Trans Type EN 10

Chapter 10 Bian Zhilin's Literary Translation Theories and Practice——Take His Translations of Romantic Poems As Examples

卞之琳的文学翻译理论和实践 ——以其浪漫主义诗歌译作为例

Yang Liuqing杨柳青, Human Normal University, China.

Abstract

Bian Zhilin is a famous Chinese translator and poet. He absorbed traditional translation theories dialectically and created translation theories of "faithfulness, similarity and translation" from the perspective of literary translation. Specifically, "Replacing foot with dun" is his poetry translation strategy. This paper will analyze Bian Zhilin's translations of some romantic poems through his translation theories and show some critical thinking about his literary translation theories.

Key words

"Faithfulness, Similarity and Translation"; "Replacing Foot with Dun"; Romantic Poetry; Bian Zhilin

摘要

卞之琳是著名的中国翻译家、诗人。他辩证地吸收传统翻译理论，从文学翻译的角度创立了“信、似、译”的翻译理论。 具体而言，“以顿代步”是他的诗歌翻译策略。本文将从卞之琳的文学翻译理论出发，对其浪漫主义诗歌译作进行分析，并对其文学翻译理论提出一些批判性性思考。

关键词

“信、似、译”；“以顿代步”；浪漫主义诗歌；卞之琳

1. Introduction of Bian Zhilin and Romanticism

1.1 Introduction of Bian Zhilin

Bian Zhilin is a representative of Chinese modernist poetry, famous literary critic and literary translator. He translated foreign literature especially poetry and Shakespeare's plays. He has devoted his whole life to the literature and cultural exchanges between China and foreign countries. He is known as "the master of poetry and the leading scholar in translation in China". He dialectically absorbed previous translation theories and formed his unique translation thoughts. His famous works include Leaves of Three Autumns(1933) which is his first volume of poetry and contains verses filled with the melancholy and despair, Fish Eyes Collection(1935), The Han Garden Collection(1936) and Poems of a Decade(1942) and so on. All in all, Bian Zhilin contributed a lot to the translation in China and left a huge fantastic works for people today.

1.2 Introduction of Romanticism

Romanticism is a reaction against the enlightenment and rationalism in the 18th century, and it is a rejection of the precepts of order, calmness, harmony, balance, idealization, and rationality that typified in classicism and neoclassicism. English romanticism was generally defined to begin in 1798 with the publication of Lyrical Ballads which was created by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge and ended in 1832 with Walter Scott's death. Romanticists placed the individual at the center of art and made literature most valuable as an expression of his or her unique feelings and particular attitudes and it also showed individual's experience.

Romanticism is a time of great poetry. During this period, many poets created plenty of wonderful poems which vividly showed the beauty of nature and humanistic thoughts. English romantic poets included the elder generation and the younger generation. The elder generation, also called "lake poets" includes William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey and so on. The younger generation includes George Gordon Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and John Keats and so on. Besides, William Blake also deserves our attention. He is a pre-romanticist and forerunner of the romantic poetry of the 19th century. In this paper, I will analyze poems of William Blake, William Wordsworth and Percy Bysshe Shelly to show Bian Zhilin's translation theories.

2. Bian Zhilin's Literary Translation Theories

2.1 "Faithfulness, Similarity and Translation"

Bian Zhilin is a famous poet, translator and literary researcher in China. For decades, he not only made remarkable achievements in the field of poetry and Chinese and foreign literature studies, but also left a valuable fortune in literary translation, especially in poetry translation. Bian Zhilin has formed clear and instructive translation thoughts and theoretical views through her long-term translation practice. These translation thoughts and theoretical views influenced his translation behavior and effect, formed his exquisite translation art, and also had a great influence in the field of translation. He broke through the traditional translation theories and put forward the translation thought of "faithfulness, similarity and translation" which was based on dialectically absorbing and reasonably sublating the traditional translation theories.

Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"

It is well-known that "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" created by a modern Chinese translator Yan Fu has become the most widely spread and popular translation standards in the history of modern Chinese translation. And it has always been in the mainstream in the field of translation in China. According to Yan Fu, "faithfulness" means that a translation should be faithful to the content of the original which is the first requirement of translation. "Expressiveness" means a translation should be fluent and articulate. "Elegance" means a translation should use elegant words so as to make the translation literary (Luo Xinzhang,1984:136). Yan Fu believed that only elegant words can express the essence of original text. And he advocated translator to use classical Chinese before Han Dynasty, namely, pre-Qin period. In fact, Yan Fu translated a lot of works in accordance with this criterion.

