20220630 Culture 12
英语口译 黄天琪 Huang Tianqi 202170081618
Introduction
Marriage is something related to all of us. It is the start of family and kinship. Most of our life will be spent within a marriage. And an unhappy marriage will ruin many things. This starts by lowering the quality of our life, threatening the quality of our children’s life, and then forming a family without happiness and warmth. Eventually, this will have a bad impact on the harmony of the society. Judging from all these, we can see that how important marriage is to our life and society. Besides, marriage represents not only a union between couples, but also a union of two families. In the past, marriage was often arranged by parents, while today’s young people prefer to choose spouse that they love by themselves. However, it is still common that parents hold sway over the marriage of their children. Marriage culture is a part of social culture, which can reflect people’s mentality and views towards marriage in a particular period.(Li Tao 2014:1) In the following, marriage system, wedding customs, and dissolution of marriage will be covered.
Marriage System
From the earliest group marriage to monogamy, marriage system has become increasingly rigorous, which is conducive to ensuring family stability and social peace. China went through primitive society, slave society, feudal society, modern society, and it is now contemporary society. The characteristics of marriage system in each period are distinctive. From the evolution of our marriage system we can see that each change has been in line with the change in the political and economic system. The marriage system is a guarantee of social stability, and the main evolutionary history includes the following periods.
Group Marriage
Under this marriage system, a group of men and a group of women are married to each other. The specific forms of the group marriage are not necessarily the same between different regions and races, and even differ greatly. The process of its development has not been simultaneous throughout history. Group marriage showed itself in China as a natural and chaotic situation where people lived in groups without social obligations. At that time, no constraints were imposed on the interaction between men and women. There were no clear and fixed spouse, no restrictions on elders and children, and no concept of parents or siblings.
Consanguineous Marriage
With the development of human history, people gradually differentiated themselves from each other and formed different groups or tribes. Soon, blood relation became the identification standard. At that time, parents and children have blood relation were not allowed to marry each other, while siblings could. This is what we called consanguineous marriage. This kind of marriage were recorded in ancient Chinese literatures as legends. For example, Fengsu Tongyi describe that Fuxi and his sister Nüwa married each other and lived together.
Sub-Consanguineous Marriage
The main difference between sub-consanguineous marriage and consanguineous marriage is that consanguineous marriage only prohibited intermarriage between the parents and their children, while sub-consanguineous marriage also prohibited marriage between siblings of the same generation. The most important feature of the sub-consanguineous marriage system is that brothers can share a wife and sisters can share a husband, but the "wife" or "husband" must be someone from another clan. Sub-consanguineous marriage facilitated the natural selection of marriage partners, which is significant for improving the quantity and quality of the population.
Dual marriage
Dual marriage refers to the marriage between adult men and women from different clans in a long or short period of time, which is not stable. Under this marriage system, the spouses are not married for love, but for personal interests and needs. People usually obtain a spouse through exchanges of goods or forceful competition.
Monogamy
Monogamy means that when two people are married to each other, they can only maintain this marriage with each other for the rest of their lives, or at any period in their lives. Under this system, no one may have two or more spouses at the same time, and people’s marriage is more stable and can last longer. Monogamy is the result of the development of material and spiritual civilization. This marriage system is also more progressive and reasonable.(Hu Xi 2016:222)
Wedding Customs
Wedding customs is an important part of marriage culture. The original wedding customs, limited by economic and cultural conditions at that time, is not complex. It takes a long time for wedding customs to become complex from simple and to form a set of complicated etiquette. Arranged marriage and mercenary marriage appeared when patriarchy was formed. A mercenary marriage arranged by parents is usually mediated by a matchmaker, and parents of both bride and bridegroom will negotiate about betrothal gifts and other things. The bridegroom’s family must give the bride a certain number of gifts and money so that they can get engaged and married, Besides, their marriage is usually arranged by their parents when they were under age. In the late stage of the primitive society, the wedding in the form of arranged and mercenary marriage had not yet formed the tedious etiquette, complex procedures and systemic weddings like the “six rites”. As people attached more and more importance to marriage, a set of etiquette for the process of completing a marriage relationship gradually formed, which is often called "six rites", including six steps: Nacai (proposal), Wenming, Naji (name and birthday matching), Nazheng (gift giving), Qingqi(choosing the wedding date), and Qinying (the wedding ceremony).
1.Nacai
It is the man’s family who would find a matchmaker to propose a marriage for woman’s family permission on behalf of the man. If the woman’s family agree, the man would prepare gifts and bring them to the woman’s family for proposal.
2.Wenming
Wenming refers to that the man's family ask the matchmaker to ask the woman's name and birth date. There are two purposes: one is to prevent consanguineous marriages with the same surname; the other is to use the birth dates of the man and the woman to divine whether they are matched or not.
3.Naji
If the division shows that they are a good match for each other, then the man’s family will inform the woman’s family and decide to let them get married.
4.Nazheng
Once their match has been confirmed, the man’s family will send betrothal gifts to the woman’s family. These gifts usually are items such as gold, jewelry, wine, tea, and foods with good symbolism.
5.Qingqi
After the man’s family choose the day of wedding, they will inform the women’s family and ask for their agreement.
6.Qinying
The last process of the “six rites” is that the groom goes to the bride's house to marry her. One or two days before marriage, the woman will send her dowry to the man's home, and the woman’s family ask someone to make bed.
With the development of society, many new customs appear, while some of the old ones are abandoned. Now, different places prefer different customs, even two adjacent towns could have different wedding customs. However, there are some customs shared by the majority, such as hiring matchmaker, giving betrothal gifts to the bride's family, and holding wedding ceremony.
Dissolution of Marriage
When we talk about marriage, there are two parties: husband and wife. Naturally, any major thing that is related to marriage should be decided by these two parties. However, it is not the case when it refers to the dissolution of marriage in ancient China. At that time, people listed out seven conditions under which the husband could unilaterally dissolve the marriage with his wife. These seven conditions are as following:
1.Being unfilial to parents
It means being unfilial to her husband’s parents. The reason is that this is immoral. In traditional Chinese society, after a woman marries to a man, her husband’s parents have a much higher status than her own parents, so being unfilial to the husband’s parents is considered a big thing.
2. Failing to bear son
It refers to the wife’s inability to give birth to a boy. In traditional Chinese society, carrying on the family line was the primary purpose of a marriage, and the failure of the wife to give birth to a son would make a marriage lose its fundamental meaning. However, with the prevalence of polygamy in ancient society, there was a decline in the number of women who were abandoned because they failed to bear boys.
3. Adultery
It means that the wife has extramarital affair. Adultery may cause confusion about the origin or generation of children born by the wife, thereby disturbing the family's blood ties.
4. Jealousy
It refers to the wife is very jealous. People at that time believed that it is not conducive to the harmony within the family, the wife’s jealousy will cause internal contradictions in the family, resulting in chaos in traditional family relations that is featured by the rule that the wife depends on her husband to gain merit.
5.Having foul disease
It refers to that the wife is too ill to attend ancestor worship activity. According to Chinese tradition, ancestor worship is an important activity of every family, and it is believed that the wife suffering from severe disease will have a bad influence on the effect of the activity, thus not conducive to the prosperity of the family.
6.Being garrulous
It refers to the wife who talks too much or gossips about others. In traditional Chinese families, women, especially those of low seniority, are considered not to express their opinions, and a wife, as a member of the family who comes in from outside the family, may interfere with family harmony if she talks too much.
7.Larceny
It means if the wife steals things, then the husband can dissolve the marriage with her whether she agree or not.
Generally speaking, most of the seven conditions favor the interests of the husband’s family. As long as it is not in the interests of the husband’s family, the husband or the husband’s family can dissolve the marriage, whether the reason is the wife’s inappropriate behavior or physical problems.
In Tang dynasty, a law that related to forced divorce was launched. This law stipulates that if the husband, wife or a relative of the husband or the wife commits an act of assault, scolding, killing, wounding or rape against a relative of the other party, the couple is considered to have severed their intimate relationship and the government would force them to divorce, no matter whether both parties agree or not. This law was not equal, which was clearly in favor of the husband’s family, imposing stricter requirements on the wife and giving greater power to the husband. This reflected that the Tang law protect the husband’s rights, and aim to establish a feudal family order in which the husband is the wife’s superior and the woman is inferior to man.
However, in Tang dynasty, there was also a harmony divorce system, which was a kind of legal system which allows husband and wife to divorce voluntarily through agreement in feudal society of China. The harmony divorce system in the Tang Dynasty is a great innovation of the marriage and family system in China's feudal society. The establishment of the harmony divorce breaks through the traditional rites and laws, and elevates marriage from the obligation to carry on the family line of man and woman to the emotional union of the two parties.
Currently, there are two ways of divorce stipulated by China's Marriage Law:
First, divorce by mutual consent. This is a method of dissolving a marriage "peacefully" and is very popular. Divorce by mutual consent is subject to conditions that the man and the woman are completely voluntary and have dealt appropriately with issues such as the maintenance of children, the division of common property, and the repayment of common debts after the divorce. Couples who meet the above conditions can apply for registration of divorce at the marriage registration office where one of them is domiciled. After receiving the Divorce Certificate, the relationship between the couple is then dissolved.
Second, divorce by adjudication. In other words, if one party requests a divorce but the other party does not agree, or if both parties agree to a divorce but cannot reach an agreement on child maintenance or property issues, the people's court will settle the matter according to litigation procedures.
Conclusion
In the past, the major purpose of a marriage is to carry on the family line, while personal emotions have little to do with marriage. From the choice of spouse to the conclusion of the marriage, even its dissolution, are subject to the constraints of parents. The same is true of both the husband and the wife. Family interests are put above any other things in marriage. At that time, women have low social and family status, and many regulations of marriage are especially targeted at women. Then, with the development of society and the emerging of new ideas, many new customs, regulations, and laws have been established so as to adapt to modern society. Besides, gender equality has been promoted, so women now have a higher status in society and family. At present, the foundation of a marriage is normally the love between the couple. Both women and man have a greater say in their own marriage. Marriage is not some personal thing that relates to only two people. Instead, it has a bearing on social stability. Just like Mr. Fei Xiaotong says, “marriage is a result of social force. There is no place on earth that takes marriage as a personal thing between a couple.” (Zhang Ting 2013:12)
References
- 李涛.21世纪初年(2001～2012)中国婚姻文化嬗变研究[J].婚姻·家庭·性别研究,2014(00):1-125.
- 孙晓.中国传统婚姻制度与观念的演变[J].人民论坛,2021(16):110-112.
- 胡曦.论中国一夫一妻制[J].法制博览,2016(13):222.
- 韩暖.浅析中国古代婚姻文化[J].时代文学(上半月),2015(12):238.
- 游路遥.20世纪中国婚姻法流变[D].福建师范大学,2016.
- 张婷. 中国古今婚姻制度比较[D].河北经贸大学,2013.
Terms and expressions
Group Marriage 群婚
Consanguineous Marriage 血缘婚
Fengsu Tongyi 《风俗通义》
Fuxi 伏羲
Nüwa 女娲
Arranged marriage and mercenary marriage 包办和买卖婚姻
Sub-Consanguineous Marriage 亚血缘婚
Arranged marriage and mercenary marriage 包办和买卖婚姻
The wife depends on her husband to gain merit 夫为妻纲
Questions
1.During group marriage period, strict constraints were imposed on the interaction between men and women.
2.What is the main difference between sub-consanguineous marriage and consanguineous marriage?
3.What are the purposes of Wenming?
4.In ancient China, under what conditions could the husband unilaterally dissolve the marriage with his wife?
5.If a couple agree to a divorce but cannot reach an agreement on child maintenance or property issues, what measure could they take?
Answers
1.False.
2.Consanguineous marriage only prohibited intermarriage between the parents and their children, while sub-consanguineous marriage also prohibited marriage between siblings of the same generation.
3.There are two purposes: one is to prevent consanguineous marriages with the same surname; the other is to use the birth dates of the man and the woman to divine whether they are matched or not.
4.Being unfilial to parents/Failing to bear son/Adultery/Jealousy/Having foul disease/Being garrulous/Larceny.
5.They can ask help from the people's court and divorce by adjudication.
英语口译 兰绮 Lan Qi 202170081619
Introduction
Gift-giving is a common courtesy in diplomatic activities. And this kind of diplomatic culture has a profound history. Via exchanging gifts, a cordial and friendly bond can be built upon two countries. Diplomatic gifts are not only limited to some still-life items, but also can be some living creatures, such as animals. China has a history of presenting panda as a diplomatic gift to forge diplomatic relations with other countries, which is known as Chinese Panda Diplomacy. Panda, listed as an endangered species in 2008 and a vulnerable species in 2016, is endemic to China. It’s the national animal or say, national treasure of China. It is recorded that panda diplomacy can date back to the later Tang Dynasty when Emperor Wu ever gave two pieces of skin of pandas as a gift for foreign envoys. And after the founding of People’s Republic of China, China has been carrying out diplomatic activities through giving panda as gifts, lend panda to other countries for traveling exhibitions or signing commercial leases of pandas to show friendliness. In the 26 years from 1957 to 1982, China gave a total of 23 pandas to 9 countries. Panda, as a national treasure of China, has served as a messenger of friendship abroad many times and has made indelible contributions to the development of friendly relations with foreign countries.
