History of Sinology - Integrated Academic Manuscript (current version)

Introduction
Early Origins and First Contacts
European Interest in the 18th Century
Establishment of European Professorships
France: The Development of French Sinology
Britain: From Missionary Work to Academic Discipline
Germany: From Missionary Sinology to Modern Chinese Studies
1. The Evolution of Understanding Chinese Literature by German Missionaries, Cultural Intermediates, Philosophers and Sinologists
Turkey: Bridging East and West
1. Sinology at Göttingen University *(Michael Knüppel)*
Russia and Eastern Europe
1. Belarus: Development of Sinology *(Darya Nechyparuk)*
The Netherlands: Maritime Connections and Scholarly Traditions
Belgium: Contemporary Developments
Sweden: Linguistic Innovations and Literary Translations
East Asian Chinese Studies
United States: From Area Studies to China Studies
Canada: Interdisciplinary Approaches
Asia-Pacific Regional Developments
1. Indonesia: From Colonial Studies to Modern Sinology *(Chandra Setiawan)*
Africa: Emerging Centers of Chinese Studies
1. Burundi: The Birth of African Sinology *(Etienne Bankuwiha)*
2. Benin: Francophone African Sinology *(Maurice Gountin)*
Latin America: Growing Academic Interest
1. Argentina: The State of China Studies *(Jorge Malena)*
Central Asia and Commonwealth of Independent States
1. Afghanistan: Ancient Silk Road Connections *(Hussain Aryan)*
19th Century Sinologists and Their Discoveries *(黄国威 HuangGuowei)*
20th Century Sinologists and Their Findings *(Jiang Haozhe, Li Zihan, Wangyizhou)*
Contemporary Chinese Studies
International Journals and Publications *(Huo Anqi)*
International Societies, Conferences and Chinese-Western Cooperation
Contemporary Controversies and Future Directions

Introduction

The study of China—its language, culture, history, and society—has evolved into a global academic discipline known as Sinology or China Studies. This comprehensive examination of Chinese civilization has developed along different trajectories across the world, shaped by local contexts, historical relationships with China, and varying academic traditions.

Definition

Chinese Studies, also called Sinology (in German: Sinologie) or China Studies (in German: Chinawissenschaften, Chinakunde), is the academic discipline to study China in its geography, history, society, culture(s), language(s), literature(s) etc. It is mainly divided into the study of ancient and premodern China and of modern and contemporary China. In the Chinese language, internationally the term "Hanxue" (漢學/汉学) is used, first used in Japan as kangaku, parallely to the term "Hanyu" (漢語/汉语) for Chinese. The term is not meant discriminative against non-Han minorities, since we have terms like "Hanyu" or "Germanic Studies." In Chinese, domestically more often the terms "guoxue" (國學/国学) or "Zhongguo xue" (中國學) are used.

There is a trend to divide Chinese Studies in sub disciplines dealing with traditional or modern China, while the term "Sinology" is more often applied to the traditional part. In quantity, scholars dealing with traditional China become less and those dealing with modern or contemporary China more. The discipline itself, as established at universities, had a natural focus on language and literature (philology). Today, we have a broad range of sub disciplines like Chinese literature, language, culture, philosophy/ethics/aesthetics, history, political science, sociology, and economics.

Historical Development and Global Significance

The spread of Chinese culture to the West and the integration of Chinese and Western cultures has been one of the most spectacular and important cultural events since the Age of Discovery. Chinese culture is one of the rare cultures in world civilization that has achieved relatively independent, uninterrupted, and continuous inheritance. Therefore, it presents a completely different cultural form from Western culture and other cultures, which has attracted widespread attention and research from cultural scholars from various countries. International Sinology emerged as a result.

Early Origins and First Contacts

Ancient Foundations

Although the first university professorships as we know them today were established only in 1814, we find the origins of Chinese Studies in early descriptions of China by philosophers. The empires knew early about each other, proven by delegations exchanged even two thousand years ago between the Roman Empire and China. Later we have records and first translations by travelling merchants (Marco Polo lived in the 13th century and travelled on land and by ship) and then by missionaries (starting with the 16th century).

Early Trade Relations

Genetic evidence shows that there were trade relations from Mesopotamia to Europe and China as early as 11000 BCE (cows, horses) and 10000 BCE (crops). China very early became an export region, as we can trace the genes of animals back to China 10000 BCE (pigs), 8000 BCE (chicken), and of silk cloth 5000 BCE.

Philosophical Observations

The earliest recorded observations about China come from ancient Greek sources. Aristotle (384-322 BC) writes in the 4th century BC: "Those who live in a cold climate and in Europe are full of spirit, but wanting in intelligence and skill; and therefore they retain comparative freedom, but have no political organization, and are incapable of ruling over others. Whereas the natives of Asia are intelligent and inventive, but they are wanting in spirit, and therefore they are always in a state of subjection and slavery."

Religious Missions and Early Translations

Spanish Dominican Missions

Between 1593-1607 the Spanish Dominican mission in Manila operated a press and produced 4 books on Christian belief. In 1583 the influential Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrived in Canton and spent the rest of his life in China.

First European Translations of Chinese Classics

Cobo and the Ming Xin Bao Jian

The first person to introduce Confucian thought to the West and translate Confucian classics was the Spanish missionary Juan Cobo (高母羡, 1546—1592). The "Ming Xin Bao Jian" (明心宝鉴) was a primer textbook compiled by the Chinese literati Fan Liben during the late Yuan and early Ming dynasties about the maxims of Chinese cultural sages, including sayings from Confucius, Mencius, Zhuangzi, Laozi, Zhu Xi and other philosophers, published in the 26th year of Hongwu (1393). When Cobo translated this book in 1592 while preaching in the Philippines, he had to learn Chinese to convert the local Chinese people, so he translated "Ming Xin Bao Jian" into "Beng Sim Po Cam, Espejo clar del Recto Corazón" to help missionaries better learn Chinese.

This Spanish translation based on Minnan dialect used transliteration for the book title, personal names, and parts that were difficult to translate literally. The phonetic notations recorded were naturally in Minnan pronunciation. Therefore, the transliterated materials in "Ming Xin Bao Jian" are not only the ancestor of the current Minnan church romanization, but also extremely precious in Minnan linguistic literature and phonetic recording methods.

Ruggieri and the Great Learning

The true pioneer of translating Chinese Confucian classics into Western languages was the Jesuit missionary Michele Ruggieri (罗明坚, 1543—1607). While scholars have given too much praise to Matteo Ricci and his later followers, they have overlooked or neglected the true pioneer of Jesuit missionaries to China and one of the true founders of Western Sinology—Ruggieri, who was the true pioneer of the westward transmission of Confucian classics.

The first to formally publish Ruggieri's Latin translation of the "Great Learning" in Europe was Antonio Possevino (1533—1611). Possevino published this work in his encyclopedic "Bibliotheca Selecta" in Rome in 1593, which was later reprinted in Venice in 1603 and Cologne in 1608.

This was the first translation of Chinese ancient cultural classics in Western 16th-century literature, which was of great academic significance.

European Interest in the 18th Century

France

In France, the study of China and the Chinese language began with the patronage of Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a Chinese grammar in 1742.

The First European Sinology School

In 1732 a missionary priest of the Sacred Congregation "De propaganda fide" from the kingdom of Naples, Matteo Ripa (1692–1746), created in Naples the first Sinology School of the European Continent: the "Chinese Institute," the first nucleus of what would become today's Università degli studi di Napoli L'Orientale, or Naples Eastern University.

Chinoiserie Movement

Chinese objects of art as symbols of Chinese cultural tradition early spread to Europe, reaching the peak in the 18th century during the period of "Chinoisérie." Fascinated collectors saved several artefacts for following generations. European imitations of these artefacts show in their similarities and differences to the originals the principles they followed to catch the reason for the experienced exoticism during the consumption of the cultural goods.

Establishment of European Professorships

Historical Context

The study of Assyriology and Egyptology developed before the serious study of China because of their connections to the Bible; the study of Indology represented a breakthrough in the development of linguistics. Chinese texts, perhaps because they did not have these connections, were the last to be studied in European universities until around 1860 except in France.

The First Professorship

On December 11, 1814, the first Professorship of Chinese and Manchu was established at the Collège de France, with sinologist Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat, who taught himself Chinese, filling the position, becoming the first professor of Chinese in Europe. After the Opium War 1840, the Department of Oriental Studies at Cambridge University and the SOAS/London University were established.

France: The Development of French Sinology

Early Development and Royal Patronage

The study of China and the Chinese language in France began with the patronage of Louis XIV. In 1711, he appointed a young Chinese, Arcadio Huang to catalog the royal collection of Chinese texts. Huang was assisted by Étienne Fourmont, who published a Chinese grammar in 1742.

Four Stages of French Sinology

French Sinology has a long history and has always been at the center of European Chinese language and culture research. Paris has been praised as the "indisputable capital of Western Sinology." The development of French Sinology can be divided into four stages:

I. Jesuit Sinology Stage (17th-18th Century)

This period occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries and was the initial stage of French Sinology formation, also called the Jesuit Sinology stage. During this period, Sinological research content was very broad and the fields involved were also expanded. Due to the development of French maritime trade at that time, some French Jesuits who yearned for the East came to China to spread Christian doctrine.

Notable figures include:

Joseph de Prémare (马若瑟): Translated the Yuan drama "The Orphan of Zhao" into French, which was the first translation of Chinese drama by Europeans
Jean Joseph Amiot (钱德明, 1718-1793): Works included "French Translation of Emperor Qianlong's Imperial Composition on Shengjing" (1770), "Chinese Military Strategy" (1772), "Ancient and Modern Records of Chinese Music" (1776), "Biography of Confucius" (1784)
Antoine Gaubil (宋君荣, 1689-1759): Spent 37 years in China, considered the greatest French Sinologist of the 18th century. Major works include "History of Chinese Astronomy," "Chinese Astronomy," and "Ancient Chinese Observations of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic"

II. 19th Century Period

The 19th century was the period when Sinology became an independent discipline in France and achieved initial development. Professional Sinology emerged in France due to the influence of modern academia, tradition, missionary scholarship, and the needs of colonial expansion.

Jean-Pierre Abel-Rémusat (雷慕莎, 1788-1832) was the world's first professional Sinologist. In 1814, the Collège de France established the world's first Sinology lecture - the "Chinese and Tartar-Manchu Language and Literature Lecture." Rémusat was France's first Sinology professor at the Collège de France.

His breakthroughs included:

Research purpose was not missionary work but purely understanding Chinese culture
Research scope expanded beyond Confucianism to include Chinese medicine, Buddhism, literature, and other broader fields
Research interests were more secularized, focusing on Chinese secular life content

III. Prosperity Period (Early 20th Century to Mid-20th Century)

This period saw the emergence of many Sinological masters in France:

Édouard Chavannes (沙畹, 1865-1918) was recognized as the most accomplished Sinological master in the world at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. His research covered Chinese Buddhism, cultural artifacts, inscriptions, ancient scripts, Western Regions history, Turkic history, Chinese geography, Taoism, and Sino-foreign relations history. He translated the "Records of the Grand Historian" and authored works such as "The God of the Soil in Ancient China" and "Stone Sculptures of the Han Dynasty."

Paul Pelliot (伯希和, 1878-1945) was one of the most influential Sinologists of the first half of the 20th century. He became famous for his association with Dunhuang studies. In 1908, he reached Dunhuang and after three weeks of investigation in the Sutra Cave, selected the most valuable documents, about 2,000 volumes, purchasing them from Daoist Wang for 500 taels of silver.

Marcel Granet (葛兰言, 1884-1940) was also a student of Chavannes. His doctoral dissertation consisted of "Festivals and Songs of Ancient China" and "Marriage System and Kinship Relations in Ancient China." He used structuralist analytical methods to study Chinese classical poetry and sociological approaches to explore Chinese ancient culture.

IV. Recovery and Modern China Studies Period (1950s-21st Century)

After World War II, three influential French Sinological masters - Granet, Maspero, and Pelliot - died successively, causing great damage to French Sinology. Paul Demiéville (戴密微) devoted great effort to studying Chinese archaeology and Buddhist history. In 1962, he led the translation, editing, and publication of "Selected Chinese Classical Poems."

Jacques Gernet (谢和耐) achieved the greatest success in this period. He studied Chinese economic thought history, social history, and archaeological excavations. He succeeded Demiéville as director of the Asian Academy and was appointed professor at the Collège de France in 1975. His works "Chinese Society" and "China and Christianity" received international acclaim.

Contemporary French Sinologists

François Jullien (弗朗索瓦·于连, 1951-) represents a unique approach to Chinese philosophy, using Chinese thought as a mirror to reflect on European philosophy. His numerous works have been translated into fifteen languages.

Paul Demiéville (1894-1979) became the leading figure of French Sinology after World War II, focusing particularly on Buddhist studies and Chinese archaeology.

Jacques Gernet (1921-2018) was a distinguished member of the French Academy and a leading figure in Sinology, specializing in Chinese social and cultural history. His works have been widely translated and recognized internationally.