Debates around Yan Fu's "Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance"

There has been a long debate in Chinese translation field around "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". Many speakers thought highly of Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", and this criterion once became the only standard for evaluating the quality of translation. Many literary translators such as Liang Qichao, Lu Xun praised this criterion.

Though "Faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" has been widely accepted, there were still many doubts about this criterion. Most translators acknowledged Yan Fu's "faithfulness, expressiveness", but they doubted "elegance". For example, Chen Xiying, a famous Chinese female translator, opposed "elegance" because she thought "faithfulness and expressiveness" is quite enough for non-literary works and "elegance" is not necessary. Even for literary works, "elegance" is not necessary since some characters in literary works come from countryside and their speeches apparently couldn't be elegant (Luo Xinzhang,1984:401-402).

However, though these opinions are different they have one thing in common: all these opinions divide "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" up and judge them separately.

Bian Zhilin's "faithfulness"

Unlike most translators, Bian Zhilin has his own unique view. Bian Zhilin believes that there is only one advisable standard in "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance", that is "faithfulness". "faithfulness" put forward by Bian Zhilin has achieved the transcendence and unification of this debate. According to Bian Zhilin, "faithfulness" means being loyal to the original text comprehensively, not only to the content of the original text, but also to the form (Bian Zhilin,2002:503). It seems that there is no apparent difference between Yan Fu's faithfulness and Bian Zhilin's faithfulness. But that's not the case.

Firstly, Bian Zhilin doesn't totally deny the value of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". His faithfulness is mainly for literary translation which aims to highlight the artistic features of literary translation. Bian Zhilin believes that literary translation is an artistic and creative activity which not only includes language conversion but also involves the knowledge of literature, aesthetics, literature and art. He thinks "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" lays too much emphasis on the content and form of language and it is not suitable for literary translation.

Secondly, Bian Zhilin opposed the artificial separation of "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". He thinks this separation is a kind of false perception which may cause the emphasis of one aspect and the neglect of the others. He thinks that artistic translation standard, strictly speaking, is only "faithfulness". It means the full fidelity to content and form. Actually, Bian Zhilin doesn't deny the existence value of expressiveness and elegance; instead, he seems "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance" as a whole and "faithfulness" includes "expressiveness" and "elegance". Therefore, his faithfulness is comprehensive: both "expressiveness" and "elegance" are internalized in "faithfulness".

Thirdly, Bian Zhilin believes "faithfulness" in literary translation means translation should be loyal to the original text both in content and form. In others words, it's not desirable that translation be better or worse than the original. Besides, he holds that "faithfulness" in translation is not absolute but relative and it needs artistic creation of translators(Li Changshuan,2004:57). What's more, literary translators should have the confidence in translating the "spirit" of the original so as to make translation vivid and expressive.

All in all, Bian Zhilin believes the content and form of literary works are unified and indivisible, so is "faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance". At the same time, he admits "faithfulness" is relative rather than absolute considering difference between language and culture. Therefore, Bian Zhilin's faithfulness is inheritance and innovation of traditional translation theory and has important theoretical value.

Formal Similarity and Spiritual Similarity

Formal similarity means translation preserves the linguistic form of the original which includes words, grammar, sentence structure, figures of speech and types or forms of literature and so on. Any two languages have something both common and different. Those common features are the bases of formal similarity of translation.

Spiritual similarity, on the contrary to formal similarity, means getting rid of the bondage of language form such as words, grammar when it is necessary. And translators should use authentic translation to convey the artistic features of the original. Spiritual similarity was first put forward by Mao Dun and was further advocated and practiced by Fu Lei. It has become one of the dominant theories in Chinese translation theories.

Debates around Formal Similarity and Spiritual Similarity

In the field of Chinese translation, translators debated a lot around formal translation and spiritual translation. Many translators believe formal translation is more advisable than spirit translation. But others think differently. For instance, Chen Xiying believed there were three kinds of "faithfulness", namely spiritual similarity, meaning similarity and formal similarity, among which spiritual similarity is superior, meaning similarity is the second and formal similarity is inferior. Chen Xiying held that formal similarity ignores the writing style of the original though it conveys the meaning of the original completely. Meaning translation is better than formal translation because it focuses on not only what the original writer says but also how he says it. But meaning translation is much more like imitation which cannot grasp the "spirit" of the original. Spirit translation, however, is the exact way to convey the "spirit" of the original. Besides, Yan Fu is another representative who pays more attention to spirit similarity than to formal similarity (Luo Xinzhang,1984:694).