Origin and History of Chinese Panda Diplomacy
Panda as a gift
Animals play an important role in China's diplomatic activities. As early as the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, Zheng He brought back many "qilin" (giraffes) from the African continent on his way to the West, which was called "qilin diplomacy". These giraffes were transported to China as tribute from African countries, and although they were not "gifts" in the modern sense of diplomacy, they fully illustrate the phenomenon of using "animals" as a medium to express messages in national exchanges. At that time, the Ming Dynasty was strong and the African continent was still very primitive, so the "giraffes" represented the awe and dependence of a weak country on a strong country. In modern society, animals can be found everywhere in diplomacy. In the early years of New China, China befriended the Soviet Union under a "one-sided" foreign policy. Between 1954 and 1959, the Beijing Zoo exchanged animals with the Soviet Union's State Zoo, and in 1957, China gave the giant pandas Ping Ping and An An to the Soviet Union. This "animal diplomacy" reflected China's quest to consolidate the Soviet-led socialist camp in the 1950s and its desire to receive assistance and support from the Soviet Union as a means of countering the U.S. blockade.(Zhang Enming, 2018,66-70) Vietnam, which is in the same socialist camp as China, also gave two Asian elephants to China in 1953. These two elephants had participated in the Vietnam War, so in addition to the usual diplomatic rituals, the two elephants also implied Vietnam's gratitude for China's support in the war.There is also a close animal exchange between China and North Korea. Since 1959, African lions, South China tigers, and Korean leopards have been gifts exchanged between the two countries. Behind these gifts are the development strategies of the two countries and the complex game of international relations. Whether it is the "Korean leopard" of North Korea or the "Asian elephant" of Vietnam, the animals chosen in animal diplomacy are all national protected animals that can represent the image of the country and have certain profound connotations at the same time. In China's cultural context, the panda is naturally the most appropriate choice.
"Panda diplomacy" begins with Wu Zetian. In recorded history, on September 18th, in 685 AD, the first year under the reign of Wu Zetian, the Chang'an palace guards and two animal handlers clustered round two tall, spacious and red-colored cages and set off from Chang'an on a stagecoach, sailing eastward. They went to Yangzhou, boarded a sea ship, and accompanied the Japanese envoys to Japan. This time, Wu Zetian gave two "white bears" and 70 furs to Emperor Tenmu of Japan. The "white bears" here are actually giant pandas. Westerners first heard about giant pandas from the French missionary Arman David. David was the first Westerner to study the wildlife of China in 1869, when David traveled across the ocean to give a panda specimen as a gift to the French Natural History Museum. This was the first panda welcomed in the West. Although only a specimen, this masterpiece of the creator was the first panda in the West. driven by panda fever, many people began to travel to China in search of pandas. (Lin He,2010,6-17)
Technically speaking, the first time giant panda served as the highest-level national gift was in 1941 when the Song sisters, Song Qingling and Song Meiling presented a pair of pandas to the United States as a token of appreciation for their relief of Chinese refugees.After the founding of New China, giant panda became an important gift for the country's diplomacy. In the modern era of friendship between China and foreign countries, pandas are treated like "heads of state" when they arrive as a national gift.(Xie Jianping,2021,93) China's most famous "panda diplomacy" dates back to 1972, when President Nixon's visit to China. Premier Zhou Enlai announced at a banquet to welcome President Nixon. Premier Zhou Enlai announced at a banquet to welcome President Nixon that giant pandas Lingling and Xinxin would be given to the United States. The "Panda Diplomacy" laid a solid brick for China to open its doors and go global.And in September 1972, when diplomatic relations were established between China and Japan, China decided to present two pandas. On November 4th , 1972, a grand ceremony was held in Ueno Park in Tokyo to accept the gift. At the ceremony, the Japanese director said, "This pair of pandas is the best gift from the Chinese people to the Japanese people, and November 4 is a symbol of friendship between the people of Japan and China." Between 1957 and 1982, China gave 23 giant pandas to 9 countries: the Soviet Union, North Korea, the United States, Japan, France, the United Kingdom, Mexico, Spain and Germany. Britain, Mexico, Spain and Germany.(Sun Jiahua, Xia Jun, 2005,51)By the 1970s, giant pandas were sent around the world by China, and "panda diplomacy" reached its peak.
Here is a list of the giant panda as a national gift.
| Date of gift | Giver | Name of Giant Panda | Recipient |
| November 9,1941 | Republic of China | Panda | United States Joint Committee for the Relief of Chinese Refugees |
| November 9,1941 | Republic of China | Pandi | United States Joint Committee for the Relief of Chinese Refugees |
| May 1946 | Republic of China | Lianhe(Union) | The United Kingdom |
| 1957 | People's Republic of China | Pingping | Soviet Union |
| 1958 | The Beijing Zoo | Jiji | Austrian animal trader: Heini Demer |
| 1959 | People's Republic of China | Anan | Soviet Union |
| unknown | People's Republic of China | NO.1 | People's Republic of Korea |
| unknown | People's Republic of China | NO.2 | People's Republic of Korea |
| unknown | People's Republic of China | Lingling | People's Republic of Korea |
| unknown | People's Republic of China | Sanxing | People's Republic of Korea |
| unknown | People's Republic of China | Dandan | People's Republic of Korea |
| April 1972 | People's Republic of China | Lingling | The United States |
| April 1972 | People's Republic of China | Xingxing | The United States |
| October 1972 | People's Republic of China | Lanlan | Japan |
| October 1972 | People's Republic of China | Kangkang | Japan |
| December 1973 | People's Republic of China | Yanyan | France |
| December 1973 | People's Republic of China | Lili | France |
| April 1974 | People's Republic of China | Jiajia | The United Kingdom |
| April 1974 | People's Republic of China | Jingjing | The United Kingdom |
| September 1975 | People's Republic of China | Yingying | Mexico |
| September 1975 | People's Republic of China | Beibei | Mexico |
| September 1978 | People's Republic of China | Shaoshao | Spain |
| September 1978 | People's Republic of China | Qiangqiang | Spain |
| 1980 | People's Republic of China | Huanhuan | Japan |
| November 1980 | People's Republic of China | Tiantian | West Germany |
| November 1980 | People's Republic of China | Baobao | West Germany |
| 1982 | People's Republic of China | Feifei | Janpan |
(From: 熊猫外交_百度百科 (baidu.com) )
Due to the deterioration of the panda's living environment and the fear that the very limited number of giant pandas in China was dwindling, China stopped the purely political mode of gift to foreign countries after 1982, and many countries have invited Chinese pandas to "visit" them in various ways, and China has also organized dozens of "Giant Panda Visiting Missions". During the Los Angeles Olympics, the International Olympic Committee invited a pair of Chinese pandas to go on display. During this period, however, China's gift of pandas was limited at home, such as Hong Kong and Taiwan. In fact, as early as 1988, the mainland had expressed its intention to send pandas to Taiwan. In March 2001, the mainland was ready to send pandas to Taiwan, and the then executive president, John Chang, said positively in the Legislative Yuan that "if it is in line with the Washington Convention, we certainly welcome it. However, there was no follow-up, and the panda's visit to Taiwan became an empty talk again. If we follow the model of the United States, Japan and other foreign countries and "lease" pandas to the mainland, Taiwan will not only need to set aside a huge budget of tens to millions of dollars each year to provide the mainland with funds for research and improvement of panda habitat, but the lease will be "country-to-country", which would turn into a lease from the mainland to Taiwan, and Taiwan would become a foreign country, which did not meet the political requirements.It was not until 2005 that the two sides of the Taiwan Strait decided to adopt an "animal exchange and breeding conservation program", whereby the Taipei Muzha Zoo and the Wolong Reserve in Sichuan would exchange animals between the two sides of the Taiwan Strait, avoiding the highly sensitive political controversy. However, the Taiwan authorities, led by Chen Shui-bian at the time, refused to accept the gift of pandas to Taiwan on the grounds that it had political significance. On Dec. 23, 2008, the mainland gifted giant pandas Tuan Tuan and Yuan Yuan to Taiwan finally arrived in Taipei without incident. From 1988 to 2008 2008, the pandas' journey to Taiwan took a total of 20 years.(Lin He,2010,6-17)
Panda Touring and Leasing
In 1982, in response to a global call to protect endangered animals, the government of the People's Republic of China announced that it would stop giving pandas abroad starting in 1982. This marked the end of "panda diplomacy" under the traditional political gift model. But a new model, panda leasing, emerged.
During the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles, China temporarily loaned two pandas, Yongyong and Ying Xin, from the Beijing Zoo to the Los Angeles Zoo for a three-month tour to show China's support for the Los Angeles Games. This was the beginning of the giant panda tour abroad. Since then, giant pandas from various zoos in China have been traveling abroad for as short as a few months or as long as a year.
Giant panda touring exhibitions are an activity that can be both politically charged and commercially beneficial. For example, the aforementioned tour at the Los Angeles Zoo during the Los Angeles Olympics was a largely diplomatic event, while the subsequent exhibition at the San Francisco Zoo was a distinctly commercial loan. The traveling exhibition brought considerable economic benefits to the zoos and other institutions where the giant pandas were housed, but it also affected the reproduction and development of the pandas to some extent.
After the mid-1990s, various measures taken to address the problems caused by commercial leasing have greatly reduced the opportunities for giant pandas to go on tour abroad, essentially ending the trend of mainly adopting the touring approach to panda diplomacy. However, in rare and exceptional cases, there are still those who go abroad for short periods of time to conduct diplomatic activities. For example, when the International Olympic Committee held its 112th plenary session in Moscow, Russia, in 2001 to decide on the host country for the 2008 Olympic Games, China sent giant pandas Benben and Wenwen to Moscow as cultural ambassadors to support China's bid.
Joint Research on Giant Panda
In the early 1990s, a growing number of environmental groups resisted giant panda leasing. In 1994, two pandas from the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding went abroad for the first time as "research and exchange ambassadors" to the Shirahama Safari Park in Japan. Since then, many zoos around the world, including Wakayama in Japan, Seoul in Korea, and Atlanta and Washington in the United States, have begun long-term cooperative research with China. On September 12, 2007, the State Forestry Administration announced that "China would no longer give pandas to foreign countries, but could still conduct cooperative research with foreign countries. But apparently, the "panda diplomacy" did not come to an end. Instead, China's "panda dance" has gone further and further.
On November 28, 2009, the Chinese giant panda Wang wang and Funini arrived in Australia. This was the first time that Chinese pandas set foot in Oceania. According to the 1975 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, foreign zoos can only acquire pandas on a lease basis, in the name of scientific research. At present, China has started cooperative research on giant panda breeding, physiology and other aspects with nine zoos in five countries. The number of giant pandas involved in cooperative research is 30. Among the 24 pandas that went abroad in the past, only five offspring are still alive, including one from Japan and Germany and three from Mexico. They are still transmitting the friendship of the Chinese people together with the pandas that have gone abroad on lease or in scientific cooperation. (Lin He,2010,6-17)
"Giant Panda" as a medium and symbol in International Communication
People are mediums because they can generate and transmit information. Animals, which have long been known to human culture at all levels, are also mediums. Although animals cannot directly produce human "verbal messages," they can convey a wealth of information through their biological characteristics and the cultural context they carry. Thus, the panda has been promoted from a symbolic "diplomatic gift" to a "diplomatic medium" with a diffuse message in diplomatic activities. The "panda medium" was born. Since the animal is the medium, the message conveyed by the "panda medium" itself is also worth interpreting. The "panda symbol", as an energetic reference, naturally evokes our imagination of the "panda" animal and the range of impressions and connotations it generates.
In terms of the emotions embedded in the form of communication, traditional linguistic symbols are often used in international communication activities to make serious and politically significant statements. Whether it is a logical formal document or a poetic letter, it is labeled as "politicized", with an emotional undertone of gaming and mediation behind it. The "panda symbol" is an effective way to reconcile the audience with emotions from multiple senses. When people watch videos of "cats and dogs" on social media, they are often so enthralled by the appearance and sound of the "cute" creatures that they let go of their guard and engage in pure emotion. The popular "panda" has also conquered audiences in such a communication process. It can be argued that China's international communication activities, in which the national ideology is embedded in the "panda symbol", are not only more subtle and secretive in form, but also more acceptable to the public. Such communication is often invisible and more profound.
From the audience's point of view, the content of international communication through the medium of language and writing requires a certain level of literacy. A "knowledge gap" is created on top of the language barrier, causing greater disruption to communication. The "panda medium" is able to build a bridge over the gap, and as the threshold for understanding the "panda symbol" is lowered, audiences with lower literacy levels are also included, further expanding the audience base for China's foreign communications.The image of "panda" is naive, gentle and lovely. In international communication, this animal image conveys the message of "peace" and "friendship". Today, in the face of Western "threat theory" and "suspicion theory", the "panda symbol" undoubtedly represents the value of China's peaceful rise. At the same time, the "black and white" color covering the panda is reminiscent of the Chinese "Taiji" symbol, which contains the Chinese idea of "harmony" and a deep cultural temperament. This symbolic feature is good for constructing a national image and eliminating stereotypes. In addition, as an endangered species, the panda has received worldwide attention for its conservation, and China's protection of the panda is well known. Out of its love for the panda as an animal itself, as well as universal ecological values, China's conservation work for the giant panda has been praised and recognized globally. This has further enhanced China's standing in the international community and won wide recognition among global citizens. The "panda symbol" provides opportunities for China's foreign communication activities. In China's international communication activities, the panda has crossed the language barrier, established a good national image, and earned China a reputation. The "panda medium" has opened up new ideas for the study of international communication channels.
As an important medium in diplomatic activities, giant panda has the following four positive effects on China's international communication.
1. Building a good national image
For a country, a good national image not only enhances national cohesion, improves the country's recognition and credibility in the eyes of the public, but also helps the country to carry out international affairs in the international community. The "Giant Panda" can leave a deep first impression on the audience. It is so delightful that many people who do not know China can instantly fall in love with this "cute" animal and learn about China. The panda itself becomes a symbol of China in the minds of other citizens, which helps the international community to understand China as a "cute" and "peaceful" country, which plays an important role in building a positive national image.