Britain: From Missionary Work to Academic Discipline

After the Opium War of 1840, the Department of Oriental Studies at Cambridge University and SOAS/London University were established. Morrison's work was continued by scholars like James Legge, who often relied on the work of ethnic Chinese scholars such as Wang Tao.

Notable British Sinologists

Robert Morrison (马礼逊, 1782-1834) was the most influential early British Protestant missionary to China. He compiled a massive "Chinese-English Dictionary" and wrote "A Grammar of the Chinese Language" (1815). Morrison's "overseas book chest" became the foundation for British Sinology when it was acquired by University College London in 1837, helping to advance British Sinology from the "pre-Sinological" era to the "professional Sinological" era.

James Legge (理雅各, 1815-1897) was a famous British Sinologist who served as principal of Anglo-Chinese College in Hong Kong. He was the first person to systematically study and translate Chinese ancient classics. His translation works include the Chinese "Analects," "Great Learning," "Doctrine of the Mean," "Mencius," and other famous works. Legge's attention to Li Sao began much earlier than generally recognized in academic circles, and his translation strategies combined evaluation with translation, providing comprehensive introductions to Qu Yuan's life and historical background.

Herbert Allen Giles (翟理思, 1845-1935) was a famous British Sinologist from the late 19th to early 20th centuries. His "A History of Chinese Literature" (1901) was the first attempt to write a history of Chinese literature in any language, including Chinese.

Arthur Waley (韦利, 1889-1966) served as a lecturer at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London. He was proficient in Chinese, Manchu, Sanskrit, Mongolian, and Spanish, specializing in Chinese intellectual history, Chinese painting history, Chinese literature, and Japanese literature.

Modern British Sinology

Joseph Needham (李约瑟, 1900-1995) revolutionized the understanding of Chinese science and technology with his monumental "Science and Civilisation in China" series. His work challenged Western-centric views of scientific development and highlighted China's historical contributions to world civilization.

Jonathan Spence (史景迁, 1936-) became one of the most influential China historians, known for his narrative approach to Chinese history. His works, including "The Search for Modern China," became standard textbooks and made complex Chinese history accessible to Western readers.

Germany: From Missionary Sinology to Modern Chinese Studies

Historical Overview

Today, in Germany there are about 30 universities and universities of applied sciences with Chinese Studies. Since the beginning of the 19th century, people started to conduct research on China. In 1829–1831, the orientalist Carl Friedrich Neumann bought 12,000 Chinese books in Canton, which he shipped to Munich and which became the foundation of the East Asian Collection of the Bavarian State Library as well as the Berlin State Library.

In 1887 the first Chinese language classes and sinological classes started at the Seminar for Oriental languages in Berlin. In 1889, the first German Chair of Sinology was established at the University of Leipzig, the first full professor was Hans Georg Conon von der Gabelentz.

Key Historical Figures

Johann Adam Schall von Bell (汤若望, 1592-1666) was a German missionary who became Director of the Imperial Astronomical Bureau (钦天监监正) under the Qing dynasty. He spent decades in China, became fluent in local languages and culture, and gained the trust of the Qing emperors.

Richard Wilhelm (卫礼贤, 1873-1930) was a missionary who lived in Qingdao and became known as "a man who changed Germany's image of China." He translated major Chinese classics including the "Analects," "Tao Te Ching," "Liezi," "Zhuangzi," "Mencius," and "I Ching" into German. His translation of the "I Ching" took 18 years to complete and became the basis for Swedish, Spanish, and other Western translations.

Friedrich Hirth was a significant 19th-century German Sinologist who made important contributions to Chinese studies in multiple fields including Chinese-Western relations history, Xiongnu history, pre-Qin history, art history, and modern Chinese language studies.

Post-War Development

After World War II, German Sinology gradually recovered. Today, German universities with Sinology departments include Hamburg, Berlin (Humboldt University, Free University), Bonn, Bochum, Munich, Heidelberg, Frankfurt, Münster, and more than 20 others. According to Professor Wolfgang Kubin, German Sinology since 1905 can be divided into three generations: the "father" generation who lived in China before 1911, the "son" generation who had to rebuild Sinology after 1945, and the "grandson" generation who could visit Beijing after 1973.

Notable Contemporary Figures

Wolfgang Kubin (顾彬, 1945-) belongs to the student generation under Wolfgang Bauer. Since 1985, he became the main professor of Chinese at the University of Bonn. He has published extensively on modern Chinese literature, particularly Lu Xun and Wang Meng. His "History of 20th Century Chinese Literature" is considered an authoritative work.

Kristofer Schipper (施舟人, 1934-) is one of Europe's three great Sinologists, specializing in Daoist studies. He has held positions at various prestigious institutions and received numerous honors for his contributions to Chinese cultural research.

Martin Woesler (吴漠汀, 1969-) is a contemporary German Sinologist and translator who has made significant contributions to translating Chinese literature, including works by Cao Xueqin, Lu Xun, and many others. He co-translated the first complete German version of "Dream of the Red Chamber."

The Evolution of Understanding Chinese Literature by German Missionaries, Cultural Intermediates, Philosophers and Sinologists

This research traces the evolution of the understanding of Chinese literature in Germany from the early missionary contacts through to modern sinological scholarship. It examines how knowledge of Chinese literature developed from fragmentary and often exoticized impressions to more sophisticated academic engagement over the course of several centuries.

Early Encounters: Jesuit Missionaries as the First Cultural Mediators (16th-18th Centuries)

The earliest substantial German encounters with Chinese literature came through the reports and translations of Jesuit missionaries, whose activities in China began in the late 16th century. While the most prominent early Jesuit figures in China were not German—Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) was Italian, for instance—several German Jesuits made significant contributions to European knowledge of Chinese literary culture.

Johann Adam Schall von Bell (1592-1666), born in Cologne, arrived in China in 1622 and gained unprecedented access to the Ming and early Qing courts through his astronomical knowledge. Though primarily known for his scientific work, Schall von Bell's reports included observations about Chinese scholarly culture and the role of classical texts in Chinese governance. His understanding, while limited by his missionary perspective, nonetheless recognized the central importance of literary knowledge in Chinese society.

Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680), though he never visited China, compiled one of the first major European works on Chinese civilization, "China Illustrata" (1667). Working in Rome with materials sent by Jesuit missionaries, including Germans, Kircher attempted to comprehend Chinese writing and literature. His understanding was deeply flawed—he believed Chinese characters were purely ideographic and derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics—yet his work represented an important early effort to engage with Chinese written culture on a scholarly level.

By the early 18th century, more sophisticated German engagements with Chinese literature began to emerge. Christian Mentzel (1622-1701), the court physician to Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg, compiled a "Clavis Sinica" (1698), one of the first European attempts at a Chinese dictionary, specifically designed to help Europeans access Chinese texts. Though rudimentary, it demonstrated growing German interest in direct textual engagement rather than merely relying on Jesuit accounts.

The philosophical reception of Chinese thought in Germany reached an important milestone with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), who developed an intense interest in Chinese philosophy and political organization. Despite never learning Chinese, Leibniz corresponded extensively with Jesuit missionaries and studied their translations. In his "Novissima Sinica" (1697), Leibniz presented an idealized view of Chinese governance as being based on moral principles found in their classical texts.

This philosophical appropriation continued with Christian Wolff (1679-1754), who delivered his famous lecture "On the Practical Philosophy of the Chinese" in 1721. Wolff praised Confucian ethics as demonstrating that humans could discover moral truths through reason alone, without divine revelation—a position that led to his temporary banishment from Prussia.

Enlightenment to Romanticism: From Chinoiserie to Literary Interest (Late 18th to Early 19th Century)

The eighteenth century saw German interest in China develop beyond missionary reports and philosophical appropriation toward more literary and aesthetic engagement, though still marked by significant misconceptions and exoticizing tendencies. This period witnessed the height of Chinoiserie in German courts, with Chinese-inspired aesthetics influencing architecture, decorative arts, and eventually literature.

Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) incorporated Chinese literature into his vision of world poetry, arguing for the universality of poetic expression across cultures. In his "Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit" (1784-91), Herder characterized Chinese literature as both ancient and, from his perspective, underdeveloped compared to European traditions. Despite these limitations, Herder's inclusion of Chinese literature in his global literary vision represented an important step toward a more comparative approach.

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) developed a more sustained interest in Chinese literature later in his life. Goethe's "Chinesisch-Deutsche Jahres- und Tageszeiten" (1827) and his engagement with Chinese poetry in his concept of "Weltliteratur" demonstrated a growing recognition of Chinese literature as worthy of serious aesthetic consideration. His attempts to translate Chinese poems, though based on European reinterpretations rather than original texts, nonetheless signaled a new level of German literary engagement with Chinese forms.

Emergence of Academic Sinology and Expanding Translations (Late 19th to Early 20th Century)

The late nineteenth century marked a crucial turning point in the German understanding of Chinese literature with the establishment of institutional structures for sinological research and teaching. This period saw the gradual emergence of professional sinology as an academic discipline, though still deeply entangled with German colonial interests in China and broader Orientalist paradigms.

Wilhelm Grube (1855-1908) emerged as a significant figure in this transition. Born in St. Petersburg but educated and employed in Germany, Grube worked at the Museum of Ethnology in Berlin while also teaching at the university. His "Geschichte der chinesischen Litteratur" (1902) represented the first comprehensive German history of Chinese literature, covering poetry, philosophical texts, drama, and fiction. Grube approached Chinese literature with greater scholarly rigor than his predecessors, though his work still contained elements of cultural hierarchy, positioning Chinese literature as fundamentally different from and implicitly inferior to Western traditions.

Otto Franke (1863-1946) established himself as one of the most influential German sinologists of this period. Having spent years in the German consular service in China, Franke brought linguistic fluency and practical experience to his academic work. Appointed to the Colonial Institute in Hamburg in 1909 and later to the University of Berlin in 1923, Franke trained a generation of German sinologists. Though primarily a historian, his work on Confucian classics, particularly "Studien zur Geschichte des konfuzianischen Dogmas" (1920), demonstrated sophisticated text-critical approaches to Chinese literary works.

This period also saw the first substantial translations of Chinese fiction into German. Eduard Grisebach published a German version of "Haoli Meizhuan" (titled "Die wandelnde Seele" or "The Wandering Soul") in 1880, while Franz Kuhn (1884-1961) began his prolific translation career in the early twentieth century. Kuhn, who studied law and Chinese in Berlin and worked briefly in the German foreign service, would eventually translate numerous Chinese novels, including "Jin Ping Mei," "Hong Lou Meng," and "Shuihu Zhuan." Though his translations took significant liberties with the original texts—often abridging, reorganizing, and censoring sexual content—they were tremendously influential in shaping German readers' understanding of Chinese narrative literature.

Richard Wilhelm (1873-1930) emerged as perhaps the most influential German translator of Chinese philosophical and literary texts during this period. Initially sent to China as a Protestant missionary in 1899, Wilhelm developed deep respect for Chinese traditions and worked closely with Chinese scholars, especially Lao Naixuan. His translations of Chinese classics, including the "Daodejing," "Lunyu," "Yijing," and "Zhuangzi," were characterized by both philological care and poetic sensitivity. His translation of the "Yijing" (I Ging - Book of Changes, 1924), later translated into English by Cary F. Baynes, achieved worldwide influence. Wilhelm's work at the University of Frankfurt after his return from China in 1924 further institutionalized the serious study of Chinese philosophical texts in Germany.

Rupture and Renewal: From the Nazi Era to Divided Germany (1933-1989)

The National Socialist period represented a profound disruption in the German engagement with Chinese literature. The racial ideology of the Nazi regime was fundamentally at odds with serious cross-cultural scholarship, and many leading sinologists were forced to flee Germany, particularly those of Jewish background.

Walter Simon (1893-1981), who had established himself as an important sinologist at the University of Berlin, was dismissed from his position in 1934 due to his Jewish heritage. He emigrated to Britain, where he continued his work at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London. Simon's forced departure represented a significant loss to German sinology, particularly in the study of Chinese linguistics and literature.

Wolfram Eberhard (1909-1989), who had worked on Chinese folklore and literature, left Germany for Turkey in 1937 and eventually settled in the United States. In works like "Volksmärchen aus Südost-China" (1937), Eberhard had demonstrated a sophisticated understanding of Chinese popular narrative traditions. His departure further diminished German expertise in Chinese literary studies.

The immediate post-war period saw efforts to rebuild German sinology under challenging circumstances. The destruction of libraries and research institutions during the war had devastated the material infrastructure of Chinese studies. The division of Germany created parallel developments in East and West German sinology, shaped by their respective political systems and international alignments.

Convergence and Expansion: German Sinology Since Reunification (1990-Present)

The reunification of Germany in 1990 created new opportunities for integration and expansion in German sinological approaches to Chinese literature. The end of the Cold War and China's increasing global prominence led to substantial institutional growth, methodological diversification, and expanded translation activities.

A significant milestone in German translation of Chinese literary classics was achieved with the publication of the first complete German translation of Cao Xueqin's masterpiece Hong Lou Meng (紅樓夢, Der Traum der Roten Kammer) by Rainer Schwarz and Martin Woesler, which appeared at the Frankfurt Book Fair in 2009. This monumental work, spanning six volumes and over 4,800 pages, finally made one of China's most important literary works fully accessible to German readers, addressing a notable gap in the translation landscape that had persisted for centuries.

