Trans Type EN 12

Chapter 12 Zohaib Chand AN INTRODUCTION TO TRANSLATION STUDIES: AN OVERVIEW Intan Pradita

Trans_Type_EN_12

Zohaib Chand, Hunan Normal University,China

Abstract

This study aims to observe the development of translation studies through its different types, various strategies, styles and particular methods. In this paper, the readers are introduced to some famous translation scholars including their view of translation studies. At the further discussions, this study lets the readers acknowledge the main issues on translation studies, focusing on different styles of variations such as grammar, sentence structure, textual analysis, strategies and methods. This study may help those who are interested to conduct translation researches and help them by giving options of which theories is beneficial to their analysis. Moreover, it aims to explore the clear definition of translation as well as help the readers to understand the basic concept which are used in the field of translation. The present study, therefore, attempts to outline the scope of the discipline of translation studies and more importantly, it is an attempt to outline its activity that required a deep mastering of language, a good source of knowledge and target cultures.

Key words

Translation, styles of variations, strategies

Introduction

It is undoubtedly right that translation is important to share information. In line with these premise, the number of translation professionals is getting higher. In fact, the result of translation researches tends to help human daily life in term of evaluation, designing translator machines, and cultural studies. Therefore, translation means converting written information from one language into another. It is the new discipline appeared in the second half of the 20th century. The term “Translation Studies” was coined by James S. Holmes, an American-Dutch poet and translator of poetry, in his seminal paper “The Name and Nature of Translation Studies”. Translation enables effective communication between people around the world. It is a courier for the transmission of knowledge, a protector of cultural heritage, and essential to the development of a global economy. Translation helps us to know about the developments in the field of creative arts, education, literature, business, science and politics. It has shifted from the traditional conception of the fixed, stable and unchangeable nature of the text and its meaning to a text with wide scope for variations. Translation also helps in nation building. In this globalised world, the demand for translation and language related services has increased many times. Translation is not only needed for the creation of national identity but has also become an essential tool for keeping pace with the processes of globalization and localization. The activity of translation has a long-standing tradition and has been widely practiced throughout history, but in our rapidly changing world its role has become of paramount importance. Nowadays, knowledge in which cultural exchanges have been widening, has been increasingly expanding and international communication has been intensifying, the phenomenon of translation has become fundamental. Be it for scientific, medical, technological, commercial, legal, cultural or literary purposes, today human communication depends heavily on translation and, consequently, interest in the field is also growing. Accordingly, the discussion, in the present study, proceeds primarily from the perspectives of “Translation Studies” and “Linguistics”. One major goal is to show the interrelationships between linguistics and translation, and how they benefit from each other. Nowadays, translation research has started to take another path, which is more automatic. The invention of the internet, together with the new technological developments in communication and digital materials, has increased cultural exchanges between nations. This leads translators to look for ways to cope with these changes and to look for more practical techniques that enable them to translate more and waste less. They also felt the need to enter the world of cinematographic translation, hence the birth of audiovisual translation. The latter technique, also called screen translation, is concerned with the translation of all kinds of TV programs, including films, series, and documentaries. This field is based on computers and translation software programs, and it is composed of two methods; dubbing and subtitling. In fact, audiovisual translation marks a changing era in the domain of translation. In short, translation has very wide and rich history in the West. Since its birth, translation was the subject of a variety of research and conflicts between theorists. Each theorist approaches it according to his viewpoint and field of research, the fact that gives its history a changing quality.

Discussion

Translation is an activity that requires deep mastering of languages, a good knowledge of source and target cultures. It is also linked with the translation method, strategies and styles of variations. Each translation type requires different translation method. In this paper, it is an attempt to outline that there are several types of translation. Each type is defined by different scholars through different criteria to the contextual situation of communication. In this paper, we will be writing down the three prominent types of translation through various medium namely; technical translation, literary translation and pragmatic translation. For each type, a selection of examples will be considered for analysis based on translation theories and techniques. We will show that some chunks of text require literal translation, while other requires interpretive method. In addition, this paper will also examine various strategies and its styles of variations based on translational study. The following strategies will be presented in the paper as;

• They involve text manipulation. • They must be applied to the process. • They are goal-oriented. • They are problem-centered. • They are applied consciously. • They are inter-subjective.