Bian Zhilin's "Similarity"

Bian Zhilin took a stand against the long-standing debate around formal similarity and spiritual similarity. In his opinion, there is only one word between formal similarity and spiritual similarity that is advisable——"Similarity". Bian Zhilin holds that literary work is a unity of content and form; "form" and "spirit" in literary translation is complementary. On the one hand, "form" is the basis of "spirit" which means without concrete form, the spirit and artistic value of literary works can only be empty talk. On the other hand, "spirit" is the life of "form" which means literary works without "spirit" are like people without soul, which can only be empty body and meaningless form (Bian Zhilin,2002:503).

"Similarity" which was put forward by Bian Zhilin, actually contains the similarity both in formal similarity and spiritual similarity. In other words, ideal literary translation should achieve the unity of form and spirit. Bian Zhilin thinks literary translation can only achieve similarity with the original but not sameness (Bian Zhilin,1994:8-9), which not only recognizes the difference between the original and the translation, but also acknowledges translators' creative efforts.

Literal Translation and Free Translation

Literal Translation means that expression forms and syntactic structure of the translated text should be as consistent as possible with the original when translators convey the meaning of the original text. Free translation, however, means translators should break the linguistic form of the original text and express the meaning of the original by using the customary expressions of the target language.

Debates around Literal Translation and Free Translation

The debates between literal translation and free translation in the history of western translation can be date back to Cicero (106BC-43BC). Cicero opposed "word for word translation" (literal translation) which was deemed as "interpreter's translation" and advocated "sense for sense translation" (free translation) which was deemed as "orator's translation"(Tan Zaixi,1991:24). Cicero's distinction about translation paved the way for following translators. For example, John Dryden published his views on literal translation and free translation. Dryden made a distinction between metaphrase, phrase and imitation which was an extension of literal translation and free translation. What's more, Newmark thinks literal translation is preferred when the effect is the same (Newmark,1981:39). And Nabokov holds that literal translation is true translation because it can convey the exact contextual meaning of the text as accurately as possible (Nabokov,1964:viii).

Bian Zhilin's Translation

Bian Zhilin thinks only "translation" is advisable over the long-standing dispute over literal translation and free translation. Translation contains following meanings (Bian Zhilin,2000:8).

Firstly, literal translation and free translation are not contradictory but complementary. Too much emphasis on either side will only have a bad effect on literary translation. Bian Zhilin also criticizes translations that put too much emphasis on the source language or the target language.

Secondly, translation cannot be creation. Translation should be based on the original text, not personal creation. But Bian Zhilin doesn't deny the creativity in translation and thinks the creativity is the life of translation as long as it is based on the original.

2.2 Bian Zhilin's Poetry Translation Strategies

Absorbed thoughts from former and contemporary poets, Bian Zhilin created his poetry translation strategies. That is to translate English poetry in a poetical and metrical way and replace foot with dun. These strategies not only consider the western poetry patterns, but also considers the characteristics of Chinese, which has strong feasibility. Bian Zhilin's poetry translation strategies are closely related with his literary translation theory of "faithfulness, similarity and translation".

2.2.1 Translating Poetry in A Poetical and Metrical Way

Bian Zhilin thinks that poetry is more a unity of content and form than other literary forms. Therefore, poetry translation includes both translation of poetry content and form. Bian Zhilin thinks poetry translation should be loyal to the original poem not only in content but also in form. Poems should be translated into the form of poem rather than prose. If the original poem is free verse, then translated version should also be free verse. If the original poem is metrical poem, then translation should also be a metrical one. (Bian Zhilin,2007:319) The coincidence between form and content in poetry translation is an embodiment of translation thought of "faithfulness, similarity and translation".

Meter is an important feature of poetry, including rhythm, rhythm and arrangement of words and stanzas. There are many differences in meter among poetry of different languages. And different poets and works use different meters. These become major factors of difficulties in poetry translation.