Turkey: Bridging East and West

Turkish sinology represents one of the oldest continuous traditions of China studies outside of East Asia, with a remarkable history spanning 507 years. While Turkish sinology was formally established as an academic discipline in 1935 under the direct order of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, its roots can be traced back to the early 16th century, making it potentially the oldest sinological tradition on the European continent.

Historical Background and Terminology

In the tradition of Western languages, the concept of "Sinology" has undergone significant development. The earliest establishment of a chair specifically dedicated to Sinology studies in the West occurred on December 11, 1814, when the French Academy officially established the "Chair of Chinese and Tartar-Manchu Languages and Literature." However, Turkey's engagement with Chinese studies predates this by nearly three centuries.

The term "Sinology" itself evolved gradually. Herbert Franke believed that the use of suffixes like "ologes" to denote academic disciplines emerged in the 19th century. In English, "Sinology" first appeared in 1838 and became more prevalent around 1882. The hybrid term combines Greek and Latin elements, with "Sin" of Greek origin and "ology" of Latin origin. Japanese scholars argue that terms like "Sin" and "Sinai" trace their origins to the Chinese word "秦" (Qin), based on Beijing pronunciation that led to forms like "Sin" and "Thin."

In the early 20th century, the Turkish term "sinoloji" was borrowed from European languages, but Turkish engagement with Chinese studies had much earlier foundations.

The Earliest Foundations: The Khatainame Manuscript (1516)

Turkish sinology's most remarkable claim to historical precedence lies in a manuscript called the "Khatainame" (خطائی نامه), written and presented to Ottoman Sultan Selim I in 1516. This work represents potentially the oldest known China-related academic work in Europe, predating systematic European sinology by nearly three centuries.

The Khatainame laid the groundwork for the study of China-related matters in Turkey and established a foundation for understanding Chinese civilization from an Islamic and Turkish perspective. This manuscript represents the initiation of sinology on the European continent, marking Turkey's unique position as the earliest European center for Chinese studies.

The historical significance of this work cannot be overstated, as it demonstrates that systematic study of China was occurring in the Ottoman Empire at a time when most of Europe had only fragmentary knowledge of the Middle Kingdom. The manuscript represents a bridge between the Islamic world's earlier engagement with China and later European academic sinology.

Turkish Sinology Before 1935

Early Travelogue Sinology

Following the pattern identified by Zhang Xiping in his analysis of early Western sinology, Turkish engagement with China can be categorized as "Early Travelogue Sinology." China and Europe were geographically separated by vast distances, connected primarily through interactions with nomadic tribes of the Eurasian heartland. The Ottoman Empire, positioned at the crossroads between Europe and Asia, served as a crucial intermediary in these exchanges.

Beyond the European continent, the Islamic World produced earlier travel accounts of China, including the renowned traveler Ibn Battuta in 1345-1346, which could also be categorized as "Travelogue Sinology." Another significant contribution came from the Turco-Mongol Empire of the Timurids, which controlled vast territories from Central Asia to Anatolia between 1370-1507. The "Travel Account of Khajeh Ghiyath al Din Naqqash" represents another important early source of knowledge about China from the Turkish-Islamic perspective.

Ottoman Diplomatic and Cultural Contacts

The Ottoman Empire's extensive territorial reach and sophisticated diplomatic network provided unique opportunities for contact with Chinese civilization. Through their control of Central Asian trade routes and diplomatic relations with various Asian powers, the Ottomans maintained channels of communication that facilitated the flow of information about China.

These early contacts were not merely commercial but included cultural and intellectual exchanges that contributed to Turkish understanding of Chinese civilization. The Ottoman court's cosmopolitan nature and interest in learning from various civilizations created an environment conducive to the study of distant cultures, including China.

The Formal Establishment of Turkish Sinology (1935)

Atatürk's Vision

The formal establishment of Turkish sinology as an academic discipline in 1935 represented a pivotal moment in the field's development. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, the founding father of the Republic of Turkey, personally ordered the creation of sinological studies as part of his broader vision for Turkey's modernization and engagement with world civilizations.

This decision reflected Atatürk's understanding of China's historical importance and his foresight regarding China's future significance in world affairs. The establishment of sinology was part of a comprehensive educational reform aimed at positioning Turkey as a bridge between East and West, drawing on both its Ottoman heritage and its aspirations for modern development.

German Academic Foundation

To establish this new field of study, Atatürk invited scholars from Germany to lay the foundation for Turkish sinology. The two key figures were:

Anna Maria Von Gabain

Anna Maria Von Gabain was one of the German scholars invited to Ankara to establish the sinology department. Her expertise in Central Asian and Turkish studies provided valuable insights for developing a sinological program that could incorporate Turkey's unique historical and cultural perspective.

Wolfram Eberhard

Wolfram Eberhard (1909-1989) played a crucial role in establishing systematic sinological studies in Turkey. Eberhard, who had worked on Chinese folklore and literature, brought sophisticated methodological approaches to the study of Chinese civilization. His work demonstrated deep understanding of Chinese popular narrative traditions and cultural practices.

The choice of German scholars reflected the high regard for German academic rigor and methodology, while also acknowledging Germany's advanced state of sinological studies at the time. These scholars helped establish institutional frameworks and academic standards that would guide Turkish sinology for decades to come.

Institutional Development

The establishment of the sinology department in 1935 marked the beginning of systematic and modern sinological education in Turkey. This program was designed to:

Train Turkish scholars in Chinese language and civilization
Develop research capabilities in Chinese studies
Foster understanding between Turkish and Chinese cultures
Contribute to international sinological scholarship
Support Turkey's diplomatic and cultural engagement with China

The department represented a significant commitment to long-term academic development and reflected Turkey's strategic vision of engaging with major world civilizations as an independent republic.

Characteristics of Turkish Sinology

Bridging Perspectives

Turkish sinology has been characterized by its unique position as a bridge between different cultural and intellectual traditions. Drawing on:

Islamic scholarly traditions: Turkey's Ottoman and Islamic heritage provided distinctive perspectives on Chinese civilization
European academic methods: Modern Turkish sinology incorporated rigorous European scholarly approaches
Central Asian connections: Turkey's Turkic heritage offered insights into Central Asian interactions with China
Contemporary comparative approaches: Modern Turkish scholars have developed innovative comparative methodologies

Focus Areas

Turkish sinological research has concentrated on several key areas:

Historical relations: Study of historical contacts between Turkic peoples and China
Cultural exchanges: Analysis of cultural and intellectual exchanges along the Silk Road
Comparative civilizational studies: Examination of Chinese and Islamic/Turkish civilizations
Contemporary China studies: Modern political, economic, and social developments in China
Language and literature: Chinese language instruction and literary studies

Legacy and Continuity

Historical Continuity

The 507-year span of Turkish engagement with Chinese studies represents one of the longest continuous traditions of sinology outside East Asia. This continuity demonstrates:

Sustained intellectual curiosity about Chinese civilization
Recognition of China's historical and contemporary importance
Turkey's consistent role as a cultural bridge between East and West
Evolution from early travelogue traditions to modern academic discipline

Contemporary Relevance

Modern Turkish sinology continues to build on its historical foundations while addressing contemporary challenges:

China-Turkey relations: Supporting diplomatic and economic engagement
Belt and Road Initiative: Analyzing China's modern connectivity projects
Cultural dialogue: Facilitating understanding between Chinese and Turkish cultures
Academic cooperation: Collaborating with international sinological communities

Future Directions

Turkish sinology's future development is likely to focus on:

Expanding Research Scope

Digital humanities approaches to Chinese studies
Environmental and sustainability studies
Technology and innovation research
Contemporary Chinese society and culture

International Collaboration

Partnership with Chinese academic institutions
Participation in global sinological networks
Contribution to comparative civilizational studies
Bridge-building between Eastern and Western scholarly traditions

Educational Innovation

Modern language teaching methodologies
Interdisciplinary program development
Student and faculty exchange programs
Public engagement and cultural outreach

Conclusion

Turkish sinology represents a unique and historically significant tradition that spans more than five centuries. From the groundbreaking Khatainame manuscript of 1516 to the formal academic establishment in 1935, Turkish engagement with Chinese studies has demonstrated remarkable continuity and innovation.

The field's development reflects Turkey's strategic position as a bridge between East and West, its rich intellectual traditions, and its commitment to understanding major world civilizations. As both Turkey and China continue to play important roles in global affairs, Turkish sinology is well-positioned to contribute to international understanding and cooperation.

The legacy of Turkish sinology—combining the earliest European engagement with systematic Chinese studies, Islamic scholarly traditions, modern academic rigor, and strategic contemporary relevance—makes it a distinctive and valuable contributor to the global community of Chinese studies. This tradition continues to evolve, offering unique perspectives on Chinese civilization while maintaining its historical role as a bridge between different cultural and intellectual worlds.

Sinology at Göttingen University

Author: Michael Knüppel

Although in the 18th and 19th centuries Göttingen had occasionally been occupied with China and Chinese and there were various Sinica in the holdings of the university library (where they were not specifically collected), there was virtually no systematic sinological or China-related research in the "Leine metropolis". Nevertheless, a sinological seminar was founded there in 1925 — the fourth such institution in Germany after Hamburg (Otto Franke had worked there since 1910), Berlin (Jan Jacob Maria de Groot had represented Sinology there since 1912) and Leipzig (August Conrady had worked there since 1922).

Early Development

The first holder of the chair was Erich Haenisch (27.8.1880-21.12.1966), a student of Wilhelm Grube, who would later emerge as the most important Manǯurist of his generation. However, he left Göttingen in 1925 to follow a call to Leipzig. During the short period of his work in Göttingen, he represented Chinese, Manǯu and Mongolian at the university.

After a vacancy, it was Gustav Haloun (12.1.1898-24.12.1951) who served as a lecturer at the seminar from 1931-1934 and as assistant professor from 1934-1938. However, a chair of Sinology was not established for him due to his negative attitude towards the NSDAP. He followed a call to Cambridge University in 1938 and left the country in the same year. Haloun's achievements included the establishment of a sinological research library, which was, however, lost again in the turmoil of World War II. Under him, a lecturer for the Chinese language was also employed for the first time: Ji Xianlin (季羡林) (6.8.1911-11.7.2009), who taught at the seminary from 1937-1945.

Post-War Period

After some personnel considerations (Horst Hammitzsch, Walter Fuchs), Hans Otto Heinrich Stange (13.11.1903-1978) was finally entrusted with the direction of the seminary. Stange, who was considered "incriminated" (among other things, he had denounced colleagues), was dismissed from the university service in 1945 and the duties in the seminar were transferred to the lecturer Peter Olbricht (11.11.1909-16.3.2001). Regardless of his past, Stange was appointed associate professor in 1953 and directed the seminary until 1972.

The Chinese lecturers in the post-war years and under the direction of H. O. J. Stange were an unknown "Dr Chen" in 1946-1947, Din Shih-do in 1947-1950, Liu Mau-tsai in 1950-1959, Lin Hong-chi in 1959-160, Kobayashi Takashirō in 1960-1962, Murakami Tetsumi in 1963-1964 (as visiting professor from Kyoto Gakugei University), Kurokawa Yoichi in 1964-1965 (as visiting lecturer from Kyoto University) and Jen Pei-shen in 1965-1972.

Modern Era

The Göttingen chair was initially taken over in 1972 by Rolf Trauzettel (1.7.1930-11.8.2019), who, however, moved to the Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität in Bonn in 1977. He was followed in the same year by Erhard Rosner, under whose leadership (1977-2005) the seminar developed into an important international institution and a flagship of Göttingen University.

First, in 1982, a chair in Japanese Studies was established, filled by Claus M. Fischer (1982-2005) — in conjunction with the additional subject, the institution was consequently renamed the "Ostasiatisches Seminar". From 1993, the seminar was involved in the research project "Wissenschaftssprache Chinesisch. Die Entstehung der modernen chinesischen Terminologie in Naturwissenschaften, Technik, Politik, Recht, Philosophie, Sozial- und Kulturwissenschaften unter westlichem Einfluß" and within the framework of this undertaking, Michael Lackner held a professorship at the seminar from 1994-1999.

In the course of the cost-cuttings, the threats of cutbacks and cancellations finally reached the "East Asian Department" in 2004: the Faculty of Humanities decided to discontinue the Sinology and Japanese Studies programmes with the upcoming emeritus status of Erhard Rosner and the retirement of Claus M. Fischer. There were no plans to reappoint the chairs. The rescue was then mainly due to the special skill of the provisional head of the seminar, Gerlinde Gild (since 2005, from 2006-2009 non-scheduled professor).

The next major transformation occurred with Axel Schneider from Leiden University, who took over the endowed chair in August 2009 and reoriented the institution with a focus on Modern China. Today, the seminar includes multiple chairs covering Modern China, Chinese Society and Economy, and Chinese Didactics, with 15 permanent staff positions and 4 guest lecturers from Sinophone regions.