Most theorists agree that strategies are used by translators when they encounter a problem and literal translation is not useful. Different researchers have investigated and described various translation strategies from their different perspectives. It intends to show what translation strategies exist and when and why they are used by professional translators. Different scholars have various perspectives to the aspects of the act of translation, so, they define and describe different types of strategies. Bergen's (n. d.) classification of the strategies includes three categorizations which will be discussed mainly in this paper:

• Comprehension strategies • Transfer strategies • Production strategies

An addition to this paper, styles of variations will also be introduced to the readers through different aspects and examples. The concept of style can be defined in terms of the distinctive way an individual or a group uses language, or better still the discourse used to perform distinct functions of language aimed at achieving specific purposes. However, this does not entail that style is simply a matter of form since it is the product of other components such as the genre of discourse, its semantics, syntax and phonology. Indeed, in order to analyze a given stylistic variation one needs an extensive checklist that includes lexical and grammatical categories, allusions, and figures of speech. Style can be understood to refer to the recurring typical features of the source text compared to the typical features of the translated text. In a quantitative and qualitative analysis, this variation is shown to be influenced by several pragmatic and social factors, and to index the interpreters' stances towards source speakers and towards the immigrant court users who are the recipients of translations from English. It is argued that translation styles have profound consequences for limited English speakers, as the insistence on institutional norms in translating to them is viewed as a gate keeping behavior that may impede their full participation in the proceedings.

What is translation?

Translation went through various definitions going from a mere linguistics activity during the sixties, a cultural and communicative activity during the seventies reflects the social impacting activity in the latest founding of the literature. “Translation is traditionally known as being the replacement of textual material in one language into equivalent textual material in another language”. House (2015) mentions that translation is considered as the “replacement” of a text in the source language by a semantically and pragmatically equivalent text in the target language. It is strongly related to a source language and target language cultures. It requires a high level of mastery languages, an awareness of any contextual factors within which the discourse emerges. There is no need to mention how it affected civilizations through different areas of mankind history. For example, An Arab-Islamic civilizations. There have always been different directions on how one should or should not translate. In the Arab tradition, two main methods existed and were in complete divergence namely the literal and the free method. On the other hand, in the Western tradition there are various methods currently exist namely, the linguistic, the hermeneutic, the interpretive, the functionalist, the interventionist, the poly-systemic and the text-typologist method. More so, it may be important to point out that translation has been defined in many ways, and every definition reflects the theoretical approach underpinning it. As Shuttlworth and Cowie (1997) observe throughout the history of research into translation, the phenomenon has been variously delimited by formal descriptions, echoing the frameworks of the scholars proposing them. For example, Bell (1991: XV) starts with an informal definition of translation, which runs as follows: the transformation of a text originally in one language into an equivalent text in a different language retaining, as far as is possible, the content of the message and the formal features and functional roles of the original text. At the beginning of the ‘scientific’ (Newmark, 1988, p. 2) study of translation, Catford (1965, p. 20) described it in these terms, the replacement of textual material in one language (SL) by the equivalent textual material in another language. Thirty years later, in Germany, the concept of translation as a form of ‘equivalence’ is maintained, as we can see from Koller’s definition (1995, p. 196): “The result of a text processing activity, by means of which a source language text is transposed into a target-language text. Between the resultant text in L2 (the target-language text) and the source text in L1 (the source language text) there exists a relationship, which can be designated as a translational, or equivalence relation”. Because complete equivalence (in the sense of synonymy or sameness) cannot take place in any of his categories, Jakobson (1959) declares that all poetic art is, therefore, technically untranslatable. That is, the translator has to take the question of interpretation into account in addition to the problem of selecting a TL phrase which will have a roughly similar meaning. Exact translation is impossible. In this regard, Bassnett (1996) claims that all texts, being part of a literary system descended from and related to other systems are “translations of translation of translations”: every text is unique and at the same time, it is the translation of another text. No text is entirely original because language itself, in its essence, is already a translation: firstly, of the non-verbal world and secondly, since every sign and every phrase is the translation of another sign and another phrase. However, this argument can be turned around without losing any of its validity: all texts are original because every translation is distinctive. Every translation, up to a certain point, is an invention and as such it constitutes a unique text. In this analysis of the above definition, Manfredi (2008), points out that the above distinction can be divided into two main perspectives, those that consider translation either as a ‘process’ or a ‘product’. To this twofold categorization, Bell (1991, p. 13) adds a further variable, since he suggests making a distinction between translating (the process), a translation (the product) and translation (i.e., “the abstract concept which encompasses both the process of translating and the product of that process”. Moreover, thanks to advances in new technologies, today we can also incorporate into TS the contribution of corpus linguistics, which allows both theorists and translators analyses of large amounts of electronic texts (Manfredi, 2008). On the other hand, Halliday (1992, p. 15) takes translation to refer to the total process and relationship of equivalence between two languages; we then distinguish, within translation, between “translating” (written text) and “interpreting” (spoken text). Halliday, thus, proposes distinguishing the activity of “translation” (as a process) from the product(s) of “translating”, including both “translation” (concerning written text) and ‘interpreting’ (regarding spoken text. “Translation is the production of a functional target text maintaining a relationship with a given source text that is specified according to the intended or demanding function of the target text.