Bian Zhilin thinks translators should preserve the metrical features of the original poems. In other words, translators should translate poetry in a metrical way. Therefore, poems should be translated by using equivalent meters. To be more specific, translators should translate foreign poems by using commonalities between Chinese traditional metrical basis and foreign metrical basis. It's not just simple application of foreign poetry patterns nor of Chinese traditional poetry patterns. Instead, it's the crossover of the two poetry patterns.

2.2.2 Replacing Foot with Dun

The key to the metrical problem of poetry translation is what is the metrical unit of the line, "word" (a syllable) as a unit or "dun" (syllables) as a unit. Bian Zhilin believes metrical poems should be translated in equivalent "duns" which can replace meters and this kind of translation is without the limit of word numbers. This theory is well thought out and based on rhythmic characteristics of Chinese. As Bian Zhilin analyzed that when we speak Chinese, we usually say two or three Chinese characters as a "dun" in most cases, one character at least as a "dun" and four characters at most as a "dun". This is the internal rules of Chinese. Chinese poems constitute stanzas, stanzas constitute lines and lines constitutes "duns". Therefore, "dun" is the natural rhythmic units of Chinese poetry and reveals poems' "inherent music-like rhythm and beat".

However, that "dun" is the basic metrical unit of the Chinese poetry doesn't mean the number of duns in each line is exactly the same. Bian Zhilin advocates dun of two characters and dun of three characters should be arranged alternately and adjusted mutually to meet the needs of poetic expression and produce an effect similar to feet in western poetry.

3. Analyses of Bian Zhilin's Translation Practice

Bian Zhilin put his literary translation theories of "faithfulness, similarity and translation" and poetry translation strategies of "replacing foot with dun" into practice. Here are three poem excerpts of romantic poets and Bian Zhilin's translations of them.

3.1 William Blake's The Tiger in Songs of Experience

William Blake is a representative of English romantic literature. He was hailed by 20th century critics as "the great prophet" who was a pioneer of romanticism. He broke neoclassical traditions in the 18th century and emphasized instinct, passion and imagination. Besides, Blake was a revolutionary poet and expressed strong revolutionary passion and rebellious spirit in his poem. The Tiger is one of his earliest lyrical poems. It eulogizes the shape and strength of the tiger. Here is an excerpt of it:

Tiger! Tiger! Burning bright

In the forests of the night,

What immortal hand or eye

Could frame thy fearful symmetry?

Bian Zhilin's Translation:

老虎！|老虎！|火一样的辉煌，

烧穿了|黑夜的|森林和|草莽，

什么样|非凡的|手和|眼睛

能塑造|你一身|惊人的|匀称？

(Annotation: The symbol "|" in the translation means the division of dun.)

The excerpt shows the praise for the tiger. In the poem, Blake uses symbolization and compares the tiger to a fire that destroys everything. Bian Zhilin represents the perfect creation of the creator with the symmetry of the tiger.

Bian Zhilin translates the poem on the guidance of his theory of "faithfulness, similarity and translation". In the first line of the excerpt, the use of "Tiger" with exclamation marks is a kind of call of the tiger——the king of the forest. Bian Zhilin translates them faithfully into "老虎！老虎！". The third line is a rhetorical sentence that asks without answering, which reminds readers of the Creator——God, thus making the poetry profound. Bian Zhilin follows the rhythmic characteristics of the original poem and translates it artistically.

Bian Zhilin also makes his translation according to his theory of "replacing foot with dun”. The above stanza consists of four lines of trochaic tetrameter. Therefore, there are four feet in each line. And in translated version, there are four lines of four duns. Each duns contains two or three characters, thus making the structure of the translated poem neat and have a strong rhythm.

3.2 William Wordsworth's The 'Lucy' Series

William Wordsworth is also an important poet in English romanticism. He was made poet laureate and he strongly promoted the innovation of English poetry and the development of the Romantic movement. He believes "Poetry is the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings". The following excerpt is taken from his "Lucy" series:

A slumber did my spirit seal

I had no human fears

She seemed a thing that could not feel

The touch of earthly years

No motion has she now, no force

She neither hears nor sees

Rolled round in earth's diurnal course

With rocks, and stones, and trees.

Bian Zhilin's translation:

迷糊|封住了|我的|精神；

我没有|人世的|忧惶：

她似乎|超然|物外，|不可能

感觉到|岁月的|影响。

现在|她无力了，|也不能|动弹；

她不再|耳闻|目睹；

卷在|地球的|日程里|滚转，

混同了|岩石、|树木。

(Annotation: The symbol "|" in the translation means the division of duns.)