2. Creating communication topics
The existence of the "panda medium" creates a middle ground for China's diplomatic activities with other countries and creates communication topics. Topics such as "panda conservation and research," "panda habits," and "newborn pandas" etc. can trigger discussions in the social media of different countries. When common topics occur, communication between countries becomes possible.
3. Creating economic value
Just like the "Kung Fu Panda" movies on Hollywood, the giant panda as a medium can give rise to related cultural industries and many cultural products. The development of cultural industries not only drives the popularity of cultural symbols in the world, but also increases the country's international communication power. The global popularity of Disney movies has not only created huge commercial value, but also impressed people with the success of the American movie business, as well as the understanding of American culture. The "giant panda" medium is expected to open up a new cultural industry through which Chinese culture can go global. This will create economic value while increasing cultural influence, which will be a double benefit. Of course, the development of cultural industries needs to be kept in moderation, and excessive commercial development will be counterproductive.(Zhao Lijun, 2017,15-19)
Problems in Panda Diplomacy
"Panda diplomacy" has indeed played an important role in China's diplomatic activities, but there are also many problems, making it to play its role as a diplomat.
1. Political misinterpretation
No matter how cute the panda is, the image of China behind it is not accepted and recognized by everyone. The "panda" cannot conquer everyone, so the practice of "panda diplomacy" has certain limitations. The sharp ideological struggle has led many political parties and political elites in many countries to perceive the cultural connotation of the "panda" symbol and interpret it as a cultural invasion. As a result, there are constant media reports reminding people that "pandas are after all carnivores" and "the bite force of a panda is no weaker than that of a brown bear". These statements are contrary to the image of the panda that China is trying to create and remind people of the other side of the "panda symbol". The "panda medium" itself does not have strong explanatory power or tendencies, so audiences' interpretations are often easily influenced by the rhetoric. When political bias intentionally misinterprets the panda image, it can also be portrayed as a beast with a bloody mouth. The connotation of the "panda symbol" at this point will bring negative communication effects.
2. Single content will cause aesthetic fatigue
The "panda symbols" on the Internet is still based on the daily life of pandas and lacks artistic processing and cultural connotation. Such a single content presentation is likely to cause aesthetic fatigue among audiences. Unlike various cats and dogs , pandas have a more fixed and single form, so it is difficult to refresh the image in the public's mind. Once the audience finds the "panda image" boring, it will be difficult to raise interest and the communication effect will be weakened.
3. Over-commercialization and dissipation of public interest
The popularity of panda-related products stems from the public's love for the panda image on the one hand, and from smart marketing tactics on the other. The public's interest in the panda image is a direct motivation for them to buy peripheral products. When commercial companies take advantage of the "panda fever" to over-market, people are inevitably suspicious of the panda image and even question whether the cute panda image is originally a scam by the business. As a unique animal in China, overseas people associate "Chinese businessmen" with "panda marketing". When interest is dissipated, not only will the panda industry suffer, but the international influence of the "panda symbol" will also decline, which will directly affect China's international communication power.(Lan Jianfeng, 2020, 96-100)
Solutions
1. Refine the connotation of the symbol to reduce political misinterpretation
In order to reduce the misinterpretation of the "panda symbol" by political forces, China should extract the core connotation of the "panda symbol" in its international communication behavior and amplify the connotation of "peace" and "cuteness" so that audiences will have a positive cognitive association with it.
2. Enrich the content of communication
In order to break the monotony of the "panda symbol", it is necessary to add more cultural connotations. We should combine other elements of Chinese culture with the panda and deepen the processing of cultural creation, not only to show panda's behavior in nature as a living creature, but also to raise it to the level of a cultural symbol so that the panda symbol can have a wider cultural value.
3. Moderate exploitation of commercial value
As a national treasure of China, the "panda" has a high commercial value, but if it is over-exploited without restrictions, it will lead to a negative impression of "panda products" and also make the symbol of "panda" be labeled as as "expensive". Therefore, the commercial development of panda products should follow the laws of economics. We should tap into both its commercial value and cultural value.(Lan Jianfeng, 2020, 96-100)
Other Chinese Diplomacy Policies
Ping Pong Diplomacy
Against the backdrop that U.S. President Richard Nixon took office and saught to counterbalance the power of the Soviet Union. The success of the People's Republic of China's two bombs and one star, with a nuclear deterrent far superior to that of the Republic of China on Taiwan, made it a target for the United States to draw in. On the other hand, as Beijing's relations with the Soviet Union deteriorated and the Soviet Union deployed large numbers of troops along the PRC border, the Beijing government also wanted to resume diplomacy with the United States in order to counterbalance the Soviet Union and gain a seat in the United Nations. But years of political and ideological divide left the two countries no reasonable opportunity to back on the right track of a diplomatic relation. (Qiao Yucheng,2009,16)
Ping-pong diplomacy refers to a series of visits between the Ping-pong teams of the People's Republic of China and the United States in April 1971, in which the People's Republic of China took the initiative to politicize sports,(Liu Junqian, Zhang Chunyu, 2012,11-15) calling it a "small ball to a big ball", and using ping-pong to break the ice in the strained diplomatic relations between the two countries. The incident has significantly cooled relations between the Republic of China and the United States.
Wolf warrior diplomacy
Wolf warrior diplomacy, a term for the assertive foreign policy pursued by the People's Republic of China since Xi Jinping's mid-to-late period as General Secretary of the Communist Party of China (CPC) Central Committee (David Bandurski,2020)(Kathrin Hille,2020). European and American countries considered Chinese diplomats during this period to be provocative, issuing a series of offensive statements. [11][12][16] The etymology comes from the movie "War Wolf" directed by Chinese actor Wu Jing, which derived the term "War Wolf" due to the strong Chinese nationalist sentiment of the movie. Since Donald Trump was elected as the president of the United States in late 2016, Trump has advocated an "America First" strategy [3] and started to spearhead the U.S.-China trade war more than a year later in 2018 [8] [13]. Since then, China has gradually hardened its diplomatic style [15], reducing the use of cautious diplomatic phrases such as "hope to act in a mutually beneficial manner" and gradually starting to frequently use aggressive diplomatic phrases such as "the responsibility lies with a certain party" and "a certain party will bear all the consequences". "The US side should not forget its wounds after the 9/11 incident" and "the Five-Eyed Coalition should be careful of being blinded" in a threatening tone. undiplomatic) terms, especially after the 2020 epidemic. This style of diplomacy began to be collectively described as "Wolf Warrior style" after the release of "Wolf Warrior 2" in July 2017, which was widely praised by the public, including the content of the movie itself and Wu Jing's own "I'm Chinese!" comments, which led to widespread discussions and controversies. diplomacy" [14].
For the People's Republic of China, Foreign Ministry spokesperson Hua Chunying responded by saying that "China does not take the initiative to cause trouble, but it is not afraid of trouble and will not be coerced into blackmail. If some people call China's diplomacy "war wolf" diplomacy just because China has responded to bottomless attacks, smears and abuses and stated the truth, then in order to safeguard China's sovereignty, security and development interests, to maintain national honor and dignity, and to safeguard international fairness and justice, it is better to be a "war wolf" diplomacy. What is the harm of being a "war wolf"? The Chinese ambassador to the UK, Liu Xiaoming, did not deny this description, and said that China insists on taking a peaceful route, but because there are "wolves" in the world, China needs "war wolves" to defend its national dignity. The editorial of the Chinese official media Global Times stated that China has always emphasized common interests and only defends itself when it is attacked, later stating that "there is an image that China is more like the 'Kung Fu Panda'". Li Junhua, the Chinese ambassador to Italy, does not think that War Wolf is an appropriate label, and that "Kung Fu Panda" may be more appropriate. Some media also analyze that the War Wolf diplomacy is back to the ideology-based Cultural Revolution-style diplomacy of Mao's time, and some political scholars point out that under the strengthening of the country's foreign capacity and self-confidence, it should be in the greatest interest to maintain a combination of psychological tolerance and influence as a means of communication, but the War Wolf has deliberately shown a non-cooperative and strength-confrontation diplomatic posture in the face of stimuli, probably because acting to superiors to gain an advantage in personal promotion or based on the need to create legitimacy for domination among the population .
Conclusion
China has used different media in its international communication activities. "Panda diplomacy" allows the animal "panda" to be taken out of the picture and become a medium. The "panda medium" refers on the one hand to the panda animal, which is able to express messages through its own form and movements, and on the other hand to the abstract concept of "panda", behind which lies the "and culture" and "Meng" culture. The "panda medium" is also a reflection of the highest ideals we expect from the development of media technology in real life. The "panda symbol" is a strategically important element of international communication. The "panda symbol" constitutes the deeper meaning of the "panda medium" and is transmitted through the "panda medium". "The panda symbol overcomes the barrier of "language symbols" in international communication, and uses concrete images and the perception of the five senses to share more meanings and evoke more resonance. From the initial gift of giant pandas, to their subsequent lease, cooperation in research, and then to their visits as emissaries, pandas are in fact a microcosm of China's diplomacy's gradual progress toward confidence and maturity. "Panda diplomacy" is a way for China to exercise its soft power, and pandas have gradually become a metaphorical animal for China in the Western media.The Chinese themselves, too, have made the panda and this metaphor an important cultural promotion.(Fu Lan, 2019,61) As goodwill ambassadors, pandas have traveled around the world, playing a role that human diplomatic envoys cannot, and greatly improving relations between China and the rest of the world. "Panda diplomacy" is just a miniature experiment in China's international communication activities today. The "panda medium" and the "panda symbol" are also just a novel attempt in the foreign communication strategy. We look forward to seeing the "panda medium" play an even greater role in the international communication in the future, and we look forward to seeing more forms of "mediums" emerge, so that China's international communication power can continue to improve and the Chinese story can be told better.
References
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[8]贸易战来势汹汹 美宣布对华600亿美元商品加税.BBC中文网[2018-03-23].
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[11]外交部回应美高官：没有可以对中国人民颐指气使的教师爷_纳瓦罗. www.sohu.com. [2021-03-01] （英语）.
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[17]赵丽君，郑保卫． 国家形象视角的“熊猫外交”研究［J］．新闻爱好者，2017(12) :15－19．
[18]张恩铭． 简述 20 世纪 50 － 70 年代中国的动物外交活动［J］． 惠州学院学报，2018，38( 4) : 66 － 70．
Terms
Giant Panda 大熊猫
Panda Diplomacy 熊猫外交
Tang Dynasty 唐朝
Emperor Wu/ Wu Zetian 武则天
Emperor Tenmu (日本）天武天皇
Kung Fu Panda 功夫熊猫
Ping Pong Diplomacy 乒乓外交
Wolf Worrior Diplomacy 战狼外交
Questions
1. When does the "Panda Diplomacy" begin ?
2. What roles giant pandas have played in China's international communication ?
3. What are the problems in panda diplomacy ?
4. How to deal with the problems in panda diplomacy ?
Answers
1. It begins with Wu Zetian.
2. It helps build a good national image and creates communication topics and economic value.
3. It may trigger political misinterpretation. And its single content will cause aesthetic fatigue. Moreover, over-commercialization may dissipate public interest
4. Refine the connotation of the symbol to reduce political misinterpretation; Enrich the content of communication; And make moderate exploitation of commercial value
英语口译 李丹 Li Dan 202170081620
Introduction
When talking about tea, though there are many countries around the globe have the habit of drinking tea, two countries would naturally come into people’s minds, namely China and the UK. The British afternoon tea, with various ingredients such as sugar and milk, is popular all over the world and is completely different from the traditional Chinese tea. But there is in fact a connection between the two. The English afternoon tea was developed after the introduction of Chinese tea to the UK and its localisation. Originated in China, tea was firstly used as a medicinal herb, and was later influenced by Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, resulting in a distinctive Chinese tea culture. Tea was introduced to Europe in the 16th century, and many countries began to consume it, among which the long-established Britain which established a British tea culture distinct from that of China, changing not only its native way of life, but also influencing the spiritual life of its citizens. However, instead talking about the similarities between the two, the author is just going to focus on the differences. Chinese tea and the British tea vary in types, utensils, etiquettes, which is overt, yet they are also quite different in their development and philosophies.
The Development of Tea Culture in China and the UK
Tea is an aromatic beverage made from the processed leaves, buds, or twigs of the tea bush in boiling or hot water. To be noted, tea is the second most widely consumed beverage in the world only after water. (Alan, Iris 2004, 32) The tea tree is native to East Asia and probably originated in the border areas of south-western China and northern Myanmar. (Yamamoto, Kim, Juneja 1997, 04) Early reliable records of tea drinking can be dated back to the third century AD in a medical text written by Hua Tuo. (Laura 2007, 29) During the Tang Dynasty in China, tea gained popularity as a recreational beverage, and subsequently tea drinking spread to other East Asian countries. Portuguese priests and merchants introduced it to Europe in the 16th century.(Bennett, Bonnie 2001,63) In the 17th century tea drinking became fashionable among the English, who began growing tea on a large scale in India. There is a long record of tea drinking in Chinese history, and it is impossible to pinpoint the exact time. Yet it is also possible to find evidence that the habit of drinking tea in many parts of the world was indeed passed on from China. Therefore, many people believe that tea drinking was pioneered by the Chinese, and that the tea drinking habits and tea growing habits in other parts of the world were directly or indirectly passed on from China. But some people can also find evidence that the habit of drinking tea is not a preserve of the Chinese, some other places in the world, such as India, Africa, etc also observe the habit.