Types of Translation

Translation is an activity that requires deep mastering of languages, a good knowledge of source and target cultures. It is also linked with the translation method, strategies and styles of variations. Each translation type requires different translation method. In this paper, it is an attempt to outline that there are several types of translation. Each type is defined by different scholars through different criteria to the contextual situation of communication. In this paper, we will be writing down the three prominent types of translation through various medium namely; technical translation, literary translation and pragmatic translation.

Technical translation

Technical translation is a type of specialized translation involving the translation of documents produced by technical writers, or more specifically, texts which relate to technological subject areas or texts which deal with the practical application of scientific and technological information. (Wikipedia) Translators' main goal is to accurately translate the technical terminology to match the document and the message of the original content.

The benefits of technical translation

A professional technical translation service is provided by translators with dual specialties, that is, professionals who are fluent in the language pair, but who are also experts in the field covered by the documents to be translated. When you need to have your documents translated by a technical translator, translators who are not experts may not be able to provide the necessary solutions and terminology for a quality translation. If the translator is not an expert in the field, he/she will have to learn the new terminology while working. This means that translation will take longer, have higher chances of inaccuracies, and may result in higher costs. Therefore, the main advantages of hiring an agency specialized in this type of service are as follows:

Literary translation

Literary translation is the translation of creative and dramatic prose and poetry into other languages. This includes the translation of literature from ancient languages and the translation of modern fiction so that it can reach a wider audience. Literary translation is of huge importance. It helps to shape our understanding of the world around us in many ways. Reading Homer and Sophocles as part of a classical education in school helps to build an understanding of history, politics, philosophy and so much more. Meanwhile, reading contemporary translations provides fascinating insights into life in other cultures and other countries. In a fast-paced world so rife with misunderstanding and confusion, such efforts to share knowledge and experiences across cultural boundaries should be applauded. The translation of literature differs greatly from other forms of translation. The sheer size of the texts involved in literary translation sets it apart. Tackling a translation that runs to hundreds of thousands of words is not a task for the faint-hearted. Nor is recreating poetry in a new language, without losing the beauty and essence of the original work. One of the key challenges of literary translation is the need to balance staying faithful to the original work with the need to create something unique and distinctive that will evoke the same feelings and responses as the original. This can be particularly challenging when it comes to translating poetry. Poems are written with incredible attention to detail. Not only are the words and phrases important, but the number of syllables and the entire rhythm of the completed work. It’s a challenging task to complete just in one language, let alone when trying to recreate a poet’s work during a translation. Daniel Hahn, director of the British Centre for Literary Translation, sums up the issue beautifully. As literary translators will attest, a single word can be extremely troublesome. The author of a work of fiction has chosen that word for a good reason, so the translator must ensure that it is faithfully delivered in the target language. However, what if no direct translation is available? Or what if several options exist, each with a slightly different nuance? Urdu language translator Fahmida Riaz outlines her approach to such thorny issues. For instance, “Every piece you translate comes from the pen of an individual, so you have to give it an individual treatment. I try to retain the ambience of the original culture, rather than the language, as it is reflected in the text.”