The above poem was written when Wordsworth went and stayed in Germany with his sister Dorothy in 1798 and 1799. It uses simple words and the meaning of the poems is quite clear. And Bian Zhilin's translation of the poem is quite faithful and vivid. "Slumber" in the first line of the original is translated into "迷糊" rather than "沉睡", which gives readers a sense of "lazy charm". And "fears" in the second line was translated into "忧惶"；it’s quite vivid and pertinent. Besides, the original poem consists of two stanzas with four lines of iambus. In each stanza, the first and the third line have four feet and the second and the fourth line have three feet. The whole poem follows the rhyme scheme of "a-b-a-b, c-d-c-d". Bian Zhilin replaces feet in the poem with duns. There are fours duns in the first and the third lines and three duns in the second and fourth lines in translation. And the translated version follows the same rhyme scheme with the original. The whole poem is translated and expressed in quite appropriate way.

3.3 Percy Bysshe Shelley's Song to the Men of England

Percy Bysshe Shelley, as one of the famous romantic poets, pursued freedom and resisted violence in his short life. He encouraged people to stand and fight for a better life and was branded a "complete revolutionary" by Marx. And Song to the Men of England was written by Shelley after "Peterloo incident" in Manchester in 1819 to reveal the cruel nature of reactionary rulers and call on people to revolt bravely. Here is an excerpt of Song to the Men of England:

Men of England, wherefore plough

For the lords who lay ye low?

Wherefore weave with toil and care

The rich robes your tyrants wear?

Wherefore feed and clothe and save

From the cradle to the grave

Those ungrateful drones who would

Drain your sweat——nay, drink your blood?

Bian Zhilin's Translation:

英国的|人民，|为什么|犁地

报答|老爷们|踩你们|成泥？

为什么|辛勤|劳苦|去织布，

让那些|恶霸|穿华丽|衣服？

为什么|你们|从摇篮|到坟冢

尽供给|和保养|那许多|雄峰？

他们|不感激，|还非常|坚决，

要喝干|你们的汗|——再加|血；

(Annotation: The symbol "|" in the translation means the division of duns.)

This excerpt is about the clash between two classes of society, the poor working class and the rich nobles. The major theme of this poem is exploitation. People plow for the sake of the lords, who are like drone bees that do no work but live off of the works of others. The narrator is urging the workers to make a stand as they are being treated unfairly.

Bian Zhilin practices his poetry translation strategies of "translating poetry in metrical way" and "replacing foot with dun" in this poem. In the original poem, each of two stanzas consists of four lines of iambic tetrameter, rhyming "a-a-b-b, a-a-b-b". In the translated version, there are also two stanzas composed of four lines. And in each line, there are four duns which replaces the four feet in the original poem. The rhyme scheme in translated version is the same as that in the original.

Bian Zhilin translates the poem faithfully and vividly. For example, he translates "lay ye low" into "踩你们成泥" which well preserves the images of the original work. And "tyrants" in the fourth line of the first stanza is translated into "恶霸" which is concise and accurate. In the second stanza, "From the cradle to the grave" modifies "the men of England" rather than those "ungrateful drones", Bian Zhilin understands the linguistic structure of the poem and translates it into "你们从摇篮到坟冢". "坟冢" is more formal than "坟墓" and it's suitable for poetry, from which we can see the precision of Bian Zhilin's choose of words. In the last line, Bian Zhilin uses a dash and the words "再加" to highlight the brutal nature of the rulers. Actually, this translation is a good practice of his literary translation theories of "faithfulness, similarity and translation".

4. Critical Thinking of Bian Zhilin's Translation Theories

There is no doubt that Bian Zhilin's translation theories greatly promoted the development of English poetry translation in China. His "faithfulness, similarity and translation" is the inheritance and innovation of Chinese traditional translation theories. And it indeed provides a new way for poetry translation. Besides, Bian Zhilin thinks poetry should be translated into poetry rather than prose. In other words, translators should translate poetry in a poetical and metrical way. He stresses the importance of the unity between form and content and thinks high quality translation should be a unity of content and artistic style of the original text.