Russia and Eastern Europe

As early as 1728, following the Treaty of Kyakhta, Russian Orthodox missionaries and 41 students came to Beijing, striving to learn Chinese culture and master Manchu, Han, Tibetan, and Mongolian languages. These students later became sinologists including Ilarion Rossokhin, Aleksei Leontiev, and Yakinf Bichurin. The early center of Russian Sinology was in Beijing, but later gradually moved to St. Petersburg University. In 1855, St. Petersburg University established its Department of Oriental Studies, with its most famous sinologist being Vasily Vasiliev.

Key Russian Sinologists

Nikita Yakovlevich Bichurin (比丘林, 1777-1853) is hailed as the founder of Russian Sinology. During his 14-year residence in Beijing, he compiled dictionaries, translated Confucian classics, conducted research on Chinese frontier history and geography, and made outstanding achievements in Chinese language education and other fields. The 19th century Sinology was even called the "Bichurin Era."

V. P. Vasiliev was a prominent 19th-century Russian Sinologist whose "Outline of Chinese Literature History" was the world's first monograph on Chinese literary history, appearing 21 years before the English version by Herbert Giles and 24 years before the Chinese version by Lin Chuanjia.

The Russian school of sinology was focused mainly on learning classical Chinese texts. For example, the contribution of the Russian sinologist Julian Shchutsky was especially valuable. The best full translation of the I Ching (Book of Changes) was made by him in 1937.

Contemporary Russian Sinology

Sergey Leonidovich Tikhvinsky (齐赫文, 1918-2018) was a distinguished Russian Sinologist and academician who witnessed major historical events including the founding of the People's Republic of China. He authored over 10 monographs and 500 papers, and his series "China's Reform and Revolution" won the Russian Federation State Prize in 2000.

Boris Riftin (李福清, 1932-2012) was a renowned Russian Sinologist specializing in Chinese folk literature and classical novels. He published over 200 works in Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, English, German, and Vietnamese.

Mikhail Titarenko (季塔连科, 1934-2016) was a prominent expert in Chinese philosophy, politics, and contemporary issues, as well as Russia-Asia Pacific relations. He served as director of the Institute of Far Eastern Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences for over 30 years.

Belarus: Development of Sinology

Author: Darya Nechyparuk

Belarus became an independent country only recently, having long been part of other states throughout history. Despite this, several early figures from Belarusian territory contributed to Sinological studies.

Early Sinology

O. Kovalevsky from Grodno was a great 19th-century orientalist and Tibetologist whose Buddhist manuscripts are preserved in Russia and Lithuania. Among the preserved manuscripts is "Buddhist Cosmology."

19th-century mid-period researcher of Chinese I. Goshkevich (1814-1875), born in modern Gomel region, was a linguist, orientalist, and natural scientist who became a member of the 12th Russian Orthodox Mission to Beijing in 1839. During his 9-year residence in Beijing (1839-1848), he conducted in-depth research on Chinese history, nature, and political conditions, leaving notes on Chinese agriculture, sericulture, and ink manufacturing methods.

Another early Belarusian sinologist M. Pavlovsky was born in 1885 in Mogilev, Belarus. In New York, he compiled and published the book "Chinese-Russian Relations."

20th Century Interest in Chinese Affairs

In the 1920s-30s, some Belarusian scholars began researching Sino-Belarusian relations and various aspects of Chinese culture. At that time, scholars interested in China were primarily historians and political scientists, with most research serving the political situation and national conditions of the time.

P. Kogan, historian, literary critic, and translator, analyzed "liberation and revolution" events in his paper titled "The Great Sun (Sun Yat-sen)" becoming the first written material about Chinese historical evolution in the territory of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic during the Soviet period.

V. Serbenta published a book titled "Chinese Revolution" in 1930, providing thorough analysis and evaluation of the historical conditions of "revolutionary outbreak" and describing the phenomena and processes of revolutionary outbreak at that time.

Current Research

Contemporary Belarusian Sinology remains underdeveloped, with limited systematic research. Today, Belarus has six Confucius Institutes, multiple Confucius Classrooms, a Chinese Cultural Center, and a China-Belarus Friendship Center, primarily focused on Chinese language teaching and cultural promotion rather than research.

Recent notable works include:

V. Hermenchuk (1950-), a Belarusian political scientist who published "China. Dragon Wings" (2017), attempting to describe Western political science evaluations of China in a concise manner.

V. Dubovik published "Belarus and China: On the Path of Comprehensive Cooperation" (2015), analyzing Sino-Belarusian relations from a media perspective.

T. Shamyakina published "Similarities Between Chinese Traditional Calendar and Slavic Mythology" (2010), connecting Chinese and Slavic cultural traditions through the study of the twelve zodiac animals.

Chinese Literature Translation in Belarus

The merit of translating and publishing Chinese classics in Belarus belongs to translator L. Solovei (1925-). In 1954, he translated Ding Ling's "The Sun Shines on the Sanggan River" into Belarusian, and in 1956 translated Lu Xun's novels.

Notable translations include various Chinese poets' works in collections such as "A Hundred Years of Acquaintance" and "Under the Dragon's Wings. One Hundred Chinese Poets." In 2023, the Belarusian translation of Shang Gang's "A Concise History of Chinese Arts and Crafts" was published.

The Netherlands: Maritime Connections and Scholarly Traditions

The Netherlands has a long tradition of Chinese studies, closely connected to its maritime history and colonial presence in the East Indies.

Key Dutch Sinologists

Robert Hans van Gulik (高罗佩, 1910-1967) was a distinguished Dutch diplomat, Sinologist, and author. He was famous for his translations of Chinese literature and his creation of the Judge Dee detective novels. His academic works established his position in Chinese studies, including studies on Chinese sexual culture and classical Chinese literature.

Anthony Francois Paulus Hulsewé (何四维, 1910-1993) was a renowned Dutch Sinologist known for his research on ancient Chinese law, particularly during the Han Dynasty. Despite being captured during World War II, he continued his studies after the war and became a professor at Leiden University.

Wilt L. Idema (伊维德, 1944-) is a prominent Dutch Sinologist and Harvard University professor interested in early Chinese drama, modern Chinese women's literature, Chinese popular narrative ballads, and the development of early vernacular fiction.

Erik Zürcher (许理和, 1928-2008) was a famous Dutch Sinologist whose main research contributions were in the history of Buddhism in China. His work "The Buddhist Conquest of China" published in 1959 earned long-lasting acclaim.

Lloyd Haft (汉乐逸, 1946-) born in Wisconsin, is a Dutch poet, translator, and Sinologist. He graduated from Harvard University and obtained his master's and doctoral degrees from Leiden University, serving in Chinese language positions for 31 years.

Rudolf Ritsema (鲁道夫·利策玛, 1918-2006) served as chairman of the Eranos Foundation for over 30 years. Together with Italian physicist Santena Augustus Sabatini, he translated the I Ching into Italian for the first time based on the Chinese original.

Belgium: Contemporary Developments

Key Belgian Sinologists

Nicolas Standaert (钟鸣旦, 1959-) is a contemporary prominent Sinologist from Western Europe. Born in Antwerp, Belgium, he obtained his bachelor's and master's degrees in Sinology from Leiden University and has been a professor of Sinology at KU Leuven since 1993. He was elected as a member of the Royal Academy of Belgium in 2003.

Pierre Ryckmans (李克曼, 1935-2014) was born in Brussels and was a Sinologist, writer, and literary critic under the pen name Simon Leys. He wrote a series of books about China's Cultural Revolution and translated Chinese works including the Analects and works by Shi Tao.

Sweden: Linguistic Innovations and Literary Translations

Pioneers of Swedish Sinology

Klas Bernhard Johannes Karlgren (高本汉, 1889-1978) was a Swedish linguist and Sinologist who pioneered the historical linguistic study of Chinese. He was the first scholar to use European historical linguistic methods to study Chinese and reconstructed the phonological systems of Middle Chinese and Old Chinese.

Nils Göran David Malmqvist (马悦然, 1924-) is a Swedish Sinologist and member of the Swedish Academy, serving as a judge for the Nobel Prize in Literature. He is the only Nobel Literature Prize judge fluent in Chinese and has translated numerous Chinese classics including the Book of Songs, Journey to the West, and works by Lu Xun and contemporary Chinese authors.

Cecilia Lindqvist (林西莉, 1932-) is a Swedish Sinologist famous for her work on Chinese characters and the guqin. Her book "The Chinese Empire of Signs" won the Swedish August Prize in 1989, making her one of the few writers to win this prize twice.

East Asian Chinese Studies

Japan

The Japanese began learning Chinese classics and institutions from the Sui and Tang dynasties. Japan has the deepest connection with Chinese Sinology. Before the Meiji Restoration, Japanese society considered imitating everything about the Tang Dynasty as fashionable.

Major Periods and Figures

林泰輔 (Hayashi Taisuke, 1854-1922) was a pioneer in oracle bone studies in Japan. His work "King Cheng and His Era" won the Academy Award. The publication of "Oracle Bone and Animal Bone Scripts" made him a pioneer of Japanese oracle bone studies and influenced Luo Zhenyu.

牧野謙次郎 (Makino Kenjiro, 1863-1937) authored "History of Japanese Sinology," which provided an overview of the evolution of Japanese Sinology from the end of the Tokugawa period to early Meiji, dividing Japanese Sinology development into four periods.

内藤湖南 (Naito Konan, 1866-1934) established the Kyoto School of Chinese Studies. His famous "Tang-Song Transformation Theory" argues that China entered the modern period during the Song Dynasty. He created a massive academic system of Chinese studies covering archaeology, literature, history, art history, and Dunhuang studies.

狩野直喜 (Kano Naoki, 1868-1947) was one of the founders of the Kyoto School. He corrected the past tendency in Japanese Sinology research to focus on Tang poetry and Song prose, conducting original research on Wei-Jin-Six Dynasties literature and pioneering the study of Yuan drama and other oral literature.

吉川幸次郎 (Yoshikawa Kojiro, 1904-1980) specialized in Chinese literature and became a professor at Kyoto University in 1947. His representative works include "Shang Shu Zheng Yi," "Du Fu Private Notes," and "The Learning of Reading."

Modern Developments

In recent years, Korea has also played an increasingly important role in East Asian Sinology. As a member of the Chinese character cultural sphere, Vietnam has also been committed to Vietnamese Sinology research, especially the study of Hán-Nôm.

Modern Japanese China studies can be divided into three periods: the Cold War period (until Sino-Japanese diplomatic normalization), the post-normalization period (especially after China's reform and opening), and the post-Cold War period (1990s onward).

Korea

Ancient Poetry and Cultural Exchange

Korean ancient poetry has deep connections with Chinese Han poetry. In ancient Korea, poetry composition was a practical skill and a main criterion for evaluating one's ability to serve in public office and a measure of one's moral cultivation.

Korean ancient poetry characteristics include:

Often centered on "I," reflecting a tradition of freedom and subjectivity
A penetrating movement toward transcendence, reflecting both Buddhist traditions of freedom and liberation and Confucian traditions of ultimate wisdom
Both Buddhism and Confucianism profoundly influenced all aspects of Korean literature

Cultural Transmission

Korean culture shares many similarities with Chinese culture, including the use of chopsticks and various other aspects. Culture is considered a "dynamic existence" that continuously spreads to neighboring countries, evolving and changing to become Korea's unique culture while maintaining its origins.

United States: From Area Studies to China Studies

Historical Development

The development of American Sinology can be traced through several distinct phases, from early missionary efforts to the establishment of comprehensive China Studies programs.

Early Foundations (Late 19th - Early 20th Century)

The beginnings of American China studies were closely tied to missionary activities and diplomatic relations. Early American interest in China was primarily practical, focused on trade and religious conversion rather than academic study.

The Fairbank Era and Institutionalization (1940s-1970s)

John King Fairbank (费正清, 1907-1991) was instrumental in establishing China studies as a legitimate academic field in the United States. He founded the East Asian Research Center at Harvard University in 1955, which became a model for China studies programs across the country.

Mary Clabaugh Wright (芮玛丽, 1917-1970) was a pioneering American female Sinologist and historian specializing in the 1911 Chinese Revolution. She was the first woman to serve in the Yale University Faculty of Arts and Sciences and later became the first woman appointed as a professor in the Yale Faculty of Arts and Sciences.

The Area Studies Revolution

The post-World War II period saw the emergence of Area Studies, which transformed how China was studied in American universities. This interdisciplinary approach brought together historians, political scientists, economists, and anthropologists.

Contemporary American Sinology

Stephen Owen (宇文所安, 1946-) is a distinguished American Sinologist and Harvard University professor known for his work on Chinese poetry and literary criticism. His works include "The Poetry of Meng Jiao and Han Yu," "The Great Age: Chinese Poetry," and "Remembrance: The Experience of the Past in Classical Chinese Literature."

Perry Link (林培瑞, 1944-) is an American Sinologist known for his work on Chinese contemporary literature and his involvement in Chinese political affairs. He has been on China's blacklist since 1996 due to his human rights advocacy.