There are divergent views on the origin of Chinese tea. Some believe that tea drinking can be dated back to the ancient times, while some believe that the habit was from the Zhou dynasty, from the Qin and Han dynasties, the Three Kingdoms Era, the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Tang dynasty, etc. The main reason for the divergent views is that before the Tang dynasty, there is no Chinese character “茶”，but only “荼” until Lu Yu, the author of The Classic of Tea, removed one stroke of “荼” to create the Chinese character “茶” (tea). Also Most scholars believe that Shennong, considered the father of medicine and agriculture in China, was the first person to discover the effects of tea. He is known to have tasted many tea leaves to determine if they could be used as food or medicine. (Irene 2018) According to legend, there are two different stories of how he discovered the benefits of tea. First, it is said that he had a transparent stomach and that he could see how his stomach reacted to what he was eating. After a long day of picking leaves, he was tired and as he was boiling water, some of the leaves fell in. The water was sweet when he drank it, and he enjoyed the taste. Soon after, he became more energetic. Another is that Shen Nong tasted 72 kinds of poisonous leaves and became very sick and was about to die. When some leaves fell near him, he put them in his mouth and chewed them. Before long, he felt better and more energetic, so he ate more of the leaves. Soon after, he recovered. (Lui Tong, 2012) The first book on the medical effects of tea was the Shen Nong Herbal. It is believed that the ancient Chinese people ate tea throughout their history.
However, tea as a culture in China has developed over time.(Jerry C.Y. 2011, 114-133) During the Zhou dynasty(1046-256 BC), tea was exclusive to nobles and royalty. They drank tea to energize the body and clear the mind except for medical purposes. At that time, tea was boiled with other plants to make a tea soup which was considered as a combination of medicine, food and drink. (Jerry C.Y. 2011, 114-133) There are also records showing that ritual worship at that time included tea ceremonies. In the Han dynasty(206 BC- AD 220), the picking and processing of wild tea helped to refine the taste of the drink, which makes tea drinking a more pleasant recreation with the nobles. During the Jin dynasty(265-420) and Wei dynasty(220-265), as the tea culture developed, it was still primarily excluded within the upper class such as literati, officials and the nobles. (Li Jie 2015) During the Tang dynasty(618-906), tea culture began to spread widely throughout the country. (Irene 2018) The establishment of the Ancient Tea Horse Road helped to develop trade routes between southern and northwest China as well as Tibet.(Gary 2015, 319) Literati and artists in the Tang dynasty produced so many works such as poems, drawings, songs and literature about tea. Tea culture finally flourished during the Song dynasty(960-1279). Tea-making was considered as one of a polite accomplishments of gentlemen at that time.( Bret 2016) When it comes to the 20th and 21st centuries, tea was traded or produced worldwide. Now there are various ways to experience cultural tea tourism in China such as museums, tea trails, guided tours tea houses, tea shops, etc.
As for the development of tea culture in the United Kingdom, since the 18th century, the UK has became one of the world largest tea consumers. Firstly an upper-class drink in Europe, tea gradually spread through all classes to become a common drink. It is considered to be one of the important identities of the UK.(Woodruff 1992, 259) The history of tea in Europe dates back to the mid-16th century and the 17th century. However, the earliest reference of tea known so far can be dated back to 1615. It was in a letter that Mr. Wickham, an agent for the British East India Company stationed in Japan asked Mr. Eaton who was stationed in then-Portuguese Macao to send him “a pot of the best sort of chaw(tea)”.(Ukers 1935, 37) As tea slowly became more common, the first tea shop in London opened during the early 18th century. Also in the early 18th century, milk and sugar were introduced to enhance the flavor of tea. (Woodruff 1922, 263) Because milk and sugar had status implications, such mix of drinks were mainly among the upper class. Later in the 1720s, black tea became more popular as sugar and milk were more common. As tea began as an upper class luxury in England, it had a reputation as a high class commodity in the 18th century; however, as prices slowly declined, more middle class members of society had access to tea. Soon tea drinking became an activity among families, colleagues and friends who were well enough off to afford it, and this increased demand.(Woodruff 1922, 275) As the UK continued to import an increasing number of tea, by the 19th century, tea moved from the upper class to reach even the poor working classes and was considered a daily necessity. Today, though tea drinking in the UK was on the decline with an increased popularity of coffee, it still remains to be an popular drink and a symbol of British culture and society. In Britain, there are high tea and afternoon tea. Often the phrases are used interchangeably as many mistakenly believe that there is no difference. Nevertheless, The addition of the word "high" to the phrase "high tea" is believed to differentiate between the afternoon tea that is traditionally served on low, comfortable, parlor chairs or relaxing in the garden and the worker’s after-work high tea that is served at the table and seated on high back dining chairs. [[File:]]The Spruce Eats / Lisa Fasol
Different Types of Tea in China and the UK
Tea is the national drink in China. In addition to its prominence in Chinese culture, tea also claims many health benefits, making it a popular drink worldwide. There are several types of Chinese tea, which vary in degree of fermentation and processing. The main classes of Chinese tea discussed below are green tea, yellow tea, white tea, oolong tea, black tea, dark tea or fermented tea and Pu'er tea. 1.Green Tea Chinese green tea is the oldest and most popular type of tea; it has been used in China for thousands of years. Green tea is made from the new shoots of the tea tree, the leaves are dried and processed according to the type of tea desired. The techniques used to process green tea are further divided into three categories: de-watering, rolling and drying. Traditional green tea is light in colour and has a sharp, astringent flavour. It is mainly produced in the provinces of Jiangxi, Anhui and Zhejiang. The most famous green tea is Xihu Longjing tea, produced in Hangzhou. 2.Yellow Tea Yellow tea is produced by allowing the moist tea leaves to dry naturally. It has a distinctive flavour similar to black tea, but its taste is closer to that of green and white teas. Yellow tea is also used to describe the high quality of tea given to the emperor to enjoy, as yellow was traditionally the colour of royalty. Junshan Yinzhen is produced in China's Hunan Province and is the country's most popular yellow tea. 3.White Tea White tea is an unfermented, uncured green tea that has been rapidly dried. It is native to the province of Phu Yen and is lighter in colour than other types of tea, with a subtle and delicate flavour. White tea takes its name from the tradition of poor Chinese people offering their guests plain water in the absence of tea and calling it 'white tea'. Popular brands of white tea are White Peony and Silver Needle. 4.Oolong Tea Oolong tea, also known as blue tea, is an unfermented tea with unique characteristics. Made from a blend of green and black teas, oolong tea has the best flavour and aromatic qualities of both. Sometimes referred to as "green leaves with a red edge", Oolong tea is believed to aid in fat breakdown and is widely regarded as a weight loss aid and beauty agent. Wenshan Baozhong tea and Dong Ding Oolong tea are two exemplary brands of this popular tea. 5.Black Tea Black tea is the second largest type of Chinese tea. It is made from the new shoots of tea leaves which are withered, kneaded, fermented and dried. The brewed tea has a lovely red colour and a subtle aroma. Keemun is the most popular brand of black tea. 6.Dark Tea Dark tea is a post-fermented tea which undergoes an actual fermentation process with the help of bacteria. The whole process consists of six steps: de-watering, initial rolling, stacking, second rolling, roasting and drying. It is widely believed that dark tea originated in the 16th century in Anhua, Hunan Province. The most common brands of dark tea are Anhua black tea, Hubei old flat tea, Sichuan Tibetan tea and Guangxi Liubao tea. Dark tea is very popular in Hong Kong, Macau, Southeast Asia and Japan. 7.Pu’er Tea Pu’er tea is actually a type of dark tea, but deserves a separate category due to its outstanding characteristics. Pu’er ea is native to Yunnan Province and has an ancient history of over 2000 years. According to the Yunnan Provincial Government's definition, Pu’er tea must be made from tea leaves made from large-leafed plants grown in specific areas and then processed into compressed or brick tea using specific techniques. It was listed as a "Geographical Indication Product" by the State General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine on 5 August 2008. It stipulates that only tea produced in 639 towns and cities in 11 regions of Yunnan, including Pu'er and Dali, can be called Pu'er tea. There are two different types of Pu’er tea: sheng Pu’er (raw or green Pu’er) and shy Pu’er (ripened or dark Pu’er).
For a country without cultivation of the tea plants, Britain has made its way in creative tea-brewing and tea drinking. Compared to the drinking habits of Chinese tea, English tea appears to be a blended one added various flavorings like milk and honey. There are currently almost 1,500 different teas in Britain, varying in style, taste and color. As one of the leading growers of tea in the world, the UK imported tea from the country and the three most important types imported from India to the Britain are Darjeeling, which comes from Northern India and is a light, delicate tea–perfect for Afternoon Teas. Ceylon Tea is slightly stronger than Darjeeling. It is aromatic with a slightly sharp taste. Assam is a strong tea which stands up well to being blended. The Isles also imported tea from China with major categories like Pu’er tea, Oolong tea, Green tea, Black tea, etc. Based on these categories, teas in the Britain can be further divided into 5 types. 1.Breakfast Tea English Breakfast Tea or simply Breakfast Tea is a traditional blend of black tea originating from Assam, Ceylon and Kenya. (Jane, Bruce 2006, 54) It is one of the most popular blends and is common in the tea cultures of Britain and Ireland. It is often described as strong, robust, rich and blended with milk and sugar in a style traditionally associated with hearty English breakfasts. 2.Afternoon Tea English Afternoon Tea or simply Afternoon Tea is a traditional blend of tea originating from India, China, Africa and Sri Lanka. Afternoon tea blends are usually lighter than breakfast blends and are meant to "complement, not mask, the taste of the afternoon tea meal".(Bruce 2018) 3.Chai Tea In fact, we call it "Chai", from the Chinese homonym for tea. Chai tea is a blend of black tea and almond milk with many natural spicy ingredients such as cinnamon, cloves, cardamom and vanilla. There is also a Chai tea and coffee combination for you to choose from; go to Starbucks for a Chai tea latte. 4.Earl Grey Tea Earl Grey tea is a blend flavoured with bergamot oil. The aromatic oil from the rind is added to the black tea to give Earl Grey tea its distinctive flavour. Traditionally, Earl Grey tea was made from black teas such as Chinese Longjing and was therefore intended to be served without milk. However, tea companies have since started to offer Earl Grey tea made from stronger teas such as Ceylons, which are better suited to the addition of milk or cream. Some people mixed this tea with Lupin Souchong tea to give it a smoky character. Other varieties were introduced, such as green or oolong teas. 5.Herbal Tea Herbal teas, also known as herbal infusions and less commonly as tisanes, are beverages made by steeping or decocting herbs, spices or other plant material in hot water. Often, herbal teas or teas in the common terminology are used as a reference to the various herbal teas. Some herbal blends contain real tea.
Different Teawares in China and the UK
China's tea wares have a wide variety, beautiful shape, both practical value, but also rich in artistic beauty. Behind each tea sets, there are history and philosophy. There are mainly ten parts in Chinese teawares. The lidded tea bowl (盖碗)are teapots without spouts. They were said to be invented in the Ming dynasty(1368-1644). They are made up of three parts: the saucer (盘子), the bowl (碗) and the lid (盖子). The lid represents heaven, the saucer represents earth, and the bowl represents humanity. Together they represent the harmony between man and nature. Then there’s purple sand teapot (紫砂壶) which is made of a special clay comes from an area called Yixing in Jiangsu province and can date back to as far as the Song dynasty(960-1279). Purple sand teapots are generally used for the preparation of more robust teas (oolong, red and black teas) rather than the more delicate teas (green, yellow and white teas). The next is tea tray (茶盘). All tea ceremonies are performed on a tea tray that collects spilt or decanted tea liquor, which is then pumped out and disposed of. Tea trays can range from simple wooden boxes with slats on top to intricately designed stones with carved-out water drains. Tea holders (茶匙) are usually made of white porcelain or bamboo. They are used to measure out the tea leaves and to allow the appearance of the dry leaves to be clearly viewed before scraping them into the brewing vessel. Instead of using hands to touch the teacups, servers will often use bamboo or metal tea tongs(茶夹) to handle the cups in order to be more hygienic. True tea connoisseurs have a tea pet(茶宠)sitting on their tea tray. This is usually a classical Chinese figurine, such as a dragon, a water buffalo or an old Chinese sage. They are usually made out of purple sand clay and used as a receptacle over which wasted tea liquor is poured to avoid splash-back from the tea tray. The last one is teacups (茶杯). As tea utensils, tea cups generally can be divided into two sizes: small cups are mainly used for oolong tea tasting, also known as tasting cups, is used in conjunction with the fragrance cup; large cups can also be used directly for tea and tea utensils, mainly for senior fine tea tasting.
The British attach great importance to the etiquette of drinking afternoon tea, so the choice of places to drink afternoon tea also strives for beauty, accompanied by rich and delicious snacks, creating a quiet and cozy and fruitful tea drinking atmosphere, when drinking tea, the British also enjoy showing their cultural temperament and personal cultivation. British tea sets mainly include: porcelain teapots (two-person pots, four-person pots or six-person pots... Depending on the number of guests to be served); strainer spoon and saucer with sieve program; cup set; sugar jar; milk jug; three-tier snack plate; teaspoon (the correct way to arrange the teaspoon is at an angle of 45 degrees to the cup); seven-inch individual snack plate; tea knife (for spreading cream and jam); fork for eating cakes; bowl for tea crumbs; napkin; pot of flowers; heat shield; wooden mopping tray (for serving tea products). Another lace hand-embroidered tablecloth or tray mat is a very important item for Victorian afternoon tea, as it symbolizes the important home accessories of the Victorian aristocratic life.
