedented height. In a drunken state, the poet temporarily gets rid of the reins of reason, and allows poetry to gallop in mind. Literary thoughts are like a spring, and wonderful poems are born luxuriously. " It can be seen that good Baijiu has contributed to the inspiration of Chinese literati.
Make friends with Baijiu "A thousand cups of Baijiu is not too much when we meet a bosom friend" - the Chinese tradition of meeting friends with Baijiu continues. After a drink, some people will become sworn friends, while others will become strangers. In the process of social communication, people have various communication tools. If the Internet solves the space-time barrier of people's communication, the uniqueness of Baijiu is that it can solve the spiritual barrier of people's communication. The ancients said that drinking can exchange feelings with each other and enhance friendship. Making friends is about treating each other sincerely and treating each other with honest. At the dinner table, Baijiu is a communication tool to break embarrassment, create topics, express respect, form belonging and create harmony. When people get together to drink, if they are as serious as a meeting, it means that there is still a sense of distance between them. They are performing according to the rules of officialdom, unlike when they work, they are using reason to restrain themselves and dare not open the real world inside. Baijiu should be a tool to eliminate interpersonal distance. Drinking gives people an "acceptable" reason to relax the constraints, reveal their true thoughts, and create an atmosphere in which everyone is "their own friends". Therefore, at the Baijiu table, if you refuse to drink for special reasons (such as: you can't drink when you are sick), or you are hesitant in drinking, the social function of Baijiu can't be achieved. A person can be judged by Baijiu. Although this kind of saying is too absolute, some truth are also hidden behind. A person with a bold and unrestrained personality will drink a lot, and the Baijiu in the cup has already been finished when talking and laughing. Without persuasion, he will enjoy himself; A person with a delicate personality, he or she will drink slowly, savor carefully. So drinking is not only a kind of culture, but also a kind of communication skill. The Baijiu table is a small stage for one's life, reflecting one's character. It is a smart move to test one's personality by the Baijiu.
Conclusion
In modern society, we need not only the stimulation of new things, but also the accumulation of history and culture. The mellow history and culture of Baijiu boasts a long history and endless significance. It is the emotional sustenance that modern people can't give up. From health care, inspiration, and social communication, the role of Baijiu is irreplaceable, which makes it a unique practical tool in our society.
Terms
Baijiu culture酒文化 etiquette礼仪 propose a toast敬酒 Book of Songs《诗经》 medicinal Baijiu药酒
Questions
1. How to pour Baijiu?(A) A.If you are drink Baijiu, fill the Baijiu glass and drink it all at once when you raise your glass. B.If you are drink Baijiu, fill the Baijiu glass and drink it half at once when you raise your glass. C.If you are drink Baijiu, never fill the Baijiu glass and drink it all at once when you raise your glass. 2. When do you propose a toast?(B) A.Whenever we want B.The first person to toast must be the host or the guest of honor, after the host or the guest has finished toasting everyone, it's time for others to toast. C.The first person to toast could not be the host or the guest of honor, before the host or the guest has finished toasting everyone, it's time for others to toast. 3. What you can say during the toast? A.say something auspicious, such as wishing each other good health and getting better, or they can say a toast to friendship. B.We can say thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule. C.It depends on your identity.
References
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