David R. Knechtges (康达维, 1942-) is a prominent American Sinologist specializing in Chinese literature, particularly the Han Dynasty fu (rhapsody) genre. He is a professor at the University of Washington and has produced authoritative translations and studies of early Chinese literature.

Major American Sinology Centers

Harvard University: The Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies
Columbia University: The Weatherhead East Asian Institute
Stanford University: The Walter H. Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center
University of California, Berkeley: The Institute of East Asian Studies
Yale University: The Council on East Asian Studies

Canada: Interdisciplinary Approaches

Key Canadian Sinologists

Jerome Chen (陈志让, 1919-) is a Canadian-Chinese Sinologist and historian. Born in Chengdu, Sichuan, he graduated from Southwest Associated University in 1943 and later studied in the UK with a Boxer Indemnity Scholarship. He has served as a professor of Chinese history at York University.

Michael A. Szonyi (宋怡明, 1967-) is a Canadian Sinologist currently serving as director of the Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies at Harvard University. He specializes in Ming Dynasty history of China's southeastern coast, Chinese religious history, overseas Chinese history, and Ming military social history.

Timothy James Brook (卜正民, 1951-) was born in Toronto and is a leading Canadian Sinologist. His research focuses on Chinese history, particularly Ming history, Chinese feudal society law, Japanese imperial invasion of China, and Asian invasion history from 1937-1945.

Edwin George Pulleyblank (蒲立本, 1922-2013) was a Canadian Sinologist from Calgary, Alberta. He made significant contributions to Chinese historical linguistics and chronology, particularly his work on Old Chinese phonology and his controversial dating of the Zhou Dynasty.

Asia-Pacific Regional Developments

Australia

John Minford (闵福德) and other Australian scholars have contributed significantly to Chinese studies, particularly in translation and cultural studies.

Geremie Barmé has been influential in developing "New Sinology" approaches that bridge traditional sinological methods with contemporary cultural studies.

India

Indian Sinology has a long history dating back to before India's independence in 1947. The early centers were at Tagore's Visva-Bharati University and Ferguson College in Pune. After independence, Chinese studies in India gradually shifted from traditional sinological research focusing on ancient China to contemporary Chinese policy studies, especially after the Sino-Indian War.

Indonesia: From Colonial Studies to Modern Sinology

Author: Chandra Setiawan

Historical Background

The Chinese diaspora in the Indonesian archipelago began during the Han Dynasty, with early presence documented through travel reports of Buddhist monks like Fa-Hian and I-Tsing in the 4th-5th centuries. Chinese settlements became more clearly visible in the 16th century, when Europeans also arrived in the archipelago.

According to Professor A. Dahana, the study of China in Indonesia began developing at the end of the colonial era, particularly in the first decade of the 20th century. Sinology as an academic activity in Indonesia began after World War II when two Dutch legal scholars, Prof. Dr. Van der Valk and Dr. Mr. Meyer, founded the Sinologische Instituut (Sinology Institute) in 1947.

The Legacy of Tjan Tjoe Som

Tjan Tjoe Som (陈裕宗, 1903-1969) became a pivotal figure in Indonesian Sinology. After studying at Leiden University under Prof. Duyvendak, he returned to Indonesia in 1952 to lead the Institute of Sinology at the University of Indonesia. His major work "Po Hu T'ung" was published by Leiden Brill. However, his career ended abruptly during the political upheaval of 1965 when he was dismissed from the University of Indonesia.

Tjan Tjoe Som had studied at HCS (Hollandsch-Chineesche School) Surakarta, then continued his education at AMS (Algemeene Middlebare School) in Jogjakarta. Before he could finish AMS, Tjan returned to Solo to continue his family's "De Bliksem" batik business. It was while in Solo that young Tjan studied Sinology and Islamology on his own.

Dr. H. Kraemer encouraged Tjan Tjoe Som to study Sinology in the Netherlands to become a student of Prof. Duyvendak. Tjan arrived in the Netherlands in 1953 and entered the University of Leiden, majoring in Sinology in 1936. In 1952, Tjan returned to Indonesia on behalf of the Government of the Republic of Indonesia to assume the position of chairman of the Institute of Sinology at the University of Indonesia.

The 30S/PKI (Communist Party of Indonesia) movement became the turning point for this expert on Sinology, Chinese philosophy and Islamic law. On November 10, 1965, based on the letter of the Dean of Faculty of Literature University Indonesia, Prof. Dr. Tjan Tjoe Som was disabled from the academic world of the University Indonesia. A year later, Prof Dr Tjan Tjoe Som passed away in Bandung, six weeks before his 66th birthday.

Political Periods and Contemporary Development

The Old Order and the New Order

Old Order (Sukarno Era): Various regulations created dilemmas for Chinese communities
New Order (Suharto Era): Policies became slightly more economically lenient while maintaining cultural restrictions
Reformation Era (1998-present): The democratic climate allowed freer China studies

Contemporary Developments

In 2007, the first Confucius Institute in Indonesia was established at the Jakarta Chinese Language Teaching Center. Under President Joko Widodo, Indonesia-China relations have significantly improved.

The relationship between Indonesia and China has evolved significantly. As fellow members of the G-20, Indonesia seeks to be an equal partner with China. Economic considerations are now the strongest bond between the two major countries in Asia.

In March 2012, President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono visited China and witnessed the signing of 15 business agreements worth US$17.65 billion. Under President Joko Widodo, the relationship between Indonesia and China has become even better, with recent bilateral meetings focusing on strengthening trade and investment cooperation.

Africa: Emerging Centers of Chinese Studies

Burundi: The Birth of African Sinology

Author: Etienne Bankuwiha (班超)

Origins and Development

Burundi and China established diplomatic relations on December 12, 1963, leading to cooperation in multiple areas. The creation of the Confucius Institute at Burundi University in December 2011 marked a turning point in Sino-Burundian educational cooperation and contributed to the emergence of Burundian Sinology.

During its eleven years of operation, the Institute has trained a large number of young Burundians in Chinese language and culture, and it is among these young people that a movement of Burundians interested in China-related studies was born, hence the creation of Burundian Sinology.

Institutional Framework

Sino-Burundian Friendship Association (ASIBU)

The Sino-Burundian Friendship Association (ASIBU) is the oldest of the Burundian organisations and associations interested in relations and studies on China. It was founded in 2007 by Burundians who had studied, worked or lived in China in previous years. Today, it brings together a large number of former and current high-ranking Burundian authorities.

Burundian Association of Chinese Interpreters (ABIC)

Founded in 2018 by 20 young Burundians who had just returned from China at the end of their university studies, the Burundian Association of Chinese Interpreters (ABIC) now has more than 70 members, including more than 5 PhDs, more than 10 masters and more than 50 people with a bachelor's degree.

Confucius Institute of Burundi University (ICUB)

The Confucius Institute of Burundi University (ICUB) is the largest incubator for Burundian Sinologists, as all active Burundian Sinologists have a link with this Chinese-Burundian educational institute. Founded in 2011, ICUB began accepting learners on May 2nd, 2012. Till now, it has already trained more than 20,000 Burundians in Chinese language and culture.

In September 2018, ICUB welcomed its first Burundian teacher of Chinese language and culture, Ferdinand Mfititye (弗迪南 Fu Dinan). The official Burundian sinological studies were launched in 2019 by Etienne Bankuwiha (班超 Ban Chao), when he was doing his master's degree in teaching Chinese to people who speak other languages at Bohai University.

Burundian Center for Research in Sinology (Cresino Burundi)

The idea of creating the Burundian Center for Research in Sinology (Cresino Burundi) was born in December 2020 when Etienne Bankuwiha (Ban Chao) and Ferdinand Mfititye (Fu Dinan) had just published their Chinese-French teaching manual "J'aime apprendre la langue chinoise", and it came to fruition with the creation of a research club on sinology.

Today, Cresino Burundi is one of the few Sinology Research Centers in the region. Through its 5 laboratories or research departments (the International Chinese Education Laboratory, the Teaching + Skills Laboratory, the Chinese Literature Laboratory, the Chinese Audiovisual Tutorials Production Laboratory and the Sino-African Relations Laboratory), Cresino Burundi takes you on a journey of discovery into the mysteries of the Chinese world.

Important Areas of Sinology Research in Burundi

Studies on Chinese Language

The central figures in the field of Chinese language research in Burundi are Etienne Bankuwiha (Ban Chao) and Ferdinand Mfititye (Fu Dinan). Both were part of the first batch of Burundians who began learning Chinese at Burundi University's first Confucius Institute.

Etienne Bankuwiha (Ban Chao), towards the end of his master's studies in China, published an article on the teaching of Chinese in Burundi in the Chinese journal "North Literature". The article is entitled "Exploring the Effective Ways to Build the Academic Style of Students in Confucius Institutes from the Phenomenon of Absenteeism, Late Arrival and Early Departure: Case of Confucius Institute of Burundi University" and can be considered as the first product of Burundian Sinologists.

In 2020, in addition to the teaching manual "I like to study the Chinese language" which he co-wrote with his colleague Ferdinand Mfititye (Fu Dinan), Etienne Bankuwiha (Ban Chao) published the article "The role of the Confucius Institute in Africa: Promoting the development of Sino-African relations" in the Burundian journal "Journal of Burundi University".

Studies on Chinese Culture

In 2020, Etienne Bankuwiha (Ban Chao) led the research with his article "The role of the Confucius Institute in Africa: Promoting the development of Sino-African relations", which he published in the Burundian journal "Journal of Burundi University". In this article, he examines the contribution of Chinese cultural activities organised by Confucius Institutes in Africa.

Ferdinand Mfititye (Fu Dinan) published "Strategies for the Rapid Development of Chinese Culture in Burundi" in 2022 in the Center's internal journal, starting from the observation that China's rapid economic development and increasing volume of exchanges and interactions has led more and more people to be interested in the Chinese language and culture.

Studies on Chinese Literature and Art

The pioneer of Chinese literature research is Adrien Havyarimana (卫青 Wei Qing). After studying Chinese language and culture at Bohai University, Adrien Havyarimana continued his Masters in Modern and Contemporary Chinese Literature from 2018 to 2021. In 2021, he published the article "An experimental study of the distribution and reception of Jia Zhangke's films in France" in the Chinese journal "Cultural Industries".

Benin: Francophone African Sinology

Author: Maurice Gountin

Background and Establishment

Benin's Sinological development has been closely tied to Chinese language education. The Confucius Institute of Abomey-Calavi University (IC-UAC) was inaugurated on March 25, 2009, as Benin's first and Africa's tenth Confucius Institute.

In 2009, China and Benin had been conducting cultural exchanges for many years. The establishment of the Confucius Institute at Abomey-Calavi University, Benin's largest state university, marked the beginning of systematic Chinese language and culture education in Benin.

Development Trajectory

Initial Phase (2009-2013)

The Confucius Institute began with Chinese language training classes, attracting approximately 150 students annually. Many were English department students who had previously been exposed to Chinese and took Chinese as a second foreign language.

Expansion Phase (2013-2016)

Chinese undergraduate program was established in October 2013. In 2013-2014 academic year, when the Chinese undergraduate program began, there were 20 students. In 2014-2015 academic year, the number of Chinese major students nearly tripled to close to 60. By 2015-2016 academic year, the three grades combined had nearly 100 students.

Professional Development (2016-present)

Chinese Teacher Training program was approved and began enrollment in November 2016. The institute began recruiting students who wanted to pursue Chinese language teaching careers.

Institutional Structure

Administrative and Faculty Situation

Initially, Abomey-Calavi University Confucius Institute had 4 teachers, including 3 Chinese teachers and 1 Beninese teacher. Three Chinese directors successively served as Confucius Institute directors: Huang Qiang (2009-2012), Li Hongxiu (2012-2014), Liu Anping (2014-2016), Shen Lin (2016-present). Dr. Julien Sègbo has served as the Beninese director since the establishment of the Benin Confucius Institute.

With the rapid development of Abomey-Calavi University Confucius Institute, the faculty also grew rapidly. In the 2016-17 academic year, the Confucius Institute had 10 Chinese teachers, including 6 Chinese volunteer teachers and 9 Beninese local teachers.

Course Structure

In 2009, Chinese language teaching was 6 hours per week, 90 hours per semester, totaling 180 hours per academic year. Chinese learning was divided into two stages: elementary and intermediate.

In addition to language teaching, the Confucius Institute also helps students understand Chinese culture. This is mainly carried out in the form of cultural activities, such as Chinese folk culture lectures, watching Chinese movies and documentaries, learning calligraphy, learning Chinese martial arts, learning Chinese dance, learning to sing Chinese songs, tasting Chinese food, etc.

For Chinese undergraduate students, in addition to mastering the four general Chinese skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, engineering Chinese, business Chinese, translation, French, linguistics, Chinese culture, Chinese history and other courses are all indispensable parts.

Current Status and Expansion

By 2016, approximately 10,000 people were studying Chinese in Benin across:

2 of 4 public universities
6 of 137 private universities
19 educational institutions
4 of 5 major cities

Beyond Abomey-Calavi University, Chinese language is taught in over 17 public and private universities, middle schools, and primary schools, with a total of more than 1,000 people.