Different Tea Etiquettes in China and the UK
In China, tea is always served to guests when they visit. As an important medium of etiquette, tea plays an important role in Chinese interpersonal relations. When drinking tea in a Chinese teahouse, knowing the etiquette of tea, being polite and showing respect not only shows your good self-cultivation, but also gives you pleasure and peace from the tea. The first to be noted is seating etiquette. Normally, the host's left hand side should be the first guest of honour, with seating decreasing in importance from the host's left hand to his or her right. This is an ironclad rule that must be followed regardless of the shape of the table. In addition, the elderly and teachers are the most respectable, and among them, ladies who are not too far apart in age have priority. Furthermore, it is not appropriate to sit opposite the host. If this is unavoidable, children should be allowed to sit in this position. The next important one is finger kowtow. Finger Kowtow, otherwise known as finger tapping, is a ritual performed as a silent gratitude to the person serving the tea. According to legend, Emperor Qianlong of Qing Dynasty used to travel incognito to the south and once he went into a teahouse with his companions. The tea house owner used a long pot and poured the water three ups and downs with rhythm to make a cup of tea without even spilling a drop. Emperor Qianlong was impressed yet didn’t understand, “What was that movement?”, he asked. The owner smiled and said: “ This is the tradition of our tea house called ‘ Three Nods of the Phoenix’”. Heard that, Emperor Qianlong took over the long pot and tried to do the same, but that cup was his servant’s, normally the servant would get down on knees and kowtow to the emperor for this great honor. However, to do so would reveal the identity of the emperor, so the quick-thinking servant bent his two fingers and tapped on the table as if his was kneeing and kowtowing to the emperor. From then on, finger kowtow has been the practice. Nowadays, instead of the implication of kowtow, people just tap their two fingers on the table to pay silent thanks to the tea server. There are also some taboos in the etiquette of Chinese tea. First, do not drink up the tea at once. Tea is not plain water, it can nourish your palate and mind. If you’re not thirsty, then do not drink up the tea at once. On the contrary, you should take a sip and savor the flavor, from astringency to sweetness till the long aftertaste, you may find words are too plain to describe this fascinating process. Second, do not spit the tea out of your mouth. It is considered that the biggest impoliteness of the guest is to spit the tea out of mouth, especially, in front of the tea server. This bad manners may also imply the provocation to the host. Third, do not smoke. Smoking during the tea drinking is disrespectful. If you are a heavy smoker, you should ask the host for opinions after several steeps. Fourth, do not be absent-minded. Keep calm and relaxed when drinking tea, instead of being absent-minded and dispirited.
As for the tea etiquette in the UK, afternoon tea etiquette would be introduced here. First, one must eat the sandwiches first, and with fingers not cutlery. Then the scones – they should still be warm. Scones should be broken in two parts by hand, not with a knife, and each half eaten separately. It’s unthinkable to sandwich them back together! One can spread scones how one prefers: the Devon way is cream first, jam on top. The Cornwall way is jam first, then the cream. During the whole process, one person is elected to be ‘mother’ – they then pour the tea for everyone at the table. Always Remember to put the milk in first! Tea should be stirred back and forth, not in circular motions! One must also avoid the temptation to bash the sides with one’s spoon. Cups should be held with one’s thumb and index finger meeting in the handle and the handle resting on your middle finger. Fingers should not be hooked through, and horror of horrors saucers never lifted from the table. You may add a touch of fizz to your tea with a glass of English Sparkling Wine or a glass of Champagne.
The Reasons behind the Differences of Tea Culture between China and the UK
1. Differences in materials. There are differences in the perspective materials of Chinese and British tea culture, which can be understood in the following two aspects. Firstly, although there are many types of tea leaves, green tea has a unique fragrance, and when boiling, its soup is turquoise and clear, which can bring a kind of spiritual enjoyment to people. In addition, in the process of brewing tea, there are certain requirements for the water in order not to spoil the sense of freshness of the tea leaves, which is the reason why the Chinese prefer to use clear and sweet spring water. (Gan Wenmei, Zhang Jing 2018, 222) However, at the very first beginning of the introduction of tea in Britain, trade activities were carried out near Guangzhou. As the tea grown in this vicinity was mainly black tea, this type of tea was then chosen to be introduced to the isles. Also, as transportation was not developed enough in ancient times, black tea could be preserved for a longer period of time afterwards and thus black tea became the only choice. Secondly, the environment during tea drinking is not so strictly required, and people were able to drink tea both in their labour and in an elegant environment. However, some of the literati had certain requirements for the environment in which they drank tea, and most of them chose places with good scenery. When the British drink tea, it is mostly in a party or in a tea room, as people in these two environments will carry out social activities, leading their tea drinking environment more elegant. 2. Differences in behaviours. There are differences in the perspective of behaviours in Chinese and British tea culture, which can be understood in the following two ways. Firstly, although China and Britain use tea for social interaction, China is influenced by traditional customs and will "receive tea" during the marital ritual, requiring a "tea toast" from the bride to the father- and mother-in-law. (Gan Wenmei, Zhang Jing 2018, 222) Secondly, people's character can also be analysed from their tea drinking habits, for example: most of the Chinese people tend to be modest and gentle, and then people's tea drinking places, methods and other aspects are not constrained. As with the British, the UK was once the most economically developed country in the world, and has the title of the Sunset Empire, and thus there are certain requirements about the tea drinking process, the places, methods and other aspects 3. Differences in spiritual connotation. Firstly, the Chinese people's understanding of tea culture is influenced by its traditional culture, and they attach more importance to the concept of harmony and unity between man and nature. They believe that drinking tea can reach the realm of returning to nature. In turn, there are fixed ways of behaviour in growing tea, picking tea leaves and frying tea, and some people even believe that tea culture can cultivate one’s virtues. The British are influenced by their historical background and often reunite with friends in the process of drinking tea, which in turn makes them more focused on individual recreation. Secondly, the Chinese tea culture is influenced by Confucianism and tend to be inclusive, light and calm in terms of character while the British are influenced by pragmatism and have a liberal, brave character in their tea culture.
Conclusion
Chinese tea culture is an important part of Chinese culture, which has developed a rich connotation and complete forms in its long history of development. Historically, it has played an important role in improving people's quality of life, enhancing interpersonal interaction, and strengthening international trade and cultural exchanges. The Chinese people use the term "firewood, rice, oil, salt, soy sauce, vinegar and tea" (柴米油盐酱醋茶) to refer to the small yet important matters in daily life, which shows the critical position of tea in people's lives. (Yang Xiaobo 2019, 195） From the East to the West, from China to the UK, tea has gone through ups and downs, just like the process of life. It eventually matured. In England, tea was initially a "medicine" and "poison", then rose to the luxury of the aristocracy before finally becoming a necessity - the national beverage. Since then, the black tea culture has taken over the world today. This process has been long but has added to the beauty of the rivers of British history, culture and society in many ways. Time has shown that the power and significance of Britain; the ongoing development of the arts and sciences, etc., and even a happy social system are inextricably linked to tea. With the development of industrial civilization, the fast pace of modern life has impacted on people's leisurely traditional way of drinking tea, and people seldom have the time to meditate on the connotation of tea or to carefully prepare the costumes for afternoon tea. Against this backdrop, Chinese and British tea cultures are undergoing profound changes. Chinese tea culture no longer pursues too much meditation, and British tea culture has simplified its fancy forms and elaborate rituals in the past. (Bi Wenjing 2012, 128-129) Chinese and British tea culture is gradually emerging as a meeting point, which has helped to enhance the exchange of different cultures. However, it cannot be ignored that the traditional Chinese tea culture is now in decline, while the British tea culture, as a latecomer, is taking the world by storm. It is worthwhile for every Chinese to think about how to preserve and pass on the traditional Chinese culture.
References
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Terms
1. The Classics of Tea 《茶经》
2. Green tea 绿茶
3. Yellow tea 黄茶
4. White tea 白茶
5. Oolong tea 乌龙茶
6. Black tea 红茶
7. Dark tea 黑茶
8. Pu'er tea 普洱茶
9. Chai tea 印度香茶
10. Earl Grey tea 格雷伯爵茶
11. the lidded tea bowl 盖碗
12. tea holder 茶匙
13. tea tong 茶夹
14. tea pet 茶宠
Questions
1. Where is the origin of tea plants?
2. When did the Chinese character “茶”come into being?
3. True or false: When tea was introduced to the Britain, it can be accessed by the working class.
4. Where was the earliest reference of tea in the Britain found?
5. True or false: White tea is a fermented green tea.
Answers
1. East Asia.
2. In the Tang dynasty.
3. False.
4. In a letter by the agent of the British East India Company.
5. False.
英语口译 李立飞 Li Lifei 202170081621
Abstract
This paper discusses the distinctive features of memes in China in the context of digital culture. As China is a more politically complicated country and has a totally different mindset compared with Western countries, memes in China are usually closely related to every Chinese citizen's life, rather than only confined to a certain circle (such as video games and anime). In this paper, I will analyse Chinese memes in 3 dimensions: Geng(梗), Biaoqingbao（表情包）, and Guichu（鬼畜）, which represents text, picture and video respectively.
Key words
memes; digital culture; netizen
Introduction
A meme is an idea, behavior, or style that spreads by means of imitation from person to person within a culture and often carries symbolic meaning representing a particular phenomenon or theme. A meme acts as a unit for carrying cultural ideas, symbols, or practices, that can be transmitted from one mind to another through writing, speech, gestures, rituals, or other imitable phenomena with a mimicked theme. Supporters of the concept regard memes as cultural analogues to genes in that they self-replicate, mutate, and respond to selective pressures. In the vernacular discourse of netizens, the phrase “Internet meme” is commonly applied to describe the propagation of content items such as jokes, rumors, videos, or websites from one person to others via the Internet. According to this popular notion, an Internet meme may spread in its original form, but it often also spawns user-created derivatives."I'm like a badger jumping up and down in the melon field." Let's start with this sentence. What we want is your inexplicability. Because there are many old memes and new memes involved, which vividly shows a carnival of netizens.
First of all, the "melons" mentioned on the Internet are not fruits and vegetables in the ordinary sense, but hot news, and most of them have the meaning of stupid things in the Beijing dialect. Among them, "melon eaters" refer to ordinary Internet users who only watch and don't speak, in other words, bystanders. People use this to make fun of themselves or each other, to express a state of irrelevant, It's like eating melon seeds and listening to people chatting in daily life: "the badger and Run Tu (a child proficient in farming) in the melon fields under the moon" is a descriptive text from Lu Xun's hometown, which was later translated, extended, strengthened and promoted in "happy camp"(A talkshow): "I'm like a badger jumping up and down in the melon fields". It says that in April 2020, as the COVID-19 gradually stabilized, the Internet became lively again, All kinds of hot news one after another, so that the Internet users are busy.
The reason why I give this case at the beginning is to express that there are really some memes in the twists and turns of meme. However, people in the Internet age seem to like the memes. If they don't agree with each other, they will come out with the meme. So, it is worth exploring.
The Essence of Memes
Memes concerning someone’s height, face and certain memes from a clip of some TV series …… all sorts of memes with underlying meanings are carried by a word, a sentence or a movement, and the receiver often understands it within a split of second, and sometimes he will continue to extend it
This kind of situation frequently appears in various variety shows. Of course, you can also find memes in animation, e-sports, film and television dramas and other popular things for entertainment.
It can be seen that memes are funny and laughs, and paving the meme is to pave the way for laughter. However, whether in ancient Chinese or modern Chinese, there is another word that bears this meaning: 哏（punchline）.
In modern Chinese dictionary, the character "哏" has three meanings:
The first is funny, funny and interesting; the second refers to funny and interesting words or actions; the third refers to the scene, foreshadowing and laughter in variety shows. All three explanations are related to laughter. Therefore, it seems that we can say that "哏" refers to the comedy effect achieved through careful organization and bedding. The traditional crosstalk performance in China is composed of two roles, i.e. "clapping" and "teasing". The purpose of clapping and teasing is to shake off the burden by sudden turning at the last moment.
As for how “哏” evolves to “memes”, Chinese people believe that it can be dated back to the old days when variety shows were thriving in Taiwan. Mr. Fengyigang, a famous crosstalk actor in Taiwan, and Mr. Zhangdachun, a Chinese major at Fu Jen University in Taiwan, have openly talked about this issue. They believe that the current situation of the communication media is due to the ignorance of the people who dictate subtitles in television companies, as well as the entertainers, famous talkers and media audiences who go on and watch the program. They not only misinterpret and mistakenly write “哏” into “梗”, but also make “梗” funny and ridiculous. In dialect areas, the front and back nasal sounds can not be distinguished clearly. It is indeed a very normal thing to read "哏" into "梗". Tracing back to the source, “梗” was exactly “哏”, and "哏" itself is a “梗”.
Hit the mark by a fluke
Mr. Chenxihan said in his article What is the Popularity of the Word “Meme”:" the popularity of the word "meme" has nothing to do with the character “梗” in the dictionary. There are many supporters of this view. It can be seen that they are quite distressed that "limitation" has become a "hindrance".
The author believes that the “梗” has replaced the “哏”. Although it is an erroneous transmission and echoing of others, it also shows the power of modern communication. Moreover, language symbols themselves are dynamically stable in the continuous absorption of fresh blood. Anything existing must be reasonable. Moreover, the word "stem" has its own beauty
Before discussing the beauty of “梗”", let's take a look at some characteristics of the catchword “梗”.