Despite Bian Zhilin's great contribution to literary translation theories, I think there are still some problems existing in Bian Zhilin's translation strategies. In Bian Zhilin's opinion, translators can replace foot with dun thus achieving similar rhythmical effect in Chinese version with the English original. It seems that it is a quite advisable and feasible method. Bur actually, it cannot be practiced widely. In English poetry, each foot consists of two syllables, which is fixed and regular. But things are changed in Chinese. The character numbers in each dun in Chinese are not fixed. There may be one or two or three or four characters in each dun, so different people may have different divisions of duns based on their different understanding of context. Therefore, the division of duns may be disordered and random, which makes "replacing foot with dun" not advisable in many cases.

Another problem in Bian Zhilin's translation theories is the ignorance of metrical patterns of foot. In English poetry, there are different metrical patterns like iambus, trochee, spondee and pyrrhic and so on. But there are no such meters in Chinese. "Replacing foot with dun" only considers the correspondence of foot but ignores the correspondence of metrical patterns of foot, so Bian Zhilin's "translating poetry in a metrical way" actually is not adequate. We know Chinese is a kind of tone language which has four tones. We can use four tones to correspond the metrical patterns of foot in English. But it's quite difficult in so far and still needs more exploration.

5. Conclusion

Bian Zhilin is a famous Chinese translator and poet. His literary translation theories of "faithfulness, similarity and translation" and "translating poems in a poetical and metrical way" and "replacing foot with dun" give us a lot of enlightenment in the translation of poems. This paper analyzes Bian Zhilin's translation of romantic poems to show his translation strategies. However, there are still some problems in his theories, for example, the division of duns are disordered and random which are based on the understanding of translators and there is no correspondence in metrical patterns of foot. These are the problems that are needed to be considered and solved.

References

Blake, William(1971). Songs of Experience[M]. New York: Dover Publications, Inc..

Durrant, Geoffrey(1979). William Wordsworth [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Nabokov, Vladimir(1964). "Forward", A.S.Pushkin, Eugene Onegin, Nabokov, V.trans. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

Newmark, Peter(1981). Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon.

Bian Zhilin卞之琳(2002).《卞之琳文集》（中卷）Bian Zhilin's Collected Works (Middle volume). 安徽 Anhui：安徽教育出版社 Anhui Education Press.

Bian Zhilin卞之琳(2000).《卞之琳文集》（上卷）Bian Zhilin's Collected Works (First volume). 安徽 Anhui：安徽教育出版社 Anhui Education Press.

Bian Zhilin卞之琳(1994).《从<西窗集>到<西窗小书>》From the West Window Collection' to 'the West Window Small Book'. 北京 Peking：中国工人出版社 Chinese Workers Press.

Bian Zhilin卞之琳(2007).《人与诗：忆旧说新》（增订本）Man and Poems: Recollect the Past Days and Talking About the New Days(Revised Book). 安徽 Anhui：安徽教育出版社 Anhui Education Press.

Bian Zhilin卞之琳(2005). 《英国诗选》Selected English Poems.北京 Peking：商务印书馆 The Commercial Press.

Chen Xiying陈西滢(1984).《论翻译》.On Translation 罗新璋编《翻译论集》Edit.,Luo Xinzhang Collected Papers of Translation. 北京 Peking：商务印书馆 The Commercial Press.

Fu Lei傅雷(1984).《论文学翻译书》.On Literary Translation Books 罗新璋编《翻译论集》Edit.,Luo Xinzhang Collected Papers of Translation. 北京 Peking：商务印书馆 The Commercial Press.

Li Changshuan李长栓(2004). 《非文学翻译理论与实践》Non-literary Translation Theories and Practice. 北京 Peking：中国对外翻译出版公司 Chinese Translation and Publication Corporation.

Shen Suru沈苏儒(1998).《论信达雅：严复翻译理论研究》On Faithfulness, Expressiveness and Elegance: A Study of Yan Fu's Translation Theory. 北京 Peking：商务印书馆 The Commercial Press.

Tan Zaixi谭载喜(1991).《西方翻译简史》A brief history of Western translation. 北京 Peking：商务印书馆 The Commercial Press.

Yan Fu严复(1984).《<天演论>译例言》Introduction to Translation of 'Evolution and Ethics' .罗新璋编《翻译论集》Edit.,Luo Xinzhang Collected Papers of Translation. 北京 Peking：商务印书馆 The Commercial Press.

Written by--Yang Liuqing (talk) 01:39, 16 December 2021 (UTC)