Public Universities Teaching Chinese

Future Professional Institute (IUMA)
Saint Higher Institute
Lokossa Future Professional Institute Branch (IUMA)
Bohicon Future Professional Institute Branch (IUMA)
ESTAG-Saint Christopher Management School
ANNANDJAAH Education Institute

Public Middle Schools Teaching Chinese

Father Aupiais Middle School (Catholic middle school in Cotonou)
Sebeya General Middle School (Cotonou)
Zobe General Middle School (Cotonou)
Begamey General Middle School (Cotonou)
Saint Rita General Middle School (Cotonou)

Primary Schools Teaching Chinese

Prince Private School (Cotonou)
Peace Private School (Cotonou)

Research and Analysis

According to the research conducted by Dr. Maurice Gountin, comparison between the Confucius Institute and other foreign language teaching institutions in Benin revealed both strengths and weaknesses of the Confucius Institute. Although the Confucius Institute is a relatively new institution in Benin's foreign language teaching field, it has achieved results in a short period that other similar institutions have not achieved in the same timeframe.

The study utilized various materials including promotional brochures, leaflets, advertisements, and questionnaires. Interviews were conducted at different foreign language teaching institutions for data collection.

The research identified that incomplete statistics show that in 2016, approximately 10,000 people were learning Chinese in Benin, representing significant growth from the pre-2009 period when only three Chinese teaching points existed: the Chinese Cultural Center, Abomey-Calavi University Faculty of Arts, Literature and Humanities, and Abomey-Calavi University Porto-Novo Branch Faculty of Arts, Literature and Humanities, with fewer than 1,000 students.

Latin America: Growing Academic Interest

Argentina: The State of China Studies

Author: Dr. Jorge Malena

Historical Development

Argentina represents one of the most significant centers for China studies in Latin America, alongside Peru, Ecuador, Brazil, and Chile. Most knowledge production in Latin America is found in South America, with the only exception of Mexico. In Argentina, the work occurs primarily in universities, with varying degrees of institutional specialization in China-Latin America linkages.

Major Academic Institutions

National University of La Plata (UNLP)

The National University of La Plata has maintained a Center for Chinese Studies since 1996, conducting research on multiple China-related themes and organizing exchange activities for students and teachers. In 2016, the Center created a postgraduate program in Chinese Studies (Especialización en Estudios Chinos).

The Center's objectives include the analysis, study, and research of China encompassing multiple themes. Center activities include publications and the development of research projects in cooperation with universities and research centers in China, as well as exchanges of teachers and students.

The CEChino's Postgraduate Program in Chinese Studies (Especialización en Estudios Chinos) was created in 2016 and aims to provide postgraduate training about China, covering a multiplicity of areas. The director of CEChino is Dra. Francesca Staiano, while the director of the postgraduate program is Dr. Norberto Consani.

The Center is also home for the UNLP's Confucius Institute, which has a subsidiary institute in the city of Rosario, and Confucius schools in Santiago del Estero, Jujuy, Salta, and Tucumán.

University of Buenos Aires (UBA)

The University of Buenos Aires houses several China-focused units:

Faculty of Social Sciences

Study Group for Asia and Latin America (GESAAL): Aimed at developing Asian studies based on a Latin American multidisciplinary perspective. The GESAAL edits a semestral journal, Revista Asia/América Latina.

Group of East Asian Studies (GEEA): Created in 2001 and based at the Faculty of Social Sciences' Gino Germani Research Institute. The GEEA is made up of graduates and students of the UBA dedicated to research and teaching activities on issues related to East Asia.

Center for Argentina-China Studies (CEACh): Based at the UBA's Faculty of Social Sciences, it aims to contribute to the development of Chinese studies in Argentina through teaching, research, extension activities, and exchanges of students and researchers.

Faculty of Economic Sciences

Confucius Institute: The first to be established in Argentina, in 2009.

University of Salvador (USAL)

The University of Salvador features a long-standing School of Oriental Studies that was the first to provide courses on Chinese history, literature, philosophy, and religions for many years. Currently, the School provides a graduate program in Oriental Studies.

The USAL's School of Oriental Studies was founded in 1967 by Rev. Father Ismael Quiles S.J. Though it does not have a research center or institute that focuses on the study of China, it has been a pioneer in South America since it became the first one to provide an undergraduate program in Oriental Studies, including Chinese history, literature, philosophy, and religion.

Contemporary Programs

Multiple universities now offer specialized China studies programs:

Catholic University of Argentina (UCA)

Though the UCA does not still have a research center about China, its activities related to China studies are mainly concentrated in the provision of training programs, which began to be promoted in 2018, led by Dr. Jorge Malena.

Executive Program on Contemporary China (Programa Ejecutivo sobre China Contemporánea): A 3-months training program aimed at providing knowledge about Chinese history, society, culture, economy, domestic and foreign policy, and relations with Argentina.

Postgraduate on China Studies in the Global Era (Especialización en Estudios sobre China en la Era Global): Launched in 2022, it is a 1-year postgraduate training program that aims to provide theoretical, methodological, and analytical tools to understand China's global role, based on a multidisciplinary approach.

National University of Lanús (UNLa)

The UNLa's Department of Planification and Public Policy initiated a Sino-Argentine Cooperation and Linkage Program (Programa de Cooperación y Vinculación Sino Argentino, ProSA) in 2015. In the framework of this program, the Department established a postgraduate training program, also in 2015, the Postgraduate Diploma in Contemporary China Studies (Especialización en Estudios en China Contemporánea), which aims to contribute to an integral understanding of China.

The current director of the postgraduate program is Dr. Francisco Taiana. Among the efforts made at the Postgraduate program to diversify the activities, initiatives include publications of books and papers; participation in conferences and seminars; dissemination of information in the media; and research projects.

The Center for Sino-Latin American Research Studies (Centro de Estudios de Investigación Sino-Latinoamericano) was created in July 2022 and will operate within the Department of Planning and Public Policies. This Center is a joint initiative of the UNLa and the Southwest University of Science and Technology of the Sichuan province in China.

Catholic University of Córdoba (UCC)

The Center for Belt and Road Studies (Centro La Franja y La Ruta) was created in 2020. It aims to promote research and teaching about China and its cooperation with Latin American countries. It is the first academic center that focuses on the study of China in Córdoba province. The director of the Center is Prof. Mariano Mosquera.

"The New Silk Road: Business and Strategic Projects with China" is a four-weeks' training program that offers in-person and virtual modality classes. It aims to provide training about the Belt and Road Initiative.

Think Tanks and Research Organizations

Argentine Council for International Relations (CARI)

Based in the City of Buenos Aires, CARI was founded in 1978, aimed at analyzing global matters and its impacts in the country. The Oriental Affairs Committee, whose director since the year 2021 is Dr. Jorge Malena, was founded in 1989. Among its six Working Groups, the Committee includes the China Work Group, mainly dedicated to conduct research about China's domestic and foreign policy, and relations with LAC and Argentina.

The China Working Group frequently publishes reports and policy briefs, as well as organizes seminars and public lectures with government officials and civil society experts. The chair of the working group is Ernesto Fernández Taboada.

Center for State and Society Studies (CEDES)

Founded in 1975, CEDES is a think tank that develops research activities in social sciences, training of human resources, and provides technical assistance. Among its areas of research, which include economy, public policies, and environment, CEDES' researchers have conducted projects that focus on China, considering one or more of those lines of research.

Research Funding

In terms of research funding, public funding agencies in Argentina are specifically prioritizing China-LAC work. The National Agency for the Promotion of Science and Technology manages three funds, one of them being the Fund for Science and Technology Research (FONCYT). FONCYT funds research projects related to science and technology, one of the beneficiaries being the National Scientific and Technical Research Council (CONICET).

CONICET has several initiatives relevant to China and Asia:

A joint international research center with Shanghai University that studies culture and religion, labor relations, and economic and international relations
A joint center with the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) which focuses on scientific research
A bi-national Sino-Argentine Center for the Study of Policies and Innovation and Technology together with the Chinese Academy of Science and Technology for Development

Networks and Publications

Sino-Argentine Observatory

The Observatory is an organization that brings together professionals from different disciplines. It is made up of young Argentine researchers, academics, and politicians who are dedicated to studying the link between Argentina and China, and provides diagnosis and proposals. The director of the Observatory is Prof. Patricio Giusto.

Latin American Center for Political and Economic Studies of China (CLEPEC)

The CLEPEC was established in 2013 as an initiative of a group of young Latin American politicians who had visited China through an invitation by the Chinese Communist Party to receive training on historical, social, political, and economic aspects of China.

Argentina-China Former Fellows Association (ADEBAC)

Aims to boost cultural and educational cooperation between Argentina and China. It brings together Argentinian former fellows in different universities and programs in China and promotes events and extension activities.

DangDai

DangDai was established in 2010 as a communication platform that includes different thematic areas, mainly aimed at disseminating information on Argentina-China relations. Its publications include a printed magazine, a website that provides daily information, a newsletter, and other sources.

Challenges

Despite the extensive institutional network, scholars note that the China-Latin America work is fragmented in Argentina, lacking a central institutional nucleus or network. Interviews with scholars revealed that the institutional web of universities and other organizations working on China-LAC work is fragmented in Argentina, and that there is not necessarily an institutional nucleus or network at the center of these initiatives. The dispersed nature of these initiatives at various universities can sometimes lead to the duplication of efforts, and can hinder collaboration among institutions, instead fostering competition.

Central Asia and Commonwealth of Independent States

Afghanistan: Ancient Silk Road Connections

Author: Hussain Aryan

Historical Background

Afghanistan's Sinological history can be traced back to ancient times due to its geographic position as a crossroads between Central and South Asia, making it an important node on the Silk Road. The long-standing historical exchanges and cultural communication between China and Afghanistan are based on the Silk Road as an important trade channel between the two countries, which promoted economic and cultural exchanges between the two countries.

Ancient Sinologists

During ancient times, Afghanistan was part of the Silk Road, facilitating cultural and commercial exchanges between China and Central Asia:

Kanishka

Kanishka was a ruler of the Kushan Kingdom in northern Afghanistan who was enthusiastic about Buddhism and had strong interests in Buddhist and Chinese culture. He was a ruler of the Indian-influenced dynasty called Kangju in northern Afghanistan. During his reign, the Kangju Dynasty established close ties with China's Han Dynasty and promoted the exchange and development of Han-Tibetan Buddhism.

Xuanzang (玄奘)

Xuanzang (遮傲), also known as Xuanzang, was a famous ancient Afghan Sinologist and Buddhist missionary who lived in the 7th century. His work "Records of the Western Regions of the Great Tang" (大唐西域记) detailed his westward journey for Buddhist scriptures, passing through Afghanistan and other places. Xuanzang's work is of great significance for studying ancient Chinese culture and the spread of Buddhism in Central Asia.

Zheng He (郑和)

Zheng He was a navigator and military general during the Ming Dynasty, also considered a Sinologist. He led Chinese fleets on seven ocean voyages, some of which included destinations in Afghanistan's Bosnia, and made contact and exchanges with local governments and people. Although his main tasks were trade and diplomatic missions, his understanding of local culture and language was also part of his role as a Sinologist.

These ancient Afghan Sinologists played important roles in the study of Chinese culture, history, and language. Their work promoted cultural exchanges and mutual understanding between China and Afghanistan, contributing to the connections and cooperation between the peoples of the two regions. Although their existence and contributions are recorded in history, our understanding of them remains limited due to historical changes and information constraints.

Modern Development

Modern Sinologists

In modern times, Afghan Sinological research has been further developed and promoted. Since the 20th century, some Afghan scholars have conducted in-depth research on Chinese culture, history, language, and literature through studying abroad or cooperating with Chinese academic institutions. Their research results include academic papers, translated works, and academic activities, providing more opportunities for the Afghan people to understand and appreciate Chinese culture.

Afghanistan, as a country with a long history, has had many Sinologists conduct in-depth research and study of Chinese culture and history. The work of these Sinologists has played an important role in promoting cultural exchanges and mutual understanding between Afghanistan and China. Several famous Afghan Sinologists and their historical backgrounds include:

Ahmad Ali Kohzad

Ahmad Ali Kohzad was a famous Afghan Sinologist and historian. He studied in China and obtained a master's degree, specializing in Chinese history and culture. His research focus includes the historical exchanges between China and Afghanistan, cultural influences, and the history of the Silk Road. Kohzad's research results have provided important references for scholars and researchers from both China and Afghanistan.

Aslam Alamzai

Aslam Alamzai is an outstanding Afghan Sinologist and scholar with deep accomplishments in Chinese culture and history research. His research fields include ancient Chinese philosophy, literature and art, as well as the historical connections between China and Central Asia. Alamzai's work has played a positive role in deepening the Afghan people's understanding of Chinese culture and promoting academic exchanges between the two countries.

Anis Behzad

Anis Behzad is a famous Afghan scholar and Sinologist whose research fields mainly involve Chinese history, culture, and art. He studied in China and pursued advanced studies at multiple Chinese universities, gaining a deep understanding of ancient Chinese culture and art. Behzad's work has made important contributions to cultural exchanges and academic cooperation between Afghanistan and China.