1) “梗” means "not straight" Being not straight means not speaking directly or not speaking well. The reason why we don't speak well is that modern people like to play with their personalities and try to make innovations; on the other hand, it is because it is not easy to directly criticize some negative events, so we use this way to express them, that is, the so-called roast. For example, "are you a devil", "What immortal operation is this", "do you have a mine at home" and "is a cruel man" are called "divine reply", which can be used in almost all kinds of occasions, such as sincere praise, embarrassing avoidance, helplessness, tactful rejection and no words to talk.
2) Chinese memes, mostly "not long" "Take soy sauce", "do push ups", "hide and seek", "Lao tie(buddy) is all right", "cry faint in the toilet", "I want to make headlines", "the old driver takes me", "my brother doesn't grow beans but loneliness", "this picture is too beautiful for me to see", "Beida is OK to sprinkle Benin", "confirm your eyes" "let's go with shrimps"... These are some stems that have been popular in recent years. Naturally, every meme has a story behind it. There are stories behind every stem. However, when using it, it only needs a few short words to communicate. Therefore, the vivid words composed of these words are actually a highly condensed story.
3) Chinese niche memes Let’s start with an example: 4396. Previously mentioned memes may be obscure at the first sight, but at least you can imagine how it looks in real life, while some memes are completely confined to a certain circle. Of course, if you know this meme, then some people will regard you as a fellow believer. This is the e-sports circle.
In fact, the meaning of 4396 is also very simple: Clearlove, a League-of-Legend pro player dominates China’s e-sport, had the output damage of 4396 (which is far away from enough) at the end of the S6 global finals quarter finals, which greatly delayed the team. That is to say, whenever there is a clearlove game, the audience will frequently brush this number on the bullet screen and make mischief in good faith. Therefore, stems such as 4396 are more like a kind of joint code, showing the identity of the people in your circle. People outside the circle, this road is blocked, and you are the one who obstructs it. As for the "soy sauce" and other memes, they will be more popular, because they are originally aimed at the big circle of the Internet.
It is not straight, long and impassable, which is the characteristic of "梗" summarized from three aspects: the cause, the way of composition and the purpose of behavior. These characteristics exactly echo the word "stem" in modern Chinese. This is the wonder between the catchword "梗" and the modern Chinese "梗".
The character "梗" in the modern Chinese dictionary has the following meanings: first, the branches or stems of plants, such as vegetable stems; second, they are straight and upright, such as stem the neck; third, they are upright and straightforward, which can form the word "stem"; fourth, they are blocked or obstructed. The common phrases are "block" and "block". Fifth, roughly, such as outline. Sixth: thorny vegetation, such as stem elm. We might as well compare the two: the second and the third have the meaning of "straight", and the catchword takes its opposite meaning, "not straight"; First and fifth, there is the meaning of "trunk and outline", which is exactly the meaning of the catchword "not long"; The fourth is "blocking or obstructing", and the catchword "impassability" is completely consistent. As for the "thorny plants" in the sixth middle school, the author believes that this net red "stem" really hurt some people.
Chinese memes are modern allusions
As a modern catchword, the character "梗" may have been just a laugh in variety shows at first. However, in the process of application, it has broken through the category of variety arts. It is used in animation, e-sports, film and television dramas and other fields, and has also added many new meanings, thus becoming a polysemous word with the meaning of both highlights and hot spots. In the previous article, we said that "limit" is its original word. In fact, when it becomes a polysemous word, we also have a word with it, that is allusion.
For "allusions", the academic definition is somewhat different because of different research perspectives and fields. However, this is not important. Let's just take its general meaning. In the modern Chinese dictionary, "allusions" are explained as follows: first, allusions and anecdotes; second, ancient stories and words with origins quoted in poetry and prose; third, generally refers to recognized people and events with educational significance and familiar to the public. Of the three, the second is the most common, and we will start from here.
The reason why "ancient stories and words with origins quoted in poems and prose" emphasize "in poems and prose" is that before electronic communication, network communication and even print communication, text communication is the most important mode of communication. Due to the limitations of technical conditions and the characteristics of the poetry itself, allusions can express the most abundant connotation in the most concise words, which is naturally loved by scholars, and it just has the characteristics of the stem we talked about earlier: not straight, not long, and impassable.
Therefore, we can say that a meme is actually the allusion of modern people. Of course, due to different media, ancient allusions and modern stems, one is slowly deposited in a long time, and the other is rapidly spread in a broad space. However, they all reach the "familiar to the public" in the modern Chinese dictionary
Generally speaking, the stability of allusions is very strong. After all, its formation has been tested by years and will continue to be stable. However, all kinds of stems have certain timeliness. On the modern information highway, as long as time goes by, the old stems will be replaced by new stems, and as long as more people use them, they will be teased as "indiscriminate stems".
Moreover, there seems to be no reason and no rule to follow about the formation of stem. For example, "blue thin mushroom" was just a video sent by a Nanning guy to his girlfriend in his circle of friends, while "light yellow long skirt and fluffy hair" came from a magical rap in "youth has you 2". However, it suddenly became popular on the Internet overnight, so that even the parties themselves were baffled. Of course, it comes and goes quickly. Now if anyone uses it again, it will be called out. This can also be regarded as a confirmation that "the back waves of the Yangtze River push the front waves, and the front waves beat on the beach".
Using memes is a sort of self-mockery Why memes can be so welcome these days? First of all, this is an era of entertainment. In today's era, with a fast pace of life and high labor intensity, people have obtained relatively abundant materials on the one hand, but on the other hand, they are also under great psychological pressure. In addition, people have publicized their subjective consciousness and pursue personal liberation. Therefore, various entertainment with happiness, experience and passion just meet the needs of releasing pressure and flying themselves. This is the social reason for the tendency of entertainment in contemporary China. There are different opinions on this tendency, and this article will not repeat it. What the author wants to say is that in such an era of almost universal entertainment, a large number of communicators and receivers make all kinds of stems full of fashion, identity and satisfaction come and go. This is the soil for the existence and development of stem culture.
Secondly, the development of science and technology provides the possibility and guarantee of realization. The prosperity of stem culture owes much to the awesome of the Internet, television, radio and other media. In particular, the network, a new media, forum, live broadcast, microblog, circle of friends and other platforms, is always suitable for you. In addition, it can not only spread words and pictures, but also spread audio and video. In addition, network communication also has the characteristics of dandelion and viral communication, and can spread wildly and widely. This allows netizens to achieve online and offline Carnival from zero distance without time difference even in different time and space.
Of course, the prosperity of stem hair also lies in the richness of stem itself. For example, "regret not to kill Hua Tuo", "Yuan Fang, what do you think" and "bitch is hypocritical" from film and television dramas, which are simple and crude, and can be used directly: "the iron horse is you, and the glacier is you" and "I'll buy you oranges, and you stand still" are from literary works. If you haven't read some books, you really can't understand them, People even joked that "it's terrible to have no culture": "lishizhen's skin", "neiniu Manmian", "grey machine" and "ten fold water bottle" are misreading and listening errors caused by different dialect sounds. The standard saying is "you are a real skin", "tears streaming down your face" and "plane" at this level. Although the former is wrong, it is very interesting and interesting; "8:20", "the power of the famine" and "see you on Monday" because of the celebrity effect, people flocked to it for fear that they would not catch up with the trend; "A cool song for myself" "I may fake XXX" "in fact, I refused at the beginning" "I'm too south", which is a self mockery of my bad state, and there is no lack of lightness and happiness in humor; "My little friend and I were stunned" "the small boat of friendship said to turn over" "the Cantonese ate Fujianese” "What about the promised XX", "I'm XX all over" and so on, which makes people come up with happy pictures in their minds. In a word, all kinds of tricks are implicit and euphemistic, and the meaning has been reached before words. There are feelings and scenes, things, sounds and colors, pictures and truth.
The spreading and spreading logic of Chinese memes
1) Participatory Cultural Carnival from the perspective of meme. In 1976, zoologist richarddawkins of the University of Oxford in England put forward the meme theory in his book selfish genes, which is the basis for today's thinking about "stem"
The phenomenon of communication provides an annotation. The word "meme" is a transliteration of the English word meme, which originates from the ancient Greek mmma and means "something to imitate", and is also translated as "meme". Chuan 4 is considered to be a "replication factor of human social and cultural transmission" because it imitates "gene" in the spelling of letters. 5], including "stem", popular songs, melodies, images, videos, clothing, etc. in the Internet age can be regarded as "Internet memes".
Genes continue through heredity, and memes spread through imitation. In this process, netizens have joined in one after another and continuously participated in copying, modifying and reconstructing. Everyone is the successor and editor of the Internet meme, and "stem" has also become the most representative producer text among products. For example, after netizens called Liuxiaolingtong's "joking is not nonsense, adaptation is not random" as "six schools" and Huangxiaoming's "I don't want you to think, I want me to think it is" Ming School ", they continued to“ × Learn to "name the relationship between guests in the variety show" flowers and youth "as" flower school ", and the symbol of deliberately showing off Versailles as" fan school ", and many passages, expression packs and short videos have been derived; such as “886” “yyds "and "u1s1" "The synonymous expression of numbers or letters also reflects the meme characteristics of network language. The reason is that imitation is the basic nature of human beings. Driven by this herd mentality, people hope to gain a sense of participation and pleasure: objectively, the simplicity, interesting connotation, diversity of forms and convenience of communication channels of these words also fit the tone of popular culture. Therefore, more and more people Boarded the band float, the "stem" culture has gradually become popular throughout the network based on the creation and relay of borrowed sentences, and the internalization and sharing of meaning.
2) Community identity label in interest marriage connection. The Internet has discovered "individual", and also provided the possibility of unlimited connection between people. As far as the "stem" culture is concerned, the transmission and interaction of Internet memes make the cybernetics who know and know "stem" begin to gather into a new community under the centripetal force of the corresponding "stem", a "super community" built around the "stem" culture "and" mainly through the Internet for information exchange, emotion sharing and identity recognition. Take the crosstalk community "Deyun society" as an example, the audience forms a fan group based on love, And we can further infer which artists are the fans of each other according to the "throwing and receiving" of "Pan Ta", "Fenhe bay" and other representative "stems". For people who have rarely or never heard of Deyun society crosstalk, there is a clear communication gap between them and these "stems". That is to say, although the Internet has gone beyond the traditional blood relationship, geography and other connection modes, people have re installed a one-way revolving door with the "stem" as the boundary. Inside the door, they communicate, cut carbon and enjoy themselves by making "stem" and exploding the stem; outside the door, unless they rely on the common meaning space to prove their own names, it is difficult to resonate with the inside.
Of course, due to the high frequency of information transmission and the fast speed of topic alternation in chrome, the continuous emergence and loss of temperature of "stems" have also led to the agglomeration and collapse of the corresponding interest community. The normal behavior of moving around on different new media platforms also opens the way for people to integrate and learn more "stems" and related logic, and makes it easier for individuals to set foot in several interest groups at the same time. In addition, the addition of CCTV and other mainstream media has also urged many "stems" to "go out of" private plots ". In addition to reaping considerable communication effects, it also represents that" stems "have been widely recognized and officially endorsed. Relying on the interactivity of interpersonal communication and the value-added nature of mass communication," stems "gradually" break the circle "and spread in the collision and blending between interest communities, and increasingly become the discourse practice of the same frequency resonance in the whole society.
3) Expression of initiative generation and elimination during symbol compilation.
In the interest community " which combines the cohesion of traditional communities and the freedom of modern communities, people are more eager to pursue the sense of identity and the desire to express. The definition of the inherent meaning of words has also lost the restriction of authority and turned into the existence of independent interpretation. From the semantic derivation of "divine beast" and "houlang", to the self creation of "oli Gei", and then to“ ×× Very angry, the consequences are very serious, ×× Fill in the blank with the words of "No.1". The sememes of "stem" are becoming more diverse, and the scope of coverage is becoming deeper and wider. As the common experience of the interest group, the process of "stem" cultural production and consumption is accompanied by the pleasure of coding and decoding. On the one hand, the "stem" culture of "making sentences" and "solving puzzles" is in line with the pleasure of game participation in the pan entertainment era. For example, what kind of garbage is it? " "The first cup of milk tea in autumn" and so on, in the ingenious meaning input during coding, the additional meaning endowing during communication, and the understanding meaning reading during decoding, meet the publicity of personality, the release of emotion and even the recovery of memory. It can be said that the act of opening the "access control" of the interest community itself is both the purpose and the effect of the "stem". On the other hand, "Jie's Deconstruction of discourse rules also reflects the" offensive pleasure "of setting up bottom-up issues. "Stemming culture breaks the old pattern of words and sentences, and becomes a supplement to the existing language system in the form of simplification, homophony and extension. For example," hehe "," yeqinghui "and" yunvwugua "are creations from the bottom, which conform to the metaphorical cognitive model of the public, reflect the social mentality of Internet users eager for the right to speak, and are also a game and challenge with" hegemonic monologues ". In this way, with the code compilation method of" opposition ", "Stem" as a subculture goes out of the minority and constantly rewrites, arrogates and feeds back the mainstream culture, and has a development trend of becoming one of the mainstream expressions.
The impact of memes
1) Positive effects 1.1 promote cultural development. There are many categories of stem culture, and the cultural stem with knowledge content has a certain role in promoting the development of culture. "Black people carry coffins" is a funeral custom in Ghana and other places in Africa. People who carry coffins are invited to dance during the funeral. The coffin bearers usually bear the coffin on their shoulders, wear formal clothes, and use warm dances in the form of clapping and stamping to infect the people around them, so as to reduce the sadness caused by death, and hope that they can participate in this ceremony together. Influenced by the happy atmosphere, black coffin lifting soon became popular in China. Netizens learned about this special funeral custom in Africa through the "black coffin lifting" stem. The popular "rare words" in the past promoted the spread of words through the popularity of songs.