Pragmatic translation

Pragmatic translation is the basic assumption that provided a source language text contains no misstatements of fact, is competently written and has to be fully translated rather than summarized or functionally reorientated; one's purpose in translating it is to be referentially and pragmatically accurate. In this paper, I shall not deal with referential accuracy but concentrate instead on the pragmatic aspects of translation. As the term pragmatic translation may be used in a variety of ways, I should like to state my own definition of pragmatic, which derives from Charles Morris and ultimately from Charles S. Peirce. I am using pragmatic as one of the two factors in translation: pragmatic denotes the reader's or readership's reception of the translation, as opposed to referential, which denotes the relationship between the translation and the extra-linguistic reality it describes. Translation is a properly way to a properly communication and pragmatics is how to use language in communication properly. By translation, many things from different languages and cultures can understand to each other. In other words, translation can be stated as a facilitator to make a communication runs well.

Strategies of Translation

Different strategies are considered in the field of translation with utmost experiences and works

What is a strategy?

The word strategy is used in many contexts. In translation studies many theorists have used the term translation strategies widely but with some considerable differences in the meaning and the perspective from which they look at it. A list of more general definitions of the word strategy is given below:

• A strategy is a long-term plan of actions designed to achieve a particular goal (Wikipedia Committee) • A systematic plan, consciously adapted and mentioned, to improve one's learning performance (Instruction Curriculum Reading Glossary) • A strategy is a planned, deliberate, goal-oriented (has an identifiable outcome) procedure achieved with a sequence of steps subject to monitoring and

       modification (Curriculum Learning Literate-Futures Glossary)

• A set of explicit mental and behavioral steps used to achieve a specific outcome (Deep Trance)

Clearly, these definitions are general and can be related to different fields of study. This study mainly concerns translation strategies, although the above-mentioned definitions can be narrowed down to this research field, as well. Translation strategies have their own characteristics, through which one can gain an appropriate understanding of them. Generally speaking, a translator uses a strategy when he/she encounters a problem while translating a text; this means, when a translator translates a text literally, translation strategies may not be needed. Bergen (n. d.) mentions that strategies are not obvious and trivial. Although, when they translate word for word and use a dictionary, beginners in the area of translation think they have made a good translation; they do not understand that a problem still exists and changes must be made at some levels of the translation. Therefore, problem-solving is the most important function of the strategies. However, the question that arises here is: what is a translation problem?

Translation problems

According to Dr. Miremadi (1991), translation problems are divided into two main categories: lexical problems and syntactic problems.

1. Lexical problems

In the interpretation of lexical problems, Miremadi states that, although words are entities that refer to objects or concepts, a word in one language may not be substituted with a word in another language when referring to the same concepts or objects.

He divides lexical problems into five subcategories:

• Straight/ denotative meaning

This kind of meaning refers to those words of the source text that can be matched with those of the target text "without missing images" (e.g. mother, father, etc).

• Lexical meaning

Lexical meaning refers to words or phrases which seem to be equivalen, although in that situation this may not be the case; the translator must be aware of the intention beyond the words in order not to misrepresent the author's message.

• Metaphorical expression

This subcategory refers to the problematic issues of translating idioms and similar expressions.

Broeik (1981) quoted by Dr. Miremadi (1991) offers the following suggestions for translating idiomatic expressions:

• Distinguishing between ordinary expressions and metaphors • Having access to the resources of translating a single metaphor • Being aware of different contexts and their constraints on using metaphors • Correctly realizing the constraints on the translation, and rendering the message. • Semantic voids

This subcategory includes those words and/or expressions that represent concepts that cannot be found in other special communities. The close equivalents may be found, although the exact equivalent cannot. According to Dr. Miremadi (1991), this may happen in two cases, subjects to extra-linguistic factors such as those words that have referents in a certain speech community but not in others, and subject to intra-linguistic factors such as those concepts that may exist in two language communities but the structure of their use may be completely different, Dagut (1931) believes, as Dr. Miremadi (1991) mentioned, that this case occurs when the systems of lexicalization of shared expressions are different from each other.