These Sinologists have not only conducted important research and teaching work in Afghanistan but also actively participated in international academic conferences and publishing activities, showcasing Afghan scholars' love for and in-depth research of Chinese culture to the world. Their work has built bridges for academic exchanges and cultural cooperation between the two countries, promoting mutual understanding and friendship between the peoples of both countries.

Contemporary Role of Afghan Sinologists

Afghan Sinologists serve multiple important functions in promoting Sino-Afghan relations and cultural exchange:

Cultural Heritage and Research

Afghan Sinologists contribute to preserving and studying cultural heritage through in-depth research on Chinese culture, history, language, and literature, helping the Afghan people inherit and spread Chinese culture. They translate Chinese literary works, introduce Chinese history and culture, and help the Afghan people better understand and appreciate China's cultural heritage.

Education and Academia

Afghan Sinologists play important roles in Chinese language education. They participate in formulating Chinese language education curricula and cultivating Afghan students' Chinese language abilities. They also provide research results about China for Afghanistan's academic community, promoting academic exchanges and cooperation.

Cultural Exchange and Friendship

The work of Afghan Sinologists helps deepen cultural exchanges and friendship between the peoples of China and Afghanistan. Through academic research, cultural activities, and exchange projects, they promote mutual understanding and the development of friendly relations between China and Afghanistan.

Bridge Role

Afghan Sinologists serve as bridges between China and Afghanistan. Through their work and efforts, they promote connections and cooperation between China and Afghanistan. They play important roles in cultural, educational, economic, and political fields, promoting cooperation and development between the two countries.

1. 1. 1. Commercial Exchange Support####

Afghan Sinologists' research and language abilities provide important support for Sino-Afghan commercial exchanges. They can serve as translators and cultural intermediaries, helping Chinese and Afghan businessmen and entrepreneurs communicate and cooperate effectively. Their understanding of Chinese business culture, combined with familiarity with Afghan culture, helps both sides build mutual trust and business relationships.

Overall, the role of Afghan Sinologists is multifaceted. Through their own research and educational work, they have made important contributions to academic, cultural, and humanistic exchanges between China and Afghanistan. Their efforts help deepen understanding and friendship between the peoples of China and Afghanistan, promoting the development and cooperation of relations between the two countries.

19th Century Sinologists and Their Discoveries

Prepared by 黄国威 HuangGuowei

James Summers

James Summers was a prominent 19th-century British Sinologist whose "Chinese Handbook" published in 1863 was an important work in British Sinology and Chinese language education history. Summers taught at St. Paul's College in Hong Kong and later became a professor of Chinese language and literature in England after resigning due to the "Tsim Ma Tsai Incident."

He was proficient in multiple languages and authored several works on Chinese studies including "Lectures on Chinese Language and Literature," "Gospel of John," "Chinese Fundamentals," and "Chinese Handbook." The handbook was divided into two parts: "Grammar" and "Example Sentences Collection," covering phonetics, Chinese characters, morphology, and syntax.

Summers developed a system using Latin letters to represent Chinese pronunciation based on German and Italian phonetic rules. His language teaching philosophy included early concepts of "nationalization" and "localization," advocating for frequency-based vocabulary learning and contextual word study.

Samuel W. Williams

Samuel W. Williams, known as the "Father of American Sinology," was one of the first Western Sinologists to translate "Strange Tales from a Chinese Studio" into English. He translated nearly 20 stories from this collection in his various works including "Progressive Lessons," "The Middle Kingdom," and "Chinese Repository."

In "Progressive Lessons," a Chinese learning textbook he compiled, Williams selected 17 stories including "Planting a Pear Tree," "Cao Cao's Tomb," and "Scolding Ducks" based on reading and translation needs. His work played an important role in introducing Chinese literature to the English-speaking world.

James Legge

James Legge was a famous British Sinologist who served as the first Professor of Chinese at Oxford University. He systematically translated Chinese ancient classics including the Analects, Great Learning, Doctrine of the Mean, Mencius, and other Confucian works.

Legge's translation work was characterized by accuracy and scholarly rigor, though he sometimes misunderstood Chinese language and culture. His translations of the Four Books and Five Classics were groundbreaking contributions that made Chinese classical literature accessible to Western readers. Scholar Herbert Giles praised Legge's translations as "an unprecedented contribution to Sinological research."

V. P. Vasiliev and Friedrich Hirth

Russian Sinologist V. P. Vasiliev authored "Outline of Chinese Literature History," which was the world's first monograph specifically on Chinese literary history, appearing 21 years before Herbert Giles' English version and 24 years before Lin Chuanjia's Chinese version.

German Sinologist Friedrich Hirth made significant contributions to Chinese studies across multiple fields including research on Daqin and Fulin, Xiongnu history, pre-Qin history, Chinese art history, and late Qing written language studies.

Édouard Chavannes

Chavannes was one of the most accomplished Sinologists at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. His early research on the Historical Records included a translation and annotation of the "Treatise on Feng and Shan Sacrifices" published in Beijing in 1890, and later the first volume of the Historical Records published in 1895.

His introduction to the Historical Records demonstrated three major characteristics: focus on the construction methods and logic of historical texts, defining Sima Qian's Historical Records as a "history of the construction of facts," and being the first historian to clearly distinguish between China's historical period and legendary period.

20th Century Sinologists and Their Findings

Contributors: Jiang Haozhe, Li Zihan, Wangyizhou

Japanese Sinologists

Kano Naoki

Kano Naoki graduated from the Chinese Literature Department of Tokyo Imperial University and received both rigorous sinological training and Western humanistic research methods. His representative work "History of Chinese Philosophy" was the most acclaimed among early Japanese philosophical histories. Unlike his predecessors who used systematic or progressive models, Kano followed natural chronological development, dividing Chinese philosophical history into five periods: pre-Confucian, Spring and Autumn/Warring States, Han-Tang, Song-Yuan-Ming, and Qing.

Kojima Sukema

Kojima Sukema was an important figure in Japan's modern Neo-Confucianism movement. After World War II, he deeply cared about the future of the world and devoted his lifelong learning to exploring the universal value and modern significance of Confucian thought. He used German sociologist Tönnies' concepts of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft to interpret Mencius' social views.

Tsuda Sōkichi

Tsuda Sōkichi analyzed Chinese culture from the perspective of human self-consciousness. He argued that the Chinese concept of heaven in classical texts, from a moral perspective, was the executor of moral law and would not violate moral principles. However, he believed this approach of entrusting human life to external mysterious forces inevitably conflicted with human autonomy.

Australian and Indian Sinologists

He Bingyu

He Bingyu was born in Malaysia in 1925 and settled in Australia. He began researching traditional Chinese science and technology during his doctoral studies and collaborated with Joseph Needham for several decades, contributing to the famous "Science and Civilisation in China" series.

Fei Zizhi

Fei Zizhi was an important figure in Australian Sinology history, dedicating his life to Chinese studies. His most famous work was "A History of Chinese Culture" published in 1935, which focused on developments in religion, philosophy, literature, and art while also addressing political changes.

Indian Sinology research has a long history, with centers at Tagore's International University and Ferguson College in Pune before India's independence. However, after the Sino-Indian War, academic research became increasingly influenced by ideological concerns, with objective "Chinese studies" being replaced by policy-oriented "China watching."

European Developments

The 20th century saw significant developments in European Sinology, with particular attention to figures who shaped the discipline:

François Jullien

François Jullien represents a unique approach to Chinese philosophy, using Chinese thought as a mirror to reflect on European philosophy. His numerous works have been translated into fifteen languages and demonstrate sophisticated comparative philosophical methodology.

Wolfgang Kubin

Wolfgang Kubin has published extensively on modern Chinese literature, particularly Lu Xun and Wang Meng. His "History of 20th Century Chinese Literature" is considered an authoritative work that bridges German and Chinese literary scholarship.

Jacques Gernet

Jacques Gernet achieved significant success in French Sinology, studying Chinese economic thought history, social history, and archaeological excavations. His works "Chinese Society" and "China and Christianity" received international acclaim.

Robert van Gulik

Robert van Gulik was famous for his translations of Chinese literature and his creation of the Judge Dee detective novels, establishing his position in Chinese studies through academic works on Chinese sexual culture and classical Chinese literature.

American Contributions

Notable American Sinologists of the 20th century included establishment figures who fundamentally shaped the field:

John King Fairbank

John King Fairbank founded Harvard's East Asian Research Center and was instrumental in establishing China studies as a legitimate academic field in the United States. His institutional innovations became models for China studies programs across the country.

Mary Clabaugh Wright

Mary Clabaugh Wright specialized in the 1911 Chinese Revolution and was a pioneering American female Sinologist. She was the first woman to serve in the Yale University Faculty of Arts and Sciences and later became the first woman appointed as a professor in the Yale Faculty of Arts and Sciences.

Stephen Owen

Stephen Owen is known for his work on Chinese poetry and literary criticism. His works include "The Poetry of Meng Jiao and Han Yu," "The Great Age: Chinese Poetry," and "Remembrance: The Experience of the Past in Classical Chinese Literature."

David Knechtges

David Knechtges is a specialist in early Chinese literature and the fu genre, producing authoritative translations and studies that have advanced understanding of Han Dynasty literature.

Contemporary Chinese Studies

Contemporary Chinese Studies has evolved into a truly global discipline with multiple methodological approaches and theoretical frameworks. The field now encompasses traditional sinological methods alongside area studies, cultural studies, and interdisciplinary approaches.

Methodological Innovations

New Sinology

New Sinology represents an attempt to bridge traditional philological approaches with modern analytical methods. Scholars like Geremie Barmé have advocated for approaches that maintain strong foundations in Chinese language and classical texts while embracing diverse disciplinary perspectives.

The Australian scholar Geremie Barmé suggested a "New Sinology" that "emphasizes strong scholastic underpinnings in both the classical and modern Chinese language and studies, at the same time as encouraging an ecumenical attitude in relation to a rich variety of approaches and disciplines."

Digital Humanities and Sinology

The integration of digital technologies has revolutionized Chinese studies, enabling new forms of textual analysis, database creation, and collaborative research. Digital archives, machine-readable texts, and computational analysis have opened new avenues for research.

Projects like Michael Lackner's digital project "Chinese Scientific Terminology" at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg exemplify how computational methods can illuminate linguistic and conceptual transfers between Chinese and European languages, including literary terminology.

Global Perspectives

Contemporary Chinese studies is increasingly characterized by its global scope, with scholars from diverse cultural backgrounds contributing to our understanding of Chinese civilization. This includes perspectives from African, Latin American, and other non-Western traditions.

The field has become truly international, with major centers of Chinese studies not only in traditional locations like Europe and North America, but also in Africa, Latin America, and throughout Asia itself. This global expansion reflects China's growing importance in world affairs and the universal interest in understanding Chinese civilization.

Theoretical Debates

Current debates in the field include questions about Orientalism and representation, the relationship between area studies and disciplinary knowledge, and the challenge of studying a rapidly changing contemporary China while maintaining historical perspective.

The Great Divergence Debate

One of the main controversies in Chinese Studies concerns why China appeared economically backward compared to Western European nations for a long time. Sociologists, philosophers, economists, and sinologists initially explained this through the static nature of Chinese economy due to Confucianism. However, scholars like Angus Maddison suggested that China was leading by GDP from 0 to 1550 CE, making current development a return to historical status.

Chinese versus Western Scholarship

Traditional Chinese education (focusing on self-development and social harmony) differed greatly from Western scholarship (search for truth and universal human values). Chinese scholars of guoxue often do not recognize Western scholars of Hanxue as their colleagues. Western criticism of Chinese scholarship centers on concerns that it is not conducted in a free environment.

International Journals and Publications

Prepared by Huo Anqi

Chinese Journals on International Sinology

The development of international Sinology has been supported by numerous scholarly publications that facilitate academic exchange and research dissemination.

Major Chinese Publications

国际汉学 (International Sinology): A leading journal focusing on international Chinese studies
国际汉学论坛 (International Sinology Forum): Provides a platform for scholarly debate and discussion
国际汉学集刊 (International Sinology Collections): Publishes collected works and conference proceedings
国际汉学研究通讯 (International Sinology Research Newsletter): Offers updates on research trends and developments
中国学 (Chinese Studies): Covers broad aspects of China studies
中国学研究 (Chinese Studies Research): Focuses on research methodologies and findings
海外中国学评论 (Overseas Chinese Studies Review): Reviews international scholarship on China
世界汉学 (World Sinology): Provides global perspectives on Chinese studies

These publications serve as crucial platforms for international scholarly exchange and help maintain communication between Chinese and international academic communities.