1.2 Accelerated information dissemination. Network language has accelerated the communication of information due to its diverse forms of expression, easy to understand and highly infectious. For example, Wuhan Huoshen mountain and Leishen mountain hospitals started the live broadcast to watch the progress of the project in order to provide more sickbeds during the epidemic period. Netizens gave the machine lovely names, "vomit mud sauce" and "Qin Shi Huang" during the live broadcast. On the one hand, they spread the construction of the hospital, also passed happiness in the tense atmosphere, and derived the hot word "cloud supervisor".
1.3 Build interpersonal relationships. Carnival theory breaks the boundaries between people, people form new relationships between people through virtual identity, breaks the boundaries between classes, and promotes interpersonal communication. Users will build different interpersonal relationships on different platforms. For example, the previous petition "made Wang Yibo and Xiao Zhan popular. This pair of CP fans named themselves" Bojun and Xiao ". This group not only created many hot words, but also spontaneously formed an organized team, and common topics promoted the development of interpersonal relationships
2) Negative impact 2.1 It is easy to cause group polarization.
The "spiral of silence" phenomenon still exists in the network, and under the effect of carnival, it will further generate group polarization. Take the expression pack as an example, the communication speed of words in online social networking is slower than that of expression packs. The expression pack conveys emotions that words cannot explain in the form of pictures, and carries out viral communication by mobilizing groups.
Le Pen described the irrationality of group emotion in the mob. When individuals enter a group, rationality will disappear, and "unconsciousness" will occupy rationality. Due to the anonymity of the Internet, individual netizens will have moral demonstration behavior, lose their sense of responsibility and weaken their due world outlook and values. Le Pen regards the public as "gangsters or" people who break free from chains ". Under the influence of the "mob", if negative emotions are generated in the network carnival, it will accelerate the spread and development of such negative emotions, and the group will lose its rationality, which will lead to group polarization and even network populism.
2.2 Behaviors involving Shilu's privacy. Irrational revelry on the Internet will lead to excessive consumption, such as privacy disclosure and human flesh search, which will further lead to online violence. If everyone masters the microphone, it will lead to a lot of noise. Once information is spread on the network platform, it will have an uncontrollable impact. For example, in the luozhixiang and zhouyangqing incident, netizens denounced it on the Internet and invented "the stem of time management masters, which is originally a private emotional problem that has developed into an online public event. The irrational behavior of the Internet chrome keyboard man will not only affect the social order, but also cause legal problems.
2.3 Affect the normal use of Chinese characters. Chinese characters have gone through thousands of years of history, and the development of network language is an impact on them. The netchrome expression pack is convenient and fast to use, and enables the interlocutor to better feel the emotional expression of the user across the screen. At the same time, it also reduces the utilization rate of Chinese characters. Users often choose to use the expression pack to express. Internet stem culture and some Internet words distort traditional Chinese characters and affect the normal use of users. For example, "mouse tail juice" means "take care of yourself" and "maozi" means "like this". This expression will affect people's correct understanding of Chinese characters and is not conducive to the use of Chinese characters.
Conclusion
Network Carnival presents a dilemma of context and social interaction. When the negative effects of Carnival are presented, it will lead to verbal violence, behavioral anomie and moral loss. For youth groups, it will affect the formation of correct world outlook, values and outlook on life. Carnival is just a form of entertainment. It is a short-lived utopian ideal life. Excessive Carnival will eventually make real life absurd and evil. Net chrome carnival is temporary and virtual. It cannot be mixed with real life. Stability and order are our life. If the network carnival is regarded as a kind of real life, our existing social order and system regulations will be disintegrated, the audience with fluke mentality will have a wrong tendency in speech and behavior, some public opinion trials and moral trials will disturb the existing stability, and the real society will be out of control. In the special period of fighting against the COVID-19, the impact of stem culture, live broadcasting and other forms has disturbed the existing social order, and the public may lose themselves in the carnival of the network. It is the boundary between reality and the network. The real network Carnival should be a supplement to the real society.
The meme culture rooted in the soil of postmodernism is not a self-sufficient text, but a series of ongoing meanings with bright colors and broad strokes. On the semantic level, it is equipped with the key to "unlock" different symbolic purports; on the social level, it also enriches the perspective for understanding fashionable phenomena and development trends. In the future, "stem" will still further evolve and innovate with the help of network media, and give guidance and encouragement to it to create a positive and harmonious polyphonic atmosphere, which is also the meaning of exploring this cultural landscape.
References
- 王子健,李凌凌.网络“梗”文化的意蕴内涵与传播逻辑[J].青年记者,2021(14):109-110.DOI:10.15997/j.cnki.qnjz.2021.14.053.
- 贾想.“梗文化”研究[J].创作评谭,2021(02):24.
- 陈铈光,秀梅.网络语言的狂欢化分析——以梗文化为例[J].新闻前哨,2021(03):57-58.
- 余轩宇.娱乐化时代的“梗”文化[J].景德镇学院学报,2020,35(04):42-45.
英语口译 莫雨婷 Mo Yuting 202170081622
1.1 Introduction
Since ancient times, people started living with the existence of animals. Due to different geological environments, cultural backgrounds, customs, and religions, the symbolic meanings of animals vary in different countries. Animal symbolism evolves with languages and cultures. According to Claire Kramsch: “On one hand, language as an integral part of human being permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps permeate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.” (Claire Kramsch, 1998).
In the past, China was an agricultural society in which animals played an important role in people’s daily life. Some animals have been tamed by human beings, while others are still wild animals. For different animals, Chinese people have different attitudes and emotions. And many symbolic meanings of animals will show up in myths, fables, fairy tales, proverbs, idioms and etc.
The earliest Chinese animal symbolism could date back to the Western Zhou period (1046-771BC). The Book of Songs, one of the earliest anthologies of verse in China, used various animals, such as horses, rats, fish, birds, etc., to narrate stories and express emotions. These animals are given different symbolic meanings. Animal symbolism evolves with Chinese culture, and it takes the Chinese language as a carrier. Chinese people are very familiar with the 12 animal zodiac, and some of the 12 animal symbolic meanings have changed with time. It shows a strong relationship between symbolic meanings and Chinese culture. In addition, many Chinese idioms will use animal symbolism to express different meanings. For instance, the Chinese four-character idiom “龙腾虎跃” (spirited dragon and dynamic tiger) shows a positive meaning, while “贼眉鼠眼” (people with furtive eyes) has a negative meaning. This article will focus on the 12 animal symbolism in the Chinese zodiac and animal symbolism in Chinese four-character idioms and show more details by giving more related examples and pictures.
1.2 Animal symbolism in Chinese zodiac
The origin of the Chinese zodiac is related to Chinese people’s animal worship. According to the ancient artifacts, a complete zodiac system appeared before the Qin Dynasty. The earliest literature recording the same 12 zodiacs as today’s was Lunheng (《论衡》) written by Wang Chong, a philosopher and writer active during the Han Dynasty.
Rooted in Chinese people’s daily life, language, culture, and custom, the 12 animals of the Chinese zodiac have unique symbolism and cultural connotations. (Ma Dan 2006, 1) The symbolic meanings of the 12 zodiac animals differ in terms of their characteristics and different cultures. They are also influenced by the changes in people’s ideas and ideologies. One animal may have more than one symbolic meaning, it can be positive or negative, and these meanings will also change with time.
1.2.1 Rat
The Chinese zodiac begins with the rat. Rat is not a good sign in Chinese culture. According to the ancient folk story “Great Race”, the kindhearted Ox carried the Rat and the Cat across the river because they couldn’t swim. However, the Rat was cunning and tricky. As the Ox was about to reach the other side of the river, the Rat pushed the Cat into the river, jumped off the Ox, and rushed to the Jade Emperor. It becomes the first sign in the Chinese zodiac and the Ox second. People usually associate negative meanings with rats because they look ugly, live in dirty places, and always steal food. They also ruin farmers’ crops and destroy the environment. Thus, in China, the mainstream is that the symbolic meaning of rats is negative. Chinese people will use some words or idioms including the character “rat” to abuse others or to describe those people who have bad habits.
1.2.2 Ox
The symbolic meanings of the Ox are complicated and depend on different contexts and situations. For most Chinese people, the Ox symbolizes those people who are tall, strong, hard-working, and patient without complaints (Ma Dan 2006, 3). The reasons for the positive symbolism of the Ox may lie in the history and development of Chinese agriculture. China has been an agricultural society for a long time, and oxen are an important tool of production and a common form of transport (Liu Shanshan 2014, 15). Oxen are large and strong, they can work the whole day for farmers. In some contexts, the symbolic meaning of the Ox can be negative. People will describe those who are stupid, poor, or with low social status by using the symbolism of the Ox.
1.2.3 Tiger
Tiger is a symbol of justice and braveness. In Chinese culture, tigers are regarded as the kings of the animal world. Chinese people show their reverence for tigers. Earlier in the Spring and Autumn period, people in Chu State(楚国) conveyed deep reverence for tigers, which was reflected in the totem of tigers in Chu culture. Ancient Chinese regarded tigers as a kind of mysterious animals, some minorities even took tigers as the incarnation of God (Liu Shanshan 2014, 16). Today, tigers still have positive symbolic meanings in Chinese culture, which can be referred to people who are excellent and brave with great talents or people who are healthy, spry, and strong.
1.2.4 Rabbit
Rabbits are quiet, docile, and agile. In Chinese culture, rabbits symbolize activeness, flexibility, and quick movement (Shi Juanzhi, He Ling 2011, 1). Chang’e and the Jade Rabbit are well known to Chinese people. In Chinese folklore, the Jade Rabbit plays an important role in making the elixir. Thus, the image of the Jade Rabbit symbolizes health and longevity. Rabbits are also used to describe fleeting times. Apart from these positive symbolic meanings, there are some negative symbolic meanings of rabbits. For example, Chinese people will describe those people who are timid and cunning by using some words or idioms (Ma Dan 2006, 3).
1.2.5 Dragon
Dragon is the only mythological sign of the Chinese zodiac. It is a unique animal full of Chinese characteristics. Chinese people’s worship of dragons is deeply rooted. In ancient times, people believed that the Dragon King controlled the weather and rainfall. They regarded floods as a bad sign indicating that the Dragon King was in a rage, so they built many Dragon King temples to appease the Dragon King and pray for good weather and better harvests.
In Chinese culture, the dragon is an honorable and noble animal symbolizing power and right. Especially in feudal society, the emperor believed that he was the son of the dragon. His people and servants used words such as “龙体”(dragon’s body, means the emperor’s health),“龙袍”(dragon robe, means imperial robe),“龙椅”(dragon throne, means the emperor’s chair) to describe things related to the emperor (Liu Shanshan 2014, 18).
In addition, Chinese people are known as the Descendants of Dragon. In people’s daily life, many words and idioms including the symbolism of dragons are used to describe great things and outstanding talent. For example, a famous Chinese idiom says: “望子成龙，望女成凤”, which is frequently used by many parents who hold high hopes for their children. It means parents hope their children will have a bright future.
1.2.6 Snake
The snake has always been portrayed in a negative image in Chinese culture. It is a kind of cold-blooded, vicious, and greedy animal, which usually terrifies human beings. In Chinese mythology, the Classic of Mountains and Seas, also known as Shan Hai Jing (《山海经》), records nine types of snakes that can make various strange noises. The appearance of snakes always signifies misfortune (Song Zhima 2009, 2). Thus, Chinese people always associate snakes with bad things or villains. In some cases, snakes still have positive symbolic meanings. Chinese people use the four-character idiom “灵蛇之珠” to praise graceful and flowing calligraphy (Liu Shanshan 2014, 19). In Chinese mythology, Nüwa, the mother goddess with a human face and snake body, creates human beings. Thus, snakes also signify power, immortality, and exuberant vitality in Chinese culture (Song Zhima 2009, 2).
1.2.7 Horse
Horses are large and sturdy animals with patience and stamina. In ancient times, the horse was an important means of transport and a kind of military resource (Liu Shanshan 2014, 20). They were closely related to a country’s military and people’s lives. In the Tang Dynasty, Han Yu, a Chinese historian poet, philosopher, politician, and one of the Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song, wrote Discourse on Horse (《马说》). In this discourse, Han compared gifted talent to swift horses, and the talent of scouts to Bole. This is the origin of the Chinese words “千里马（swift horse）” and “伯乐（Bole, talent of scout）”. The two words are still used today.
In Chinese culture, horses usually have positive symbolic meanings. Some Chinese characters are used to describe battle scenes, like “千军万马” (a big army includes many soldiers and horses). People also refer to horses as those people who make great contributions to the country or wise men (Liu Shanshan 2014, 20).
1.2.8 Goat
Goats are lovely and gentle animals, but they are also very timid. In Chinese culture, whether the symbolism of goats is positive or not depends on different situations. But in most cases, the symbolic meanings of goats are negative. In Chinese, the sheep is often used to describe those people who are weak, helpless, and vulnerable (Liu Shanshan 2014, 21). For example, Chinese people always use the four-character idiom “羊入虎口”(a lamb in a tiger's den) to describe weak people in a dangerous circumstances. It compares weak people to goats. Another famous idiom frequently used by Chinese people is “亡羊补牢，为时已晚” (mend the fold after the sheep is lost), which comes from the Annals of the Warring States. It means it’s too late to do something.
Notes: The Chinese character “羊” is a general word, which can be expressed by different English words like goat, sheep, and lamb.