• Proper names

The last but not the least sub-category in this group is the problem of proper names. Although proper names refer to individuals and can be transcribed from one language into another, sometimes the specific meaning that they carry, which do not exist in the target speech community, may be lost (e.g. Asghar Rize in Persian).

2. Syntactic problems

Syntactic problems are the other main category of translation problems; as Dr. Miremadi (1991) quoted Nida (1975), one can find no two languages that have the exact identical systems of structural organizations (i.e. language structure varies from one language to another).

These differences include: a. Word classes Languages differ from each other in the internal word formation of language classification. b. Grammatical relations this difference exists among the languages in the way that a constituent of a sentence functions within that sentence. c. Word order d. Style e. Pragmatic aspects

Considering all these problems, a translator is expected to convey the message of the source text to target readers; however, there is no completely exact translation between any two languages and as Dr. Miremadi (1991) quoted Werner (1961), the degree of approximation between two language systems determines the effectiveness of the translation.

Translation Strategies Typologies

Different scholars suggest various types, categorizations and classifications for the strategies according to their particular perspectives. Here, some of these typologies are mentioned. Chesterman (1997), as Bergen (n. d.) stated, believes that in translation strategies' field there is "considerable terminological confusion". As Chesterman (1997) believes, the general characteristics of translation strategies are as follows:

• They involve text manipulation. • They must be applied to the process. • They are goal-oriented. • They are problem-centered. • They are applied consciously. • They are inter-subjective. (It means the strategies must be empirical and understandable for the readers not the person who used them.)

Different scholars have various perspectives to the aspects of the act of translation, so, they define and describe different types of strategies. Bergen's (n. d.) classification of the strategies includes three categorizations: 1. Comprehension strategies, 2. Transfer strategies, 3. Production strategies By his classification, he meant: first, we read and comprehend a text. Second, we analyze the differences between the source text and the target one, and we must decide on the kinds of strategies which we are up to use them. And lastly, we produce the equivalent text in the target language.

Method of Translation

The grammar–translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the classical method of teaching Ancient Greek and Latin. In grammar–translation classes, students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the target language and the native language. A method of translation encompasses various techniques and strategies applied at the textual level to transfer a source language into a target language in the light of a translation assignment and a contextual situation of communication. The method used is decided prior to the act of translating, depending upon several factors. According to Schaffner (1998), primary norms, preliminary norms, and procedural norms manage the act of translating before and during the process. Preliminary norms will determine the reason why the specific text is selected for translation; primary norms determine which general strategies will be used while procedural norms are about the micro techniques used at the word and sentence level.

There have always been controversies on the best way to translate as,

“Should translator only translate as faithfully and close to the original text as possible? Or should they take some license with the original and confirm their translation to all norms and nuances to the target language? Should they keep the flavor by the original by means of loans, calques and other techniques or should they convert the means of expressing meaning of the original source text into the usual language and text? There are a number of techniques that can be used for individual words and phrases. By carefully choosing the right technique, the translator can convey each linguistic element in the most accurate way.

Here are seven common translation techniques that we can use to translate your document and achieve the best translation.

Direct Translation Techniques

These translation techniques are used when the concepts and structure of the source language can be used in the target language.

1. Borrowing

Borrowing is where words or expressions are taken directly from the source text and carried over into the target language. This technique is often used when there is no target language equivalent, such as food or clothing, and can help to preserve the cultural context of the source text. English is filled with borrowed words that have become part of our everyday language. If the borrowed term has yet to enter common usage, it’s usually written in italics. Example: Café (French), hamburger (German), kimono (Japanese) and kimchi (Korean).

2. Calque (loan translation)

This is the literal translation of a phrase from one language into another, coining a new term in the target language. In other words, this is the literal translation of a borrowed word. Example: The English term ‘skyscraper’ is translated as ‘gratte-ciel’ in French.

3. Literal Translation

When using literal translation, each word is translated directly. The target text must be idiomatic and retain the same word order, meaning and style as the source text. This technique can miss the nuances of the original text, and is only possible with languages and cultures that are extremely close. Example: The English ‘I want a glass of water’ would be translated literally as ‘Je veux un verre d’eau’ in French.