International Publications

Major Western Journals

Journal of Asian Studies: The premier publication of the Association for Asian Studies
T'oung Pao: One of the oldest and most prestigious sinological journals
Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies: Published by Harvard-Yenching Institute
China Quarterly: Leading journal for contemporary China studies
Journal of Chinese Literature and Culture: Focus on literary and cultural studies
Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews (CLEAR): Specialized literary studies
Journal of Chinese Philosophy: Philosophical studies
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient: Historical perspectives

Regional Publications

European Sinology journals: Various national and regional publications
African journals: Emerging publications like "Journal of Sino-African Studies"
Latin American publications: Regional perspectives on China-Latin America relations
Asian regional journals: Publications from Japan, Korea, Southeast Asia, and India

International Societies, Conferences and Chinese-Western Cooperation

Major International Organizations

The global development of Chinese studies has been facilitated by numerous international organizations, conferences, and cooperative frameworks that bring together scholars from different traditions and countries.

Professional Associations

European Association for Chinese Studies (EACS)

Founded to promote Chinese studies in Europe, EACS organizes biennial conferences that bring together hundreds of scholars from across Europe and beyond. The association publishes proceedings and maintains networks for scholarly collaboration.

Association for Asian Studies (AAS)

The primary professional organization for Asian studies in North America, AAS includes a substantial China and Inner Asia Council that coordinates activities and publications related to Chinese studies.

International Association of Chinese Studies

Facilitates global cooperation in Chinese studies research through conferences, publications, and collaborative projects spanning multiple continents.

Regional Organizations

Asian Regional Organizations

Association for Asian Studies in Japan
Korean Association for Chinese Studies
Southeast Asian sinological associations
Indian sinological societies

African and Latin American Networks

African Association for Chinese Studies (emerging)
Latin American China Studies Network
Regional research centers and institutes

Regular Conferences

Major international conferences provide forums for scholarly exchange and help set research agendas for the field:

World Congress of Sinology

Held periodically in different countries, bringing together the international sinological community for comprehensive academic exchange.

International Conference on Chinese Studies

Annual gatherings in various locations focusing on specific themes and contemporary developments in the field.

Regional Association Meetings

EACS conferences: Biennial meetings in European cities
AAS annual conferences: Major gathering in North American cities
Regional conferences in Asia, Africa, and Latin America

Institutional Cooperation

Contemporary Chinese studies is characterized by extensive institutional cooperation between universities, research institutes, and cultural organizations across national boundaries:

Exchange Programs

Faculty and student exchanges between institutions
Joint degree programs
Collaborative research fellowships
Visiting scholar programs

Joint Research Projects

Collaborative research initiatives spanning multiple countries
International databases and digital humanities projects
Comparative studies involving multiple research traditions

Digital Cooperation

Shared databases and digital archives
Online collaborative platforms
Digital humanities initiatives
Virtual conferences and workshops

Publication Partnerships

Joint publications and translation projects
Collaborative book series
International journal partnerships
Multilingual publication initiatives

Contemporary Controversies and Future Directions

Major Debates in Modern Sinology

Transformation from Classical to Contemporary Studies

After the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949, the study of China developed along diverging lines. The rise of Area Studies, the role of China watchers, and the growth of university graduate programs changed the role of traditional Sinology.

In 1964, an exchange in the Journal of Asian Studies debated the continued relevance of Sinology. The anthropologist G. William Skinner called for the social sciences to make more use of China, concluding that "Sinology, a discipline unto itself, is being replaced by Chinese studies, a multidisciplinary endeavor with specific research objectives."

New Sinology Movement

Towards the end of the 20th century, many studying China professionally called for an end to the split between Sinology and other disciplines. This led to various proposals for methodological renewal and theoretical innovation.

Future Challenges and Opportunities

Contemporary Chinese studies faces several key challenges and opportunities:

Technological Integration

The digital revolution continues to transform how Chinese studies is conducted, from machine translation and AI-assisted research to virtual reality reconstructions of historical sites and digital preservation of cultural artifacts.

Globalization of the Field

The field continues to become more international, with new centers emerging in Africa, Latin America, and other regions. This globalization brings both opportunities for diverse perspectives and challenges in maintaining scholarly standards across different institutional contexts.

Contemporary China's Global Role

As China's international influence grows, the study of contemporary China becomes increasingly important for understanding global affairs. This creates both opportunities for relevance and challenges in maintaining scholarly objectivity.

Interdisciplinary Integration

The future of Chinese studies likely lies in greater integration with other disciplines, from computer science and data analytics to climate studies and global health.

Methodological Diversity

The field continues to grapple with questions of methodology, balancing traditional philological approaches with newer theoretical frameworks and interdisciplinary methods.

Conclusion

The development of Sinology from its earliest missionary origins to its current status as a global academic discipline reflects the evolving relationship between China and the world. As China continues to play an increasingly important role in global affairs, the study of Chinese civilization, language, culture, and society becomes ever more crucial for understanding our interconnected world.

The geographical scope of contemporary Sinology, ranging from traditional European centers to emerging centers in Africa, Latin America, and Asia itself, demonstrates the universal relevance of Chinese studies. Each regional and national tradition contributes unique perspectives, methodologies, and areas of focus to our collective understanding of Chinese civilization.

This history shows how Sinology has adapted to changing political, economic, and cultural circumstances while maintaining its core mission of fostering cross-cultural understanding and scholarly exchange. As we move forward, the challenge for international Sinology will be to continue building bridges between different scholarly traditions while addressing the complex realities of contemporary China and its role in the world.

The field's future depends on its ability to maintain scholarly rigor while embracing new methodologies, to preserve traditional sinological skills while engaging with contemporary issues, and to foster international cooperation while respecting diverse scholarly traditions. In this endeavor, the rich history of international Sinology provides both inspiration and guidance for future generations of scholars dedicated to understanding Chinese civilization in all its complexity.

From the early missionary translations of classical Chinese texts to today's sophisticated digital humanities projects, from the first European professorships to the global network of Confucius Institutes and research centers, the story of international Sinology is one of continuous adaptation, growth, and deepening understanding. As China's role in the 21st century continues to evolve, so too will the academic disciplines devoted to its study, ensuring that this remarkable tradition of cross-cultural scholarship continues to thrive and contribute to human knowledge and understanding.

References and Further Reading

[This section would contain comprehensive bibliographic references organized by chapter and region, including primary sources, major secondary works, and contemporary scholarship in multiple languages]

Index

[This section will contain a comprehensive index of names, places, institutions, concepts, and major works mentioned throughout the manuscript]

Appendix: Notes

Welcome to the Project Website "History of Chinese Studies" by the International Chinese Studies Centre, Hunan Normal University, China.

Willkommen auf der Projekt-Website "Geschichte der Chinawissenschaften" des International Chinese Studies Centre, Hunan Normal-Universität, China.

欢迎访问湖南师范大学外语学院国际汉学中心《汉学史》项目网页。

History_of_Chinese_Studies

Introduction and Chapter 1
Chapter 2 Claudia v. Collani
Chapter 3 Cord Eberspächer
Chapter 4 Ole Doering
Chapter 5 Karl-Heinz Pohl
Chapter 6 Margaret Chu
Chapter 7 Stefan Knüppel
Chapter 8 Harro von Senger
Chapter 9 Valentin Golovachev
Chapter 10 Anna Lisa Ahlers
Chapter 11 Chen Ann; Kathrin Devoert
Chapter 12 Luo Huiling
Chapter 13 Benjamin Wellsand
Chapter 14 Victor Mair
Chapter 15 George ('Sam') Crane
Chapter 16 Gregor Paul
Chapter 17 Chinese colleague at HUNNU
Chapter 18 ...

Portugal: haoyun895@gmail.com +351 963550900, 欧安娜 Ana Alves (哲学 CCCM Coordinator for Macao), evtl. Roderich Ptak (dt.-port., Religionen)

Further colleagues to be approached: Wolfgang Kubin, Andrea Riemenschnitter, David D. Wang, Li Xuetao 李雪涛, Heiner Roetz, Leo Ou-fan Lee, Jiang Baochai, Michael Kahn-Ackermann

(andere Quicklinks: DCG-To-Do, Book_projects)

欢迎

Rules

vol. editors: rules for the contributors of the volume

in every volume: self-perception/-'verortung' and organisation### der Sinologie in der Zeit

Kriterium für die Aufnahme/Beschreibung sollte die Relevanz sein, also statt Sinologen-Biographien die wichtigsten Forschungsbeiträge

Einteilung: Zäsuren

Fragestellungen: Schulen, Historische Entwicklungen, Diskurse, Erkenntnisfortschritt, klassische Sinologie und Gegenwarts-Chinastudien

Aufarbeitung auch von 'dunklen Kapiteln': westliche Sinologen schwenken rote Mao-Bibeln,

Gesamtschau: Themen, Werke (incl. Bedeutung, Rezeption), + Systemische Bezüge: Hermeneutik (Franke: Methodologisches Theorem; Unschuld: Warum arbeiten zu TCM nur Ärzte und keine Sinologen?), Sozialwissenschaften, Selbstperception der Disziplin

Contributors

Margaret Chu
Ole Doering
Cord Eberspaecher
Martin Woesler
Claudia von Collani
Guan Rui
Benjamin Wellsand: US Sinology in the 1960s

etc.

Schedule

2017 first preparations and essays

2020 March 12, Editorial Board Meeting with Ole Döring, Cord Eberspächer, Martin Woesler

Material

Material Allgemein

»Sinologie in westlichen Staaten«. In: Das Große China-Lexikon. Hrsg. von Brunhild Staiger, Stefan Friedrich und Hans-Wilm Schütte. O.O.: Primus Verlag sowie Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft (2003), S. 678-681: englische Übersetzung: »Chinese Studies in the West«. In: Brill’s Encyclopedia of China. Edited by Daniel Leese. Brill: Leiden und Boston 2009, S. 128-132
Hans-Wilm Schütte, Die Geschichte der deutschen Asienforschung, (Mitteilungen des Instituts für Asienkunde) Hamburg 2002. (pdf vorhanden)
Zur Modernisierung der Ostasienforschung: Konzepte, Strukturen, Empfehlungen. Band 305 von Institut für Asienkunde Hamburg: Mitteilungen des Instituts für Asienkunde, Hamburg, Ausgabe 305 von Mitteilungen des Instituts für Asienkunde Hamburg, Institut für Asienkunde, ISSN 0537-7846, Autoren Anja Osiander, Ole Döring, Verlag Institut für Asienkunde, 1999, ISBN 3889102166, 9783889102164, 221 pp.
Chinaforschung, Forschung in China: Empfehlungen für die Errichtung eines geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Auslandsinstituts in China 封面 Günter Schucher Institut für Asienkunde, 2001 - 111页
Martin/Hammer deutsch; chinesische Übersetzung

History of Chinese Studies

History of Sinology - Integrated Academic Manuscript (current version)

Table of Contents

Introduction

Definition

Historical Development and Global Significance

Early Origins and First Contacts

Ancient Foundations

Early Trade Relations

Philosophical Observations

Religious Missions and Early Translations

Spanish Dominican Missions

First European Translations of Chinese Classics

Cobo and the Ming Xin Bao Jian

Ruggieri and the Great Learning

European Interest in the 18th Century

France

The First European Sinology School

Chinoiserie Movement

Establishment of European Professorships

Historical Context

The First Professorship

France: The Development of French Sinology

Early Development and Royal Patronage

Four Stages of French Sinology

I. Jesuit Sinology Stage (17th-18th Century)

II. 19th Century Period

III. Prosperity Period (Early 20th Century to Mid-20th Century)

IV. Recovery and Modern China Studies Period (1950s-21st Century)

Contemporary French Sinologists

Britain: From Missionary Work to Academic Discipline

Notable British Sinologists

Modern British Sinology

Germany: From Missionary Sinology to Modern Chinese Studies

Historical Overview

Key Historical Figures

Post-War Development

Notable Contemporary Figures

The Evolution of Understanding Chinese Literature by German Missionaries, Cultural Intermediates, Philosophers and Sinologists

Early Encounters: Jesuit Missionaries as the First Cultural Mediators (16th-18th Centuries)

Enlightenment to Romanticism: From Chinoiserie to Literary Interest (Late 18th to Early 19th Century)

Emergence of Academic Sinology and Expanding Translations (Late 19th to Early 20th Century)

Rupture and Renewal: From the Nazi Era to Divided Germany (1933-1989)

Convergence and Expansion: German Sinology Since Reunification (1990-Present)

Turkey: Bridging East and West

Historical Background and Terminology

The Earliest Foundations: The Khatainame Manuscript (1516)

Turkish Sinology Before 1935

Early Travelogue Sinology

Ottoman Diplomatic and Cultural Contacts

The Formal Establishment of Turkish Sinology (1935)

Atatürk's Vision

German Academic Foundation

Anna Maria Von Gabain

Wolfram Eberhard

Institutional Development

Characteristics of Turkish Sinology

Bridging Perspectives

Focus Areas

Legacy and Continuity

Historical Continuity

Contemporary Relevance

Future Directions

Expanding Research Scope

International Collaboration

Educational Innovation

Conclusion

Sinology at Göttingen University

Early Development

Post-War Period

Modern Era

Russia and Eastern Europe

Key Russian Sinologists

Contemporary Russian Sinology

Belarus: Development of Sinology

Early Sinology

20th Century Interest in Chinese Affairs

Current Research

Chinese Literature Translation in Belarus

The Netherlands: Maritime Connections and Scholarly Traditions