1.2.9 Monkey
Speaking of the monkey, Chinese people are very familiar with the character: Monkey King, or Sun Wukong. Monkey King is a legendary mythical figure best known in the book: Journey to the West（《西游记》）, one of the Four Great Classical Novels. He has unique powers and a spirit of rebellion and defiance, and he is the symbol of pursuing freedom (Zhao Leping 2018, 40-41). In Chinese culture, monkeys signify people who are bright, smart, and humorous.
However, in modern society, the symbolic meanings of monkeys are not always positive. In some cases, people associate monkeys with naughty children who are noisy and like playing tricks. In addition, people usually use the four-character idiom “尖嘴猴腮” to describe people with pointed mouths and thin angular faces.
1.2.10 Rooster
The rooster is the tenth sign of the Chinese zodiac. It is a common animal with a long history and various connotations. The Chinese character “鸡” appeared on the oracle bone script written 8,000 years ago. In traditional Chinese culture, dragon and phoenix are mythological animals, while the rooster is a kind of special fowl. In the past, people would raise chickens in their farm yard. Chicken and eggs were important agri-products. Roosters usually crow when the sun rises, so they signify diligence and prophecy. They are also known as “messengers of the sun”.
Nonetheless, the symbolic meanings of roosters are not always positive. In ancient times, the rooster was the sign of a bad omen. People would use “偷鸡摸狗” to describe thieves, or “牝鸡司晨” to describe women who seize power (Liu Shanshan 2014, 21-22).
1.2.11 Dog
In Chinese culture, the image and connotation of dogs have dramatic changes. In modern society, people like dogs. Many people believe that dogs are loyal animals that are people’s best friends. Some people raise pet dogs and treat them as their companions. In some cases, dogs even become a member of a family. Today, Chinese people’s attitudes towards dogs are greatly influenced by western countries (Liu Shanshan 2014, 22).
However, in ancient times, people’s attitude towards dogs was totally different. In the past, dogs played an important role in guarding the doors, so people regarded them as their servants. In traditional Chinese culture, people usually associate dogs with derogatory meanings. For example, the four-character idiom “狼心狗肺” is used to describe people who are despicable and shameless (Liu Shanshan 2014, 22). In addition, the famous two-part allegorical saying “狗拿耗子，多管闲事” is used to criticize those who like sticking their noses into other people’s businesses (Ma Dan 2006, 12).
1.2.12 Pig
China has a long history of raising domestic hogs. Pigs are very common but useful animals in ancient China. They are fat, have big ears and short legs, and grow very fast. And pork is a kind of delicious food. Thus, in the past, raising pigs was an important means of livelihood for farmers. They could earn money from it, so in ancient times pigs symbolized wealth and fertility.
But in Chinese culture, most symbolic meanings of pigs are derogatory. The cultural connotation of pigs is similar in both China and western countries. People always relate pigs to bad things. Pig is the symbol of laziness, greediness, ugliness, and stupidity (Ma Dan 2006, 5). The typical character based on the pig which is best known in China is Pigsy, also known as Zhu Bajie in the book Journey to the West.
1.3 Animal symbolism in Chinese Mythological Stories
After introducing the animal symbolism of the Chinese zodiac, this article will continue to introduce and explain animal symbolism by taking more Chinese four-character idioms as examples. Chinese animals, animal symbolic meanings, and four-character idioms are large in numbers with various types. Thus, this part will be mainly divided into two parts: the animal symbolism in Chinese mythological stories and fables.
1.3.1 Animals in Chinese Mythological Stories
Mythological animals play an important role in Chinese culture. These animals do not exist in reality, but they have rich cultural connotations. In ancient times, people couldn’t explain some natural phenomena in a scientific way, so they associate these phenomena with some animals and deify them. Thus, animals such as birds, dragons, and turtles in many Chinese mythological stories signify good fortune, and they have different magic powers. Dragon, Phoenix, Qilin, Turtle, and Pixiu (貔貅) are five famous Chinese mythological animals bringing good fortune. This part will focus on introducing the first three animals, their images and characteristics, and their symbolic meanings in Chinese culture.
1.3.2 Dragon
As mentioned before, the dragon is the fifth sign of the Chinese zodiac. The origin of the dragon dates back as early as 8,000 years ago. It is a mythological animal with a long body, two horns, and numerous scales (Mao Huijun 2016, 1). The image of the Chinese dragon was roughly established in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties. In the Han Dynasty, Yinglong became the symbol of feudal imperial power, which was a winged dragon in ancient Chinese legend. As the Classic of Mountains and Seas recorded, Yinglong had the main characteristics of later Chinese dragons: the power to control the sky and the noble mythical status (Xiao Congrong 2021, 92-93). Since the Tang and Song Dynasties, the image of the Chinese dragon symbolizing imperial power was changed into the wingless Yellow Dragon in modern times.
In Chinese culture, dragons usually have positive symbolic meanings. In imperial society, dragons signified supreme power and were identified with the Emperor of China, also known as “真龙天子” in Chinese. Today, dragons still can be used to describe those excellent people or talent. For example, the Chinese four-character idiom “人中龙凤” (the dragon and phoenix) or “人中之龙”(the dragon) is used to praise outstanding people with good personalities who are different from common people. In addition, dragons also appear in some idioms such as “游云若龙” (floating clouds look like flying dragons) to describe smooth and delicate calligraphy.
1.3.3 Phoenix
In Chinese, “凤” is the name of female phoenixes, and “凰” refers to male phoenixes. Similar to dragons, phoenixes are mythological animals. They play an important role in Chinese traditional culture and usually have positive symbolic meanings. The earliest origin of the phoenix dates back to the Stone Age. Among the existing Chinese classical books, The Book of History (《尚书》) was the first one to record stories of the phoenix (Ainiwajiang Kuerban 2021, 7). In the first mythological book The Classic of Mountains and Seas, it recorded that the phoenix was one kind of magic birds and described the image of the phoenix: it was an animal having colorful feathers with different patterns on its head, wings, back, and chest (Yuan Ke 1998, 75).
In Chinese culture, the phoenix symbolizes beauty, good fortune, happiness, and peace. People always associate the phoenix with the dragon, both of which are noble mythological animals. For example, the four-character idioms “凤凰来仪” and “龙凤呈祥” both refer to auspicious omen. In imperial society, the dragon signifies the Emperor and the phoenix refers to the Empress. Until today, its positive connotation still exists. People use “凤凰于飞” (a female phoenix and a male phoenix fly into the sky) to describe couples who deeply love each other (Ran Shugui 2012, 2). People also associate the phoenix with the Qilin because they are rare and precious. Thus, the phoenix also symbolizes excellent people or good things that are rare and precious, and “凤毛麟角” (the feather of a phoenix and the horn of the Qilin) is a common idiom used to express that meaning.
1.3.4 Qilin
Those who are interested in Chinese culture may be very familiar with the dragon and the phoenix, but not so familiar with Qilin (also known as Kylin). Qilin is a hooved chimerical creature in Chinese mythology. The earliest article recorded the Qilin was Book of Rites: The Conveyance of Rites. The name of the Qilin first appeared in The Classic of Mountains and Seas (Xu Xiujuan 2003, 3). Qilin generally has Chinese dragon-like features: similar heads with antlers, eyes with thick eyelashes, manes that always flow upward, and beards. The body is fully or partially scaled and often shaped like an ox, deer, or horse (Liscomb, Kathyln 2016, 341-378).
Similar to the dragon and phoenix, Qilin is a symbol of auspicious omens in Chinese culture. Ancient people believed that it could bring good fortune. As for people with relatively high social status, they would put a pair of Qilin statues in front of their gates so as to keep away from bad luck and maintain good fortune. Furthermore, Qilin plays an important role in Confucianism. According to Chinese mythology, Qilin is a kind of docile animal which represents auspiciousness, harmony, and graciousness. Many Confucian classics such as Spring and Autumn Annals (《春秋》) and Book of Rites recorded stories about Qilin (Ma Laiping 2021, 5). Those unique qualities of Qilin stay in line with the philosophies of Confucianism. Thus, the image of Qilin is deeply related to Confucianism.
In modern society, people still associate Qilin with good luck and fortune. For example, the four-character idiom “麟凤一毛” means that good things regardless of their sizes have been collected. In addition, Qilin is frequently used to describe outstanding people, especially men. For instance, “天上麒麟”(Qilin in the sky) is used to praise others’ sons who are gifted in literature (Ran Shugui 2012, 2).
1.4 Animal sybolism in Chinese Fables and Four-character Idioms
1.4.1 The Origin of Chinese Fables
Before cutting to the chase, a brief introduction will be given to Chinese fables. The word “寓言” (fable) first appeared in the book Zhuangzi (《庄子》). Ancient books recorded that Chinese fables existed in the late Spring and Autumn Period. During this turbulent period, fables were usually used to exhort the emperors by telling them lively stories (Zheng Wenjun 2014, 8). Bao Yanyi, a professor who specializes in ancient Chinese and researches related to fables, explains the definition of fables in Yu Yan Ci Dian (《寓言辞典》, a dictionary about Chinese fables): fable is a literary genre composed by fictional stories. It aims to let people understand moral saws by learning these stories. So it tells that a fable is usually composed of a fictional story, simple and short words, and philosophies.
1.4.2 Chinese Fables & Four-character idioms
With the development of Chinese culture and language, some famous fables have been passed down from generation to generation. In order to remember and convey the meanings of these fables, people shortened these fables and turned them into four-character idioms. In general, four-character idioms are concise, but with profound meanings and connotations. Some of them can be understood literally, while others can hardly be understood unless people know the history and origins (Zheng Wenjun 2014, 9).
1.4.3 Animal symbolism in famous Chinese four-character idioms
1.4.3.1 “对牛弹琴”(play the heptachord before an ox)
Dating back to the Warring States Period (475-221 BC), the story was related to a famous musician named Gong Sunyi who played the heptachord well. At that time, people enjoyed his performance and respected him. One day, Gong Sunyi came to a suburb. Coincidentally, he saw an ox grazing on the grass, so he decided to play heptachord on a whim before it. However, the ox was indifferent to his great performance and continued eating grass. He tried to play different music to impress the ox but in vain. At last, when he was making animal sounds, the ox responded to him, raised its head, and wagged its tail (Yang Yu 2017, 240).
This is the origin of the Chinese idiom “对牛弹琴”. It tells a simple truth: people should not explain something profound to someone stupid, or people should have different responses to different people (Zheng Wenjun 2014, 9). In this story, the ox has a negative symbolic meaning, which refers to those who are stupid and illiterate. In western culture, there are some similar idioms to express the same meaning like casting pearl before swine or talking to a brick wall.
1.4.3.2 “老马识途”(an old horse knows the way)
The idiom relates to a historical event, which was recorded in the book Han Feizi (《韩非子》). During the Warring States Period (475-221 BC), Qi State was ready to fight with Shanrong (山戎), a nordic ethnic group frequently attacking Yan State. When the army headed to the destination, it was in Spring. After winning the battle, it was in Winter and the landscape had been greatly changed. The army of Qi State was lost in the forest on their way back home. Guan Zhong (管仲), the Prime Minister of Qi State, thought for a while and found a solution. He believed that old horses were familiar with the route, so he asked soldiers to unleash the reins of several old horses and let them lead the way. Finally, they found the right way and came back to their country (Zheng Wenjun 2014, 9).
As mentioned above, the symbolic meanings of horses are usually positive. This allusion compares the old horse to a man with rich experience who can take a leading role in a group especially when the group is in some difficult situations.
1.5 References
[1] 北京周报网（2013）《中国文化中的蛇》
[2] Ran Shugui冉淑贵. (2012). 成语中动物意象符号及其形成原因
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1.6 Terms and expressions
The Book of Songs 《诗经》
12 animal zodiac/Chinese zodiac 十二生肖
spirited dragon and dynamic tiger 龙腾虎跃
people with furtive eyes 贼眉鼠眼
dragon’s body 龙体
dragon robe 龙袍
dragon throne 龙椅
parents hope their children will have a bright future 望子成龙，望女成凤
The Classic of Mountains and Seas 《山海经》
Discourse on Horse 《马说》
a big army includes many soldiers and horses 千军万马
a lamb in a tiger's den 羊入虎口
mend the fold after the sheep is lost 亡羊补牢，为时已晚
Journey to the West 《西游记》
sticking one’s nose into other people’s businesses狗拿耗子，多管闲事
The Book of History 《尚书》
Book of Rites: The Conveyance of Rites 《礼记·礼运》
Spring and Autumn Annals 《春秋》
Zhuangzi 《庄子》
Han Feizi 《韩非子》
play the heptachord before an ox/casting pearl before swine/ talking to a brick wall 对牛弹琴
an old horse knows the way 老马识途
1.7 Questions
1. When did the earliest Chinese animal symbolism appear?
2. Who wrote the earliest literature Lunheng (《论衡》) recording the same 12 zodiacs as today’s?
3. From which ancient folk story, we can know that the Rat exceeds the Ox and becomes the first sign of Chinese zodiac?
4. Why Chinese people in ancient times built many Dragon King temples?
5. What are the five famous Chinese mythological animals bringing good fortune?
6. Which book recorded the earliest article about Qilin?
7. The story of “对牛弹琴” happened in which period?
8. What is the connotation of the four-character idiom “老马识途”？
1.8 Answers
1. It appeared in the Western Zhou period.
2. Wang Chong.
3. Great Race.
4. Because they wanted to appease the Dragon King and pray for good weather and better harvests.
5. Dragon, Phoenix, Qilin, Turtle, and Pixiu.
6. It was Book of Rites.
7. It happened in the Warring States Period.
8. It means a man with rich experience can take a leading role in a group.