Indirect Translation Techniques

Indirect or oblique translation techniques are used when the two languages and cultures are further apart. These techniques change structural and conceptual elements in order to preserve the meaning and nuance of the text.

1. Transposition

Transposition involves a shift from one grammatical category to another, while still preserving the meaning. This translation technique is often necessary between languages with different grammatical structures. Example: The French sentence, ‘Je l’ai vu avant la rentrée’ can be rendered in English as ‘I saw her before school started.’ This changes the noun ‘la rentrée’ into a verb.

2. Modulation

This involves a change of perspective, adjusting what has been written in order to express the same idea and preserve the meaning. This translates the text in a way that conforms to the natural patterns of the target language. Example: A French speaker will talk about the ‘dernier étage’ [literally; last stage] of a building, while an English speaker will refer to the ‘top floor’.

3. Equivalence/Reformulation

Similar to modulation, this allows you to preserve the meaning of an expression, name or proverb by finding a target language equivalent. Example: The phrase ‘être sur son 31’ [literally; to be on one’s thirty-one] would be the French equivalent to the English phrase ‘to be dressed up to the nines’.

4. Adaptation

Also known as cultural substitution, cultural elements of the source language are replaced with an equivalent cultural element of the target language. This makes the text more familiar and easier to understand, especially with units of measurement. Example: Cyclisme (French) = football (UK) = baseball (US).

5. Compensation

This technique compensates for being unable to translate a nuance or phrase in one specific place by expressing the information at another point in the document. Example: While the English language only has one way of saying ‘you’, French has both ‘tu’ (informal) and ‘vous’ (formal). By making specific word choices elsewhere in the text, the translator can compensate for the loss of nuance.

6. Reduction

When using reduction, the translator chooses to remove any words forming the original text which are considered redundant in the target language. Example: The French ‘sciences politiques’ [literally; political sciences] can be rendered in English as just ‘politics’.

7. Expansion

The opposite of reduction, this is when words are added in order to preserve meaning. This can be due to differences in sentence structure, grammar or terminology. Example: The reverse of reduction, ‘politics’ in English would be rendered as ‘sciences politiques’ in French. Since French also uses gender articles, expansion is natural when translating from English into French.

Choosing the right techniques for the best translation

The right technique will vary on a case-by-case basis, taking into account the text type, target reader and end purpose of your translation. Our team of professional translators will use their experience and expertise in both languages to choose the right technique for your text, giving you the most accurate translation possible.

Conclusion

In this study, translation in general, translational problems and mainly translation strategies were described, and different theoretical examples of translation strategies were mentioned. It was shown that different theorists suggest various definitions of translation strategies according to their different perspectives. Moreover, it was mentioned that Baker (1992) lists the most applicable set of strategies. She does not just name the strategies, but she also shows the application of each. This study aims to observe the development of translation studies through its different types, various strategies, styles and particular methods. In this paper, the readers are introduced to some famous translation scholars including their view of translation studies, focusing on different styles of variations such as grammar, sentence structure, textual analysis, strategies and methods. Moreover in this conclusion, it has explored the clear definition of translation as well as helps the readers to understand the basic concept which are used in the field of translation. The present study, therefore, attempted to outline the scope of the discipline of translation studies and more importantly, it is an attempt to outline its activity that required a deep mastering of language, a good source of knowledge and target cultures.

References

1. AN INTRODUCTION TO TRANSLATION STUDIES: AN OVERVIEW Intan Pradita Islamic University of Indonesia 2. Journal of King Saud University - Languages and Translation Volume 23, Issue 1, January 2011 3. Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics 13(2), 23-41 Style Shift in Translation Jamal Al-Qinai Kuwait University 4. https://www.intertranslations.co.uk/ 5. Translation types versus translation methods: some technical, literary and pragmatic examples 6. Translation Strategies: A Review and Comparison of Theories by Zohre Owji, M.A) 7. Pragmatic translation and literalism Peter Newmark) Volume 1, numéro 2, 2e semestre 1988 8. Language blog, translation, culture, literature Published on - May 29, 2017 9. Source of Wikipedia and different citations have been also observed.